text
stringlengths 136
495k
| url
stringlengths 16
2.74k
|
|---|---|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 General rules 2 Orthography Toggle Orthography subsection 2.1 Accents and ligatures 2.2 Sorting 2.3 Capitalization 2.1 Accents and ligatures 2.2 Sorting 2.3 Capitalization 3 Naming conventions Toggle Naming conventions subsection 3.1 Noble titles 3.2 Creative works 3.3 Names of organizations and institutions 3.1 Noble titles 3.2 Creative works 3.3 Names of organizations and institutions 4 Administrative divisions Toggle Administrative divisions subsection 4.1 Cities and communes 4.2 Arrondissements 4.3 French administrative terms 4.1 Cities and communes 4.2 Arrondissements 4.3 French administrative terms 5 Transport conventions Toggle Transport conventions subsection 5.1 Rail (SNCF – RFF) 5.1.1 Multiple train units 5.1.2 Locomotives 5.1.3 Railways 5.1.4 Stations 5.2 Tram 5.1 Rail (SNCF – RFF) 5.1.1 Multiple train units 5.1.2 Locomotives 5.1.3 Railways 5.1.4 Stations 5.1.1 Multiple train units 5.1.2 Locomotives 5.1.3 Railways 5.1.4 Stations 5.2 Tram 6 French names in Canada-related articles 7 Notes 8 External links Wikipedia : Manual of Style/France- and French-related articles ไทย Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:MOSFR WP:MOSFR MOS:FR MOS:FR MOS:FRANCE MOS:FRANCE WP:MOSFR WP:MOSFR MOS:FR MOS:FR MOS:FRANCE MOS:FRANCE Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The purpose of this supplementary manual is to create guidelines for editing articles in the English-language Wikipedia which relate to France or the French language to conform to a neutral encyclopedic style and to make things easy to read by following a consistent format. The following rules do not claim to be the last word. One way is often as good as another, but if everyone does it the same way, Wikipedia will be easier to read and use, not to mention easier to write and edit. This manual is open to all proposals, discussion, and editing. There is considerable disagreement between the editors of articles related to France or French about which sources are reliable. The important thing to remember is that all sources and articles must conform to Wikipedia policies such as No original research , Verifiability and Neutral point of view . General rules The most general rule of the Wikipedia is that editors should use the most common form of the name or expression used in English ( WP:ENGLISH ). There are however many cases in which this rule is difficult to put into practice. When giving a parenthetical French expression after an English word, editors may use {{ langx |fr|word}} where "word" is the French word. Example: National Assembly ( French : Assemblée nationale ). If required in running text, French words or phrases should use .mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}}.mw-parser-output :not(.mw-parser-output):not(.documentation)>.tfd-dedup~.tfd-dedup,.mw-parser-output :not(.mw-parser-output):not(.documentation)>.tfd-dedup~* .tfd-dedup{display:none} ‹The template Template link interwiki is being considered for merging .› {{ lang }} , thus: {{lang|fr|Assemblée nationale}} , which renders as Assemblée nationale . This automatically produces italic rendering in accordance with MOS:FOREIGNITALIC . Orthography Accents and ligatures WP:FRENCHNAMES WP:FRENCHNAMES French proper names and expressions should respect the use of accents and ligatures in French. These are: Accent a e i o u y grave à è ù acute é circonflexe â ê î ô û tréma ë ï ü ÿ Others ç œ æ Common French usage is to omit accents in capitals, however this is not the proper usage and accents should be included in capitals (as required by the Imprimerie nationale and usual in Canada). When used in article names, all common non-accented/non-ligatured forms should redirect to the article. There will often be many redirects, but this is intentional and does not represent a problem: Saint-Étienne , Édouard Manet , Édith Piaf , Émile Zola . Sorting Accented characters and ligatures should not affect the sort order of articles in categories etc. So, where proper names have accents or ligatures, include the {{DEFAULTSORT:}} magic word in the article, with those accented characters and ligatures replaced by plain versions. See Évisa (source) for an example. Note that communes and other places starting with the definite article (La, Le, Les, L') should have the {{DEFAULTSORT}} magic word added with the article absent, e.g. La Vernelle should contain {{DEFAULTSORT:Vernelle}} . Apart from the above rules, the following conventions should also be followed: Do not add the {{DEFAULTSORT}} magic word with hyphens missing Communes starting with Saint- are always sorted before communes starting with Sainte-. Do not try to sort Sainte-* communes in with Saint-E* communes. Capitalization MOS:FRENCHCAPS MOS:FRENCHCAPS There have been two accepted methods to determine the capitalization of titles of works of art. For consistency of French titles on the English Wikipedia, the consensus has been to follow the first method. The second method had been allowed (not required) only for operas and visual arts, but is in need of a new consensus evaluation. proper nouns (names, cities) the initial word of the title and: if this initial word is a definite article ( le, la, les, l' ), both the article and its noun (and any modifier between the article and the noun) are capitalized (e.g. Le Grand Meaulnes ; La Grande Illusion ) if the initial word is a modifier followed by a noun, the entire noun phrase is likewise capitalized (e.g. Tristes Tropiques ) if this initial word is a definite article ( le, la, les, l' ), both the article and its noun (and any modifier between the article and the noun) are capitalized (e.g. Le Grand Meaulnes ; La Grande Illusion ) if the initial word is a modifier followed by a noun, the entire noun phrase is likewise capitalized (e.g. Tristes Tropiques ) if the title is a sentence, only the first letter and proper nouns are capitalized (e.g. La vie est un long fleuve tranquille ) if the title contains an enumeration (e.g. La Belle et la Bête ), subsequent nouns of that enumeration are capitalized in cases of a double title (e.g. Émile ou De l'éducation ), both parts of the title are treated individually by the above rules; explicit subtitles are likewise treated as complete titles. La Peau de chagrin (not " La peau de chagrin " or " La Peau de Chagrin ") L'Œuvre Le Ventre de Paris Les Misérables .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} For capitalization rules in other domains than titles of works, see the next section, § Naming conventions . Naming conventions Noble titles MOS:FRENCHNOBLE MOS:FRENCHNOBLE There is currently no standard convention for French noble titles and present-day English usage varies greatly. In Wikipedia articles, French noble titles are currently listed in two different ways: in English translation (Duke of, Count of...) for historical figures and royalty most well known by their English forms. while present-day English usage varies with regards to the capitalization of these titles, [ b ] editors should follow the Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Capital letters . while present-day English usage also varies with regards to the use of "of" or "de" after the titles, [ b ] the consensus on Wikipedia:Naming conventions (royalty and nobility) has been to use "of" when the English title is given. while present-day English usage varies with regards to the capitalization of these titles, [ b ] editors should follow the Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Capital letters . while present-day English usage also varies with regards to the use of "of" or "de" after the titles, [ b ] the consensus on Wikipedia:Naming conventions (royalty and nobility) has been to use "of" when the English title is given. in French for other cases, maintaining the French title spelling (seigneur, chevalier, marquis, duc, comte) and the de . Furthermore, in the second case—French titles in French form—capitalization is currently chaotic: in French with lowercase spelling: comtesse de, marquis de... (e.g., Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné ; Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet ; Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme ; François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac ; Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz ). This is considered correct usage in contemporary French, and is the form used by The Chicago Manual of Style and in article titles on the French wiki. in French with capital spelling: Comtesse de, Marquis de... (e.g., Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune ; Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon ; Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine ). While capitalization of noble titles occurred historically in French, this usage is no longer correct in French. This form is, however, frequently found in English. [ c ] Present English usage itself varies on how to spell such French forms and there is currently no consensus among editors on the issue of capitalization. As a general rule, if the individual is not better known by an English equivalent and a French form is to be used, it is recommended, regardless of which form of capitalization is used, that forms remain consistent throughout a specific article and that redirects be made from the other acceptable forms. Creative works Names of organizations and institutions Subject to Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Trademarks and Wikipedia:Naming conventions (companies) , names of organizations and institutions (e.g. orchestras, musical ensembles and groups, concert halls, festivals, schools, etc.) should follow official usage (i.e. the spelling, punctuation, etc. used by the organization's own publications – always check whether the organization has English-language publications, and if so what name is used in these). In the case of non-English names, we use official English versions if and when they have been established by the organization itself. If not, we use the native name. Original English names, translated from other languages, should not be created. Administrative divisions Cities and communes Where possible, articles on cities and communes in France should go under [[placename]]. Where disambiguation is needed, articles have traditionally used the "comma convention" (the standard convention for place names on the English language Wikipedia) and been placed under [[placename, département]]. Thus Tours , but Duras, Lot-et-Garonne and Montreuil, Seine-Saint-Denis . Note that on the French Wikipedia, disambiguation is done with the "parentheses convention" and cities appear as [[placename (département x)]]. There is currently much discussion (see the talk page) for replacing the comma convention with a parentheses convention. Arrondissements Note that this section is still under discussion on the talk page : consensus may not have been reached and article titles and text will not all use this style. Please contribute to the discussion there. Numbered municipal arrondissements (for example those of Paris), should use Arabic numbers and English ordinality suffixes, not the French system of Roman numerals and French suffixes. The city name should follow. For example, 5th arrondissement of Paris , not Paris, Ve arrondissement French administrative terms The French administrative terms département and région should not be used, except parenthetically in cases of ambiguity. Instead, the English-language terms "department" and "region" should be used. [ d ] The English-language terms urban area and metropolitan area are inexact equivalents for the French terms aire urbaine and unité urbaine . Piped links to the French terms should be used. Transport conventions Rail ( SNCF – RFF ) stub: {{ France-rail-transport-stub }} Multiple train units name: SNCF Class NAME category: [[Category:SNCF multiple units|NAME]] template: {{ SNCF units }} example: SNCF Class B 81500 Locomotives name: SNCF Class NAME category: [[Category:SNCF locomotives|NAME]] template: {{ SNCF locos }} example: SNCF Class BB 22200 though mediocre Railways Should the railway be a touristic railway, use the name used commercially (ex. Lézarde Express Régionale ). If it is owned by the RFF, use the basis "Xxx–Yyy railway", with an en dash . (ex. Paris–Marseille railway ). When deciding which end to put first, use the biggest end, or if they are both equally significant (or insignificant), just use what sounds right. You should also use WP:TRAIL , and can base the diagram on the site Rail 21 . Also, add a link to its regional "TER REGION " and " List of railway lines in France " and the Categories: Railway lines in France and REGION . Stations Some stations are known by established common names. These are: Gare d'Austerlitz, Gare de Bercy, Gare de l'Est, Gare de Lyon, Gare Montparnasse. Gare du Nord, Gare Saint-Lazare, Gare de la Bastille, Gare d'Orsay, Charles de Gaulle–Étoile, Châtelet–Les Halles Other station articles should be titled "xxxx station". Where disambiguation is necessary, a suffix can be added e.g. to distinguish Luxembourg station (in Luxembourg City) from Luxembourg station (Paris) Where a station serves two communities, the two should be separated by an unspaced endash (e.g. Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines–Montigny-le-Bretonneux station or Mitry–Claye station Where a station is one of several serving a city, the qualifier should be preceded by an unspaced hyphen (e.g. Versailles-Rive Droite station , Versailles-Chantiers station . The station's article should include a link to "List of SNCF stations in REGION " (see List of SNCF stations ) and the Category: "Railway stations in REGION ". Tram French names in Canada-related articles French names in articles pertaining to subjects related to Quebec , Acadia , and the rest of Canada should follow the guideline set out at WP:CANSTYLE . Notes ^ See, for example, the French titles Les caves du Vatican (André Gide, Folio edition, .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 2070360342 ), Le ravissement de Lol V. Stein (Marguerite Duras, Folio edition, ISBN 2070368106 ), and Le plaisir du texte (Roland Barthes, Seuil, ISBN 2020060604 ). ^ a b See, for example, the Britannica Online Encyclopedia ( [1] ). The entry for Étienne François, duc de Choiseul is given as: "Etienne Francois de Choiseul, duke de Choiseul". ^ See, for example, The New York Times and The New Yorker which generally use "Comte de" (e.g. Comte de Buffon) and "Marquis de" (e.g. Marquis de Sade). The New York Review of Books appears to use both "comte de" and "Comte de", "marquis de" and "Marquis de". ^ For the discussion leading to this convention, see Wikipedia talk:WikiProject France/Archive 1 and Wikipedia talk:WikiProject France/Archive 2 ). External links Wikipédia:Conventions de style – French Wikipedia Manual of style Wikipédia:Conventions typographiques – Typographic conventions Wikipédia:Conventions typographiques – Typographic conventions v t e Manual of Style v t e Overview Contents Tips Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Cue sports Snooker Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Search Category Category Wikipedia Manual of Style (regional) Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 4 June 2025, at 08:27 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/France-_and_French-related_articles
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle 2.2 Aristotelian meteorology 2.3 Meteorology after Aristotle 2.4 Instruments and classification scales 2.5 Atmospheric composition research 2.6 Research into cyclones and air flow 2.7 Observation networks and weather forecasting 2.8 Numerical weather prediction 2.1 Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle 2.2 Aristotelian meteorology 2.3 Meteorology after Aristotle 2.4 Instruments and classification scales 2.5 Atmospheric composition research 2.6 Research into cyclones and air flow 2.7 Observation networks and weather forecasting 2.8 Numerical weather prediction 3 Meteorologists 4 Equipment 5 Spatial scales Toggle Spatial scales subsection 5.1 Microscale 5.2 Mesoscale 5.3 Synoptic scale 5.4 Global scale 5.1 Microscale 5.2 Mesoscale 5.3 Synoptic scale 5.4 Global scale 6 Branches of meteorology Toggle Branches of meteorology subsection 6.1 Based on methodological approach 6.1.1 Physical meteorology 6.1.2 Dynamic meteorology 6.1.3 Synoptic meteorology 6.2 Based on scale 6.2.1 Boundary layer meteorology 6.1 Based on methodological approach 6.1.1 Physical meteorology 6.1.2 Dynamic meteorology 6.1.3 Synoptic meteorology 6.1.1 Physical meteorology 6.1.2 Dynamic meteorology 6.1.3 Synoptic meteorology 6.2 Based on scale 6.2.1 Boundary layer meteorology 6.2.1 Boundary layer meteorology 7 Applications Toggle Applications subsection 7.1 Weather forecasting 7.2 Aviation meteorology 7.3 Agricultural meteorology 7.4 Hydrometeorology 7.5 Nuclear meteorology 7.6 Maritime meteorology 7.7 Military meteorology 7.8 Environmental meteorology 7.9 Renewable energy 7.1 Weather forecasting 7.2 Aviation meteorology 7.3 Agricultural meteorology 7.4 Hydrometeorology 7.5 Nuclear meteorology 7.6 Maritime meteorology 7.7 Military meteorology 7.8 Environmental meteorology 7.9 Renewable energy 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 10.1 Dictionaries and encyclopedias 10.2 History 10.1 Dictionaries and encyclopedias 10.2 History 11 External links Meteorology Afrikaans Alemannisch अंगिका العربية Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی پښتو Patois Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Võro Walon Winaray 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Kumoring Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikibooks Wikiversity Wikidata item Part of a series on Weather Temperate and polar seasons Winter Spring Summer Autumn Winter Spring Summer Autumn Tropical seasons Dry season Harmattan Wet season Dry season Harmattan Harmattan Wet season Storms Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Derecho Lightning Volcanic lightning Thunderstorm Air-mass thunderstorm Thundersnow Dry thunderstorm Mesocyclone Supercell Tornado Anticyclonic tornado Landspout Waterspout Dust devil Fire whirl Anticyclone Cyclone Polar low Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Nor'easter Subtropical cyclone Tropical cyclone Atlantic hurricane Typhoon Storm surge Dust storm Simoom Haboob Monsoon Amihan Gale Sirocco Firestorm Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snow squall Cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Cumulonimbus cloud Arcus cloud Downburst Microburst Heat burst Derecho Microburst Heat burst Derecho Lightning Volcanic lightning Volcanic lightning Thunderstorm Air-mass thunderstorm Thundersnow Dry thunderstorm Air-mass thunderstorm Thundersnow Dry thunderstorm Mesocyclone Supercell Supercell Tornado Anticyclonic tornado Landspout Waterspout Anticyclonic tornado Landspout Waterspout Dust devil Fire whirl Anticyclone Cyclone Polar low Extratropical cyclone European windstorm Nor'easter European windstorm Nor'easter Subtropical cyclone Tropical cyclone Atlantic hurricane Typhoon Atlantic hurricane Typhoon Storm surge Dust storm Simoom Haboob Simoom Haboob Monsoon Amihan Amihan Gale Sirocco Firestorm Winter storm Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snow squall Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snow squall Precipitation Drizzle Freezing Graupel Hail Megacryometeor Ice pellets Diamond dust Rain Freezing Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush Drizzle Freezing Freezing Graupel Hail Megacryometeor Megacryometeor Ice pellets Diamond dust Rain Freezing Freezing Cloudburst Snow Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush Rain and snow mixed Snow grains Snow roller Slush Topics Air pollution Atmosphere Chemistry Convection Physics River Climate Cloud Physics Fog Mist Season Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather List Extreme Severe weather terminology Canada Japan United States Weather forecasting Weather modification Air pollution Atmosphere Chemistry Convection Physics River Chemistry Convection Physics River Climate Cloud Physics Physics Fog Mist Season Mist Season Cold wave Heat wave Jet stream Meteorology Severe weather List Extreme Severe weather terminology Canada Japan United States List Extreme Severe weather terminology Canada Japan United States Canada Japan United States Weather forecasting Weather modification Glossaries Meteorology Climate change Tornado terms Tropical cyclone terms Meteorology Climate change Tornado terms Tropical cyclone terms Weather portal .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Atmospheric physics Atmospheric dynamics category Atmospheric chemistry category Atmospheric physics Atmospheric dynamics category category Atmospheric chemistry category category Meteorology Weather category portal Tropical cyclone category Weather category portal category portal Tropical cyclone category category Climatology Climate category Climate variability and change Climate change category portal Climate category category Climate variability and change Climate change category portal category portal Aeronomy Aeronomy Aeronomy Glossaries Glossary of meteorology Glossary of tropical cyclone terms Glossary of tornado terms Glossary of climate change Glossary of meteorology Glossary of tropical cyclone terms Glossary of tornado terms Glossary of climate change v t e v t e Part of a series of Geophysics Computational Exploration History Outline Computational Exploration History Outline Electricity Ionosphere Polar wind Thunderstorms Lightning Ionosphere Polar wind Thunderstorms Lightning Fluid dynamics Atmospheric science Magnetohydrodynamics Oceanography Turbulence Atmospheric science Magnetohydrodynamics Oceanography Turbulence Geodynamics Climate Earth's mantle Exoplanetology Geochemistry Glaciology Planetary science Plate tectonics Tectonics Volcanism Climate Earth's mantle Exoplanetology Geochemistry Glaciology Planetary science Plate tectonics Tectonics Volcanism Gravity Geodesy Geoid Physical geodesy Geodesy Geoid Physical geodesy Magnetism Earth's magnetic field Geomagnetic reversal Magnetosphere Paleomagnetism Solar wind Earth's magnetic field Geomagnetic reversal Magnetosphere Paleomagnetism Solar wind Waves Seismology Spectroscopy Vibration Seismology Spectroscopy Vibration Geophysicists Aki Alfven Anderson Benioff Bowie Dziewonski Forbes Eotvos Gilbert Gutenberg Heiskanen Hotine von Humboldt Jeffreys Kanamori Love Matthews McKenzie Mercalli Molodenskii Munk Press Richter Turcotte Van Allen Vanicek Vening Meinesz Wegener Wilson Aki Alfven Anderson Benioff Bowie Dziewonski Forbes Eotvos Gilbert Gutenberg Heiskanen Hotine von Humboldt Jeffreys Kanamori Love Matthews McKenzie Mercalli Molodenskii Munk Press Richter Turcotte Van Allen Vanicek Vening Meinesz Wegener Wilson v t e v t e Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth 's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e., weather ), with a focus on weather forecasting . [ 1 ] It has applications in the military , aviation , energy production , transport , agriculture , construction , weather warnings , and disaster management . Along with climatology , atmospheric physics , atmospheric chemistry , and aeronomy , meteorology forms the broader field of the atmospheric sciences . The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans (notably El Niño and La Niña ) are studied in the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology . Other interdisciplinary areas include biometeorology , space weather , and planetary meteorology. Marine weather forecasting relates meteorology to maritime and coastal safety, based on atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water. Meteorologists study meteorological phenomena driven by solar radiation , Earth's rotation , ocean currents , and other factors. These include everyday weather like clouds , precipitation , and wind patterns, as well as severe weather events such as tropical cyclones and severe winter storms . Such phenomena are quantified using variables like temperature , pressure , and humidity , which are then used to forecast weather at local ( microscale ), regional ( mesoscale and synoptic scale ), and global scales . Meteorologists collect data using basic instruments like thermometers , barometers , and weather vanes (for surface-level measurements), alongside advanced tools like weather satellites , balloons , reconnaissance aircraft, buoys , and radars . The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ensures international standardization of meteorological research. The study of meteorology dates back millennia . Ancient civilizations tried to predict weather through folklore , astrology , and religious rituals . Aristotle 's treatise Meteorology sums up early observations of the field, which advanced little during early medieval times but experienced a resurgence during the Renaissance , when Alhazen and René Descartes challenged Aristotelian theories, emphasizing scientific methods . In the 18th century, accurate measurement tools (e.g., barometer and thermometer) were developed, and the first meteorological society was founded. In the 19th century, telegraph -based weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. [ 2 ] In the 20th century, numerical weather prediction (NWP), coupled with advanced satellite and radar technology, introduced sophisticated forecasting models. [ 3 ] Later, computers revolutionized forecasting by processing vast datasets in real time and automatically solving modeling equations. 21st-century meteorology is highly accurate and driven by big data and supercomputing . It is adopting innovations like machine learning , ensemble forecasting , and high-resolution global climate modeling. [ 4 ] Climate change –induced extreme weather poses new challenges for forecasting and research, [ 5 ] while inherent uncertainty remains because of the atmosphere's chaotic nature (see butterfly effect ). [ 6 ] Etymology The word meteorology is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος metéōros ( meteor ) and -λογία -logia ( -(o)logy ), meaning "the study of things high in the air". [ citation needed ] History Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and divining , and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. Ancient religions believed meteorological phenomena to be under the control of the gods. [ 7 ] The ability to predict rains and floods based on annual cycles was evidently used by humans at least from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier. Early approaches to predicting weather were based on astrology and were practiced by priests. The Egyptians had rain-making rituals as early as 3500 BC. [ 7 ] Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons . [ 8 ] The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed. [ 9 ] Varāhamihira 's classical work Brihatsamhita , written about 500 AD, [ 8 ] provides evidence of weather observation. Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos . [ 9 ] The ancient Greeks were the first to make theories about the weather. Many natural philosophers studied the weather. However, as meteorological instruments did not exist, the inquiry was largely qualitative, and could only be judged by more general theoretical speculations. [ 7 ] : 8 Herodotus states that Thales predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC. He studied Babylonian equinox tables. [ 7 ] : 11 According to Seneca , he explained that the cause of the Nile 's annual floods was due to northerly winds hindering its descent by the sea. [ 7 ] : 4 Anaximander and Anaximenes thought that thunder and lightning was caused by air smashing against the cloud, thus kindling the flame. Early meteorological theories generally considered that there was a fire-like substance in the atmosphere. Anaximander defined wind as a flowing of air, but this was not generally accepted for centuries. [ 7 ] : 5 A theory to explain summer hail was first proposed by Anaxagoras . He observed that air temperature decreased with increasing height and that clouds contain moisture. He also noted that heat caused objects to rise, and therefore the heat on a summer day would drive clouds to an altitude where the moisture would freeze. [ 7 ] : 6 Empedocles theorized on the change of the seasons. He believed that fire and water opposed each other in the atmosphere, and when fire gained the upper hand, the result was summer, and when water did, it was winter. Democritus also wrote about the flooding of the Nile. He said that snow in northern parts of the world melted during the summer solstice. This would cause vapors to form clouds, which would cause storms when driven to the Nile by northerly winds, thus filling the lakes and the Nile. [ 7 ] : 8 Hippocrates inquired into the effect of weather on health. Eudoxus claimed that bad weather followed four-year periods, according to Pliny. [ 7 ] : 9 Aristotelian meteorology These early observations would form the basis for Aristotle 's Meteorology , written in 350 BC. [ 7 ] : 11 [ 10 ] Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. [ 11 ] One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle . His work would remain an authority on meteorology for nearly 2,000 years. [ 12 ] The treatise On the Universe (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC) noted: [ 13 ] If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the earth it is called a thunderbolt; if it be only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a meteor; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts', because they swoop down upon the earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called 'smouldering lightning'; sometimes it darts quickly along, and is then said to be 'vivid'; at other times it travels in crooked lines, and is called 'forked lightning'; when it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'. If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the earth it is called a thunderbolt; if it be only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a meteor; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts', because they swoop down upon the earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called 'smouldering lightning'; sometimes it darts quickly along, and is then said to be 'vivid'; at other times it travels in crooked lines, and is called 'forked lightning'; when it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'. After Aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs , as well as On Winds . He gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. [ 7 ] : 25 His system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the Pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. He also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. The day was divided into sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. [ 7 ] : 25 Applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. Rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. Shooting stars and the Moon were also considered significant. However, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the Aristotelian method. [ 7 ] : 26 The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years. [ 14 ] Meteorology after Aristotle Meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the Renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology. Speculation on the cause of the flooding of the Nile ended when Eratosthenes , according to Proclus , stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the Nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued. [ 7 ] : 26 During the era of Roman Greece and Europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. In the 1st century BC, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but Posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. He closely followed Aristotle's theories. By the end of the second century BC, the center of science shifted from Athens to Alexandria , home to the ancient Library of Alexandria . In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy 's Almagest dealt with meteorology, because it was considered a subset of astronomy. He gave several astrological weather predictions. [ 7 ] : 27 He constructed a map of the world divided into climatic zones by their illumination, in which the length of the Summer solstice increased by half an hour per zone between the equator and the Arctic. [ 7 ] : 28 Ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. [ 15 ] In 25 AD, Pomponius Mela , a Roman geographer, formalized the climatic zone system. [ 16 ] In 63–64 AD, Seneca wrote Naturales quaestiones . It was a compilation and synthesis of ancient Greek theories. However, theology was of foremost importance to Seneca, and he believed that phenomena such as lightning were tied to fate. [ 7 ] : 29 The second book (chapter) of Pliny the Elder 's Natural History covers meteorology. He states that more than twenty ancient Greek authors studied meteorology. He did not make any personal contributions, and the value of his work is in preserving earlier speculation, much like Seneca's work. [ 7 ] : 30 From 400 to 1100, scientific learning in Europe was preserved by the clergy. Isidore of Seville devoted a considerable attention to meteorology in Etymologiae , De ordine creaturum and De natura rerum . Bede the Venerable was the first Englishman to write about the weather in De natura rerum in 703. The work was a summary of then extant classical sources. However, Aristotle's works were largely lost until the 12th century, including Meteorologica . Isidore and Bede were scientifically minded, but they adhered to the letter of Scripture . [ 7 ] : 30 Islamic civilization translated many ancient works into Arabic which were transmitted and translated in western Europe to Latin. [ 7 ] : 31 In the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the Arab Agricultural Revolution . He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and constellations , the sun and moon , the lunar phases indicating seasons and rain, the anwa ( heavenly bodies of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] In 1021, Alhazen showed that atmospheric refraction is also responsible for twilight in Opticae thesaurus ; he estimated that twilight begins when the sun is 19 degrees below the horizon , and also used a geometric determination based on this to estimate the maximum possible height of the Earth's atmosphere as 52,000 passim (about 49 miles, or 79 km). [ 19 ] Adelard of Bath was one of the early translators of the classics. He also discussed meteorological topics in his Quaestiones naturales . He thought dense air produced propulsion in the form of wind. He explained thunder by saying that it was due to ice colliding in clouds, and in Summer it melted. In the 13th century, Aristotelian theories reestablished dominance in meteorology. For the next four centuries, meteorological work by and large was mostly commentary . It has been estimated over 156 commentaries on the Meteorologica were written before 1650. [ 7 ] : 22 Experimental evidence was less important than appeal to the classics and authority in medieval thought. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation and the mathematical approach. In his Opus majus , he followed Aristotle's theory on the atmosphere being composed of water, air, and fire, supplemented by optics and geometric proofs. He noted that Ptolemy's climatic zones had to be adjusted for topography . [ 7 ] : 33 Albertus Magnus was the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop. [ 20 ] Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit cannot appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon. [ 21 ] In the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theodoric went further and also explained the secondary rainbow. [ 22 ] By the middle of the 16th century, meteorology had developed along two lines: theoretical science based on Meteorologica , and astrological weather forecasting. The pseudoscientific prediction by natural signs became popular and enjoyed protection of the church and princes. This was supported by scientists like Regiomontanus , Leonard Digges , and Johannes Kepler . However, there were skeptics. In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme believed that weather forecasting was possible, but that the rules for it were unknown at the time. Astrological influence in meteorology persisted until the 18th century. [ 7 ] : 33 Gerolamo Cardano 's De Subilitate (1550) was the first work to challenge fundamental aspects of Aristotelian theory. Cardano maintained that there were only three basic elements- earth, air, and water. He discounted fire because it needed material to spread and produced nothing. Cardano thought there were two kinds of air: free air and enclosed air. The former destroyed inanimate things and preserved animate things, while the latter had the opposite effect. [ 7 ] : 36 René Descartes 's Discourse on the Method (1637) typifies the beginning of the scientific revolution in meteorology. His scientific method had four principles: to never accept anything unless one clearly knew it to be true; to divide every difficult problem into small problems to tackle; to proceed from the simple to the complex, always seeking relationships; to be as complete and thorough as possible with no prejudice. [ 7 ] : 37 In the appendix Les Meteores , he applied these principles to meteorology. He discussed terrestrial bodies and vapors which arise from them, proceeding to explain the formation of clouds from drops of water, and winds, clouds then dissolving into rain, hail and snow. He also discussed the effects of light on the rainbow. Descartes hypothesized that all bodies were composed of small particles of different shapes and interwovenness. All of his theories were based on this hypothesis. He explained the rain as caused by clouds becoming too large for the air to hold, and that clouds became snow if the air was not warm enough to melt them, or hail if they met colder wind. Like his predecessors, Descartes's method was deductive, as meteorological instruments were not developed and extensively used yet. He introduced the Cartesian coordinate system to meteorology and stressed the importance of mathematics in natural science. His work established meteorology as a legitimate branch of physics. [ 7 ] : 37 In the 18th century, the invention of the thermometer and barometer allowed for more accurate measurements of temperature and pressure, leading to a better understanding of atmospheric processes. This century also saw the birth of the first meteorological society, the Societas Meteorologica Palatina in 1780. [ 23 ] In the 19th century, advances in technology such as the telegraph and photography led to the creation of weather observing networks and the ability to track storms. Additionally, scientists began to use mathematical models to make predictions about the weather. The 20th century saw the development of radar and satellite technology, which greatly improved the ability to observe and track weather systems. In addition, meteorologists and atmospheric scientists started to create the first weather forecasts and temperature predictions. [ 24 ] In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the advent of computer models and big data, meteorology has become increasingly dependent on numerical methods and computer simulations. This has greatly improved weather forecasting and climate predictions. Additionally, meteorology has expanded to include other areas such as air quality, atmospheric chemistry, and climatology. The advancement in observational, theoretical and computational technologies has enabled ever more accurate weather predictions and understanding of weather pattern and air pollution. In current time, with the advancement in weather forecasting and satellite technology, meteorology has become an integral part of everyday life, and is used for many purposes such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster management. [ citation needed ] Instruments and classification scales In 1441, King Sejong 's son, Prince Munjong of Korea, invented the first standardized rain gauge . [ 25 ] These were sent throughout the Joseon dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer , and was known as the first anemometer . [ 26 ] In 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope . In 1611, Johannes Kepler wrote the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)". [ 27 ] In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer . [ 26 ] In 1662, Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer . [ 28 ] In 1742, Anders Celsius , a Swedish astronomer, proposed the "centigrade" temperature scale, the predecessor of the current Celsius scale. [ 29 ] In 1783, the first hair hygrometer was demonstrated by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure . In 1802–1803, Luke Howard wrote On the Modification of Clouds , in which he assigns cloud types Latin names. [ 30 ] In 1806, Francis Beaufort introduced his system for classifying wind speeds . [ 31 ] Near the end of the 19th century the first cloud atlases were published, including the International Cloud Atlas , which has remained in print ever since. The April 1960 launch of the first successful weather satellite , TIROS-1 , marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally. Atmospheric composition research In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. [ 32 ] In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published Hydrodynamics , initiating the kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases. [ 33 ] In 1761, Joseph Black discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen , which he called phlogisticated air , and together they developed the phlogiston theory . [ 34 ] In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an explanation for combustion. [ 35 ] In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique", [ 36 ] he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory . [ 37 ] [ 38 ] In 1804, John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation . In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight . In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics . In 1716, Edmond Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines. Research into cyclones and air flow In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane. [ 39 ] In 1686, Edmond Halley presented a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. [ 40 ] In 1735, an ideal explanation of global circulation through study of the trade winds was written by George Hadley . [ 41 ] In 1743, when Benjamin Franklin was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane , he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. [ 42 ] Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. [ 43 ] In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds. [ 44 ] Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along isobars was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the pressure gradient force and the deflecting force. By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect. [ 45 ] Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the Norwegian cyclone model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones , and introduced the idea of fronts , that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses . [ 46 ] The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics ), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes . Observation networks and weather forecasting In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the thermometer , barometer , hydrometer , as well as wind and rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks. [ 47 ] In 1654, Ferdinando II de Medici established the first weather observing network, that consisted of meteorological stations in Florence , Cutigliano , Vallombrosa , Bologna , Parma , Milan , Innsbruck , Osnabrück , Paris and Warsaw . The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals. [ 48 ] In the 1660s Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London sponsored networks of weather observers. Hippocrates 's treatise Airs, Waters, and Places had linked weather to disease. Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health. [ 47 ] During the Age of Enlightenment meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology. But there were also attempts to establish a theoretical understanding of weather phenomena. Edmond Halley and George Hadley tried to explain trade winds . They reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established an early picture of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early modern nation states to organise large observation networks. Thus, by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data. [ 47 ] In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling . [ 49 ] The arrival of the electrical telegraph in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering surface weather observations from a wide area. [ 50 ] This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the Smithsonian Institution began to establish an observation network across the United States under the leadership of Joseph Henry . [ 51 ] Similar observation networks were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend William Clement Ley was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of jet streams . [ 52 ] Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas , known as 'CKM' Douglas, read Ley's papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems. [ 53 ] 19th-century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists. [ 54 ] In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new office of Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade with the task of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the United Kingdom Meteorological Office in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the world (the Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) in Austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the world). The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in The Times newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected. FitzRoy coined the term "weather forecast" and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones. [ 55 ] Over the next 50 years, many countries established national meteorological services. The India Meteorological Department (1875) was established to follow tropical cyclone and monsoon . [ 56 ] The Finnish Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University . [ 57 ] Japan's Tokyo Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the Japan Meteorological Agency , began constructing surface weather maps in 1883. [ 58 ] The United States Weather Bureau (1890) was established under the United States Department of Agriculture . The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] Numerical weather prediction In 1904, Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes first argued in his paper Weather Forecasting as a Problem in Mechanics and Physics that it should be possible to forecast weather from calculations based upon natural laws . [ 61 ] [ 62 ] It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern numerical weather prediction . In 1922, Lewis Fry Richardson published "Weather Prediction By Numerical Process", [ 63 ] after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance driver in World War I. He described how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations that govern atmospheric flow could be neglected, and a numerical calculation scheme that could be devised to allow predictions. Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations. However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to complete without electronic computers, and the size of the grid and time steps used in the calculations led to unrealistic results. Though numerical analysis later found that this was due to numerical instability . Starting in the 1950s, numerical forecasts with computers became feasible. [ 64 ] The first weather forecasts derived this way used barotropic (single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the large-scale movement of midlatitude Rossby waves , that is, the pattern of atmospheric lows and highs . [ 65 ] In 1959, the UK Meteorological Office received its first computer, a Ferranti Mercury . [ 66 ] In the 1960s, the chaotic nature of the atmosphere was first observed and mathematically described by Edward Lorenz , founding the field of chaos theory . [ 67 ] These advances have led to the current use of ensemble forecasting in most major forecasting centers, to take into account uncertainty arising from the chaotic nature of the atmosphere. [ 68 ] Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth ( climate models ), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as coarse as the older weather prediction models. These climate models are used to investigate long-term climate shifts, such as what effects might be caused by human emission of greenhouse gases . Meteorologists Meteorologists are scientists who study and work in the field of meteorology. [ 69 ] The American Meteorological Society publishes and continually updates an authoritative electronic Meteorology Glossary . [ 70 ] Meteorologists work in government agencies , private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations , and in education . In the United States, meteorologists held about 10,000 jobs in 2018. [ 71 ] Although weather forecasts and warnings are the best known products of meteorologists for the public, weather presenters on radio and television are not necessarily professional meteorologists. They are most often reporters with little formal meteorological training, using unregulated titles such as weather specialist or weatherman . The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association issue "Seals of Approval" to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements but this is not mandatory to be hired by the media. Equipment Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be seen but can be felt. The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the rain gauge , the anemometer, and the hygrometer. Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. Many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. Even Aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air. Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station , a ship or a weather buoy . The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. Usually, temperature, pressure , wind measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively. [ 72 ] Professional stations may also include air quality sensors ( carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , methane , ozone , dust , and smoke ), ceilometer (cloud ceiling), falling precipitation sensor, flood sensor , lightning sensor , microphone ( explosions , sonic booms , thunder ), pyranometer / pyrheliometer / spectroradiometer (IR/Vis/UV photodiodes ), rain gauge / snow gauge , scintillation counter ( background radiation , fallout , radon ), seismometer ( earthquakes and tremors), transmissometer (visibility), and a GPS clock for data logging . Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes . Supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the World Meteorological Organization . Remote sensing , as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. The common types of remote sensing are Radar , Lidar , and satellites (or photogrammetry ). Each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. Radar and Lidar are not passive because both use EM radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere. [ 73 ] Weather satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to El Niño . Spatial scales The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales. At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the geospatial size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale. Other subclassifications are used to describe the unique, local, or broad effects within those subclasses. Type of motion Horizontal scale (meter) Molecular mean free path 10 −7 Minute turbulent eddies 10 −2 – 10 −1 Small eddies 10 −1 – 1 Dust devils 1–10 Gusts 10 – 10 2 Tornadoes 10 2 Cumulonimbus clouds 10 3 Fronts, squall lines 10 4 – 10 5 Hurricanes 10 5 Synoptic Cyclones 10 6 Planetary waves 10 7 Microscale Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena on a scale of about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) or less. Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence caused by buildings and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this scale. [ 75 ] Misoscale meteorology is an informal subdivision. Mesoscale Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause , and the lower section of the stratosphere . The terms meso-alpha, meso-beta, and meso-gamma to classify the horizontal scales of atmospheric processes were introduced to the field of mesoscale meteorology by Isidoro Orlanski . [ 76 ] Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to multiple weeks. The events typically of interest are thunderstorms , squall lines , fronts , precipitation bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones , and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes . [ 77 ] Synoptic scale Synoptic scale meteorology predicts atmospheric changes at scales up to 1000 km and 10 5 sec ~ (2.8 days), in time and space. At the synoptic scale, the Coriolis acceleration acting on moving air masses (outside of the tropics) plays a dominant role in predictions. The phenomena typically described by synoptic meteorology include events such as extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones , and to some extent jet streams . All of these are typically given on weather maps for a specific time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is limited to the spacing between surface observation stations . [ 78 ] Global scale Global scale meteorology is the study of weather patterns related to the transport of heat from the tropics to the poles . Very large scale oscillations are of importance at this scale. These oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months, such as the Madden–Julian oscillation , or years, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation . Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology. The traditional definition of climate is pushed into larger timescales and with the understanding of the longer time scale global oscillations, their effect on climate and weather disturbances can be included in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales predictions. Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding air–sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes. [ 79 ] The Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey, California, developed a global atmospheric model called Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System (NOGAPS). NOGAPS is run operationally at Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center for the United States Military. Many other global atmospheric models are run by national meteorological agencies. Branches of meteorology Based on methodological approach Physical meteorology Physical meteorology studies the atmosphere's physical properties, processes, and phenomena. It covers the fundamental principles of atmospheric thermodynamics and energy transfer, including solar and terrestrial radiation (absorption, reflection, and scattering). Cloud physics is another key area of investigation, alongside the study of aerosols, precipitation formation, and atmospheric moist processes. The field further examines optical, electrical, and acoustical effects within the atmosphere. Near-surface processes like mixing, turbulence, and friction, and understanding their connection to the atmosphere's physical characteristics also fall within its scope. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] Dynamic meteorology Dynamic meteorology is the study of atmospheric motions and the physical laws that govern them, using principles drawn from fluid dynamics , thermodynamics and mechanical motion . It aims to explain why the atmosphere moves and how its state evolves. Here, the fundamental analytical unit of atmospheric behavior is an air parcel , defined as an infinitesimally small region in the fluid continuum of the atmosphere. This key conceptual tool allows for abstraction from the atmosphere's discrete molecular and chemical nature. Temperature, density, pressure, etc. are considered key physical quantities with unique values within this atmospheric continuum. These characterize the state of the atmosphere. [ 74 ] Synoptic meteorology Synoptic meteorology focuses on diagnosing the conditions of the atmosphere at a given moment across large regions. This branch involves the preparation of various weather maps displaying meteorological conditions observed simultaneously (hence the term "synoptic," meaning "viewed together"). Examples of such maps include upper-air charts, aerological diagrams, and satellite imagery of cloud movement. Through detailed analysis of these charts, meteorologists aim to understand large-scale wind and pressure systems, as well as the complex relationship between atmospheric circulation and the regional surface environment. The primary objective of the field is to predict atmospheric changes from these initial conditions, typically for a few hours to a few days ahead. The ultimate goal is to help produce regional or station-based forecasts. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Based on scale Boundary layer meteorology Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – cause turbulent mixing within the air layer. Significant movement of heat , matter , or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions. [ 86 ] Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology. Applications Weather forecasting Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere at a future time and given location. Humans have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since at least the 19th century. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. [ 89 ] Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions, and sky condition, [ 90 ] [ 91 ] forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections , knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. [ 95 ] Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ] [ 99 ] and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. Aviation meteorology Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management and flight operations. It is important for aircrews to understand meteorological conditions affecting flight planning and in-flight safety. [ 103 ] Weather phenomena such as turbulence, icing, thunderstorms, and reduced visibility are major hazards to aviation and are included in standardized pilot training syllabi worldwide. [ 104 ] In India, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) includes meteorology as a compulsory subject in pilot licensing examinations. [ 105 ] Agricultural meteorology Meteorologists, soil scientists , agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield , water-use efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather. [ 106 ] Hydrometeorology Hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle , the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms . [ 107 ] A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences. [ 108 ] Nuclear meteorology Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the atmosphere. [ 109 ] Maritime meteorology Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at sea. Organizations such as the Ocean Prediction Center , Honolulu National Weather Service forecast office, United Kingdom Met Office , KNMI and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the world's oceans. Military meteorology Military meteorology is the research and application of meteorology for military purposes. In the United States, the United States Navy 's Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command oversees meteorological efforts for the Navy and Marine Corps while the United States Air Force 's Air Force Weather Agency is responsible for the Air Force and Army . Environmental meteorology Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions. Renewable energy Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes basic research, "exploration", and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar energy. See also American Practical Navigator Atmospheric circulation Atmospheric layers Atmospheric models Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric thermodynamics Automated airport weather station Cloud Eddy covariance flux (eddy correlation, eddy flux) El Niño–Southern Oscillation Index of meteorology articles Indigenous Australian seasons List of cloud types List of meteorology institutions List of Russian meteorologists List of weather instruments Madden–Julian oscillation Meteorological winter National Weatherperson's Day Precipitation ROFOR Space weather Walker circulation Weather station References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} C. Donald Ahrens; Robert Henson (2018), Essentials of Meteorology : An Invitation to the Atmosphere (8th ed.), Cengage Learning, p. 5 ^ Jay Lawrimore (17 May 2018), Thomas Jefferson and the telegraph: highlights of the U.S. weather observer program , archived from the original on 27 May 2018 , retrieved 3 March 2025 ^ Shuman, F. G. (1989). "History of Numerical Weather Prediction at the National Meteorological Center". Weather and Forecasting . 4 (3): 286– 296. Bibcode : 1989WtFor...4..286S . doi : 10.1175/1520-0434(1989)004<0286:HONWPA>2.0.CO;2 . ^ "High resolution global climate modelling" . Met Office (UK) . Retrieved 3 March 2025 . ^ Rebecca Hersher (11 June 2024). "FAQ: 5 things to know about weather forecasts and climate change" . NPR . Retrieved 6 March 2025 . ^ "What does the butterfly effect have to do with weather forecasts?" . National Academies . Retrieved 3 March 2025 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Frisinge, H. Howard (1983). The History of Meteorology: to 1800 . American Meteorological Society . p. 1. ISBN 978-1-940033-91-4 . ^ a b "History of Meteorology in India" . Imd.gov.in. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012 . Retrieved 25 March 2012 . ^ a b Hellmann, G. (1 October 1908). "The dawn of meteorology". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society . 34 (148): 221– 232. Bibcode : 1908QJRMS..34..221H . doi : 10.1002/qj.49703414802 . ISSN 1477-870X . ^ "Meteorology: Introduction" . Infoplease . Archived from the original on 28 December 2008 . Retrieved 4 November 2008 . ^ "94.05.01: Meteorology" . Archived from the original on 21 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 June 2015 . ^ Aristotle (2004) [350 BCE]. Meteorology . The University of Adelaide Library, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005. Archived from the original on 17 February 2007. Translated by E.W. Webster {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location ( link ) CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Aristotle; Forster, E. S. (Edward Seymour), 1879–1950; Dobson, J. F. (John Frederic), 1875–1947 (1914). De Mundo . Oxford : The Clarendon Press. p. Chapter 4. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link ) CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ "Weather: Forecasting from the Beginning" . Infoplease . Archived from the original on 10 July 2022 . Retrieved 4 November 2008 . ^ Smith AM, 1996. "Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics", pp. 46. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 86, part 2. ^ "Timeline of geography, paleontology" . Paleorama.com. Archived from the original on 6 September 2012. Following the path of Discovery ^ Fahd, Toufic, Botany and agriculture , p. 815 ^ Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science . Vol. 3. Routledge . pp. 815– 816. ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2 . ^ Frisinger, H. Howard (1973). "Aristotle's Legacy in Meteorology" . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . 54 (3): 198. Bibcode : 1973BAMS...54..198F . doi : 10.1175/1520-0477(1973)054<0198:ALIM>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN 1520-0477 . ^ "Ancient and pre-Renaissance Contributors to Meteorology" . Archived from the original on 2 December 2014 . Retrieved 16 June 2015 . ^ Raymond L. Lee; Alistair B. Fraser (2001). The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science . Penn State Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-271-01977-2 . ^ "Theodoric of Freiberg and Kamal al-Din al-Farisi Independently Formulate the Correct Qualitative Description of the Rainbow | Encyclopedia.com" . www.encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on 4 August 2020 . Retrieved 16 May 2020 . ^ Börngen, Michael; Foken, Thomas (2022). "150 Years: The Leipzig Meteorological Conference, 1872, a Milestone in International Meteorological Cooperation" . Meteorologische Zeitschrift . 31 (5): 415– 427. Bibcode : 2022MetZe..31..415B . doi : 10.1127/metz/2022/1134 . S2CID 251295416 . ^ "Weather Forecasting Through the Ages" . earthobservatory.nasa.gov . 25 February 2002. Archived from the original on 22 January 2009 . Retrieved 9 December 2023 . ^ Earth Science' 2005 Ed . Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 151. ISBN 978-971-23-3938-7 . ^ a b Jacobson, Mark Z. (June 2005). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling (paperback) (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 828. ISBN 978-0-521-54865-6 . ^ "Early Snow Crystal Observations" . Archived from the original on 25 February 2019 . Retrieved 16 June 2015 . ^ Grigull, U., Fahrenheit, a Pioneer of Exact Thermometry. Heat Transfer, 1966, The Proceedings of the 8th International Heat Transfer Conference, San Francisco, 1966, Vol. 1. ^ Beckman, Olof (2001). "History of the Celsius temperature scale" . Uppsala Astronomical Observatory . Archived from the original on 22 July 2009. ^ Thornes, John. E. (1999). John Constable's Skies. The University of Birmingham Press, pp. 189. ISBN 1-902459-02-4 . ^ Giles, Bill. "Beaufort Scale" . BBC Weather . Archived from the original on 15 October 2010 . Retrieved 12 May 2009 . ^ Florin to Pascal, September 1647, Œuves completes de Pascal , 2:682. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. , "Meteorology" , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive , University of St Andrews ^ Biographical note at "Lectures and Papers of Professor Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), and Diary of Mrs Harriet Rutherford" Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . ^ "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general", 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids", 1778). ^ Nicholas W. Best, " Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' I: Against Phlogiston Theory" Archived 22 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine , Foundations of Chemistry , 2015, 17 , 137–151. ^ Nicholas W. Best, Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' II: On the Nature of Heat Archived 9 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine , Foundations of Chemistry , 2015, 17 . In this early work, Lavoisier calls it "igneous fluid". ^ The 1880 edition of A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar , a 19th-century educational science book, explained heat transfer in terms of the flow of caloric. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Cristopher Columbus , Boston, 1942, page 617. ^ Cook, Alan H., Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998) ^ George Hadley, "Concerning the cause of the general trade winds", Philosophical Transactions , vol. 39 (1735). ^ Dorst, Neal (1 June 2017). "FAQ: Hurricane Timeline" . aoml.noaa.gov . AOML . Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. ^ G-G Coriolis (1835). "Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps". Journal de l'École Royale Polytechnique . 15 : 144– 154. ^ Ferrel, William (4 October 1856). "An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the Ocean" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2013 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ Arthur Gordon Webster (1912). The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies . B.G. Teubner. p. 320 . coriolis centrifugal force 0-1920. ^ Johnson, Shaye (2003). "The Norwegian Cyclone Model" (PDF) . weather.ou.edu . The University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2006 . Retrieved 11 October 2006 . ^ a b c John L. Heilbron (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science . Oxford University Press. p. 518. ISBN 9780199743766 . ^ Raymond S. Bradley, Philip D. Jones, Climate Since A.D. 1500 , Routledge, 1992, ISBN 0-415-07593-9 , p. 144 ^ Martin, Rebecca (2009). "News on the wire" . ABC Online . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 12 May 2009 . ^ Bruno, Leonard C. "The Invention of the Telegraph" . memory.loc.gov . Library of Congress . Archived from the original on 11 January 2009 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ "Smithsonian Institution Archives" . Archived from the original on 20 October 2006 . Retrieved 16 June 2015 . ^ "Prophet without Honour: The Reverend William Clement Ley and the hunt for the jet stream" . rmets.org . Archived from the original on 28 August 2016 . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . ^ Field, M. (1 October 1999). "Meteorologist's profile — Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, OBE, AFC, MA". Weather . 54 (10): 321– 327. Bibcode : 1999Wthr...54..321F . doi : 10.1002/j.1477-8696.1999.tb03992.x . S2CID 120325369 . ^ Williamson, Fiona (1 September 2015). "Weathering the empire: meteorological research in the early British straits settlements" . The British Journal for the History of Science . 48 (3): 475– 492. doi : 10.1017/S000708741500028X . ISSN 1474-001X . PMID 26234178 . Archived from the original on 16 January 2021 . Retrieved 20 December 2020 . ^ Anderson, Katharine (1999). "The weather prophets: science and reputation in Victorian meteorology". History of Science . 37 (2): 179– 215. Bibcode : 1999HisSc..37..179A . doi : 10.1177/007327539903700203 . S2CID 142652078 . ^ "Establishment of IMD" . imd.gov.in . India Meteorological Department . Archived from the original on 20 November 2015 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ "History of Finnish Meteorological Institute" . fmi.fi . Finnish Meteorological Institute . Archived from the original on 25 July 2010 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ "History" . jma.go.jp . Japan Meteorological Agency . Archived from the original on 25 December 2010 . Retrieved 22 October 2006 . ^ "BOM celebrates 100 years" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 31 December 2007. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 2 January 2009 . ^ "Collections in Perth: 20. Meteorology" . National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 12 February 2012 . Retrieved 24 May 2008 . ^ Berknes, V. (1904) "Das Problem der Wettervorhersage, betrachtet vom Standpunkte der Mechanik und der Physik" (The problem of weather prediction, considered from the viewpoints of mechanics and physics), Meteorologische Zeitschrift , 21 : 1–7. Available in English on-line at: Schweizerbart science publishers Archived 11 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine . ^ "Pioneers in Modern Meteorology and Climatology: Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2017 . Retrieved 13 October 2008 . ^ Richardson, Lewis Fry, Weather Prediction by Numerical Process (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1922). Available on-line at: Internet Archive.org . ^ Edwards, Paul N. "Atmospheric General Circulation Modeling" . aip.org . American Institute of Physics . Archived from the original on 25 March 2008 . Retrieved 13 January 2008 . ^ Cox, John D. (2002). Storm Watchers . John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 208 . ISBN 978-0-471-38108-2 . ^ "The history of Numerical Weather Prediction at the Met Office" . Met Office . Archived from the original on 15 January 2018 . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . ^ Edward N. Lorenz, "Deterministic non-periodic flow", Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences , vol. 20, pages 130–141 (1963). ^ Manousos, Peter (19 July 2006). "Ensemble Prediction Systems" . Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . Archived from the original on 8 April 2019 . Retrieved 31 December 2010 . ^ Glickman, Todd S. (June 2009). Meteorology Glossary (electronic) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 10 November 2019 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . ^ Glickman, Todd S. (June 2000). Meteorology Glossary (electronic) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . ^ "Atmospheric Scientists, Including Meteorologists : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics" . www.bls.gov . Archived from the original on 18 April 2020 . Retrieved 24 March 2020 . ^ "Surface Weather Observations and Reports, Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 1" . ofcm.gov . Office of the Federal Coordinator of Meteorology. September 2005. Archived from the original on 20 April 1999 . Retrieved 2 January 2009 . ^ Peebles, Peyton, [1998], Radar Principles , John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-471-25205-0 . ^ a b Holton, J.R. (2004). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (PDF) (4th ed.). Burlington, MD: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-12-354015-7 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2016 . Retrieved 5 March 2016 . : 5 ^ "AMS Glossary of Meteorology" . American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 6 June 2011 . Retrieved 12 April 2008 . ^ Orlanski, Isidoro (1975). "A Rational Subdivision of Scales for Atmospheric Processes". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . 56 (5): 527– 530. ISSN 0003-0007 . JSTOR 26216020 . ^ Online Glossary of Meteorology Archived 21 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine , American Meteorological Society [1] Archived 16 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine , 2nd Ed., 2000, Allen Press Archived 23 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Bluestein, H., Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1 , Oxford University Press, 1992; ISBN 0-19-506267-1 ^ Global Modelling Archived 21 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine , US Naval Research Laboratory, Monterey, Ca. ^ Vlado Spiridonov; Mladjen Ćurić (2020), Fundamentals of Meteorology , Springer Nature, p. 8 ^ David S. G. Thomas; Andrew S. Goudie, eds. (2008), The Dictionary of Physical Geography (3rd ed.), Wiley Blackwell, p. 372 ^ G.S.L.H.V. Prasada Rao (2008), Agricultural Meteorology , PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 10 ^ G.S.L.H.V. Prasada Rao (2008), Agricultural Meteorology , PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 9 ^ David S. G. Thomas; Andrew S. Goudie, eds. (2008), The Dictionary of Physical Geography (3rd ed.), Wiley Blackwell, p. 475 ^ Vlado Spiridonov; Mladjen Ćurić (2020), Fundamentals of Meteorology , Springer Nature, p. 9 ^ Garratt, J.R., The atmospheric boundary layer , Cambridge University Press, 1992; ISBN 0-521-38052-9 . ^ "Astrology Lessons" . Mistic House . Archived from the original on 8 June 2008 . Retrieved 12 January 2008 . ^ Craft, Eric D. (7 October 2001). "An Economic History of Weather Forecasting" . EH.net . Economic History Association . Archived from the original on 3 May 2007 . Retrieved 15 April 2007 . ^ "Weather Forecasting Through the Ages" . NASA . Archived from the original on 10 September 2005 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ "Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching" . The Weather Doctor . Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ Moore, Mark (2003). "Field Forecasting—a short summary" (PDF) . NWAC . Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ Weickmann, Klaus; Whitaker, Jeff; Roubicek, Andres; Smith, Catherine. "The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3–15 days) Weather Forecasts" . cdc.noaa.gov . Earth System Research Laboratories . Archived from the original on 15 December 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . ^ Kimberlain, Todd (June 2007). "TC Genesis, Track, and Intensity Forecating [sic]" . wpc.ncep.noaa.gov . Archived from the original on 27 February 2021 . Retrieved 21 July 2007 . ^ Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and Chris Landsea . TPC/NHC’S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR 2006. [ permanent dead link ] Retrieved on 5 May 2008. ^ "National Weather Service Mission Statement" . weather.gov . NOAA . Archived from the original on 12 June 2008 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ Fannin, Blair (14 June 2006). "Dry weather conditions continue for Texas" . Southwest Farm Press . Archived from the original on 3 July 2009 . Retrieved 26 May 2008 . ^ Mader, Terry (3 April 2000). "Drought Corn Silage" . beef.unl.edu . University of Nebraska–Lincoln . Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 . Retrieved 26 May 2008 . ^ Taylor, Kathryn C. (March 2005). "Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care" . pubs.caes.uga.edu . University of Georgia . Archived from the original on 24 December 2008 . Retrieved 26 May 2008 . ^ "After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop" . The New York Times . Associated Press . 14 January 1991. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018 . Retrieved 26 May 2008 . ^ "FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels" . The New York Times . Reuters . 26 February 1993. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ "Heatwave causes electricity surge" . BBC News . 25 July 2006. Archived from the original on 20 May 2009 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ "The seven key messages of the Energy Drill program" (PDF) . tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill . Toronto Catholic District School Board . Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2012 . Retrieved 25 May 2008 . ^ "Annex 1 — Personnel Licensing" . International Civil Aviation Organization . Retrieved 21 August 2025 . [ dead link ] ^ "Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)" (PDF) . Federal Aviation Administration . Retrieved 21 August 2025 . ^ "Commercial Pilot's Licence (Aeroplanes): Written Examination Subjects" . Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India) . Retrieved 21 August 2025 . ^ Agricultural and Forest Meteorology Archived 6 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Elsevier, ISSN 0168-1923 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Archived 19 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine , 2007. ^ About the HPC Archived 20 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine , NOAA/ National Weather Service, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, Hydrometeorological Prediction Center Archived 20 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007. ^ Tsitskishvili, M. S.; Trusov, A. G. (February 1974). "Modern research in nuclear meteorology". Atomic Energy . 36 (2): 197– 198. doi : 10.1007/BF01117823 . S2CID 96128061 . Further reading Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994. Garret, J.R. (1992) [1992]. The atmospheric boundary layer . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38052-2 . Glossary of Meteorology . American Meteorological Society (2nd ed.). Allen Press. 2000. Archived from the original on 21 May 2006 . Retrieved 13 October 2004 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: others ( link ) Bluestein, H (1992) [1992]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-506267-0 . Bluestein, H (1993) [1993]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506268-7 . Reynolds, R (2005) [2005]. Guide to Weather . Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books Inc. p. 208 . ISBN 978-1-55407-110-4 . Holton, J.R. (2004) [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (4th ed.). Burlington, Md: Elsevier Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-354015-7 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2013 . Retrieved 21 May 2017 . Roulstone, Ian & Norbury, John (2013). Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather . Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691152721 . Dictionaries and encyclopedias Glickman, Todd S. (June 2000). Meteorology Glossary (electronic) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society . Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . Gustavo Herrera, Roberto; García-Herrera, Ricardo; Prieto, Luis; Gallego, David; Hernández, Emiliano; Gimeno, Luis; Können, Gunther; Koek, Frits; Wheeler, Dennis; Wilkinson, Clive; Del Rosario Prieto, Maria; Báez, Carlos; Woodruff, Scott. A Dictionary of Nautical Meteorological Terms: CLIWOC Multilingual Dictionary of Meteorological Terms; An English/Spanish/French/Dutch Dictionary of Windforce Terms Used by Mariners from 1750 to 1850 (PDF) . CLIWOC . Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2021 . Retrieved 13 April 2014 . "Meteorology Encyclopedia" . Central Weather Bureau. 6 December 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2014 . Retrieved 14 September 2014 . History Lawrence-Mathers, Anne (2020). Medieval Meteorology: Forecasting the Weather from Aristotle to the Almanac . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bibcode : 2020mmfw.book.....L . doi : 10.1017/9781108289948 . ISBN 978-1-108-40600-0 . S2CID 211658964 . External links Please see weather forecasting for weather forecast sites. Air Quality Meteorology Archived 25 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Online course that introduces the basic concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models. Written at a bachelor's degree level. The GLOBE Program Archived 11 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international environmental science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about the environment through student data collection and observation. Glossary of Meteorology Archived 13 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – From the American Meteorological Society, an excellent reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more advanced reader. JetStream – An Online School for Weather Archived 11 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – National Weather Service Learn About Meteorology Archived 11 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine – Australian Bureau of Meteorology The Weather Guide Archived 24 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Weather Tutorials and News at About.com Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd) Archived 11 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – The COMET Program NOAA Central Library – National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration The World Weather 2010 Project Archived 19 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Ogimet – online data from meteorological stations of the world, obtained through NOAA free services Archived 24 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine National Center for Atmospheric Research Archives, documents the history of meteorology Weather forecasting and Climate science Archived 14 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine – United Kingdom Meteorological Office Meteorology , BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vladimir Janković, Richard Hambyn and Iba Taub ( In Our Time , 6 March 2003) Virtual exhibition about meteorology Archived 24 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine on the digital library of Paris Observatory Links to related articles v t e Meteorological data and variables General Adiabatic processes Advection Buoyancy Lapse rate Lightning Surface solar radiation Surface weather analysis Visibility Vorticity Wind Wind shear Condensation Cloud Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Fog Convective condensation level (CCL) Lifting condensation level (LCL) Precipitable water Precipitation Water vapor Convection Convective available potential energy (CAPE) Convective inhibition (CIN) Convective instability Convective momentum transport Conditional symmetric instability Convective temperature ( T c ) Equilibrium level (EL) Free convective layer (FCL) Helicity K Index Level of free convection (LFC) Lifted index (LI) Maximum parcel level (MPL) Bulk Richardson number (BRN) Significant tornado parameter (STP) Temperature Dew point ( T d ) Dew point depression Dry-bulb temperature Equivalent temperature ( T e ) Forest fire weather index Haines Index Heat index Humidex Humidity Relative humidity (RH) Mixing ratio Potential temperature ( θ ) Equivalent potential temperature ( θ e ) Sea surface temperature (SST) Temperature anomaly Thermodynamic temperature Vapor pressure Virtual temperature Wet-bulb temperature Wet-bulb globe temperature Wet-bulb potential temperature Wind chill Pressure Atmospheric pressure Baroclinity Barotropicity Pressure gradient Pressure-gradient force (PGF) Velocity Maximum potential intensity v t e Earth-based meteorological equipment and instrumentation Anemometer Atmometer Barograph Barometer Ceiling balloon Ceiling projector Ceilometer Dark adaptor goggles Dewcell Disdrometer Dropsonde Field mill Heat flux sensor Hygrometer Ice accretion indicator Lidar Lightning detector Lightning prediction system Nephelometer Nephoscope Pan evaporation Pyranometer Pyrheliometer Present weather sensor Radiosonde Rain gauge Snow gauge Snowboard Snow pillow SODAR Solarimeter Sounding rocket Stevenson screen Sunshine recorder Tethersonde Thermo-hygrograph Thermometer Tide gauge Transmissometer Weather balloon Weather buoy Weather radar Weather vane Whole sky camera Wind profiler Windsock v t e Physical geography Atmospheric science / Meteorology Biogeography / Phytogeography Climatology / Paleoclimatology / Palaeogeography Coastal geography / Oceanography Soil science / Pedology / Edaphology Geobiology Geology Geomorphology Geostatistics Glaciology Hydrology / Limnology Landscape ecology Quaternary science Category Portal Commons Region v t e Earth-based meteorological observation systems and weather stations General Aircraft report (AIREP) Automated airport weather station Automatic weather station (AWS) Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR) Dropsonde Hurricane Hunters Mesonet Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR) Pilot report (PIREP) Weather ship By region Worldwide Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) Argo Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) FluxNet Project (FluxNet) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA) Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON) Voluntary observing ship program United States Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) NEXRAD radar Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) v t e Elements of nature Universe Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles Change Earth Earth science History geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Weather Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone Natural environment Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Life Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses See also Nature-based solutions Category v t e Meteorological data and variables v t e General Adiabatic processes Advection Buoyancy Lapse rate Lightning Surface solar radiation Surface weather analysis Visibility Vorticity Wind Wind shear Adiabatic processes Advection Buoyancy Lapse rate Lightning Surface solar radiation Surface weather analysis Visibility Vorticity Wind Wind shear Condensation Cloud Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Fog Convective condensation level (CCL) Lifting condensation level (LCL) Precipitable water Precipitation Water vapor Cloud Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Fog Convective condensation level (CCL) Lifting condensation level (LCL) Precipitable water Precipitation Water vapor Convection Convective available potential energy (CAPE) Convective inhibition (CIN) Convective instability Convective momentum transport Conditional symmetric instability Convective temperature ( T c ) Equilibrium level (EL) Free convective layer (FCL) Helicity K Index Level of free convection (LFC) Lifted index (LI) Maximum parcel level (MPL) Bulk Richardson number (BRN) Significant tornado parameter (STP) Convective available potential energy (CAPE) Convective inhibition (CIN) Convective instability Convective momentum transport Conditional symmetric instability Convective temperature ( T c ) Equilibrium level (EL) Free convective layer (FCL) Helicity K Index Level of free convection (LFC) Lifted index (LI) Maximum parcel level (MPL) Bulk Richardson number (BRN) Significant tornado parameter (STP) Temperature Dew point ( T d ) Dew point depression Dry-bulb temperature Equivalent temperature ( T e ) Forest fire weather index Haines Index Heat index Humidex Humidity Relative humidity (RH) Mixing ratio Potential temperature ( θ ) Equivalent potential temperature ( θ e ) Sea surface temperature (SST) Temperature anomaly Thermodynamic temperature Vapor pressure Virtual temperature Wet-bulb temperature Wet-bulb globe temperature Wet-bulb potential temperature Wind chill Dew point ( T d ) Dew point depression Dry-bulb temperature Equivalent temperature ( T e ) Forest fire weather index Haines Index Heat index Humidex Humidity Relative humidity (RH) Mixing ratio Potential temperature ( θ ) Equivalent potential temperature ( θ e ) Sea surface temperature (SST) Temperature anomaly Thermodynamic temperature Vapor pressure Virtual temperature Wet-bulb temperature Wet-bulb globe temperature Wet-bulb potential temperature Wind chill Pressure Atmospheric pressure Baroclinity Barotropicity Pressure gradient Pressure-gradient force (PGF) Atmospheric pressure Baroclinity Barotropicity Pressure gradient Pressure-gradient force (PGF) Velocity Maximum potential intensity Maximum potential intensity v t e Earth-based meteorological equipment and instrumentation v t e Anemometer Atmometer Barograph Barometer Ceiling balloon Ceiling projector Ceilometer Dark adaptor goggles Dewcell Disdrometer Dropsonde Field mill Heat flux sensor Hygrometer Ice accretion indicator Lidar Lightning detector Lightning prediction system Nephelometer Nephoscope Pan evaporation Pyranometer Pyrheliometer Present weather sensor Radiosonde Rain gauge Snow gauge Snowboard Snow pillow SODAR Solarimeter Sounding rocket Stevenson screen Sunshine recorder Tethersonde Thermo-hygrograph Thermometer Tide gauge Transmissometer Weather balloon Weather buoy Weather radar Weather vane Whole sky camera Wind profiler Windsock Anemometer Atmometer Barograph Barometer Ceiling balloon Ceiling projector Ceilometer Dark adaptor goggles Dewcell Disdrometer Dropsonde Field mill Heat flux sensor Hygrometer Ice accretion indicator Lidar Lightning detector Lightning prediction system Nephelometer Nephoscope Pan evaporation Pyranometer Pyrheliometer Present weather sensor Radiosonde Rain gauge Snow gauge Snowboard Snow pillow SODAR Solarimeter Sounding rocket Stevenson screen Sunshine recorder Tethersonde Thermo-hygrograph Thermometer Tide gauge Transmissometer Weather balloon Weather buoy Weather radar Weather vane Whole sky camera Wind profiler Windsock v t e Physical geography v t e Atmospheric science / Meteorology Biogeography / Phytogeography Climatology / Paleoclimatology / Palaeogeography Coastal geography / Oceanography Soil science / Pedology / Edaphology Geobiology Geology Geomorphology Geostatistics Glaciology Hydrology / Limnology Landscape ecology Quaternary science Atmospheric science / Meteorology Biogeography / Phytogeography Climatology / Paleoclimatology / Palaeogeography Coastal geography / Oceanography Soil science / Pedology / Edaphology Geobiology Geology Geomorphology Geostatistics Glaciology Hydrology / Limnology Landscape ecology Quaternary science Category Portal Commons Region Category Portal Commons Region v t e Earth-based meteorological observation systems and weather stations v t e General Aircraft report (AIREP) Automated airport weather station Automatic weather station (AWS) Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR) Dropsonde Hurricane Hunters Mesonet Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR) Pilot report (PIREP) Weather ship General Aircraft report (AIREP) Automated airport weather station Automatic weather station (AWS) Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR) Dropsonde Hurricane Hunters Mesonet Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR) Pilot report (PIREP) Weather ship Aircraft report (AIREP) Automated airport weather station Automatic weather station (AWS) Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR) Dropsonde Hurricane Hunters Mesonet Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR) Pilot report (PIREP) Weather ship By region Worldwide Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) Argo Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) FluxNet Project (FluxNet) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA) Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON) Voluntary observing ship program United States Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) NEXRAD radar Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) By region Worldwide Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) Argo Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) FluxNet Project (FluxNet) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA) Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON) Voluntary observing ship program United States Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) NEXRAD radar Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) Worldwide Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) Argo Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) FluxNet Project (FluxNet) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA) Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON) Voluntary observing ship program Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) Argo Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) FluxNet Project (FluxNet) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA) Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON) Voluntary observing ship program United States Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) NEXRAD radar Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) NEXRAD radar Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) v t e Elements of nature v t e Universe Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles Change Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles chemical elements particles Change Earth Earth science History geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Earth science History geological geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Weather Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone tornado tropical cyclone Natural environment Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Life Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista fauna animals animals flora plants plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria archaea bacteria Viruses See also Nature-based solutions Nature-based solutions Category Category Weather Authority control databases International GND GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX Meteorology Applied and interdisciplinary physics Oceanography Physical geography CS1:Vancouver names with accept markup CS1 maint: location CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list CS1 maint: publisher location Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2025 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2025 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023 CS1 maint: others Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 12 December 2025, at 08:28 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Life Toggle Life subsection 1.1 Youth and political formation 1.1.1 The only heir of the Duke of the Franks 1.1.2 An exemplary education 1.1.3 Robert II's ascension to the throne (987) 1.2 The episcopal hierarchy, the King's first support 1.2.1 Robert II directs the religious affairs 1.2.2 Charles de Lorraine seizes Laon (988–991) 1.2.3 Gerbert and Ascelin: two figures of disloyalty 1.3 Marital problems 1.3.1 First marriage: Rozala of Italy 1.3.2 Second marriage: Bertha of Burgundy 1.3.3 Third marriage: Constance of Arles 1.4 Territorial conquests 1.5 The heretics of Orléans (1022) 1.6 The persecution of the Jews 1.7 Later years, death, and burial 1.1 Youth and political formation 1.1.1 The only heir of the Duke of the Franks 1.1.2 An exemplary education 1.1.3 Robert II's ascension to the throne (987) 1.1.1 The only heir of the Duke of the Franks 1.1.2 An exemplary education 1.1.3 Robert II's ascension to the throne (987) 1.2 The episcopal hierarchy, the King's first support 1.2.1 Robert II directs the religious affairs 1.2.2 Charles de Lorraine seizes Laon (988–991) 1.2.3 Gerbert and Ascelin: two figures of disloyalty 1.2.1 Robert II directs the religious affairs 1.2.2 Charles de Lorraine seizes Laon (988–991) 1.2.3 Gerbert and Ascelin: two figures of disloyalty 1.3 Marital problems 1.3.1 First marriage: Rozala of Italy 1.3.2 Second marriage: Bertha of Burgundy 1.3.3 Third marriage: Constance of Arles 1.3.1 First marriage: Rozala of Italy 1.3.2 Second marriage: Bertha of Burgundy 1.3.3 Third marriage: Constance of Arles 1.4 Territorial conquests 1.5 The heretics of Orléans (1022) 1.6 The persecution of the Jews 1.7 Later years, death, and burial 2 Overview of reign Toggle Overview of reign subsection 2.1 The establishment of the Banal Lordship 2.2 Robert II and the Church 2.2.1 A "monk king" 2.2.2 Fleury Abbey and the rise of the monastic movement 2.2.3 Robert II, the ideal prince 2.2.4 Chosen by the Lord 2.3 Robert II and the economy 2.3.1 A period of full economic growth 2.3.2 Monetary Policy 2.4 Robert II and the State 2.4.1 The royal administration 2.4.2 Justice of Robert II 2.1 The establishment of the Banal Lordship 2.2 Robert II and the Church 2.2.1 A "monk king" 2.2.2 Fleury Abbey and the rise of the monastic movement 2.2.3 Robert II, the ideal prince 2.2.4 Chosen by the Lord 2.2.1 A "monk king" 2.2.2 Fleury Abbey and the rise of the monastic movement 2.2.3 Robert II, the ideal prince 2.2.4 Chosen by the Lord 2.3 Robert II and the economy 2.3.1 A period of full economic growth 2.3.2 Monetary Policy 2.3.1 A period of full economic growth 2.3.2 Monetary Policy 2.4 Robert II and the State 2.4.1 The royal administration 2.4.2 Justice of Robert II 2.4.1 The royal administration 2.4.2 Justice of Robert II 3 Family 4 Notes 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading Robert II of France العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kotava Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Wikidata item Robert II Seal of King Robert II King of the Franks ( more... ) Reign 24 October 996 – 20 July 1031 Coronation 25 December 987 ( as co-king ) Predecessor Hugh Capet Successor Henry I Co-king Hugh (1017–1025) Born c. 972 Orléans , France Died 20 July 1031 (1031-07-20) (aged 58–59) Melun , France Burial Saint Denis Basilica , Paris, France Spouses .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Rozala of Italy until 996 ( m. 988, annulled) Bertha of Burgundy ( m. 996; ann. 1001) Constance of Arles ( m. 1001/03) .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Constance of Arles ( m. 1001/03) Issue Advisa, Countess of Nevers Hugh Magnus Henry I, King of France Adela, Countess of Flanders Robert I, Duke of Burgundy Eudes of France Constance, Countess of Dammartin Advisa, Countess of Nevers Hugh Magnus Henry I, King of France Adela, Countess of Flanders Robert I, Duke of Burgundy Eudes of France Constance, Countess of Dammartin House House of Capet Father Hugh Capet Mother Adelaide of Aquitaine Signature Robert II ( c. 972 – 20 July 1031), called the Pious (French: le Pieux ) or the Wise (French: le Sage ), was King of the Franks from 996 to 1031, the second from the Capetian dynasty . Crowned Junior King in 987, he assisted his father on military matters (notably during the two sieges of Laon , in 988 and 991). His solid education, provided by Gerbert of Aurillac (the future Pope Sylvester II ) in Reims, allowed him to deal with religious questions of which he quickly became the guarantor (he headed the Council of Saint-Basle de Verzy in 991 and that of Chelles in 994). Continuing the political work of his father, after becoming sole ruler in 996, he managed to maintain the alliance with the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou and thus was able to contain the ambitions of Count Odo II of Blois . Robert II distinguished himself with an extraordinarily long reign for the time. His 35-year-long reign was marked by his attempts to expand the royal domain by any means, especially by his struggle to gain the Duchy of Burgundy (which ended in 1005 with his victory) after the death in 1002 without male descendants of his paternal uncle Duke Henry I , after a war against Otto-William of Ivrea , Henry I's stepson and adopted by him as his heir. His policies earned him many enemies, including three of his sons. The marital setbacks of Robert II (he married three times, having two of these annulled and attempting to have the third annulled, prevented only by the Pope's refusal to agree to a third annulment), strangely contrasted with the pious aura, bordering on holiness, which his biographer Helgaud of Fleury was willing to lend him in his work "Life of King Robert the Pious" ( Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii ). His life was then presented as a model to follow, made of innumerable pious donations to various religious establishments, of charity towards the poor and, above all, of gestures considered sacred, such as the healing of certain lepers. Robert II was the first sovereign considered to be a "miracle worker" . The end of his reign revealed the relative weakness of the sovereign, who had to face the revolt of his third wife Constance and then of his own sons ( Henri and Robert ) between 1025 and 1031. Life Youth and political formation The only heir of the Duke of the Franks Robert II's exact date and birthplace are unknown, although historians have advocated for the year 972 and the city of Orléans [ a ] (the capital of the Robertians from the 9th century onward). [ 2 ] The only son of Hugh Capet and Adelaide of Aquitaine , he was named after his heroic ancestor Robert the Strong , who had died fighting the Vikings in 866. His parents' marriage produced at least two other daughters: [ b ] Hedwig (wife of Reginar IV , Count of Hainaut ) and Gisela (wife of Hugh I, Count of Ponthieu ). In the 10th century, the Robertians were the most powerful aristocratic family in the Kingdom of France. In previous decades, two of its members, Odo (888) and Robert I (922), had ascended to the throne, displacing the ruling Carolingian dynasty . The principality of Hugh the Great , Duke of the Franks and Robert II's paternal grandfather, marked the apogee of the Robertians until his death in 956. In the middle of the 10th century, Hugh Capet succeeded as the head of the family. [ 4 ] Robert II's youth was especially marked by the incessant fights of King Lothair of France to recover Lorraine , the "cradle of the Carolingian family", at the expense of Emperor Otto II : "As Otto possessed Belgium (Lorraine) and that Lothair sought to seize it, the two kings attempted against each other very treacherous machinations and coups de force , because both claimed that their fathers had possessed." "As Otto possessed Belgium (Lorraine) and that Lothair sought to seize it, the two kings attempted against each other very treacherous machinations and coups de force , because both claimed that their fathers had possessed." — Richer of Reims, ca. 991–998. [ 5 ] In August 978, King Lothair unexpectedly launched a general assault on Aix-la-Chapelle where the imperial family resided, which narrowly escaped capture. After having looted the imperial palace and the surroundings, he returned to France carrying the insignia of the Empire. In the following October, to take revenge, Otto II assembled an army of 60,000 men and invaded Lothair's domains. The latter, with only a few troops around him, was forced to take refuge with Hugh Capet, who was then said to be the savior of the Carolingian kingship. [ 6 ] The Robertian dynasty then took a turn that changed the fate of young Robert II. Bishop Adalbero of Reims , originally a man of King Lothair, turns more and more towards the Ottonian court for which he feels a great sympathy. An exemplary education Hugh Capet quickly understood that his ascent could not be attained without the support of Archbishop Adalbero of Reims. Illiterate himself, not mastering Latin, he decided around 984 to send his son, not with the scholar Abbo of Fleury , near Orléans, but to Archbishop Adalbero so he could train him in the basics of knowledge. Indeed, at the end of the 10th century, Reims had a reputation as the most prestigious school of all of West Christianity. The prelate willingly welcomed Robert, who was confided to his secretary, the famous Gerbert of Aurillac , one of the most educated men of his time. [ 7 ] It is assumed that to follow Gerbert's teaching, the young Robert II had to acquire the basics of Latin. He thus enriched his knowledge by studying the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy). Robert II is one of the few laypeople of his time to enjoy the same worldview as contemporary clergy. [ c ] After about two years of study in Reims, he returned to Orléans. His intellectual level had also developed in the musical field, as recognized by another great scholar of his time, Richer de Reims. [ 9 ] According to Helgaud de Fleury, at an age unknown in his adolescence, the young Robert II fell seriously ill, to such an extent that his parents feared for his life. It was then when they went to pray at the Sainte-Croix church in Orleans and offered a golden crucifix and a sumptuous 60-pound (30 kg) vase as a votive offering. Robert II miraculously recovered. [ 10 ] "His pious mother sent him to the schools of Reims and entrusted him to master Gerbert, to be brought up by him and sufficiently instructed in liberal doctrines." "His pious mother sent him to the schools of Reims and entrusted him to master Gerbert, to be brought up by him and sufficiently instructed in liberal doctrines." — Helgaud of Fleury, Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii , ca 1033. [ 11 ] Robert II's ascension to the throne (987) Immediately after his own coronation, Hugh Capet began to push for the coronation of his son. "The essential means by which the early Capetians were seen to have kept the throne in their family was through the association of the eldest surviving son in the royalty during the father's lifetime," Andrew W. Lewis has observed, in tracing the phenomenon in this line of kings who lacked dynastic legitimacy. [ 12 ] [ d ] Hugh Capet's claimed reason was that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Count Borrell II of Barcelona , an invasion which never occurred, and that the stability of the country necessitated a Junior King, should he die while on expedition. [ 13 ] Rodulfus Glaber , however, attributes Hugh Capet's request to his old age and inability to control the nobility. [ 14 ] Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh Capet the motive of establishing a dynasty against the claims of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less sceptical of his "plan" to campaign in Spain. [ 15 ] Once Hugh Capet proposed the association of Robert to the throne, Archbishop Adalbero of Reims was reportedly hostile to this and, according to Richer of Reims , he replied to the king: "we do not have the right to create two kings in the same year" ( on n'a pas le droit de créer deux rois la même année ). It is believed that Gerbert of Aurillac (who was himself close to Borrell II, for a time his protector), would then have come to the aid of Hugh Capet to convince the Archbishop that the co-kingship was needed due to the purposed expedition to assist the Count of Barcelona, and to secure a stable transition of power. Under duress, Archbishop Adalbero finally consented. [ 16 ] Unlike that of Hugh Capet, the coronation of Robert was precisely detailed by Richer of Reims—even the day and place were clearly identified. Dressed in purple woven with gold threads, as tradition dictated, the 15-year-old boy was acclaimed, crowned and then consecrated by the Archbishop of Reims on 25 December 987 [ e ] at the Sainte-Croix Cathedral in Orléans . [ 19 ] [ 20 ] "The princes of the kingdom were gathered on the day of the Lord's nativity to celebrate the royal coronation ceremony, the Archbishop, taking the purple, solemnly crowned Robert II, son of Hugh, in the basilica of the Holy Cross, to the acclamations of the French, then did so and crowned king of the western peoples from the Meuse river to the Ocean." [ 21 ] "The princes of the kingdom were gathered on the day of the Lord's nativity to celebrate the royal coronation ceremony, the Archbishop, taking the purple, solemnly crowned Robert II, son of Hugh, in the basilica of the Holy Cross, to the acclamations of the French, then did so and crowned king of the western peoples from the Meuse river to the Ocean." [ 21 ] Richer of Reims also underlines that Robert II is only "King of the peoples of the West, from the Meuse to the Ocean" and not "King of the Gauls, Aquitaine, Danes, Goths, Spaniards and Gascons" as his father. The episcopal hierarchy, the King's first support Robert II directs the religious affairs Crowned as Junior King, Robert II had begun to take on active royal duties with his father, as evidenced by his signum at the bottom of certain acts of Hugh Capet. From 990, all the acts have its inscription. In the written acts: "Robert, very glorious king" as underlined by a charter for Corbie (April 988) or even " filii nostri Rotberti regis ac consortis regni nostri " in a charter for Saint-Maur-des-Fossés (June 989). [ 22 ] On the strength of his instruction received from Gerbert of Aurillac, his task, initially, was to preside over episcopal synods: "He [Robert II] attended synods of bishops to discuss ecclesiastical affairs with them." "He [Robert II] attended synods of bishops to discuss ecclesiastical affairs with them." — Richer of Reims, ca. 990. [ 23 ] Unlike the last Carolingians, the first Capetians attached a clan of bishops to the north-east of Paris ( Amiens , Laon , Soissons , Châlons , etc.) whose support was decisive in the course of events. In one of their diplomas, the two kings appear as intermediaries between the clerics and the people ( mediatores et plebis ) and, under the pen of Gerbert of Aurillac, the bishops insisted on this need for consilium : "...not wanting anything abuse the royal power, we decide all the affairs of the res publica by resorting to the advice and sentences of our faithful". [ 24 ] Hugh Capet and Robert II needed the support of the Church to further consolidate their legitimacy, and also because the contingents of horsemen who made up the royal army came largely from the bishoprics. [ 25 ] Robert II already appeared in the eyes of his contemporaries as a pious sovereign (hence his nickname) and close to the Church for several reasons: he devoted himself to the liberal arts; he was present at the synods of bishops; Abbo of Fleury specially dedicated his canonical collection to him; he easily forgave his enemies; and the abbeys received many royal gifts. He sent Ulric, bishop of Orleans, on an embassy to Emperor Constantine VIII and received the gift of a piece of the true cross along with silken hangings. [ 26 ] Charles de Lorraine seizes Laon (988–991) Precisely, Hugh Capet and Robert II relied on the contingents sent by the bishoprics since the city of Laon had just been stormed by Charles of Lorraine , the last Carolingian pretender to the throne. The sovereigns besieged the city twice, without result. [ f ] Concerned about his failure in Laon, Hugh Capet contacted several sovereigns to obtain their help ( Pope John XV , Empress Theophanu , mother and Regent on behalf of Emperor Otto III ), in vain. After the death of Archbishop Adalbero of Reims (24 January 989), Hugh Capet decided to elect, as new archbishop, the Carolingian Arnoul , an illegitimate son of King Lothair, rather than Gerbert of Aurillac. It is believed that this was to appease the supporters of the Carolingians, but the situation turned against the Capetians when Arnoul surrendered Reims to his uncle Charles. [ 27 ] The situation was unblocked thanks to the betrayal of Ascelin, Bishop of Laon , who seized Charles and Arnoul during their sleep and delivered them to the King (991): the Bishop thus saved the Capetian royalty in extremis . In the Council of Saint-Basle de Verzy , Arnoul was judged as a traitor by an assembly chaired by Robert II (June 991). Despite the protests of Abbon of Fleury, Arnoul was deposed. A few days later, Gerbert of Aurillac was appointed Archbishop of Reims with the support of his former pupil Robert II. Pope John XV did not accept this procedure and wanted to convene a new council in Aix-la-Chapelle , but the bishops confirmed their decision in Chelles (winter 993–994). [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Gerbert and Ascelin: two figures of disloyalty When his master Adalbero of Reims died, Gerbert of Aurillac was obliged to follow the intrigues of the new archbishop Arnoul, determined to deliver Reims to Charles of Lorraine. Although the documentation is very incomplete on this subject, it seems that the scholar subsequently changed his positions to become Charles's supporter: "Lothair Augustus ' s brother, heir to the throne, was expelled from it. His competitors, [Hugh Capet and Robert II], many people think, received the interim of the reign. By what right has the legitimate heir been disinherited?." "Lothair Augustus ' s brother, heir to the throne, was expelled from it. His competitors, [Hugh Capet and Robert II], many people think, received the interim of the reign. By what right has the legitimate heir been disinherited?." — Gerbert of Aurillac, Letters , 990. [ 30 ] A doubt in legitimacy was thus settled on the reign of both Hugh Capet and Robert II. However Gerbert, seeing the situation change to the detriment of Charles of Lorraine, changed sides during the year 991. Having become Archbishop of Reims by the grace of Robert II, he testified: "With the consent of the two princes, Lord Hugh Augustus and the excellent King Robert [Hugh Capet and Robert II]." "With the consent of the two princes, Lord Hugh Augustus and the excellent King Robert [Hugh Capet and Robert II]." — Gerbert of Aurillac, Letters , 991. [ 31 ] As for Ascelin, Bishop of Laon, after having served the crown by betraying Charles and Arnoul, he soon turned against the Capetians. In the spring of 993, he allied with Count Odo I of Blois to plan the capture of Hugh Capet and Robert II, in agreement with Emperor Otto III. If they succeeded, Louis (the son of Charles of Lorraine) would become King of the Franks, Odo I Duke of the Franks, and Ascelin Bishop of Reims. However, the plot was denounced and Ascelin was placed under house arrest. [ 32 ] Marital problems First marriage: Rozala of Italy Immediately after associating his son with the throne, Hugh Capet wanted Robert II to marry a royal princess, but the prohibition against marriage within the third degree of consanguinity obliged him to seek a bride in the East. He had a letter written by Gerbert of Aurillac asking the Byzantine Emperor Basil II for the hand of one of his nieces for Robert II; however, no Byzantine response is recorded. [ 33 ] After this rebuff, and under pressure from his father (who apparently wanted to reward the Flemish for their help when he seized power in 987), [ 34 ] Robert II had to marry Rozala , daughter of Berengar II of Ivrea, King of Italy and widow of Arnulf II, Count of Flanders . The wedding, celebrated before 1 April 988, brought Robert II possession of the cities of Montreuil and Ponthieu and a possible guardianship over the County of Flanders , given the young age of Rozala's son Baldwin IV , for whom she had been acting as regent ever since her first husband's death. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Upon her marriage, Rozala became junior Queen consort of the Franks and took the name of Susanna ; [ 37 ] [ 38 ] however, after about three or four years of marriage (c. 991–992), the young Robert II repudiated her, [ 39 ] due to the excessive age difference between them (Rozala was almost 22 years older than him [ 40 ] and probably too old to have more children). In fact, the breakup was justified by the absence of a child from their union and, for this reason, Hugh Capet and his advisers did not oppose the annulment proceedings. "King Robert, having arrived at his 19th year, in the prime of his youth, repudiated, because she was too old, his wife Susanna, Italian by nation." "King Robert, having arrived at his 19th year, in the prime of his youth, repudiated, because she was too old, his wife Susanna, Italian by nation." — Richer of Reims, History , 996–998. [ 41 ] Separated from her husband, Rozala returned to Flanders at the side of her son Baldwin IV and became one of his principal advisers. Robert II managed to keep the port of Montreuil (part of his former wife's dowry), a strategic point on the Channel . [ 17 ] Historians believe that from this period, Robert II wished to challenge his father and finally reign alone. The marriage was formally annulled in late 996, following Hugh Capet's death and Robert II's ascension as sole King of the French. [ 39 ] Second marriage: Bertha of Burgundy Now Robert II was determined to find a bride who would give him the much hoped-for male offspring. In early 996, probably during the military campaign against Count Odo I of Blois , he met Countess Bertha of Burgundy , wife of the latter. She was a daughter of King Conrad of Burgundy [ 42 ] and his wife Matilda (in turn daughter of King Louis IV of France and Gerberga of Saxony , sister of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor ), so was from an undisputed royal lineage. Robert II and Bertha quickly became attracted to each other despite the complete resistance of Hugh Capet [ g ] (the House of Blois was the great enemy of the Capetian dynasty ). However, Robert II saw, in addition to his personal feelings, that Bertha would also bring all the Blois territories under Capetian control. [ 44 ] The deaths in 996 of Odo I of Blois (12 March) and Hugh Capet (24 October) eliminated the main obstacles for a union between Robert II and Bertha. According to French historian Michel Rouche, this alliance was purely political: to loosen the grip threatening the Capetian dynasty and its stronghold of Île-de-France , and probably according to the will of Robert II's mother, Queen Adelaide of Aquitaine ; indeed, the territories of Odo I were Blois , Chartres , Melun and Meaux . In addition, the couple were just waiting for the statutory nine months set by law after Odo I's death. It was, therefore, obvious that another objective was to have legitimate children. [ 45 ] However, two important details obstructed this union: firstly, Robert II and Bertha were second cousins (their respective grandmothers, Hedwig and Gerberga , were sisters) [ h ] and secondly, Robert II was the godfather of Theobald , one of the sons of Bertha. [ i ] According to canon law, marriage was then impossible. [ 45 ] Despite this, the two lovers began a sexual relationship and Robert II put part of the County of Blois under his direct rule. He took over the city of Tours and Langeais from Count Fulk III of Anjou , thus breaking the alliance with the House of Ingelger , faithful support of the late Hugh Capet. At the start of Robert II's reign, the alliance relations were thus changed. [ 47 ] "Bertha, the wife of Odo, took King Robert as her protector and defender of her cause." "Bertha, the wife of Odo, took King Robert as her protector and defender of her cause." — Richer of Reims, History , 996–998. [ 48 ] Robert II and Bertha quickly found a complaisant bishop to marry them off, which Archambaud de Sully, Archbishop of Tours , finally did in November/December 996, [ 43 ] much to the chagrin of the new Pope Gregory V . To please the Holy See, Robert II annulled the sentence of the Council of Saint-Basle, freed Archbishop Arnoul and restored him to the episcopal see of Reims. Gerbert of Aurillac then had to take refuge with Emperor Otto III in 997. Despite this, the Pope ordered Robert II and Bertha to put an end to their "incestuous union". [ 50 ] Finally, the two councils which met first in Pavia (February 997), then in Rome (summer 998), condemned them to do penance for seven years and, in the event of non-separation, they would be struck with excommunication . [ 51 ] Moreover, at the end of three years of union, there were no living descendants: Bertha gave birth only to one stillborn son, in 999. That year, the accession of Gerbert of Aurillac to the Papacy under the name of Sylvester II did not change anything. Following a synod, the new Pope accepted the condemnation of the King of the Franks whose "perfidy" he had suffered. [ 49 ] Finally, the seven years of penance were completed around 1003. [ 52 ] "They came to the Apostolic See and after having received satisfaction for their penance, they returned home ( Postea ad sedem apostolicam venientes, cum satisfactione suscepta penitentia, redierunt ad propria )." [ 52 ] "They came to the Apostolic See and after having received satisfaction for their penance, they returned home ( Postea ad sedem apostolicam venientes, cum satisfactione suscepta penitentia, redierunt ad propria )." [ 52 ] — Ivo of Chartres , IX, 8, letter to King Henry I . Despite the threat of excommunication, Robert II and Bertha refused to submit until September 1001, when they finally became separated. The inability of Bertha to produce further offspring after her stillbirth was probably the main reason for this. Robert II, in need of male heirs, decided to remarry one more time. [ 52 ] Third marriage: Constance of Arles After October 1002 and before August 1004, Robert II contracted his third and last marriage with the 17-year-old Constance (a distant princess, to avoid any close relationship), daughter of Count William I of Arles and Provence and his wife Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou . [ 53 ] The new Queen's parents were prestigious in their own right: Count William I was nicknamed "the Liberator" ( le Libérateur ) thanks to his victories against the Saracens , and Countess Adelaide-Blanche's blood relations with the House of Ingelger allowed Robert II to restore his alliance with them. [ 54 ] Six [ j ] children born from Constance's marriage to Robert II are recorded: Hedwig [Advisa] , Countess of Auxerre (ca. 1003 – aft. 1063), married Renauld I, Count of Nevers [ 57 ] on 25 January 1016 and had issue. Hugh , Junior King (1007 – 17 September 1025). Henry I , successor (bef. 17 April/4 May 1008 – 4 August 1060). [ 58 ] Adela , Countess of Contenance (ca. 1009 – 8 January 1079), married (1) Richard III of Normandy and (2) Count Baldwin V of Flanders . [ 58 ] Robert (1011–12 – 21 March 1076), named by his father heir to the Duchy of Burgundy in 1030, installed as such in 1032 by his brother. [ 58 ] Odo [Eudes] (1013 – 15 May 1057–59), who may have been intellectually disabled according to the chronicle (ended in 1138) of Pierre, son of Béchin, canon of Saint-Martin-de-Tours. He died after his brother's failed invasion of Normandy. Since early in her marriage, Constance often placed herself at the center of many intrigues to preserve a preponderant place in the Frankish court. Rodolfus Glaber rightly emphasized that the Queen was "in control of her husband". For contemporaries, a woman who led her husband implied an abnormal situation. It all started at the beginning of the year 1008, a day when the King and his faithful Count palatine Hugh of Beauvais were hunting in the forest of Orléans. Suddenly, twelve armed men appeared and threw themselves on Hugh before killing him under the eyes of the king. The crime was ordered by Count Fulk III of Anjou, and with all probability supported by the Queen. [ k ] Robert II, exasperated by his wife after six or seven years of marriage (c. 1009–1010), went personally to Rome accompanied by Angilramme (a monk from Saint-Riquier) and Bertha de Burgundy. His plan was to obtain from Pope Sergius IV an annulment from his marriage with Constance and to remarry Bertha, [ 60 ] [ 61 ] whom Robert II still loved deeply, [ 52 ] under the grounds of Constance's participation in the murder of Hugh of Beauvais. Odorannus , a Benedictine monk from the Abbey of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif in Sens , explains in his writings that during her husband's journey to Rome, Constance withdrew in distress to her dominions at Theil . According to him, Saint Savinian would have appeared to him and secured that the royal marriage would be preserved; three days later, Robert II was back, definitively abandoning Bertha. [ l ] The problems did not end, however. The rivalry between Bertha and Constance only enhanced the hatred between the Houses of Blois and Anjou. In the midst of this dispute, after the military victory of Odo II of Blois over Fulk III of Anjou in Pontlevoy (1016), the Queen sought to strengthen her family's position at court. For this, she and her Angevin relatives pressured the King to associate her eldest son Hugh to the throne, to ensure the regency of Constance over the Kingdom in the event of Robert II's death. Against the opinion of the royal councilors and the territorial princes, Robert II relented and thus, according to Rodulfus Glaber, 10-years-old Hugh was consecrated Junior King on Pentecost Day (9 June) 1017 in the church of the Abbey of Saint-Corneille in Compiègne . [ 63 ] Although the association markedly favored the House of Anjou (and could put the sovereign's own life at risk), Robert II considered that this was the best way to consolidate the new Capetian dynasty and prevent another of the noble families from disputing the throne. However, he did not give any royal power to his son and, for this, Hugh was constantly humiliated by his mother. When he came of age, the junior King rebelled against his father, but eventually was restored in the royal favor. [ 64 ] Territorial conquests The King led a clear policy: to recover the count palatine's function for his own benefit, either by appropriating it or by ceding it to a friendly bishop, as did the Ottonian dynasty , the most powerful rulers in the West at that time. Robert II's most brilliant victory, however, would be the acquisition of the Duchy of Burgundy . Henry I, Duke of Burgundy died on 15 October 1002 without a legitimate heir. According to the Chronique de Saint-Bénigne , he designated his stepson Otto-William of Ivrea, Count of Burgundy and Count of Mâcon (son of Henry I's first wife Gerberga and her first husband Adalbert of Ivrea, sometime King of Italy ) as the heir [ m ] of his domains; however, and despite counting on the support of many Burgundian lords to his rights, Otto-William cared more about his lands in overseas Saône and towards Italy from which he came. [ n ] The Duchy of Burgundy, acquired in 943 [ 67 ] [ 68 ] by Hugh the Great , Henry I's father, was part of the Robertian family possessions. [ 69 ] Moreover, Burgundy was a major stake since it abounded in rich cities ( Dijon , Auxerre , Langres , Sens ). With the death of his uncle, Robert II claimed the succession over the Duchy of Burgundy as his closest male blood relative and also as a complete fief. The rivalry between Hugh of Chalon, Bishop of Auxerre (supporter of Robert II) and Landry, Count of Nevers (son-in-law and ally of Otto-William) over the possession of Auxerre, triggered the armed intervention of the Frankish King who, with the help of troops lent by Richard II, Duke of Normandy , gathered his army in spring 1003 and engaged them in Burgundy, but they failed in front of Auxerre and Saint-Germain d'Auxerre. In 1004, Robert II besieged Beaune . Autun and Beaune [ 70 ] were under control of the king, which forced Otto-William to initiate a diplomatic settlement. In 1005, Robert II, his men and the Normans were back in the north of the duchy. They took Avallon after a few days of fighting, then Auxerre. An arrangement [ o ] had already been made between the King and Otto-William, who was with him during the siege of Avallon. [ 72 ] Under the mediation of Bishop Hugh of Chalon, Count Landry was reconciled with the King by renouncing the Counties of Avallon and Auxerre. At the end of the agreements of 1005–1006, Otto-William had renounced the ducal title of Burgundy and all the possessions of his late stepfather, which reverted to the Crown, except the city of Dijon , still in the possession of Brunon of Roucy, the irreducible Bishop of Langres , who did not want Robert II to settle there at any cost. In Sens , a fight arose between Count Fromond II and Archbishop Léotheric for the control of the city. The Archbishop, who was close to the King, was furious at the behavior of the Count, who had built a powerful defense tower. In 1012, Renard II succeeded his father Fromond II and the situation worsened in as much as the Bishop of Langres, Brunon de Roucy, enemy of Robert II, was Renard II's maternal uncle. Léotheric, isolated, appealed to the King. The latter wished to intervene for several reasons: Sens was one of the main archiepiscopal cities of the Kingdom, it was also an obligatory passage to go to Burgundy and, finally, the possession of the County of Sens would allow Robert II to fragment the possessions of Odo II de Blois in two parts. Renard II was excommunicated and underwent the attack of the King, who seized Sens on 22 April 1015. Renard II, in the meantime, had allied himself with Odo II de Blois, and offered Robert II a compromise: he would continue to exercise his rule as Count as vassal and, upon his death, the territory would revert to the Crown. Renard II died 40 years later (1055) and with his death, the County of Sens reverted to the crown. [ 73 ] As soon as the fight against the County of Sens ended, Robert II left for Dijon to complete the conquest of the Duchy of Burgundy. According to the Chronique de Saint-Bénigne , Abbot Odilo of Cluny intervened and the King, moved by his pleas, decided not to attack Dijon. [ p ] Brunon of Roucy died on 30 January 1016, and a few days later, the royal troops returned to Dijon and Robert II installed Lambert de Vignory as the new bishop of Langres; in exchange, the new bishop ceded Dijon and his county to the King. [ 66 ] [ 75 ] After fifteen years of military and diplomatic campaigns, Robert II finally entered into full possession of the Duchy of Burgundy. The King's second son, Henry , received the ducal title but, given his young age, Robert II kept the government and went there regularly. The death in 1027 of Hugh , the elder brother of Henry, made the latter the heir to the throne; the duchy then passed to the King's third son Robert , whose descendants would rule until the middle of the 14th century. The overseas lands of the old Kingdom of Burgundy, called Franche-Comté , would follow the destiny of the Holy Roman Empire . [ 76 ] [ 77 ] When, on 9 January 1007, Bouchard I of Vendôme (the former faithful of Hugh Capet) died, the County of Paris he held was not inherited by his son, Renaud but instead reverted to the crown, and when Renaud died in 1017, the King appropriated his Counties of Melun and Dreux , which also joined the royal demesne . Dagobert, Archbishop of Bourges died in 1012, and Robert II himself appointed his replacement, Gauzlin, former Abbot of Fleury; however, the viscount of the same city, Geoffrey, tried to intervene personally in the choice of Dagobert's successor and prevented the new archbishop from entering the city, and only through the intercession of Pope Benedict VIII , Odilo of Cluny and Robert II himself could Gauzlin finally take possession of his seat. [ 78 ] The heretics of Orléans (1022) The year 1000 constituted the "awakening of heresy". Before the High Middle Ages , there was no such persecution. The 11th century inaugurated a series of bonfire heretics in the West: Orléans (1022), Milan (1027), and Cambrai (1078). As for Robert II, the case of the heretics of Orléans was a fundamental part of his reign and, at the time, of an unprecedented impact. [ 79 ] The nature of the events is told to us by exclusively ecclesiastical sources: Rodulfus Glaber , Adémar de Chabannes , Andrew of Fleury , Jean de Ripoll and Paul de Chartres. The year 1000 extended the idea of a corrupt century where the wealth of the clergy contrasted terribly with the humility advocated by Jesus Christ. Some clerics questioned this system and wished to purify Christian society. This debate was not new: already in the 9th century, there was controversy among scholars about the Eucharist and the cult of saints, but in 1022, it was of a different nature. Rodulfus Glaber told the story of the peasant Leutard of Vertus from Champagne who, around 994, decided to dismiss his wife, to destroy the crucifix of his local church and to preach to the villagers the refusal to pay tithes with the pretext of reading the Holy Scriptures . The Bishop of his diocese, Gibuin I of Châlons, then summoned him, and debated with him before the people and convinced them of the peasant's heretical madness. Abandoned by all, Leutard committed suicide. This situation was repeated throughout the eleventh century with various people who disagreed with Catholic orthodoxy: they were put to debate with highly educated clergymen in public, so that they and their message were ridiculed and discredited in the eyes of the common people. [ 79 ] As for Adémar de Chabannes, he reported, around 1015–1020, the appearance of Manicheans in Aquitaine, especially in the cities of Toulouse and Limoges . The common themes of heretics were the renunciation of carnal copulation, the destruction of images, the uselessness of the Church and the repudiation of the sacraments (especially baptism and marriage). Astonished by this wave of disputes, Rodulfus Glaber evoked in his writings that Satan was freed "after a thousand years" according to the Apocalypse and that he must have inspired all these heretics from Leutard to the Orleanais. Another contemporary of the time is expressed: "They [the heretics] claimed that they had faith in the Trinity, in divine unity and in the Incarnation of the Son of God, but that was a lie because they were saying that the baptized cannot receive the Holy Spirit in the baptism and that after mortal sin no one can be forgiven in any way." "They [the heretics] claimed that they had faith in the Trinity, in divine unity and in the Incarnation of the Son of God, but that was a lie because they were saying that the baptized cannot receive the Holy Spirit in the baptism and that after mortal sin no one can be forgiven in any way." — Andrew of Fleury, ca. 1025. [ 79 ] For the chroniclers, the Orléans heresy came sometimes from a Périgord peasant (Adémar de Chabannes) and sometimes from a woman from Ravennes (Rodulfus Glaber). But above all, the most inadmissible was that the evil affected Orléans, the royal city and seat of the Sainte-Croix Cathedral where Robert II was baptized, which was sacred only a few decades earlier. Some canons of the cathedral, close to the court, were supporters of those doctrines considered heretical: Théodat, Herbert (master of the collegiate church of Saint-Pierre-le-Puellier), Foucher and, especially, Étienne (confessor of Queen Constance) and Lisoie (cantor of Sainte-Croix), among others. The King was warned by Richard II of Normandy , and on Christmas Day 1022, the heretics were arrested and interrogated for long hours. Rodulfus Glaber reported that they recognized belonging to the "sect" for a long time and that their purpose was to convince the royal court of their beliefs (refusal of the sacraments, food prohibitions, on the virginity of the Virgin Mary and on the Trinity). These details are surely true; on the other hand, it is abusively obvious that Rodulfus Glaber and the other chroniclers demonized at will the meetings of the "circle of Orléans": they suspected them of practicing sexual orgies and of worshiping the Devil , among others ritual crimes. These reproaches were those made to the first Christians during Late antiquity . [ 79 ] [ 80 ] "At that time, ten of the canons of Sainte-Croix of Orléans, who seemed more pious than the others, were convinced to be Manicheans . King Robert, faced with their refusal to return to the faith, had them first stripped of their priestly dignity, then expelled from the Church, and finally delivered to the flames." "At that time, ten of the canons of Sainte-Croix of Orléans, who seemed more pious than the others, were convinced to be Manicheans . King Robert, faced with their refusal to return to the faith, had them first stripped of their priestly dignity, then expelled from the Church, and finally delivered to the flames." — Adémar de Chabannes, ca. 1025. [ 81 ] According to legend, Étienne, Constance's confessor, received a blow from her cane which perforated his eye. Robert II had an immense pyre erected outside the city on 28 December 1022, hoping to frighten them, but he was surprised by their reaction: "Sure of themselves, they feared nothing from the fire; they announced that they would emerge unscathed from the flames, and laughing they let themselves be tied in the middle of the pyre. Soon they were completely reduced to ashes and no debris of their bones was even found." "Sure of themselves, they feared nothing from the fire; they announced that they would emerge unscathed from the flames, and laughing they let themselves be tied in the middle of the pyre. Soon they were completely reduced to ashes and no debris of their bones was even found." — Adémar de Chabannes, ca. 1025. [ 81 ] This relentlessness surprised contemporaries and even modern historians. The various chroniclers, although they are horrified by the practices of the heretics, did not comment at any time about this event, and Helgaud of Fleury even ignored the episode. It was believed that the history of the heretics of Orleans would tarnish Robert II's saintly reputation and for this, the event was barely mentioned in the contemporary sources. In any case, the event was causing so much noise in the Kingdom that it would have been perceived as far away as Catalonia , according to a letter from the monk John to his Abbot Oliba of Ripoll : "If you have heard of it, it was quite true", he said. For historians, this episode would refer to a settling of scores. In 1016, Robert II had imposed on the episcopal seat of Orléans one of his subordinates, Thierry II, at the expense of Oudry de Broyes, the candidate of Odo II of Blois . However, the whole affair of the Orléans heresy, in which he was perhaps involved, broke out under his episcopate. To rid himself of all responsibility, the King would have liked to violently liquidate the impostors. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] The persecution of the Jews In 1007, the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah launched a wave of persecution of Christians, which led to the destruction of several places of worship, notably in Jerusalem and Alexandria . Robert II accused the Jews of complicity with Muslims (although they themselves were victims of Muslim persecution). A series of atrocities against the Jews followed, reported by Rodulfus Glaber and Adémar de Chabannes: [ 84 ] Spoliations, massacres and forced conversions were the tragic fate of Jewish communities in the Kingdom of France. These abuses are corroborated by an anonymous Jewish chronicler, [ 85 ] who further reports that a notable Jew from Rouen , Ya'aqov ben Iéqoutiel, made a trip to Rome to appeal for the help of Pope John XVIII , who was already ill-disposed towards Robert II because of his marital history. He indeed obtained the support of the Pope, then of his successor Pope Sergius IV , who demanded that Robert II bring back the anti-Jewish decrees and put an end to the persecutions. Later years, death, and burial The last great event of the reign of Robert II was the association with the throne of his second son, Henry . After the premature death in 1025 of Hugh , the eldest son and first Junior King, [ 64 ] Constance opposed the association of her second son Henry, and wanted the new co-ruler to be her third son Robert . In the royal court, Henry was considered too effeminate, which was contrary to the masculine principle of virtus . Favorable to the election of the best candidate, the episcopate and many territorial princes showed their refusal; however, the King, supported by a few personalities ( Odo II of Blois , Odilo of Cluny , Guglielmo da Volpiano ), imposed his will and Henry was finally consecrated as Junior King on 14 May 1027 at Reims Cathedral by Archbishop Ebles I of Roucy . [ 86 ] With this event, Robert II definitively endorsed the association established to the throne of the heir by the sovereign in force. [ q ] The greatest of the Kingdom attended the consecration: Odo II of Blois, William V of Aquitaine , Richard III of Normandy . According to the chronicler Hildegaire of Poitiers, once the ceremony was over, Constance fled on horseback mad with rage. After forty years of Robert II's reign, political turmoil was emerging in the Kingdom of France during 1027–1029: in Normandy , the new Duke Robert the Magnificent expelled his uncle Robert, Archbishop of Rouen . The sovereign had to arbitrate the conflict until everything was in order. The same type of scenario erupted in Flanders where the King's young son-in-law Baldwin (husband of Robert II's second daughter Adela ), eager for power and at the instigation of his own wife, [ 88 ] rose up against his father, Baldwin IV in vain. For his part, Odo II of Blois enlisted for his benefit the new Junior King Henry in his fight against Fulk III of Anjou . Over 55 years old, an age at which in the tradition of the time one must step aside from power, Robert II was still on his throne. He endured several revolts from his sons, Henry and Robert, who most likely intrigued with their mother, Constance (1030). Robert II and Constance escaped to Burgundy, where they joined forces with their son-in-law, Renauld I of Nevers (husband of their eldest daughter Advisa ). Back in their domain, peace was restored between the members of the royal family. [ 89 ] Robert II finally died on 20 July 1031 at his residence in Melun of an overwhelming fever. Alberic of Trois-Fontaines records the death of " rex Francorum Robertus ", [ 90 ] while Rodulfus Glaber also mentions the death of the King at Melun and his place of burial. [ 91 ] The necrology of Chartres Cathedral records the death " XII Kal Aug " of " Rotbertus rex ", [ 92 ] and the necrology of the Abbey of Saint-Denis records the death "XIII Kal Aug " of " Rotbertus...Francorum rex ". [ 93 ] A few days earlier, on 29 June, according to Helgaud of Fleury, a solar eclipse had come to announce a bad omen: "Some time before his most holy death, which happened on 20 July, on the day of the death of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, the sun, like the last quarter of the moon, veiled its rays to everyone, and appeared at the sixth hour of the day, turning pale above the heads of men, the sight of which was so obscured, that they remained without recognizing each other until the moment to see was returned." "Some time before his most holy death, which happened on 20 July, on the day of the death of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, the sun, like the last quarter of the moon, veiled its rays to everyone, and appeared at the sixth hour of the day, turning pale above the heads of men, the sight of which was so obscured, that they remained without recognizing each other until the moment to see was returned." — Helgaud of Fleury, Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii , ca. 1033. [ 94 ] Much appreciated by the monks of Saint-Denis, the deceased King was hastily transported from Melun to the Abbey where his father was already resting, in front of the altar of the Holy Trinity. The benefits that the sovereign offered to the abbey were enormous. When writing their chronicle, the monks claimed that by the time of his death, rivers overflowed (toppling houses and carrying children), a comet passed in the sky and a famine plagued the kingdom for nearly two years. When he finished his biography around 1033, Helgaud of Fleury was surprised that the tomb of the pious Robert II was still only covered with a simple slab and no ornament. Not until the middle of the 13th century did his descendant, Louis IX of France (commonly known as Saint Louis), have new gisants carved for all members of the royal family. [ 95 ] [ 96 ] Overview of reign The establishment of the Banal Lordship Robert II and the Church A "monk king" Anxious to ensure their salvation and to repair their sins (incursions into Church land, murders, incestuous unions), kings, dukes and counts of the year 1000 attracted to them the most efficient monks and endowed them richly, such as the chronicle which Helgaud of Fleury wrote for Robert II. [ 97 ] Robert II was a devout Catholic, hence his sobriquet "the Pious." He was musically inclined, being a composer, chorister, and poet, and made his palace a place of religious seclusion where he conducted the matins and vespers in his royal robes. Robert II's reputation for piety also resulted from his lack of toleration for heretics, whom he harshly punished. He is said to have advocated forced conversions of local Jewry. He supported riots against the Jews of Orléans who were accused of conspiring to destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . Furthermore, Robert II reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake. [ 98 ] In 1030–1031, Robert confirmed the foundation of Noyers Abbey . [ 99 ] Fleury Abbey and the rise of the monastic movement The reign of Hugh Capet was that of the episcopate; that of Robert II was otherwise. Since the Council of Verzy (991–992), the Capetians had been at the heart of a political-religious crisis which opposed, on the one hand, someone close to power, Bishop Arnoul II of Orléans, and on the other Abbo of Fleury . [ r ] In these troubled times (10th–11th centuries), there was the revival of monasticism which was characterized by the desire to reform the Church, a return to the Benedictine tradition, and a fleeting revival of the days of Louis the Pious by Benedict of Aniane . Their role was to repair "the sins of the people". The monks quickly met with great success: kings and counts attracted them to them and endowed them richly in land (often confiscated from enemies), in objects of all kinds, and the great abbots were called to purify certain places. Thus Guglielmo da Volpiano was called by Duke Richard II of Normandy to Fécamp (1001). Under the aegis of Cluny , the monasteries were increasingly seeking to free themselves from episcopal supervision, in particular Fleury-sur-Loire. Moreover, abbots went to Rome between 996 and 998 to claim privileges of exemption from the Pope. [ 101 ] In the southern regions of the kingdom, Cluny and other establishments, peace movements were disseminated with the help of certain ecclesiastics who hoped for a strengthening of their power: Odilo , supported by his relatives, worked in close collaboration with the bishop of Puy to begin the Truce of God in Auvergne (ca. 1030). Nevertheless, in the northern provinces, Cluny did not have good press. Here the bishops were at the head of powerful counties and the intervention of the Cluniac movement could harm them. Ascelin of Laon and Gerard of Cambrai did not like the monks whom they considered to be impostors. Moreover, on the side of the bishops, there was no lack of criticism against the monks: thus they were accused of having an opulent life, of having unnatural sexual activities and of wearing luxury clothes (the example of the Abbot Mainard of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés is detailed). On the side of the regulars, examples against the bishops abounded: it was said that the prelates were very rich (trafficking in sacred objects, simony ) and dominated as true warlords. Abbo of Fleury, the leader of the monastic reform movement, set an example by trying to go and pacify and discipline the monastery of La Réole , where he would be killed in a fight in 1004. [ s ] The strength of Fleury and Cluny were their respective intellectual centers: the first retained in the 11th century more than 600 manuscripts from all walks of life, and Abbot Abbo himself wrote numerous treatises, the fruit of distant trips, notably to England, upon which he reflected (for example, on the role of the ideal prince); the second, through Rodulphus Glaber, was a place where history was written. Hugh Capet and Robert II, solicited by the two parties (episcopal and monastic), received the complaint from Abbo who denounced the actions of a layman, Lord Arnoul of Yèvres, who would have erected a tower without royal authorization and above all would have submitted by force the peasant communities that belong to the Abbey of Fleury. Bishop Arnoul II of Orléans, the uncle of Arnulf of Yèvres, said meanwhile that his nephew (???), for the King needed support to fight against Count Odo I of Blois . Finally, a negotiation took place under the chairmanship of Robert II and a diploma dated in Paris in 994 temporarily put an end to the quarrel. [ 104 ] [ 105 ] Abbo was then denounced as a "corrupter" and summoned to a royal assembly. He wrote a letter for the event entitled "Apologetic Book against Bishop Arnoul of Orléans" ( Livre apologétique contre l'évêque Arnoul d'Orléans ), which he addressed to Robert II, reputed to be literate and steeped in religious culture. The Abbot of Fleury seized the opportunity to claim the protection of the sovereign, who responded favorably. The traditional Carolingian episcopate then felt abandoned by royalty and threatened by the monks. This situation would be reinforced with the death of Hugh Capet in the fall of 996. [ t ] Robert II was now more tempted by monastic culture than by episcopal and pontifical power which still remained largely the servant of the Holy Roman Empire . In parallel with these factional struggles, we also know that bishops and abbots found themselves alongside the counts to ensure that their legal immunities were respected. Robert II, the ideal prince On the death of Robert II, the canons of Saint-Aignan asked a monk from Fleury who had worked with the sovereign and had access to the library of the Loire Abbey, to compose the biography of the second ruler of the Capetian dynasty . "The very good and very pious Robert, King of the Franks, son of Hugh, whose piety and goodness resounded by everyone, has with all his power enriched cherished and honored this saint [Aignan] by whose permission we have wanted to write the life of this very excellent king." "The very good and very pious Robert, King of the Franks, son of Hugh, whose piety and goodness resounded by everyone, has with all his power enriched cherished and honored this saint [Aignan] by whose permission we have wanted to write the life of this very excellent king." — Helgaud of Fleury, Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii , ca. 1033. [ 108 ] In his biography, Helgaud strives to demonstrate the holiness of this king since he does not intend to relate the facts relating to warlike functions. This work seems to have been inspired by the life of Gerald of Aurillac , another lay saint told by Odilo of Cluny. The life of Robert II is a series of exempla , intended to show that the behavior of the king was that of a humble prince who possessed all the qualities: gentleness, charity, accessible to all, forgiving everything. This hagiography is different from the traditional royal ideology, since the king seems to follow in the footsteps of Christ. Sin allows kings to recognize themselves as mere mortals and thus lay a solid foundation for the new dynasty. [ 109 ] The Abbey of Fleury , since the reign of Hugh Capet, has taken care of deeply legitimizing the Capetian monarchy by creating a new royal ideology. According to Helgaud, Robert II is since his coronation, particeps Dei regni (participant in the Kingship of God). Indeed, the young sovereign received in 987 the anointing of oil at the same time temporal and spiritual, "desiring to fulfill his power and his will with the gift of the holy blessing". All the clerics for whom we have the works, submit to the royal person: for Helgaud, Robert holds the place of God on earth ( princeps Dei ), Fulbert of Chartres calls him "holy father" or " your Holiness", for Adémar de Chabannes it is the "Father of the poor" and finally according to Ascelin of Laon, he received from God the true wisdom giving him access to the knowledge of "the celestial and unchanging universe". [ 110 ] Another great scholar of his time, Rodulfus Glaber, relates the meeting between Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor and Robert II in the city of Ivois in August 1023. They endeavored to define together the principles of a peace common to all Christendom. According to the theorists of the 11th century, Robert II was at the level of the Emperor by his mother since she has Roman ancestry, the Francorum imperator . [ 111 ] Secret of their success with the church hierarchy, the first Capetians (and in the first place Robert II) are famous for having carried out many religious foundations. Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet in their time had founded the monastery of Saint-Magloire on the right bank in Paris. Queen Adelaide , mother of Robert II, reputed to be very pious, ordered the construction of the monastery of Saint-Frambourg in Senlis and especially the one dedicated to Saint Marie in Argenteuil . According to Helgaud of Fleury: "She [Queen Adelaide] also built in Parisis, at a place called Argenteuil, a monastery where she brought together a considerable number of servants of the Lord, living according to the rule of Saint Benedict." "She [Queen Adelaide] also built in Parisis, at a place called Argenteuil, a monastery where she brought together a considerable number of servants of the Lord, living according to the rule of Saint Benedict." — Helgaud of Fleury, Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii , ca. 1033. [ 112 ] Robert II is in the forefront in the defense of the saints who, according to him, guarantee the effectiveness of divine grace and "thus contribute to the purification of society by blocking the forces of evil". Several crypts were built or renovated for the occasion: Saint-Cassien in Autun , Sainte-Marie in Melun , Saint-Rieul de Senlis in Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois. The sovereign goes further by offering pieces of relics to certain monks (a fragment of the chasuble of Saint Denis to Helgaud of Fleury). We also know that around 1015–1018, at the request of his wife Constance, Robert II ordered the making of a reliquary for Saint Savinien for the altar of the relics of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif near Sens . According to legend, Saint Savinian would have protected the integrity of the royal marriage when Robert II had gone to Rome with his former wife Bertha before leaving her definitively. The order is made from one of the best monk-silversmiths in the kingdom, Odorannus . In total, the sacred object is composed of 900 grams of gold and 5 kilograms of silver. In total, the inventory is impressive: during his reign Robert II offers a quantity of copes, priestly vestments, tablecloths, vases, chalices, crosses and censers. One of the gifts that most marks the contemporaries is probably the Évangéliaire dits de Gaignières , produced by Nivardus, a Lombard artist, on behalf of the Abbey of Fleury (beginning of the 11th century). [ 113 ] [ 114 ] Chosen by the Lord The definition of royalty in the time of Robert II is difficult to appreciate nowadays. The king only has precedence over the princes of the Frankish kingdom. Some like Odo II of Blois (in 1023), although respect is in order, make it clear to him that they wish to govern as they please without his consent. A prince respects the sovereign but he does not feel his subordinate. At the same time, however, the king tends to impose himself as Primus inter pares , the first of the princes. Moreover, the texts dating from the first part of the 11th century largely evoke loyalty to the king from the princes. [ 115 ] One day in 1027, a "rain of blood" fell on the Duchy of Aquitaine. The phenomenon worried enough contemporaries for William V of Aquitaine to explain it as a divine sign. The Duke then decided to send messengers to meet Robert II so that the latter asks the best scholars of his court for an explanation and advice. Gauzlin, Abbot of Fleury and Archbishop of Bourges , and Fulbert of Chartres take the matter in hand. Gauzlin answers that "the blood always announces a misfortune which will befall the Church and the population, but that after will come divine mercy". As for Fulbert, better documented, he analyzes the old historiæ (the works which relate the past facts): "I found Titus Livius , Valerius , Orosius and several others relating this event; in the circumstances I contented myself with producing the testimony of Gregory, Bishop of Tours, because of his religious authority." "I found Titus Livius , Valerius , Orosius and several others relating this event; in the circumstances I contented myself with producing the testimony of Gregory, Bishop of Tours, because of his religious authority." — Fulbert of Chartres, Lettre au roi Robert , 1027. [ u ] Fulbert concludes from Gregory of Tours ( Histoire des Francs , VII), that only the ungodly and fornicators "will die for eternity in their blood, if they have not amended themselves beforehand". Friend of Bishop Fulbert, William V of Aquitaine could have addressed him directly. Now, aware that Robert II is the Lord's chosen one, it is from him, responsible for the entire kingdom, that we must seek advice. He is in the best position to know the mysteries of the world and the will of God. In the 11th century, even the most powerful men respect the order established by God, that is to say to pray to his sovereign". [ 117 ] [ 118 ] The history of royal magical powers was dealt with by Marc Bloch in his work The Thaumaturge Kings (1924). During the early Middle Ages, the power to work miracles was strictly reserved for God, saints and relics. In the Merovingian times, was the mention of pious Guntram , mentioned by Gregory of Tours (6th century) and considered the first Frankish king healer. During the reign of Henry I, in the middle of the 11th century, we begin to tell Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire that Robert II had the gift of healing the wounds of certain diseases affecting them. Helgaud of Fleury writes in his Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii : "[...] This man of God had no horror of them [lepers], for he had read in the Holy Scriptures that often our Lord Jesus had received hospitality in the figure of a leper. He went to them, approached them with eagerness, gave them the money with his own hand, kissed their hands with his mouth [...]. Moreover, divine virtue conferred on this holy man such grace for the healing of bodies that by touching the sick with the place of their wounds with his pious hand, and imprinting thereon the sign of the cross, he removed all pain from the disease." "[...] This man of God had no horror of them [lepers], for he had read in the Holy Scriptures that often our Lord Jesus had received hospitality in the figure of a leper. He went to them, approached them with eagerness, gave them the money with his own hand, kissed their hands with his mouth [...]. Moreover, divine virtue conferred on this holy man such grace for the healing of bodies that by touching the sick with the place of their wounds with his pious hand, and imprinting thereon the sign of the cross, he removed all pain from the disease." — Helgaud of Fleury, Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii , ca. 1033. [ 119 ] Indeed, Robert II is the first sovereign of his line to be credited with thaumaturgical talent. Perhaps this was a propaganda with the purpose of a symbolic compensation for the weakness of royal power; not being able to impose itself by force (for example in the episode with Odo II of Blois in 1023), the monarchy had to find an alternative to impose its primacy. Nevertheless, this first thaumaturgy is recognized as "generalist", that is to say that the king was not specialized in such or such disease as will be the case for his successors with the scrofula . [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Not much is known about Robert II's magical actions except that he would have cured lepers in the South during his journey from 1018 to 1020. The King of the Franks is not the only one to use this kind of practice, his contemporary Edward the Confessor does the same in England. According to popular tradition, the king's blood conveys a capacity to work miracles, a gift which is reinforced by the royal coronation. Finally, according to Jacques Le Goff, no document proves that the French sovereigns regularly practiced touching scrofula before Saint Louis . [ 122 ] In 1031 Robert II also came on pilgrimage to the Abbey of Saint-Géraud d'Aurillac to visit the relics of Saint Gerald and the cradle of Gerbert , of which he had been a disciple. Robert II and the economy A period of full economic growth If the 9th century looting have significantly slowed the economy, it is sustained expansion from the 10th century. Indeed, with the establishment of a decentralized defense, the Banal Lordship brought a response well adapted to the rapid Saracen or Viking raids. It becomes more profitable for thieves to settle in an area, get a tribute against the tranquility of the population and trade, rather than wage war, and this from the 10th century. [ 123 ] The Vikings thus participate fully in the process of feudalisation and in the economic expansion which accompanies it. They must dispose of their booty, and they mint coins from the precious metals that were hoarded in looted religious goods. This cash, which is reinjected into the economy, [ 124 ] is a leading catalyst for the ongoing economic transformation. The global money supply increases as much as with the weakening of the central power more and more bishops and princes coin money. However, the growing monetization of the economy is a powerful catalyst: farmers can take advantage of their agricultural surpluses and are motivated to increase their production capacity through the use of new techniques and the increase in cultivable areas through land clearing. The establishment of common law contributes to this development because the producer must generate enough profits to be able to pay the taxes. The lords also reinject this cash into the economy because one of the main criteria for belonging to the nobility in full structuring is to have a broad and expensive behavior towards its counterparts (this behavior being moreover necessary for ensure the loyalty of its militias ). [ 125 ] In fact, in certain regions, the mottes play a pioneering role in the agrarian conquest of the saltus . During this time, were also developed more constantly the Thiérache , it is "to the clearing of land returned to the forest that the first castral movement is linked". In Cinglais, a region south of Caen , the primitive castles had settled on the borders of forest complexes. [ 126 ] In all cases, the castral establishment on the outskirts of the village is very common. [ 127 ] This phenomenon is part of a very anchored and ancient linear population which is juxtaposed with an early clearing that was certainly Carolingian well prior to the castral phenomenon. Nonetheless, the charters of northern France confirmed an intensive clearing activity still present until the middle of the 12th century and even beyond. On the other hand, the lords as well as the clergy saw the interest in stimulating and benefiting from this economic expansion: they favored the clearing and the construction of new villages, and they invested in equipment increasing production capacities (mills, presses, ovens, plows, etc.) and transport (bridges, roads, etc.). Especially since these infrastructures can increase the income banal, levy tolls and tonlieu s. [ 128 ] In fact, increased trade leads to the proliferation of roads and markets (the network that is set up is immensely denser and ramified than what could have existed in Antiquity). [ 129 ] These bridges, villages and markets are therefore built under the protection of a lord which is materialized by a castle mound. The power squire filter exchanges of any kind that amplify from the 11th century. We see many castras located on important roads, sources of a considerable financial contribution for the lord of the place. For Picardy , Robert Fossier noticed that nearly 35% of the sites that can be located in village lands are located on or near Roman roads, and that 55% of road and river nodes had fortified points. [ 130 ] Monetary Policy The silver denarius is, as we have seen, one of the main engines of economic growth since the 9th century. The weakness of royal power led to the minting of coins by many bishops, lords and abbeys. While Charles the Bald had 26 coinage workshops, Hugh Capet and Robert II only have that of Laon . [ 131 ] The reign of Hugh Capet marks the apogee of the feudalization of money. The result is a decrease in the uniformity of the denarius and the appearance of the practice of remapping money on the markets (we rely on the weight of the coin to determine its value). On the other hand, we are in a period where the increase in trade is supported by the increase in the volume of metal available. Indeed, the expansion towards the east of the Holy Roman Empire allows the Ottonian dynasty to be able to exploit new deposits of silver. Robert II has little room for maneuver. However, the practice of trimming or mutations, leads to devaluations that are quite harmful. However upholding the Peace of God , Robert II supports the fight against these abuses. The Order of Cluny who, like other abbeys mint their currency, have every interest in limiting these practices. Therefore, during the 10th century in the South, users must commit to not cut or falsifying currencies and issuers undertake not to take pretext of war to pursue a monetary transfer. [ 132 ] Robert II and the State The royal administration Is known that since around 992, Robert II has exercised the royal power transmitted by his aging father Hugh Capet. Historians thus show that the first Capetians begin to give up power around the age of 50, by tradition but also because the life expectancy of a sovereign at that time is around 55–60 years. Robert II followed this tradition in 1027, his son Henry I in 1059 and his grandson Philip I in 1100. [ 17 ] In the image of his father and in the Carolingian tradition of Hincmar of Reims, Robert II takes advice from the ecclesiastics, something that was no longer done, to the great regret of the clerics, since the last Carolingians. This policy is taken up and theorized by Abbo of Fleury . From the time he was still associated with Hugh Capet, Robert II could write from Gerbert of Aurillac 's pen: "Not wishing in any way to abuse the royal power, we decide all the affairs of the res publica by resorting to the advice and sentences of our faithful ones." "Not wishing in any way to abuse the royal power, we decide all the affairs of the res publica by resorting to the advice and sentences of our faithful ones." — Gerbert of Aurillac, Letter to the Archbishop of Sens , ca. 987. [ 133 ] The term that comes up most often in royal charters is that of "common good" ( res publica ), a concept taken from Roman Antiquity. The king is thus the guarantor, from the height of his supreme magistracy, of the well-being of all his subjects. [ 134 ] The royal administration is known to us through the archives and in particular through the content of the royal diplomas. As for his father, Robert II record both a continuity with the previous era and a break. Historiography has truly changed his perspective on administration in Robert II's day over the past fifteen years. Since the thesis of Jean-François Lemarignier was thought that the space in which the diplomas were shipped had tended to shrink during the 11th century: "the decline is observed between 1025–1028 and 1031 to the various points of view of qualification categories". But the historian affirmed that, starting from Hugh Capet and even more under Robert II, the charters included more and more foreign subscriptions (signatures) than the traditional royal chancellery: thus the châtelains and even simple knights mingled with the counts and bishops until then predominant and outnumbered them at the end of the reign. The king would no longer have been sufficient to guarantee his own acts. [ 135 ] More recently, Olivier Guyotjeannin has brought to light a whole different perspective on the administration of Robert II. The introduction and multiplication of subscriptions and witness lists at the bottom of the acts sign, according to him, rather a new deal in the systems of evidence. The royal acts by addressees and by a chancellery reduced to a few people still consist for half of them, of a Carolingian-type diplomatic (monogram, Carolingian forms) until around 1010. The preambles change slightly under the chancellor Baudouin from 1018 but there is still "political Augustinism and the idea of the king as protector of the Church". Above all, underlines the historian, the royal acts drawn up by Robert II's chancellery do not open until very late and very partially to signatures foreign to those of the king and the chancellor. On the other hand, in the second part of the reign, one notes some acts with multiple subscriptions: for example in the act delivered at the Flavigny Abbey (1018), was notes the signum of six bishops, of Prince Henry, of Count Odo II of Blois , of Count Otto of Vermandois and some later additions. It seems nevertheless that the knights and the small counts present in the charters are not the rebellious squires of the traditional historiography but rather the members of a local network woven around the abbeys and the bishoprics held by the king. [ 136 ] Clearly, the changes in royal acts from the end of Robert II's reign do not reflect a decline in kingship. Justice of Robert II Since the end of the 10th century, the formulation of royal ideology is the work of monastic world, especially in the highly dynamic Fleury Abbey , located in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire . In the theory of Abbo of Fleury (ca. 993–994), the concern of the sovereign of the year 1000 is to make equity and justice reign, to guarantee peace and harmony in the Kingdom. Its purpose is to safeguard Capetian memory for centuries. [ 137 ] For their part, the territorial princes of the 11th century know what founds and legitimizes their power even in their royal aspects. The presence of a royal authority in the Kingdom of the Franks remains essential for contemporaries. However, Abbo also emphasizes in his writings the need of a local ruler who could exercise his office for the common good, deciding matters with the consent of the advisers (bishops and princes). However, Robert II did not always follow, to his great fault, this theory, in particular in the case of the succession of the Counties of Meaux and Troyes (1021–1024). [ 134 ] [ 138 ] Since the beginning of the reign of Robert II, the Counties of Meaux and Troyes were in the hands of a powerful figure, his second cousin once removed [ v ] Count Stephen I of Troyes . In 1019, Stephen I appealed to the Robert II's generosity, asking him to confirm the restitution of property to the Abbey of Lagny . The king accepted, but Stephen I died ca. 1021–1023; a rare occurrence at the time, he had no clearly named successor or heir. Robert II is responsible for managing the succession, which he cedes without difficulty to Count Odo II of Blois , a lord already well-established in the region (he hold the cities of Épernay , Reims , Vaucouleurs and Commercy ) and moreover was a second cousin [ w ] of Stephen I. [ 139 ] However, a few months later a crisis breaks out. Ebles I of Roucy , Archbishop of Reims informs the king of the bad actions of Odo II who monopolizes all powers in Reims to the detriment of the prelate. Robert II, as a defender of the Church, decides, without the consent of anyone, to withdraw the comital title of Reims from Odo II. The latter, furious, imposes himself in Reims by force. In addition, the king is not supported, his justice is undermined: even his faithfuls Fulbert of Chartres and Duke Richard II of Normandy support Odo II by arguing that Robert II should not behave like a "tyrant". Summoned by the king in 1023, Odo II courteously informs that he will not move and Robert II has neither the means to oblige him nor the right to seize his patrimony, because these lands weren't granted by the king but inherited from his ancestors by the will of the Lord. [ 140 ] After this event (which weakened his already unstable authority), Robert II does not repeat the same mistake. In 1024, after a meeting of the greats of the Kingdom in Compiègne who suggested appeasement to him with Odo II of Blois, the King had to confirm the Count's possessions. A few years later, in May 1027, Dudon, Abbot of Montier-en-Der , publicly complains of the violent usurpation exercised by Stephen of Vaux, Lord of Joinville . The latter seized seven churches to the detriment of the monastery of which he is however the advocatus . Robert II once again takes charge of the affair, and taking advantage of the coronation of his second son Henry at Pentecost of 1027 in Reims , he summons the Lord of Joinville to his court. The latter does not travel for the event. The present assembly, composed among others by Ebles I of Roucy , Odilo of Cluny , Dudon of Montier-en-Der, William V of Aquitaine and Odo II, unanimously decides to launch the anathema on the Lord of Joinville. In short, Robert II is not the weak king that historiography has always presented. Of course, his decisions in matters of justice must take into account the advice of ecclesiastics and territorial princes, but he remains as the Primer inter pares , that is to say the first among his peers. [ 115 ] [ 141 ] Family Firstly, in 988, he married Princess Rozala of Italy , daughter of Berengar II, King of Italy . The union didn't produce any children. [ 40 ] He married in 996 Bertha of Burgundy , daughter of Conrad I, King of Burgundy , and Princess Mathilda of France . Again, no children were born between the couple. [ 142 ] Around 1001/1003, after Robert divorced Bertha, he married Constance of Arles , daughter of William I, Count of Provence. [ 143 ] Constance gave birth to 7 children for the king: Hedwig/Advisa of France (1003–1063), married Renauld I, Count of Nevers and had issue. [ 144 ] Hugh Magnus (1007 – 17 September 1025), co-King of France. He predeceased his father. No issue. [ 144 ] Henry I of France (4 May 1008 – 4 August 1060), succeeded his father as the next king. [ 144 ] Adela of France (1009 – 8 January 1079). Had issue. Mother of Matilda of Flanders, Queen of England . [ 144 ] Robert I, Duke of Burgundy (1011–21 March 1076). Had issue. [ 144 ] Eudes of France (1013–1056) [ 144 ] Constance of France (b. 1014), married Manasses, Count of Dammartin and had issue. Notes ^ The biographer Helgaud de Fleury claimed that Robert II was born in Orléans but at an unknown date. As he was about fifteen years old when he was associated to the throne by his father (in 987), his birth can be posited at around 972. [ 1 ] ^ Hedwig and Gisela's parentage is confirmed by contemporary sources without any doubt; a number of other daughters are less reliably attested. [ 3 ] ^ At that time, even wealthy nobles were illiterate. Culture was above all reserved for the Church and only served to understand the world from a religious point of view. [ 8 ] ^ The last Junior King was Philip Augustus , who was crowned in life of his father, the ailing Louis VII . [ 12 ] ^ For some historians, Robert II would have been consecrated on 30 December 987, a non-religious day, since Archbishop Adalbero would have thought long and hard before giving in. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] ^ In his chronicle, Richer of Reims speaks of reges (kings in the plural). [ 17 ] [ 27 ] ^ Moreover, Gerbert of Aurillac expressed his disagreement, not only out of friendship for Hugh Capet but also for canonical reasons. [ 43 ] ^ Since 830, the canonical doctrine prevented all unions within the 7th degree of kinship, fearing consanguineous relationships. [ 46 ] ^ With regard to the spiritual kinship, Helgaud wrote: Quoniam non exhorruit facinus copulationis inlicite, dum commatrem et sibi consanguinitatis vinculo nexam duxit uxorem. ^ According to several sources, [ 55 ] [ 56 ] and considering the word "daughter" ( filla ) in the strict contemporary form, many authors believed that Constance, wife of Count Manasses of Dammartin (d. 1037) was another daughter of Robert II—from one of his three marriages, or daughter-in-law, or illegitimate daughter or even a godchild—and Constance of Arles—due to onomastics reasons she could be either her mother or godmother—. The connection is suggested by the presence of the royal couple at a donation by " Manasses comes " dated 4 February 1031 where Constance is named as filla of the King and Queen. On the other hand, Rodolfus Glaber records that Robert II had two daughters by his wife Constance, presumably referring to Hedwig and Adela, so ignoring any daughter named Constance. According to Europäische Stammtafeln , the wife of Count Manasses was "Constance [of Dammartin]", presumably on the theory that she brought her husband the County of Dammartin . ^ Hugh of Beauvais, cousin of the Count of Blois, was one of Bertha's supporters, which explains Constance's hostility towards him. [ 59 ] ^ From 1010, Bertha disappeared from the documentation and she died in January of the same year. [ 62 ] ^ This contradicts the Chronicle of William of Jumièges , who reports that in fact, Duke Henry I appointed his nephew Robert II as his heir, but " with arrogant pride, the Burgundians refuse to acknowledge him as their Duke ". [ 65 ] ^ There are serious indications that in 1016 Otto-William was a candidate for the Kingdom of Lombardy : he had already distributed his County of Mâcon and those of overseas Saône to his children. In 1024, he gave in the presence of the King to the Piedmontese Abbey of Fruttuaria , founded by Guglielmo da Volpiano , the old Beaune Monastery of Saint-Martin de l'Aigue, dying two years later, on 24 September 1026. [ 66 ] ^ Agreement in which was undoubtedly included the marriage of one of Otto-William's sons with a daughter of the Duke of Normandy. [ 71 ] ^ The presence of Humbert de Mailly and Gui le Riche, two valued lieutenants of Hugh III of Beaumont, Count of Dijon, to whom the latter had handed over the guard of the castrum of Dijon were perhaps important factors in Robert II's decision to renounce the assault. [ 74 ] ^ During Robert II's association in 987 this problem did not arise, because he was the only male heir to Hugh Capet. [ 87 ] ^ However, it would have been wrong to think that Hugh Capet was completely foreign to the Cluniac movement. He was very a good friend of Abbot Majolus of Cluny , on whose tomb he went to meditate some time before his own death. [ 100 ] ^ In 909–910, William I the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine , founded Cluny, without the authorization of the bishop, receiving exemption from the Pope. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] ^ Once he became the sole sovereign, Robert II renewed his advisers, and his father's team (Bouchard of Vendôme, Gerbert of Aurillac and Arnoul of Orléans) no longer had any reason to exist. We also know today that, to defend himself, Abbo had falsified an exemption charter in 997 (a practice which was common in certain religious establishments and for a long time). [ 106 ] [ 107 ] ^ In fact, it is a sandstorm coming from the Sahara , an unusual fact at the time therefore of divine origin. [ 116 ] ^ Stephen I of Troyes' great-grandmother was Adelais, a sister of Hugh the Great , Robert II's grandfather. ^ Stephen I of Troyes' grandfather Robert of Vermandois was a brother of Luitgarde , Odo II of Blois' grandmother. References ^ de Fleury 1824 , p. 382. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 11. ^ Gauvard 1996 , p. 531. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 183. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 184. ^ Theis 1990 , p. 186. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 25. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 28–29. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 34. ^ de Fleury 1824 , pp. 381–382. ^ de Fleury 1824 , p. 366. ^ a b Lewis 1978 , p. 907. ^ Lewis 1978 , p. 908. ^ Lewis 1978 , p. 914. ^ Lewis 1978 , pp. 906–927. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 52–53. ^ a b c d Bautier 1992 , p. 35. ^ Bachrach 1993 , p. 353. ^ Fawtier 1989 , p. 48. ^ Parisse 1990 , pp. 32–33. ^ Richer of Reims, Quatre livres d'Histoire (991–998) , Book IV, translated by R. Latouche, Paris, 1930–1937, pp. 158–167. ^ Bautier 1992 , pp. 31, 35. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 57. ^ Sassier 2000 , pp. 200–205. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 28. ^ Angold 2002 , p. 22. ^ a b Menant 1999 , p. 32. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 67–74. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 33. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 65. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 74. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 76. ^ Bouchard 1981 , pp. 274, 276. ^ Nicholas 1992 , p. 45. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 53–55. ^ Pierre Riché, Les Carolingiens, une famille qui fit l'Europe (in French). Hachette, Paris, 1997, p. 303. ^ Pfister1885 , p. 41–69. ^ Bouchard 1981 , p. 273. ^ a b Thierry Deslot, Impératrices et reines de France (in French). Editions de la Bruyère, 1996. .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 978-2840142799 ^ a b Vasiliev 1951 , pp. 233–234. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 78. ^ Stefan Weinfurter, The Salian Century: Main Currents in an Age of Transition , transl. Barbara M. Bowlus, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), p. 46. ^ a b Pierre Riché, Gerbert d'Aurillac, Le pape de l'an mil (in French). Fayard, Paris 1987, p. 168. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 80–83. ^ a b Michel Rouche, Gerbert face au mariage incestueux: le cas de Robert le Pieux , (in French) in acts of the study days of Aurillac, Gerbert, Moine, Évêque et Pape , Aurillac, ed. Association cantalienne pour la commémoration du pape Gerbert, 2000, p. 155. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 35. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 85–86. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 81. ^ a b Pierre Riché, Gerbert d'Aurillac, Le pape de l'an mil (in French). Fayard, Paris 1987, pp. 200–201. ^ Menant 1999 , pp. 35–36. ^ Palmer 2014 , p. 215. ^ a b c d Michel Rouche, Gerbert face au mariage incestueux: le cas de Robert le Pieux , (in French) in acts of the study days of Aurillac, Gerbert, Moine, Évêque et Pape , Aurillac, ed. Association cantalienne pour la commémoration du pape Gerbert, 2000, p. 160. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 131. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 36. ^ Jackman, Donald C. (2019). Extension of Latin Relationship Terms in Medieval France . Archive for Medieval Prosopography. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-936466-65-8 . online ^ Thuillot, Philippe (2019). "Les châtellenies au nord du Bassin parisien, du Xe au XIIIe siècles: étude sur les cadres institutionnels et les lieux de pouvoir, sur la société aristocratique (princes, comtes et chevaliers)". Histoire. Université Paris-Est (in French): 365. ^ Bouchard 1987 , p. 343. ^ a b c Bouchard 2001 , p. 112. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 142. ^ Adair 2003 , p. 13. ^ Christian Bouyer, Dictionnaire des Reines de France (in French). Academic Library Perrin, 1992. ISBN 2-262-00789-6 ^ Odorannus , Opera omnia , ed. and trad. by Robert-Henri Bautier, CNRS, Paris, 1972. ^ Rodulfi Glabri, Historiarum III.32, p. 151. ^ a b Christian Pfister , Études sur le règne de Robert le Pieux (996–1031) (in French). Paris, 1885. OCLC 740889479 ^ Lévêque 1996 , p. 138. ^ a b Lévêque 1996 , p. 139. ^ Yves Sassier, Jean-François Lemarignier, Recherches sur le pouvoir comtal en Auxerrois du Xe au début du XIIIe siècle (in French), 1980, p. 2. ^ Ovide Chrysanthe Desmichels, Histoire générale du Moyen Âge (in French), 1831, p. 628 . ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 119–122. ^ Raphaël Bijard (January 2021). "La construction de la Bourgogne Robertienne (936–1031)" . Academia . ^ Richard 1954 , p. 5. ^ Richard 1954 , p. 5, citing Chevrier-Chaume, n° 233. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 152–154. ^ Lévêque 1996 . ^ Jacques Flach, Les origines de l'ancienne France (in French). Book III, chapter IV, p. 282. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 124–126. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 40. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 155–158. ^ a b c d Dominique Barthélemy, An mil: le grand réveil de l'hérésie (in French). Les collections de l'Histoire, n° 26, January 2005. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 211–212. ^ a b Georges Duby , L'an mil (in French). Julliard, Paris, 1967. BnF 329870712 ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 213–214. ^ Robert Henri Bautier, L'hérésie d'Orléans et le mouvement intellectuel au début du XIe siècle (in French). Bulletin philologique et historique du CTHS , Paris, 1975, pp. 63–88. SUDOC 101317123 ^ Bernard Blumenkranz, Les auteurs chrétiens latins du moyen-âge sur les Juifs et le judaïsme (in French). Paris, 1963, pp. 250–251. ^ Norman Golb, The Jews In Medieval Normandy, A Social And Intellectuel History . Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 3–18. ^ Menant 1999 , p. 37. ^ Bautier 1992 , p. 36. ^ Eljas Oksanen, Flanders and the Anglo-Norman World, 1066–1216 . Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 12. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 231–237. ^ Chronica Albrici Monachi Trium Fontium 1031, MGH SS XXIII, p. 783. ^ Rodulfi Glabri, Historiarum III.36, p. 159. ^ Obituaires de Sens Volume II, Eglise cathédrale de Chartres, Nécrologe du xi siècle, p. 16. ^ Obituaires de Sens Volume I.1, Abbaye de Saint-Denis, p. 322. ^ Corpus Latinum Stampense . ^ Thomas G. Waldman, Saint-Denis et les premiers Capétiens (in French). Religion et culture autour de l'an mil , Picard, Paris, 1990, pp. 193–194. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 242. ^ Barthélemy 1990 , p. 64. ^ MacCulloch 2010 , p. 396. ^ Chevalier 1872 , p. charter I. ^ Sassier 1987 , p. 265. ^ Dominique Iogna-Prat, Entre anges et hommes: les moines "doctrinaires" de l'an Mil (in French). La France de l'an Mil , Seuil, Paris, 1990, pp. 245–246. ^ Barthélemy 1990 , pp. 56–60. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 91–94. ^ Iogna-Prat 1990 , pp. 252–253. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 96–97. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 100–103. ^ Iogna-Prat 1990 , p. 252. ^ Theis 1999 , p. 88. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 213. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 210. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 192. ^ Xavier Barral i Altet, Le paysage architectural de l'an Mil (in French). La France de l'an Mil , Seuil, Paris, 1990, p. 172. ^ Xavier Barral i Altet, Reliques, trésors d'églises et création artistique (in French). La France de l'an Mil , Seuil, Paris, 1990, p. 194. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 221–223. ^ a b Barthélemy 1990 , p. 33. ^ Werner 1990 , p. 274. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 199–200. ^ Werner 1990 , pp. 274–275. ^ de Fleury 1824 , pp. 407–408. ^ Werner 1990 , p. 304. ^ Menant 1999 , pp. 833–834. ^ Colette Beaune, Thaumaturgie (in French). Dictionnaire du Moyen Âge , PUF, Paris, 2002, pp. 1375–1376. ^ Michel Balard, Jean-Philippe Genet and Michel Rouche, Le Moyen Âge en Occident (in French). Hachette, 2003, p. 89. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 92. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 153. ^ Bonnassie 1990 , p. 45. ^ Barthélemy 1990 , p. 105. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 164. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 191. ^ La mainmise sur les échanges: routes et péages (in French). Archéologie médiévale , XI, 1981, pp. 121–122. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 128. ^ Contamine et al. 2004 , p. 205. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 205. ^ a b Olivier Guillot, Yves Sassier, Pouvoirs et institutions dans la France médiévale (in French). Volume I: Des origines à l'époque féodale . Colin, Paris, 2003, pp. 234–235. ISBN 978-2-200-26500-7 ^ Jean-François Lemarignier, Le gouvernement royal aux premiers temps capétiens (987–1108) (in French). Picard, Paris, 1965, pp. 68–76. online 1 online 2 ^ Olivier Guyotjeannin, Les évêques dans l'entourage royal sous les premiers Capétiens (in French). Le roi de France et son royaume autour de l'an mil , Picard, Paris, 1992, pp. 91–93. ^ Sassier 2000 , pp. 201–203. ^ Sassier 2000 , p. 199. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 165–169. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 169–171. ^ Theis 1999 , pp. 173–176. ^ Bouchard 2001 , pp. 47–48. ^ Bouchard 2001 , p. 47. ^ a b c d e f W. Scott Jessee (2000). Robert the Burgundian and the Counts of Anjou: ca 1025–1098 . Catholic University of America Press. pp. viii. Sources Adair, Penelope Ann (2003). "Constance of Arles: A Study in Duty and Frustration". In Nolan, Kathleen D. (ed.). Capetian Women . Palgrave Macmillan. Angold, Michael (2002). "Knowledge of Byzantine History in the West: the Norman Historians (Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries)". In Gillingham, John (ed.). Anglo-Norman Studies . Vol. XXV. The Boydell Press. pp. 19– 34. Bachrach, Bernard S. (1993). Fulk Nerra, the Neo-Roman Consul 987–1040: A Political Biography of the Angevin Count . University of California Press. Barthélemy, Dominique (1990). L'Ordre seigneurial, XIe–XIIe siècle (in French). Paris: Seuil . ISBN 978-2-02-011554-4 . —— (1997). La mutation de l'an Mil a-t-elle eu lieu ? Servage et chevalerie dans la France des Xe–XIe siècle (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-59998-4 . —— (1999). "L'An mil et la paix de Dieu". La France chrétienne et féodale (980–1060) (in French). Paris: Fayard . ISBN 978-2-213-60429-9 . Bautier, Robert-Henri (1992). "L'avènement d'Hugues Capet et de Robert le Pieux". Le roi de France et son royaume autour de l'an mil (in French). Paris: Picard. pp. 27– 37. Berlioz, Jacques (1990). "Les Terreurs de l'an mil ont-elles vraiment existé ?". L'Histoire (in French) (138): 16– 18. Bonnassie, Pierre (1990). "D'une servitude à l'autre: Les paysans du royaume 987–1031". La France de l'an Mil (in French). Paris: Seuil. Bouchard, Constance Brittain (1981). "Consanguinity and Noble Marriages in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries". Speculum . 56.2 (April) (2): 268– 287. doi : 10.2307/2846935 . JSTOR 2846935 . PMID 11610836 . S2CID 38717048 . —— (1987). Sword, Miter, and Cloister: Nobility and the Church in Burgundy, 980–1188 . Cornell University Press. —— (2001). Those of My Blood: Creating Noble Families in Medieval Francia . University of Pennsylvania Press. Bourin, Monique; Parisse, Michel (1999). L'Europe en l'an Mil (in French). Paris: Librairie générale française. ISBN 978-2-253-90564-6 . Chevalier, C. (1872). Cartulaire de l'Abbaye de Noyers (in French). Tours: Guilland-Verger, Georget-Joubert. pp. charter I. Contamine, Philippe ; Bompaire, Marc; Lebecq, Stéphane; Sarrazin, Jean-Luc (2004). L'Économie médiévale (in French). Armand Colin . de Fleury, Helgaud (1824). Vie du roi Robert le Pieux (Epitoma vitæ regis Roberti pii) (in French). Translated by François Guizot . Paris: Brière. – There is also a more recent translation produced by Robert-Henri Bautier, CNRS, Paris, 1993. Fawtier, Robert (1989). The Capetian Kings of France . Translated by Butler, Lionel; Adam, R.J. Macmillan. Gauvard, Claude (1996). La France au Moyen Âge du Ve au XVe siècle (in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-054205-0 . Goetz, Hans-Werner (1992). "La paix de Dieu en France autour de l'an Mil: fondements et objectifs, diffusions et participants". Le roi de France et son royaume autour de l'an Mil . Paris: Picard. Iogna-Prat, Dominique (1990). Religion et culture autour de l'an Mil (in French). Paris: Picard. ISBN 978-2-7084-0392-5 . Lauranson-Rosaz, Christian (2002). Paix de Dieu . Paris: Dictionnaire du Moyen Âge, Presses Universitaires de France. pp. 1035– 1037. Lewis, Andrew W. (October 1978). "Anticipatory Association of the Heir in Early Capetian France". The American Historical Review . 83 (4): 906– 927. doi : 10.2307/1867651 . JSTOR 1867651 . Lévêque, Pierre (1996). La Côte-d'Or de la Préhistoire à nos jours (in French). Bordessoules: Editions Bourdessoules. ISBN 978-2-903504-43-4 . MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2010). A History of Christianity . Penguin Books. Menant, François (1999). Les Capétiens. Histoire et dictionnaire. 987–1328 (in French). Paris: Robert Laffont . ISBN 978-2-221-05687-5 . Nicholas, David (1992). Medieval Flanders . Longman. Palmer, James (2014). The Apocalypse in the Early Middle Ages . Cambridge University Press. Parisse, Michel (1990). "Qu'est-ce que la France de l'an Mil?". La France de l'an Mil (in French). Paris: Seuil. pp. 29– 48. Pfister, Charles (1885). Etudes sur le règne de Robert le Pieux (in French). Paris. pp. 41– 69. Richard, Jean (1954). Les ducs de Bourgogne et la formation du duché du XI e au XIV e siècle . Publications de l'Université de Dijon, XII (in French). Les Belles Lettres. OL 15221463M . Sassier, Yves (1987). Hugues Capet (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-01919-2 . —— (2000). "Royauté et idéologie au Moyen Âge". Bas-empire, monde franc, France, IVe–XIIe siècle (in French). Paris: Colin. ISBN 978-2-200-01656-2 . Theis, Laurent (1990). "Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale". L'Héritage des Charles: De la mort de Charlemagne aux environs de l'an mil – Points. Histoire (in French). 2 (202). Paris: Seuil . ISBN 978-2-02-011553-7 . —— (1999). "Robert le Pieux". Le roi de l'an mil (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-01375-2 . Vasiliev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1951). "Hugh Capet of France and Byzantium". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 6 : 227– 251. doi : 10.2307/1291087 . JSTOR 1291087 . Werner, Karl Ferdinand (1990). "Dieu, les rois et l'Histoires". La France de l'an Mil (in French). Paris: Seuil. Further reading Jessee, W. Scott. "A missing Capetian princess: Advisa, daughter of King Robert II of France". Medieval Prosopography , 1990. Atrium – Better understand the fears of the year 1000 (in French) (archive) . Atrium – What are the fears of the year 1000? (in French) (archive) . Robert II of France House of Capet Born: 27 March 972 Died: 20 July 1031 Regnal titles Preceded by Hugh King of the Franks 987–1031 with Hugh Capet as senior king (987–996) Hugh as junior king (1017–1026) Henry I as junior king (1027–1031) Succeeded by Henry I Preceded by Otto William Duke of Burgundy 1004–1016 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Monarchs of France v t e Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Merovingians (509–751) Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Carolingians , Robertians and Bosonids (751–987) Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V House of Capet (987–1328) Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV House of Valois (1328–1589) Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III House of Lancaster (1422–1453) Henry VI of England Henry VI of England House of Bourbon (1589–1792) Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII House of Bonaparte (1804–1814; 1815) Napoleon I Napoleon II Napoleon I Napoleon II House of Bourbon (1814–1815; 1815–1830) Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V House of Orléans (1830–1848) Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II House of Bonaparte (1852–1870) Napoleon III Napoleon III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics . Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Sweden Poland Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Sweden Poland Israel Catalonia People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef RISM Yale LUX IdRef RISM Yale LUX 970s births 1031 deaths 10th-century kings of France 11th-century kings of France People from Orléans People excommunicated by the Catholic Church House of Capet French Christians Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis Dukes of Burgundy 11th-century French poets Miracle workers CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2021 Articles containing French-language text CS1: long volume value Year of birth uncertain This page was last edited on 12 January 2026, at 21:02 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_II_of_France
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 1.1 Lithuania 1.2 Baptism and marriage 1.1 Lithuania 1.2 Baptism and marriage 2 Ruler of Lithuania and Poland Toggle Ruler of Lithuania and Poland subsection 2.1 Accession 2.2 Challenges 2.1 Accession 2.2 Challenges 3 King of Poland Toggle King of Poland subsection 3.1 Early actions 3.2 Against the Teutonic Order 3.3 Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic war 3.4 Battle of Grunwald 3.5 Dissent 3.6 Last conflicts 3.7 Succession and death 3.1 Early actions 3.2 Against the Teutonic Order 3.3 Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic war 3.4 Battle of Grunwald 3.5 Dissent 3.6 Last conflicts 3.7 Succession and death 4 Legacy 5 Gallery 6 Family tree 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Footnotes 10 References Władysław II Jagiełło العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Türkmençe Українська Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 吴语 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Władysław II Jagiełło King Władysław II Jagiełło, detail of the Triptych of Our Lady of Sorrows in the Wawel Cathedral Grand/Supreme Duke of Lithuania Reign .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} May 1377 – August 1381 3/15 August 1382 – 1 June 1434 May 1377 – August 1381 3/15 August 1382 – 1 June 1434 Predecessor Algirdas (1377) Kęstutis (1382) Algirdas (1377) Kęstutis (1382) Successor Kęstutis (1381) Władysław III (1434) Kęstutis (1381) Władysław III (1434) Regents Skirgaila (1386–1392) Vytautas (1392–1401) Skirgaila (1386–1392) Vytautas (1392–1401) Co-rulers (Grand dukes) Vytautas (1401–1430) Švitrigaila (1430–1432) Sigismund Kęstutaitis (1432–1434) Vytautas (1401–1430) Švitrigaila (1430–1432) Sigismund Kęstutaitis (1432–1434) King of Poland Reign 4 March 1386 – 1 June 1434 Coronation 4 March 1386 Predecessor Jadwiga Successor Władysław III Co-ruler Jadwiga (1386–1399) Born c. 1352/1362 Vilnius , Grand Duchy of Lithuania Died ( 1434-06-01 ) 1 June 1434 (aged 71–72/81–82) Gródek Jagielloński , Kingdom of Poland Burial Wawel Cathedral Spouses Jadwiga of Poland Anna of Cilli Elisabeth of Pilica Sophia of Halshany Jadwiga of Poland Anna of Cilli Elisabeth of Pilica Sophia of Halshany Issue Elizabeth Bonifacia Jagiellon Hedwig Jagiellon Casimir Jagiellon Władysław III of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon Elizabeth Bonifacia Jagiellon Hedwig Jagiellon Casimir Jagiellon Władysław III of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon Dynasty Jagiellon ( cadet branch of the Gediminid dynasty ) Father Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania Mother Uliana of Tver Religion Lithuanian polytheism ( c. 1352/1362 –1386) Catholic (1386–1434) Lithuanian polytheism ( c. 1352/1362 –1386) Catholic (1386–1434) Jogaila ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Lithuanian: [jɔˈɡâːɪɫɐ] ⓘ ; c. 1352/1362 – 1 June 1434), later Władysław II Jagiełło ( Polish: [vwaˈdɨswaf jaˈɡʲɛwwɔ] ⓘ ), [ nb 1 ] was Grand Duke of Lithuania beginning in 1377 and starting in 1386, becoming King of Poland as well. As Grand Duke, he ruled Lithuania from 1377 to 1381 and from 1382 to 1401, at which time he became the Supreme Duke of Lithuania in exchange for naming his cousin Vytautas as the new Grand Duke. Władysław II initially served as King of Poland alongside his wife Jadwiga until her death in 1399, and then the sole ruler until his own death in 1434. Raised a Lithuanian polytheist , he converted to Catholicism in 1386 and baptized as Ladislaus (Polish: Władysław ) in Kraków , married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] In 1387, he converted Lithuania to Catholicism. His reign in Poland started in 1399, upon the death of Queen Jadwiga, lasted a further thirty-five years, and laid the foundation for the centuries-long Polish–Lithuanian union . He was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland that bears his name and was previously also known as the Gediminid dynasty in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The dynasty ruled both states until 1572, [ nb 2 ] and became one of the most influential dynasties in late medieval and early modern Europe . [ 3 ] Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of medieval Lithuania . After he became King of Poland, as a result of the Union of Krewo , the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the Teutonic Order . The allied victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, followed by the Peace of Thorn , secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden Age . Early life Lithuania Little is known of Jogaila's early life, and even his year of birth is uncertain. Previously historians assumed he was born in 1352, but some recent research suggests a later date—about 1362. [ 4 ] He was a descendant of the Gediminid dynasty and was the son of Algirdas , Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife, Uliana of Tver , [ 5 ] who was the daughter of the Yaroslavichi prince Aleksandr of Tver . His name had a meaning of more courageous and superior than others, he spent most of his early time in Vilnius , at his father's manor. [ 6 ] The Grand Duchy of Lithuania to which Jogaila succeeded as Grand Duke in 1377 was a political entity composed of two leading, but very different nationalities and two political systems: ethnic Lithuania in the north-west and the vast Ruthenian territories of former Kievan Rus' , comprising the lands of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of western Russia. [ 7 ] At first, Jogaila—like his father—based his rule in the southern and eastern territories of Lithuania, while his uncle, Kęstutis , the Duke of Trakai , continued to rule the north-western region. [ nb 3 ] Jogaila's succession, however, soon placed this system of dual rule under strain. [ 3 ] At the start of his reign, Jogaila was preoccupied with unrest in the Lithuanian Rus' lands. In 1377–78, Andrei of Polotsk , the eldest son of Algirdas, challenged Jogaila's authority and sought to become Grand Duke. In 1380, Andrei and another brother, Dmitry , sided with Prince Dmitri of Moscow against Jogaila's alliance with emir Mamai , de facto khan of the Golden Horde . [ 8 ] Jogaila failed to support Mamai, lingering in the vicinity of the battlefield, which led to Mamai's army's significant defeat at the hands of Prince Dmitri in the Battle of Kulikovo . The Muscovites' Pyrrhic victory over the Golden Horde, in the long term, signified, however, the beginning of a slow climb to power by the Grand Duchy of Moscow , which became within a century the most serious rival and threat to the integrity, well-being and survival of Lithuania. However, in 1380 Muscovy was greatly weakened by tremendous losses suffered during the battle and thus, in the same year, Jogaila was free to begin a struggle for supremacy with Kęstutis. In the north-west, Lithuania faced constant armed incursions from the Teutonic Knights —founded after 1226 to fight and convert the pagan Baltic tribes of Prussians , Yotvingians and Lithuanians . In 1380, Jogaila concluded the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės , directed against Kęstutis. [ 3 ] When Kęstutis discovered the plan, the Lithuanian Civil War began. He seized Vilnius, overthrew Jogaila, and pronounced himself grand duke in his place. [ 9 ] In 1382, Jogaila raised an army from his father's vassals and confronted Kęstutis near Trakai. Kęstutis and his son Vytautas entered Jogaila's encampment for negotiations but were tricked and imprisoned in the Kreva Castle , where Kęstutis was found dead, probably murdered, a week later. [ 10 ] Vytautas escaped to the Teutonic fortress of Marienburg and was baptised there under the name Wigand. [ 9 ] Jogaila formulated the Treaty of Dubysa , which rewarded the Knights for their aid in defeating Kęstutis and Vytautas by promising Christianisation and granting them Samogitia west of the Dubysa river. However, when Jogaila failed to ratify the treaty, the Knights invaded Lithuania in the summer of 1383. In 1384, Jogaila reconciled with Vytautas promising to return his patrimony in Trakai. Vytautas then turned against the Knights, attacking and looting several Prussian castles. [ 11 ] It is known that Jogaila, being ethnic Lithuanian in the male line, himself knew and spoke in the Lithuanian language with Vytautas, his cousin from the Gediminids dynasty. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 6 ] Also, during the Christianization of Samogitia , none of the clergy, who came to Samogitia with Jogaila, were able to communicate with the natives, therefore Jogaila himself taught the Samogitians about the Catholicism , thus he was able to communicate in the Samogitian dialect of the Lithuanian language. [ 14 ] According to the Teutonic Order's testimonial, he could not read nor write, and had to listen to others reading for him. [ 6 ] Baptism and marriage Jogaila's Russian mother Uliana of Tver urged him to marry Sofia, daughter of Prince Dmitri of Moscow , who required him first to convert to Orthodoxy. [ nb 4 ] That option, however, was unlikely to halt the crusades against Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights, who regarded Orthodox Christians as schismatics and little better than heathens. [ 3 ] [ 9 ] Jogaila chose therefore to accept a Polish proposal to become a Catholic and marry the eleven-year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland . [ nb 5 ] The nobles of Lesser Poland made this offer to Jogaila for many reasons. They wanted to neutralize the dangers posed by Lithuania itself and to secure the fertile territories of Galicia–Volhynia . [ 15 ] The Polish nobles saw the offer as an opportunity for increasing their privileges [ 16 ] and avoiding Austrian influence, brought by Jadwiga's previous fiancé William, Duke of Austria . [ 17 ] On 14 August 1385 in Kreva Castle , Jogaila confirmed his prenuptial promises in the Union of Krewo (Union of Kreva). The promises included the adoption of Christianity, repatriation of lands "stolen" from Poland by its neighbours, and terras suas Lithuaniae et Russiae Coronae Regni Poloniae perpetuo applicare , a clause interpreted by historians to mean anything from a personal union between Lithuania and Poland to a complete incorporation of Lithuania into Poland. [ 18 ] The agreement at Kreva has been described both as far-sighted and as a desperate gamble. [ nb 6 ] Jogaila was duly baptized at the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on 15 February 1386 and from then on formally used the name Władysław or Latin versions of it. [ 19 ] [ nb 7 ] The marriage took place three days later, and on 4 March 1386 Jogaila was crowned King Władysław by archbishop Bodzanta . He was also to be legally adopted by Jadwiga's mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia , so retaining the throne in the event of Jadwiga's death. [ 9 ] He was the first Lithuanian to be crowned as the King of Poland. [ 20 ] The royal baptism triggered the conversion of most of Jogaila's court and noblemen, as well as mass baptisms in Lithuanian rivers, [ 21 ] a beginning of the final Christianization of Lithuania . Though the ethnic Lithuanian nobility were the main converts to Catholicism—both paganism and the Orthodox rite remained strong among the peasants—the king's conversion and its political implications created lasting repercussions for the history of both Lithuania and Poland. [ 21 ] On 22 February 1387, he banned Catholics from marriages with Orthodox and demanded those Orthodox who previously married with the Catholics to convert to Catholicism. [ 20 ] Ruler of Lithuania and Poland Accession Władysław II Jagiello and Jadwiga reigned as co-monarchs; and though Jadwiga probably had little real power, she took an active part in Poland's political and cultural life. In 1387, she led two successful military expeditions to Red Ruthenia , recovered lands her father, Louis I of Hungary , had transferred from Poland to Hungary, and secured the homage of Voivode Petru I of Moldavia . [ 22 ] In 1390, she also personally opened negotiations with the Teutonic Order. Most political responsibilities, however, fell to Jagiello, with Jadwiga attending to the cultural and charitable activities for which she is still revered. [ 22 ] Soon after Jagiello acceded to the Polish throne, Jagiello granted Vilnius a city charter like that of Kraków , modelled on the Magdeburg Law ; and Vytautas issued a privilege to a Jewish commune of Trakai on almost the same terms as privileges issued to the Jews of Poland in the reigns of Boleslaus the Pious and Casimir the Great . [ 23 ] Władysław's policy of unifying the two legal systems was partial and uneven at first but achieved a lasting influence. [ 22 ] By the time of the Union of Lublin in 1569, there was not much difference between the administrative and judicial systems in force in Lithuania and Poland. [ 24 ] One effect of Jagiello's measures was to be the advancement of Catholics in Lithuania at the expense of Orthodox elements; in 1387 and 1413, for example, Lithuanian Catholic boyars were granted special judicial and political privileges denied to the Orthodox boyars. [ 25 ] As this process gained momentum, it was accompanied by the rise of both Rus' and Lithuanian identity in the fifteenth century. [ 26 ] Challenges Jagiello's baptism failed to end the crusade of the Teutonic Knights, who claimed his conversion was a sham, perhaps even heresy, and renewed their incursions on the pretext that pagans remained in Lithuania. [ 9 ] [ 27 ] From then on, however, the Order found it harder to sustain the cause of a crusade and faced the growing threat to its existence posed by the Kingdom of Poland and a genuinely Christian Lithuania alliance. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Władysław sponsored the creation of the diocese of Vilnius under bishop Andrzej Wasilko , the former confessor of Elizabeth of Poland . The bishopric, which included Samogitia, then largely controlled by the Teutonic Order, was subordinated to the see of Gniezno and not to that of Teutonic Königsberg . [ 9 ] The decision may not have improved Władysław's relations with the Order, but it served to introduce closer ties between Lithuania and Poland, enabling the Polish church to freely assist its Lithuanian counterpart. [ 21 ] In 1389, Władysław's rule in Lithuania faced a revived challenge from Vytautas, who resented the power given to Skirgaila in Lithuania at the expense of his own patrimony. [ 11 ] Vytautas started a civil war in Lithuania , aiming to become the Grand Duke. On 4 September 1390, the joint forces of Vytautas and Grand Master Konrad von Wallenrode of the Teutonic Order, laid siege to Vilnius, which was held by Władysław's regent Skirgaila with combined Polish, Lithuanian and Ruthenian troops. [ 3 ] Although the Knights lifted the siege of the castle after a month, they reduced much of the outer city to ruins. This bloody conflict was eventually brought to a temporary halt in 1392 with the Treaty of Ostrów , by which Władysław handed over the government of Lithuania to his cousin in exchange for peace: Vytautas was to rule Lithuania as the grand duke ( magnus dux ) until his death, under the overlordship of the Supreme Duke ( dux supremus ) in the person of the Polish monarch. [ 30 ] Skirgaila was moved from the Duchy of Trakai to become prince of Kiev. [ 31 ] Vytautas initially accepted his status but soon began to pursue Lithuania's independence from Poland. [ 22 ] [ 32 ] The protracted period of war between the Lithuanians and the Teutonic Knights was ended on 12 October 1398 by the Treaty of Salynas , named after the islet in the Neman River where it was signed. Lithuania agreed to cede Samogitia and assist the Teutonic Order in a campaign to seize Pskov , while the Order agreed to assist Lithuania in a campaign to seize Novgorod . [ 22 ] Shortly afterwards, Vytautas was crowned as a king by local nobles; but the following year his forces and those of his ally, Khan Tokhtamysh of the White Horde , were crushed by the Timurids at the Battle of the Vorskla River , ending his imperial ambitions in the east and obliging him to submit to Władysław's protection once more. [ 3 ] [ 32 ] King of Poland Early actions On 22 June 1399, Jadwiga gave birth to a daughter, baptised Elizabeth Bonifacia , but within a month the mother and daughter died, leaving Władysław sole ruler of the Kingdom of Poland and without an heir nor much legitimacy to rule the kingdom. Jadwiga's death undermined Władysław's right to the throne, and as a result old conflicts between the nobility of Lesser Poland , generally sympathetic to Władysław, and the gentry of Greater Poland began to surface. In 1402, Władysław answered the rumblings against his rule by marrying Anna of Cilli , a granddaughter of Casimir III of Poland , a political match that re-legitimized his reign. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] The Union of Vilnius and Radom of 1401 confirmed the status of Vytautas as grand duke under Władysław's overlordship while assuring the title of grand duke to the heirs of Władysław rather than those of Vytautas: should Władysław die without heirs, the Lithuanian boyars were to elect a new monarch. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Since no heir had yet been produced by either monarch, the implications of the union were unforeseeable, but it forged bonds between the Polish and Lithuanian nobility and a permanent defensive alliance between the two states, strengthening Lithuania's hand for a new war against the Teutonic Order in which Poland officially took no part. [ 28 ] [ 32 ] While the document left the liberties of the Polish nobles untouched, it granted increased power to the boyars of Lithuania, whose grand dukes had till then been unencumbered by checks and balances of the sort attached to the Polish monarchy. The Union of Vilnius and Radom therefore earned Władysław a measure of support in Lithuania. [ 22 ] In late 1401, the new war against the Order overstretched the resources of the Lithuanians, who found themselves fighting on two fronts after uprisings in the eastern provinces. Another of Władysław's brothers, the malcontent Švitrigaila , chose this moment to stir up revolts behind the lines and declare himself grand duke. [ 27 ] On 31 January 1402, he presented himself in Marienburg , where he won the backing of the Knights with concessions similar to those made by Jogaila and Vytautas during earlier leadership contests in the Grand Duchy. [ 35 ] Against the Teutonic Order The war ended in the Treaty of Raciąż on 22 May 1404. Władysław acceded to the formal cession of Samogitia and agreed to support the Order's designs on Pskov ; in return, Konrad von Jungingen undertook to sell Poland the disputed Dobrzyń Land and the town of Złotoryja , once pawned to the Order by Władysław Opolski , and to support Vytautas in a revived attempt on Novgorod . [ 35 ] Also in 1404, Władysław held talks at Vratislav with Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia , who offered to return Silesia to Poland if Władysław supported him in his power struggle within the Holy Roman Empire . [ 37 ] Władysław turned the deal down with the agreement of both Polish and Silesian nobles, unwilling to burden himself with new military commitments in the west. [ 38 ] Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic war In December 1408, Władysław and Vytautas held strategic talks in Navahrudak Castle , where they decided to foment a Samogitian uprising against Teutonic rule to draw German forces away from Pomerelia . Władysław promised to repay Vytautas for his support by restoring Samogitia to Lithuania in any future peace treaty. [ 39 ] The uprising, which began in May 1409, at first provoked little reaction from the Knights, who had not yet consolidated their rule in Samogitia by building castles; but by June their diplomats were busy lobbying Władysław's court at Oborniki , warning his nobles against Polish involvement in a war between Lithuania and the Order. [ 40 ] Władysław, however, bypassed his nobles and informed the new Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen that if the Knights acted to suppress Samogitia, Poland would intervene. This stung the Order into issuing a declaration of war against Poland on 6 August, which Władysław received on 14 August in Nowy Korczyn . [ 40 ] The castles guarding the northern border were in such bad condition that the Knights easily captured those at Złotoryja, Dobrzyń and Bobrowniki , the capital of Dobrzyń Land, while German burghers invited them into Bydgoszcz (German: Bromberg). Władysław arrived on the scene in late September, retook Bydgoszcz within a week, and came to terms with the Order on 8 October. During the winter, the two armies prepared for a major confrontation. Władysław installed a strategic supply depot at Płock in Masovia and had a pontoon bridge constructed and transported north down the Vistula . [ 41 ] Meanwhile, both sides unleashed diplomatic offensives. The Knights dispatched letters to the monarchs of Europe, preaching their usual crusade against the heathens; [ 42 ] Władysław countered with his letters to the monarchs, accusing the Order of planning to conquer the whole world. [ 43 ] Such appeals successfully recruited many foreign knights to each side. Wenceslas IV of Bohemia signed a defensive treaty with the Poles against the Teutonic Order; his brother, Sigismund of Luxembourg , allied himself with the Order and declared war against Poland on 12 July, though his Hungarian vassals refused his call to arms. [ 44 ] Battle of Grunwald When the war resumed in June 1410, Władysław advanced into the Teutonic heartland at the head of an army of about 20,000 mounted nobles, 15,000 armed commoners, and 2,000 professional cavalry mainly hired from Bohemia. After crossing the Vistula over the pontoon bridge at Czerwińsk , his troops met up with those of Vytautas , whose 11,000 light cavalry included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, and Tatars . [ 45 ] The Teutonic Order's army had about 18,000 cavalry, mostly Germans, and 5,000 infantry. On 15 July, at the Battle of Grunwald after one of the largest and most ferocious battles of the Middle Ages, [ 46 ] the allies won a victory so overwhelming that the Teutonic Order's army was virtually annihilated, with most of its key commanders killed in combat, including Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen and Grand Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrode. Thousands of troops were reportedly slaughtered on either side. [ 45 ] The road to the Teutonic capital Marienburg now lay open, the city undefended; but for reasons the sources do not explain, Władysław hesitated to pursue his advantage. [ 47 ] On 17 July, his army began a laboured advance, arriving at Marienburg only on 25 July, by which time the new Grand Master, Heinrich von Plauen , had organised a defence of the fortress. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] The apparent half-heartedness of the ensuing siege, called off by Władysław on 19 September, has been variously ascribed to the impregnability of the fortifications, [ 48 ] high Lithuanian casualties, to Władysław's unwillingness to risk further casualties, or to his desire to keep the Order weakened but undefeated so as to not upset the balance of power between Poland (which would most likely acquire most of the Order possessions if it was totally defeated) and Lithuania; but a lack of sources precludes a definitive explanation. [ 50 ] Dissent The war ended in 1411 with the Peace of Thorn , in which neither Poland nor Lithuania drove home negotiating advantages home to the full, much to the discontent of the Polish nobility. Poland regained Dobrzyń Land , Lithuania regained Samogitia , and Masovia regained a small territory beyond the Wkra river. Most of the Teutonic Order's territory, however, including towns that had surrendered, remained intact. Władysław then released many high-ranking Teutonic Knights and officials for apparently modest ransoms. The cumulative expense of the ransoms, however, proved a drain on the Order's resources. [ 51 ] This failure to exploit the victory to his nobles' satisfaction provoked growing opposition to Władysław's regime after 1411, further fueled by the granting of Podolia , disputed between Poland and Lithuania, to Vytautas , and by the king's two-year absence in Lithuania. [ 52 ] In an effort to outflank his critics, Władysław promoted the leader of the opposing faction, bishop Mikołaj Trąba , to the archbishopric of Gniezno in autumn 1411 and replaced him in Kraków with Vytautas supporter Wojciech Jastrzębiec . [ 52 ] He also sought to create more allies in Lithuania. The Union of Horodło on 2 October 1413 decreed that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "tied to our Kingdom of Poland permanently and irreversibly", and granted the Catholic nobles of Lithuania privileges equal to those of Polish szlachta . The act included a clause prohibiting the Polish nobility from electing a monarch without the consent of the Lithuanian nobility, and the Lithuanian nobility from electing a grand duke without the consent of the Polish monarch. [ 36 ] [ 53 ] Last conflicts In 1414, a sporadic new war broke out, known as the " Hunger War " from the Knights' scorched-earth tactics of burning fields and mills; but both the Knights and the Lithuanians were too exhausted from the previous war to risk a major battle, and the fighting petered out in the autumn. [ 52 ] Hostilities did not flare up again until 1419, during the Council of Constance , when they were called off at the papal legate's insistence. [ 52 ] The Council of Constance proved a turning point in the Teutonic crusades, as it did for several European conflicts. Vytautas sent a delegation in 1415, including the metropolitan of Kiev and Samogitian witnesses; they arrived at Constance at the end of that year to express their preference for being "baptised with water and not with blood". [ 54 ] The Polish envoys, among them Mikołaj Trąba , Zawisza Czarny , and Paweł Włodkowic , lobbied for an end to the forced conversion of heathens and to the Order's aggression against Lithuania and Poland. [ 55 ] As a result of the Polish–Lithuanian diplomacy, the council, though scandalised by Włodkowic's questioning of the legitimacy of the monastic state, denied the Order's request for a further crusade and instead entrusted the conversion of the Samogitians to Poland–Lithuania. [ 56 ] The diplomatic context at Constance included the revolt of the Bohemian Hussites , who looked upon Poland as an ally in their wars against Sigismund , the emperor elect and new king of Bohemia. In 1421, the Bohemian Diet declared Sigismund deposed and formally offered the crown to Władysław on condition that he accept the religious principles of the Four Articles of Prague , which he was not prepared to do. After Władysław's refusal, Vytautas was postulated (elected in absentia) as Bohemian king, but he assured the pope that he opposed the heretics. Between 1422 and 1428, Władysław's nephew, Sigismund Korybut , attempted a regency in war-torn Bohemia, with little success. [ 57 ] Vytautas accepted Sigismund's offer of a royal crown in 1429—apparently with Władysław's blessing—but Polish forces intercepted the crown in transit and the coronation was cancelled. [ 36 ] [ 58 ] In 1422, Władysław fought another war, known as the Gollub War , against the Teutonic Order, defeating them in under two months before the Order's imperial reinforcements had time to arrive. The resulting Treaty of Melno ended the Knights' claims to Samogitia once and for all and defined a permanent border between Prussia and Lithuania. Lithuania was given the province of Samogitia, with the port of Palanga , but the city of Klaipėda was left to the Order. [ 36 ] This border remained largely unchanged for roughly 500 years, until 1920. The terms of this treaty have, however, been seen as turning a Polish victory into defeat, as a result of Władysław's renunciation of Polish claims to Pomerania, Pomerelia, and Chełmno Land , for which he received only the town of Nieszawa in return. [ 59 ] The Treaty of Melno closed a chapter in the Knights' wars with Lithuania but did little to settle their long-term issues with Poland. Further sporadic warfare broke out between Poland and the Knights between 1431 and 1435. Cracks in the cooperation between Poland and Lithuania after the death of Vytautas in 1430 had offered the Knights a revived opportunity for interference in Poland. Władysław supported his brother Švitrigaila as grand duke of Lithuania, [ 19 ] but when Švitrigaila, with the support of the Teutonic Order and dissatisfied Rus' nobles, [ 26 ] rebelled against Polish overlordship in Lithuania, the Poles, under the leadership of Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków, occupied Podolia , which Władysław had awarded to Lithuania in 1411, and Volhynia . [ 36 ] In 1432, a pro-Polish party in Lithuania elected Vytautas's brother Žygimantas as grand duke, [ 19 ] leading to an armed struggle over the Lithuanian succession which stuttered on for years after Władysław's death. [ 26 ] [ 36 ] Succession and death At the dying request of the childless Jadwiga, he married a Styrian lady, Anna of Celje . [ 60 ] She died in 1416, leaving a daughter: Hedwig (1408–1431). In 1417, Władysław married Elisabeth of Pilica , who died in 1420 without bearing him a child. [ 61 ] Two years later, he married Sophia of Halshany [ 61 ] (niece of Uliana Olshanska ), who bore him two surviving sons : Władysław (1424–1444) [ 60 ] Casimir (1427–1492) [ 61 ] The death in 1431 of his daughter Hedwig (Jadwiga), the last heir of Piast blood, released Władysław to make his sons by Sophia of Halshany his heirs, though he had to placate the Polish nobility with concessions to ensure their agreement since the monarchy was elective. In 1427 the Polish nobles had initiated an anti-Jagiellonian movement, seeking to have Władysław and Casimir excluded from the Polish throne as they had no blood link to the previous ruling Polish dynasty, the Piasts. [ 62 ] During an excursion into Przemyśl Land in the 48th year of his reign, Władysław caught a cold from which he was unable to recover. [ 63 ] [ 19 ] He finally died in Grodek in 1434, leaving Poland to his elder son, Władysław III, and Lithuania to his younger, Casimir, both still minors at the time. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] The Lithuanian inheritance, however, could not be taken for granted. Władysław's death ended the personal union between the two realms, and it was not clear what would take its place. [ 66 ] Legacy Władysław is depicted on the obverse of the modernized 100 Polish złoty banknote. [ 67 ] The Jagiełło Oak, an ancient tree in Białowieża Forest , is named in honour of the fact that he initiated the tradition of royal hunting in the area. [ 68 ] In 2021, asteroid 2004 TP17 was officially named as Jogaila (the Lithuanian language variant of his name). [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Gallery Effigy of Władysław II Jagiełło at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków A 17th-century depiction of Władysław II Jagiełło and Jadwiga of Poland by the cross by Tommaso Dolabella Portrait of Jagiełło holding a cross and sword, by Michał Godlewski, 1863. Władysław Jagiełło as depicted in Ksawery Pillati's Portraits of Polish Princes and Kings , 1888 Władysław II Jagiełło by Jan Matejko , early 1890s King Jagiello Monument , Central Park, New York Grunwald Monument , Kraków Family tree Gediminas b. c. 1275 d. 1341 Jewna b. c. 1280 d. 1344 Alexander I of Tver b. 1301 d. 22 October 1339 Anastasia of Halych Algirdas b. c. 1296 d. May 1377 Uliana Alexandrovna of Tver b. c. 1330 d. 1392 1 Jadwiga I of Poland b. 1374 d. 17 July 1399 OO 18 Feb 1386 2 Anne of Cilli b. 1380/81 d. 21 May 1416 OO 29 Jan 1402 Jogaila/Władysław II Jagiełło b. c. 1351 d. 1 June 1434 3 Elisabeth of Pilica b. 1372 d. 12 May 1420 OO 2 May 1417 4 Sophia of Halshany b. c. 1405 d. 21 September 1461 OO 7 Feb 1422 1 2 4 4 4 Elizabeth Bonifacia b. 22 June 1399 d. 13 July 1399 Hedwig b. 8 April 1408 d. 8 December 1431 Władysław III b. 31 October 1424 d. 10 November 1444 Casimir b. 16 May 1426 d. 2 March 1427 Casimir IV b. 30 November 1427 d. 7 June 1492 See also History of Lithuania History of Poland (1385–1569) Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło Naming citation for Jovian asteroid 202093 Jogaila List of Lithuanian rulers King Jagiello Monument List of Poles Monument to Jadwiga and Jagiełło in Kraków Notes ^ Other names include ( Lithuanian : Jogaila Algirdaitis ; Belarusian : Ягайла , romanized : Jagajła ) (see also Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło ) ^ Anna Jagiellon , the last member of the royal Jagiellon family, died in 1596. ^ Some historians have called this system a diarchy ( Sruogienė-Sruoga 1987 ; Deveike 1950 ). However, Rowell suggests that the nature of this dual rule "...reflects political expediency; it certainly does not meet the formal definition of diarchy as 'rule by two independent authorities'...those two leaders were not equal: the grand duke in Vilnius was supreme" ( Rowell 1994 , p. 68). ^ The historian John Meyendorff suggests Jogaila may have already been an Orthodox Christian: "In 1377, Olgerd of Lithuania died, leaving the Grand Principality to his son Jagiello, an Orthodox Christian..." ( Meyendorff 1989 , p. 205). Dmitri, however, made it a condition of the marriage that Jogaila "should be baptized in the Orthodox faith and that he should proclaim his Christianity to all men" ( Dvornik 1992 , p. 221). ^ Jadwiga had actually been crowned king of Poland ( rex poloni ), because the Polish political system made no provision for a queen regnant ( Stone 2001 , p. 8). ^ It "reflects the exceptional far-sightedness of the political elites ruling both countries" ( Kłoczowski 2000 , p. 55). It was "a desperate gamble by Jogaila to avert a seemingly inevitable subjugation" ( Lukowski & Zawadzki 2001 , p. 38) ^ A Slavic name that roughly translates as glorious rule , Władysław is often Latinised into either Wladislaus or Ladislaus. The choice evoked both Władysław I of Poland, the Elbow-high , who was Queen Jadwiga's great-grandfather and unified the kingdom in 1320, and Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary , a king who sided with the pope against the emperor Henry IV and Christianised Transylvania ( Rowell 2000 , pp. 709–712). Footnotes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Grzęda, Mateusz (15 February 2022). "Ladislaus II Jagiełło (1386–1434)" . Encyclopedia . 2 (1): 515, 525. doi : 10.3390/encyclopedia2010034 . ISSN 2673-8392 . ^ Bojtár 1999 , p. 182 ^ a b c d e f Bojtár 1999 , pp. 180–186 ^ Tęgowski 1999 , pp. 124–125 ^ Potašenko 2008 , p. 30 ^ a b c Plikūnė, Dalia. "Kodėl Jogaila buvo geras, o Vytautas Didysis - genialus" . DELFI (in Lithuanian) . Retrieved 19 May 2021 . ^ Stone 2001 , p. 4 ^ Plokhy 2006 , p. 46 ^ a b c d e f Rowell 2000 , pp. 709–712 ^ Bojtár 1999 , p. 181 ^ a b Mickūnaitė 1999 , p. 157 ^ Pancerovas, Dovydas. "Ar perrašinėjamos istorijos pasakų įkvėpta Baltarusija gali kėsintis į Rytų Lietuvą?" . 15min.lt (in Lithuanian) . Retrieved 1 October 2014 . ^ Statkuvienė, Regina. "Jogailaičiai. Kodėl ne Gediminaičiai?" . 15min.lt (in Lithuanian) . Retrieved 9 November 2018 . ^ Baronas, Darius (2013). Žemaičių krikštas: tyrimai ir refleksija (PDF) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius : Lithuanian Catholic Academy of Science . pp. 33– 34. ISBN 978-9986-592-71-6 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022 . Retrieved 17 July 2021 . ^ Lukowski & Zawadzki 2001 , p. 42 ^ Dvornik 1992 , p. 129 ^ Lukowski & Zawadzki 2001 , p. 37 ^ Lukowski & Zawadzki 2001 , p. 41; Stone 2001 , p. 8 ^ a b c d Sruogienė-Sruoga 1987 ^ a b Gudavičius, Edvardas; Jučas, Mečislovas; Matulevičius, Algirdas. "Jogaila" . Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian) . Retrieved 19 May 2021 . ^ a b c Kłoczowski 2000 , pp. 54–57 ^ a b c d e f Jasienica 1988 , pp. 80–146 ^ Jasienica 1988 , pp. 74–80 ^ Dvornik 1992 , p. 344 ^ Magocsi 1996 , p. 134 ^ a b c Plokhy 2006 , p. 98 ^ a b Housley 1992 , p. 354 ^ a b Sedlar 1994 , p. 388 ^ Turnbull 2004 , p. 22 ^ Rowell 2000 , p. 732 ^ Stone 2001 , p. 10 ^ a b c Dvornik 1992 , pp. 222–225 ^ Jerzy Besala: Małżeństwa Królewskie. Jagiellonowie . Warszawa: Bellona, 2006. ISBN 978-83-11-12877-4. ^ Jadwiga Krzyżaniakowa, Jerzy Ochmański: Władysław II Jagiełło . Wyd. 2 uzup. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 2006. ISBN 83-04-04778-0. OCLC 77512040 ^ a b c Jasienica 1988 , pp. 103–105 ^ a b c d e f Stone 2001 , p. 11 ^ New Cambridge Medieval History , 348. ^ Polska Piastów 2005 ^ Karwasińska & Zakrzewski 1892 , p. 21 ^ a b Jasienica 1988 , pp. 106–107 ^ Turnbull 2003 , pp. 32–33 ^ Delbrück 1990 , p. 526 ^ Jasienica 1988 , p. 108 ^ Jasienica 1988 , p. 110 ^ a b Stone 2001 , p. 16 ^ Bojtár 1999 , p. 182; Turnbull 2003 , p. 7 ^ Turnbull 2003 , p. 7 ^ a b Stone 2001 , p. 17 ^ Turnbull 2003 , p. 73 ^ Jasienica 1988 , pp. 113–120 ^ New Cambridge Medieval History , 364. ^ a b c d Jasienica 1988 , pp. 121–124 ^ Dvornik 1992 , pp. 342–343; New Cambridge Medieval History , 775–776. ^ Housley 1992 , p. 361; Rowell 2000 , p. 733 ^ Kłoczowski 2000 , p. 73 ^ Housley 1992 , pp. 351–361 ^ Bideleux 1998 , pp. 233–235; Turnbull & McBride 2004 , pp. 11–12 ^ New Cambridge Medieval History , 353. ^ Jasienica 1988 , p. 130 ^ a b Nowakowska 2019 , p. x. ^ a b c Nowakowska 2019 , p. xi. ^ "Jagiellonians Timeline" . Jagiellonians.com . University of Oxford . Retrieved 20 April 2021 . ^ Prazmowska 2011 , p. 72 ^ Sedlar 1994 , p. 282 ^ Rowell 2000 , p. 711 ^ Stone 2001 , p. 22 ^ "Narodowy Bank Polski - Internet Information Service" . www.nbp.pl . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Hunt, Nick (22 January 2020). "Dead Wood" . Emergence Magazine . Retrieved 23 October 2021 . ^ "Jogailos planeta skrieja Saulės sistemoje – Lenkijos siūlymas oficialiai patvirtintas" . Lithuanian National Radio and Television (in Lithuanian). 9 July 2021 . Retrieved 11 July 2021 . ^ "Five minor planets given Polish names" . Polandin.com . Archived from the original on 22 October 2021 . Retrieved 11 July 2021 . ^ Jurzak 2006 References Bideleux, Robert (1998), A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change , Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-16111-4 Boczkowska, Anna (2011), Sarkofag Władysława II Jagiełły i Donatello (in Polish), Gdansk: Słowo/obraz terytoria, ISBN 978-8-374-53799-5 Bojtár, Endre (1999), Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People , translated by Walter J. Renfroe, Budapest: Central European University Press, ISBN 978-963-9116-42-9 Delbrück, Hans (1990), The Barbarian Invasions: History of the Art of War , University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-6447-2 Deveike, Jone (1950), "The Lithuanian Diarchies", The Slavonic and East European Review , 28 (71): 392– 405 Długosz, Jan (1997), The Annals of Jan Dlugosz , translated and abridged by Maurice Michael, IM Publications, ISBN 978-1-901019-00-1 Drabina, Jan (1994), "Die Religionspolitik von König Wladyslaw Jagiello im polnisch-litauischen Reich in den Jahren 1385–1434", Zeitschrift für Ostforschung (in German), 43 (2): 161– 173, ISSN 0044-3239 Dvornik, Francis (1992), The Slavs in European History and Civilization , Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-0799-6 Housley, Norman (1992), The Later Crusades 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar , Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-822136-4 Jakštas, J.; Ivinskis, Z.; Sužiedėlis, S.; Šapoka, A.; Šležas, P. (1935), Jogaila (in Lithuanian), Kaunas: redagavo A. Šapoka Jasienica, Paweł (1988), Polska Jagiellonów (in Polish), Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, ISBN 978-83-06-01796-0 Jurzak, Ryszard (2006), "Władysław II Jagiełło" , Dynastic Genealogy , retrieved 27 September 2006 Karwasińska, Jadwiga & Zakrzewski, Ignacy (1892), Lites ac res gestae inter Polonos Ordinemque Cruciferorum , Warsaw: Bibliotheca Cornicensis (in Polish and Latin) Kłoczowski, Jerzy (2000), A History of Polish Christianity , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36429-4 Kosman, Marceli (1976), Drogi zaniku pogaństwa u Bałtów (in Polish), Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich Kosman, Marceli (1987), Jagiełło królem Polski: z dziejów unii Polski i Litwy (in Polish), Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne (WSiP), ISBN 978-83-02-03292-9 Lukowski, Jerzy & Zawadzki, Hubert (2001), A Concise History of Poland , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55917-1 Magocsi, Paul Robert (1996), A History of Ukraine , University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-7820-9 Meyendorff, John (1989), Byzantium and the Rise of Russia (Reprint ed.), Crestwood, NY: Vladimir's Seminary Press, ISBN 978-0-88141-079-2 Mickūnaitė, Giedrė (1999), "From Pamphlet to Origin Theory" , in Kooper, Erik Simon (ed.), The Medieval Chronicle: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Medieval Chronicle , Amsterdam: Rodopi, ISBN 978-90-420-0834-2 O'Connor, Kevin (2003), A History of the Baltic States , Greenwood Press, ISBN 978-0-313-32355-3 Nowakowska, Natalia, ed. (2019). Remembering the Jagiellonians . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-56239-4 . Plokhy, Serhii (2006), The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86403-9 Potašenko, Grigorijus (2008), Multinational Lithuania: history of ethnic minorities , Šviesa, ISBN 9785430052508 Prazmowska, Anita J. (2011), A History of Poland: Second Edition , Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0230345379 Rogalski, Leon (1846), Dzieje Krzyżaków (History of the Teutonic Knights) (in Polish), Warsaw: Samuel Orgelbrand Rowell, S. C. (2000), "Baltic Europe", in Jones, Michael (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History VI , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36290-0 Rowell, S. C. (1994), Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-central Europe, 1295–1345 , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-45011-9 Sedlar, Jean W. (1994), East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 , Seattle: University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9 Śląsk w polityce Piastów ("Silesia within the policies of the Piasts") (in Polish), Polska Piastów, 2005, archived from the original on 18 October 2006 , retrieved 9 August 2006 Sruogienė-Sruoga, Vanda (1987), "Jogaila (1350–1434)" , Lituanus , 33 (4), archived from the original on 20 September 2020 , retrieved 25 January 2007 Stone, Daniel Z. (2001), The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 , Seattle: University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-98093-5 Tęgowski, Jan (1999), Pierwsze pokolenia Giedyminowiczow (in Polish), Poznań-Wrocław: Wydawn. Historyczne, ISBN 978-83-913563-1-9 Turnbull, Stephen (2003), Tannenberg 1410: Disaster for the Teutonic Knights , Osprey, ISBN 978-1-84176-561-7 Turnbull, Stephen (2004), Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights (2): Baltic Stone Castles 1184–1560 , Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84176-712-3 Turnbull, Stephen & McBride, Angus (2004), The Hussite Wars: 1419–36 , Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84176-665-2 Władysław II Jagiełło Jagiellon dynasty Cadet branch of the Gediminid dynasty Born: c. 1351/1362 Died: 1 June 1434 Regnal titles Preceded by Algirdas Grand Duke of Lithuania 1377–1381 Succeeded by Kęstutis Preceded by Kęstutis Grand Duke of Lithuania 1382–1392 Succeeded by Vytautas Preceded by Jadwiga as sole monarch King of Poland 1386–1434 with Jadwiga (1386–1399) Succeeded by Władysław III .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Monarchs of Poland v t e Legendary Lech I Krakus I Krakus II Lech II Wanda Leszko I Leszko II Leszko III Popiel I Popiel II Chościsko Piast the Wheelwright Lech I Krakus I Krakus II Lech II Wanda Leszko I Leszko II Leszko III Popiel I Popiel II Chościsko Piast the Wheelwright Proto-historic (before 966) Siemowit Lestek Siemomysł Siemowit Lestek Siemomysł Piast dynasty (966–1138) Mieszko I Bolesław I the Brave Bezprym Mieszko II Lambert Bolesław the Forgotten Casimir I the Restorer Bolesław II the Bold Władysław I Herman Zbigniew Bolesław III Wrymouth Mieszko I Bolesław I the Brave Bezprym Mieszko II Lambert Bolesław the Forgotten Casimir I the Restorer Bolesław II the Bold Władysław I Herman Zbigniew Bolesław III Wrymouth Fragmentation period (1138–1320) Senior or Supreme Princes Władysław II the Exile Bolesław IV the Curly Mieszko III the Old Casimir II the Just Leszek the White Władysław III Spindleshanks Władysław Odonic Mieszko IV Tanglefoot Konrad I Henry the Bearded Henry II the Pious Bolesław the Horned Bolesław V the Chaste Leszek II the Black Henryk IV Probus Przemysł II See also: Dukes of Silesia Dukes of Greater Poland Dukes of Little Poland Dukes of Masovia Dukes of Kuyavia Dukes of Sieradz-Łęczyca Dukes of Gdańsk Pomerania Dukes of Pomerania Władysław II the Exile Bolesław IV the Curly Mieszko III the Old Casimir II the Just Leszek the White Władysław III Spindleshanks Władysław Odonic Mieszko IV Tanglefoot Konrad I Henry the Bearded Henry II the Pious Bolesław the Horned Bolesław V the Chaste Leszek II the Black Henryk IV Probus Przemysł II See also: Dukes of Silesia Dukes of Greater Poland Dukes of Little Poland Dukes of Masovia Dukes of Kuyavia Dukes of Sieradz-Łęczyca Dukes of Gdańsk Pomerania Dukes of Pomerania Přemyslid dynasty (1296–1306) Wenceslaus II Wenceslaus III Wenceslaus II Wenceslaus III Restored Piast dynasty (1320–1370) Władysław I Łokietek Casimir III the Great Władysław I Łokietek Casimir III the Great Capet-Anjou dynasty (1370-1399) Louis I the Hungarian Jadwiga Louis I the Hungarian Jadwiga Jagiellonian dynasty (1386–1572) Władysław II Jagiełło Władysław III of Varna Casimir IV John I Albert Alexander I Sigismund I the Old Sigismund II Augustus Władysław II Jagiełło Władysław III of Varna Casimir IV John I Albert Alexander I Sigismund I the Old Sigismund II Augustus Elective monarchy (1572–1795) Henry of Valois Anna Jagiellon Stephen Báthory Sigismund III Vasa Władysław IV Vasa John II Casimir Vasa Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki John III Sobieski Augustus II the Strong Stanisław I Augustus III Stanisław August Poniatowski Henry of Valois Anna Jagiellon Stephen Báthory Sigismund III Vasa Władysław IV Vasa John II Casimir Vasa Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki John III Sobieski Augustus II the Strong Stanisław I Augustus III Stanisław August Poniatowski Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) Frederick Augustus I Romanov dynasty (1815–1917) Alexander II Nicholas I Alexander III Alexander IV Nicholas II Alexander II Nicholas I Alexander III Alexander IV Nicholas II Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918) Regency Council (transformed into Second Polish Republic ) Regency Council (transformed into Second Polish Republic ) Italics indicates monarch of questioned historicity Italics indicates monarch of questioned historicity v t e Monarchs of Lithuania v t e List of early Lithuanian dukes List of Lithuanian monarchs List of early Lithuanian dukes List of Lithuanian monarchs Kingdom of Lithuania House of Mindaugas (1236–1263) Mindaugas House of Mindaugas (1236–1263) Mindaugas Mindaugas Grand Duchy of Lithuania House of Mindaugas (1263–1267) Treniota (1263–1264) Vaišvilkas (1264–1267) House of Monomakh (1267–1269) Shvarn House of Mindaugas (1269–1285) Traidenis (1269–1282) Daumantas (1282–1285) House of Gediminids (1285–1440) Butigeidis (1285–1290) Butvydas (1290–1295) Vytenis (1295–1316) Gediminas ( family ) (1315–1341) Jaunutis (1341–1345) Algirdas ( family ) (1345–1377) Jogaila ( family ) (1377–1434) Kęstutis ( family ) (1342–1382) Vytautas (1401–1430) Švitrigaila (1430–1432) Sigismund Kęstutaitis (1432–1440) House of Jagiellon (1440–1569) Władysław (1434-1444) Casimir (1440–1492) Alexander (1492–1506) Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) Sigismund II Augustus (1529–1572) House of Mindaugas (1263–1267) Treniota (1263–1264) Vaišvilkas (1264–1267) Treniota (1263–1264) Vaišvilkas (1264–1267) House of Monomakh (1267–1269) Shvarn Shvarn House of Mindaugas (1269–1285) Traidenis (1269–1282) Daumantas (1282–1285) Traidenis (1269–1282) Daumantas (1282–1285) House of Gediminids (1285–1440) Butigeidis (1285–1290) Butvydas (1290–1295) Vytenis (1295–1316) Gediminas ( family ) (1315–1341) Jaunutis (1341–1345) Algirdas ( family ) (1345–1377) Jogaila ( family ) (1377–1434) Kęstutis ( family ) (1342–1382) Vytautas (1401–1430) Švitrigaila (1430–1432) Sigismund Kęstutaitis (1432–1440) Butigeidis (1285–1290) Butvydas (1290–1295) Vytenis (1295–1316) Gediminas ( family ) (1315–1341) Jaunutis (1341–1345) Algirdas ( family ) (1345–1377) Jogaila ( family ) (1377–1434) Kęstutis ( family ) (1342–1382) Vytautas (1401–1430) Švitrigaila (1430–1432) Sigismund Kęstutaitis (1432–1440) House of Jagiellon (1440–1569) Władysław (1434-1444) Casimir (1440–1492) Alexander (1492–1506) Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) Sigismund II Augustus (1529–1572) Władysław (1434-1444) Casimir (1440–1492) Alexander (1492–1506) Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) Sigismund II Augustus (1529–1572) Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Elected (1569–1795) Henry of Valois (1573–1575) Anna Jagiellon (1575–1576) Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) House of Vasa Sigismund III (1587–1632) Władysław (1632–1648) John Casimir (1648–1668) Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (1669–1673) John Sobieski (1674–1696) Augustus II the Strong (1697–1706; 1709–1733) Stanisław Leszczyński (1704–1709; 1733–1736) Augustus III (1733–1763) Stanisław II August (1764–1795) Elected (1569–1795) Henry of Valois (1573–1575) Anna Jagiellon (1575–1576) Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) House of Vasa Sigismund III (1587–1632) Władysław (1632–1648) John Casimir (1648–1668) Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (1669–1673) John Sobieski (1674–1696) Augustus II the Strong (1697–1706; 1709–1733) Stanisław Leszczyński (1704–1709; 1733–1736) Augustus III (1733–1763) Stanisław II August (1764–1795) Henry of Valois (1573–1575) Anna Jagiellon (1575–1576) Stephen Báthory (1576–1586) House of Vasa Sigismund III (1587–1632) Władysław (1632–1648) John Casimir (1648–1668) Sigismund III (1587–1632) Władysław (1632–1648) John Casimir (1648–1668) Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (1669–1673) John Sobieski (1674–1696) Augustus II the Strong (1697–1706; 1709–1733) Stanisław Leszczyński (1704–1709; 1733–1736) Augustus III (1733–1763) Stanisław II August (1764–1795) Kingdom of Lithuania House of Urach (1918) Mindaugas II House of Urach (1918) Mindaugas II Mindaugas II Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 2 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Vatican Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Vatican Israel People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 14th-century births 1434 deaths 14th-century Polish monarchs 15th-century Polish monarchs Adult adoptees Burials at Wawel Cathedral Converts to Roman Catholicism from paganism Gediminids Grand dukes of Lithuania Jagiellonian dynasty Kings of Poland Remarried jure uxoris kings Jure uxoris kings Lithuanian Roman Catholics Order of the Dragon People from Vilnius People in the Battle of Grunwald Polish Roman Catholics Pages using the Phonos extension Articles containing Lithuanian-language text Articles containing Belarusian-language text Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Use dmy dates from March 2025 Pages with Lithuanian IPA Pages including recorded pronunciations Pages with Polish IPA Articles containing Polish-language text CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Commons category link is on Wikidata Year of birth uncertain This page was last edited on 1 January 2026, at 16:52 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o
|
arXiv.org > 2601.10157 > format Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Format selector for 2601.10157 Note: Many of the formats above are served gzipped ( Content-Encoding: x-gzip ). Your browser may silently uncompress after downloading so the files you see saved may appear uncompressed. Please report any problems to arXiv technical support and include the paper identifier. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
|
https://arxiv.org/format/2601.10157
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January–March 1.2 April–June 1.3 July–September 1.4 October–December 1.5 Date unknown 1.1 January–March 1.2 April–June 1.3 July–September 1.4 October–December 1.5 Date unknown 2 Births 3 Deaths 4 References 1468 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Walon West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 14th century 15th century 16th century 14th century 15th century 16th century Decades 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s Years 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1468 by topic Arts and science Architecture Art Architecture Art Leaders Political entities State leaders Religious leaders Political entities State leaders Religious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Art and literature 1468 in poetry v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1468 MCDLXVIII Ab urbe condita 2221 Armenian calendar 917 ԹՎ ՋԺԷ Assyrian calendar 6218 Balinese saka calendar 1389–1390 Bengali calendar 874–875 Berber calendar 2418 English Regnal year 7 Edw. 4 – 8 Edw. 4 Buddhist calendar 2012 Burmese calendar 830 Byzantine calendar 6976–6977 Chinese calendar 丁亥 年 (Fire Pig ) 4165 or 3958 — to — 戊子年 (Earth Rat ) 4166 or 3959 Coptic calendar 1184–1185 Discordian calendar 2634 Ethiopian calendar 1460–1461 Hebrew calendar 5228–5229 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1524–1525 - Shaka Samvat 1389–1390 - Kali Yuga 4568–4569 Holocene calendar 11468 Igbo calendar 468–469 Iranian calendar 846–847 Islamic calendar 872–873 Japanese calendar Ōnin 2 (応仁２年) Javanese calendar 1384–1385 Julian calendar 1468 MCDLXVIII Korean calendar 3801 Minguo calendar 444 before ROC 民前444年 Nanakshahi calendar 0 Thai solar calendar 2010–2011 Tibetan calendar མེ་མོ་ཕག་ལོ་ (female Fire- Boar ) 1594 or 1213 or 441 — to — ས་ཕོ་བྱི་བ་ལོ་ (male Earth- Rat ) 1595 or 1214 or 442 Year 1468 ( MCDLXVIII ) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar . Events January–March January 31 – Abu Al-Nasr Sayf ad-Din Al-Ashraf Qaitbay (generally referred to as "Qaitbay") is installed by Mamluk Egyptian nobles as the new Sultan of Egypt and Syria , the day after the Sultan Timurbugha had been removed after less than two months on the throne. [ 1 ] February 15 – The Earl of Desmond , Thomas FitzGerald, until recently the Kingdom of England's Lord Deputy of Ireland , is beheaded on orders of his successor, John Tiptoft , shortly after being arrested on accusations of treason against the Crown, then quickly tried and convicted in a show trial. [ 2 ] February 16 – A "marriage treaty" is signed between representatives of the Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Burgundy, providing for the marriage of King Edward IV 's sister, Margaret of York , to Charles the Bold , Duke of Burgundy. [ 3 ] March 14 – King Edward IV ratifies the treaty permitting his sister to marry the Duke of Burgundy [ 3 ] March 31 – King Matyas of Hungary issues a declaration of war against King Jiri of Bohemia , starting a war that will last 10 years . [ 4 ] April–June April 1 – King Louis XI summons a meeting of France's parliament, the Estates-General , and obtains approval of all concessions he had previously made to the Kingdom of England, including those with reference to Normandy. [ 5 ] April 25 – At Stirling in Scotland, the Lord Boyd, the regent for King James III, enters an agreement for joint rule with the members of his council (the bishops of Glasgow and of Aberdeen, the earls of Argyll and of Arran, the provost of Lincluden, and Archibald Whitelaw) to co-operate in the governing of Scotland. [ 6 ] May 30 – After invading Syria, Shah Suwar , the Ottoman Governor of Dulkadir , triumphs in battle over various Mamluk Syrian governors and emirs and captures Kulaksiz. [ 7 ] The Governor of Damascus, Uzbek Bey , is seriously wounded but manages to escape. June 7 – King Edward IV of England gives royal assent to numerous laws passed by the English Parliament, including the Cloths Act, the Liveries Act and the Sheriffs Act. [ 8 ] July–September July 24 – (5th waxing of Wagaung , 830 ME ) At Pyay (now in Myanmar ) Thihathura of Ava becomes the new Burmese King of Ava upon the death of his father, Narapati I of Ava . [ 9 ] July 30 – Catherine Cornaro is married by proxy to James II of Cyprus , beginning the Venetian conquest of Cyprus . [ 10 ] August 14 – The Lancastrians surrender Harlech Castle to King Edward IV after a seven-year siege. [ 11 ] August 26 – Baeda Maryam succeeds his father Zara Yaqob, as Emperor of Ethiopia . September 8 – The Orkney Islands are pledged to Scotland by King Christian I of Kingdom of Norway in consideration of an agreement for the marriage of 16-year-old King James III of Scotland to Princess Margrete , King Christian's daughter, with the islands pledged as security against the payment of the dowry . As the money is never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland becomes perpetual. [ 12 ] September 9 – At Hanseong , Prince Yi Hwang of the Joseon dynasty becomes the new King of Korea , taking the regnal name Yejong , upon the death of his father, King Sejo . [ 13 ] September 18 – The Great Council of the Republic of Venice curbs the power of the Council of Ten through legislation restricting them to acting on emergency matters. [ 14 ] September 19 – In the Kingdom of Castile in Spain, near El Tiemblo , the " Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando " ( Tratado de los Toros de Guisando ) is signed between King Enrique IV the Impotent and his half-sister, Princess Isabella . [ 15 ] The treaty, executed at the ancient sculpture of bulls near Ávila , designates Isabella as heiress to the throne of Castile and Leon. She will become the Queen upon Enrique's death six years later. October–December October 14 – The Treaty of Péronne is signed by Charles the Bold , Duke of Burgundy, and Louis XI of France. [ 16 ] October 30 – Troops of Charles the Bold conduct the Sack of Liège . November 20 – The Hanseatic warship Hanneke Vrome capsizes and sinks off of the coast of Finland , killing its estimated 180 passengers and crew, along with a valuable cargo including 10,000 Rheingulden coins, equivalent to at least 34,000 kilograms (75,000 lb) of gold. [ 17 ] The ship had been sailing between the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck (in Germany) and Reval (now Tallinn , capital of Estonia ) when it ran into a gale . December 9 – In the course of the " Boeckler War " in the Duchy of Bavaria-Munich , the troops of Duke Albert IV begin the siege of Weissenstein Castle in reprisal for the rebellion of Lord Eberwein von Degenburg . The troops, commanded by Georg of Lerchenfeld capture the castle before Christmas and burn it to the ground. [ 18 ] Date unknown Fire breaks out at Metz Cathedral in France. Sonni Ali , king of the Songhai Empire , takes power over Timbuktu . Births February 29 – Pope Paul III (d. 1549 ) [ 19 ] March 28 – Charles I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1490 ) April 27 – Frederick Jagiellon , Primate of Poland (d. 1503 ) May 31 – Philip, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen , German prince (d. 1500 ) June 30 – John, Elector of Saxony (1525–1532) (d. 1532 ) [ 20 ] July 24 – Catherine of Saxony, Archduchess of Austria (d. 1524 ) August 3 – Albert I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels , Count of Kladsko (d. 1511 ) August 26 – Bernardo de' Rossi , Italian bishop (d. 1527 ) December 21 – William Conyers, 1st Baron Conyers , English baron (d. 1524 ) date unknown Marino Ascanio Caracciolo , Italian cardinal (d. 1538 ) Mir Chakar Khan Rind , Baloch chieftain (d. 1565 ) Juan de Zumárraga , Spanish Franciscan prelate and first bishop of Mexico (d. 1548 ) Marino Ascanio Caracciolo , Italian cardinal (d. 1538 ) Mir Chakar Khan Rind , Baloch chieftain (d. 1565 ) Juan de Zumárraga , Spanish Franciscan prelate and first bishop of Mexico (d. 1548 ) probable – Alonso de Ojeda , Spanish conquistador and explorer (d. 1515 ) Deaths February 3 – Johannes Gutenberg , inventor of printing press with replaceable letters (b. c. 1398 ) [ 21 ] March 12 – Astorre II Manfredi , Italian noble (b. 1412 ) September 23 – Sejo of Joseon , King of Joseon (b. 1417 ) June 10 – Idris Imad al-Din , supreme leader of Tayyibi Isma'ilism , scholar and historian (b. 1392 ) [ 22 ] June 14 – Margaret Beauchamp , countess of Shrewsbury June 30 – Lady Eleanor Talbot , English noblewoman July 5 – Alfonso, Prince of Asturias (b. 1453 ) September 26 – Juan de Torquemada , Spanish Catholic cardinal (b. 1388 ) [ 23 ] October 7 – Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta , lord of Rimini (b. 1417 ) October 28 – Bianca Maria Visconti , Duchess of Milan (b. 1425 ) November 24 – Jean de Dunois , French soldier (b. 1402 ) December 6 – Zanobi Strozzi , Italian painter (b. 1412 ) date unknown Joanot Martorell , Spanish writer (b. 1419 ) [ 24 ] Francesco Squarcione , Italian artist (b. ca. 1395) Zara Yaqob , Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1399 ) Pomellina Fregoso , Monegaque regent (b. 1388 Joanot Martorell , Spanish writer (b. 1419 ) [ 24 ] Francesco Squarcione , Italian artist (b. ca. 1395) Zara Yaqob , Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1399 ) Pomellina Fregoso , Monegaque regent (b. 1388 References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Petry, C. F. (1993). Twilight of Majesty: the reigns of the Mamlūk Sultans al-Ashrāf Qāytbāy and Qānṣūh al-Ghawrī in Egypt . Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 36– 43. ISBN 9780295973074 . ^ Lydon, James (2012). The Making of Ireland: From Ancient Times to the Present . Taylor & Francis. p. 109. ISBN 9781134981502 . ^ a b Ross, Charles (2023). Edward IV . University of California Press. ISBN 9780520322561 . ^ Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 . I.B. Tauris Publishers. p. 304. ISBN 1-86064-061-3 . ^ François Guizot, The History of France from the Earliest Times to the Outbreak of the Revolution (S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1879) p.204 ^ Roland Tanner, The Late Medieval Scottish Parliament: Politics and the Three Estates, 1424–1488 (Birlinn, 2022) ^ Yinanç, Refet (1989). Dulkadir Beyliği (in Turkish). Ankara: Turkish Historical Society Press. pp. 64– 66. ISBN 9751601711 . OCLC 21676736 . ^ "8° Edw. IV." . The Statutes of the Realm . Vol. 2: 1377 to 1509. Dawsons of Pall Mall. 1963. pp. 424– 430 – via Hathi Trust . ^ Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 2 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar. ^ De Girolami Cheney, Liana (2013). "Caterina Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus". In Barrett-Graves, Debra (ed.). The Emblematic Queen Extra-Literary Representations of Early Modern Queenship . Palgrave Macmillan. ^ Taylor, Arnold (2007). Harlech Castle . Cardiff, Wales: Cadw. ISBN 978-1-85760-257-9 . ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Boyd, Robert Boyd, Lord ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 353– 354. ^ Han, Hee-Sook (2004). "Women's Life during the Chosŏn Dynasty" (PDF) . International Journal of Korean History . 6 : 159 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . ^ Grubb, James S. (2019). Firstborn of Venice: Vicenza in the Early Renaissance State . Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9781421431888 . ^ Rubin, Nancy (1992). Isabella of Castile: The First Renaissance Queen . St. Martin's Press . Chapters 8-9. ISBN 978-0-312-08511-7 . ^ Philippe de Commynes (1892). The Memoirs of Philip de Commines, Lord of Argenton: Containing the Histories of Louis XI, and Charles VIII. Kings of France and of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy . G. Bell and Sons. p. 130. ^ Rauno Koivusaari and Mikko Heikkilä: Suomen rannikon aarrelaivat ( Treasure ships of the Finnish coast ) (Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 2000) ISBN 951-1-16734-0 , p. 11 ^ Weißenstein Castle of the website of the House of Bavarian History ^ "Paul III | pope" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 22 April 2019 . ^ "John | elector of Saxony" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 20 October 2020 . ^ Philip B. Meggs (9 September 1998). A History of Graphic Design . Wiley. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5 . ^ Qutbuddin, Tahera (2018). "Idrīs ʿImād al-Dīn" . In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun ; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_32368 . ISSN 1873-9830 . ^ Kenneth Meyer Setton (1976). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571 . American Philosophical Society. p. 282. ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9 . ^ Mediaevalia . Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton. 2000. p. 68. 1468 CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr) CS1: long volume value CS1 Burmese-language sources (my) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata This page was last edited on 6 September 2025, at 07:11 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1468
|
Main Page Browse Recent changes Guided tours Random Help Portal Colloquium News Projects Sandbox Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents Beginning 1 About Wikipedia 2 Wikipedia and the Neutrality Principle 3 Learning resources Toggle Learning resources subsection 3.1 Syllabi 3.2 Assignments and exercises 3.3 Videos 3.4 Slides 3.5 Scientific publications 3.6 Text books 3.7 Glossaries 3.8 Wikipedia articles 3.9 Case studies 3.10 Statistical sources 3.11 University level courses 3.12 Other courses, workshops, conferences and events 3.13 Other lists of learning resources 3.1 Syllabi 3.2 Assignments and exercises 3.3 Videos 3.4 Slides 3.5 Scientific publications 3.6 Text books 3.7 Glossaries 3.8 Wikipedia articles 3.9 Case studies 3.10 Statistical sources 3.11 University level courses 3.12 Other courses, workshops, conferences and events 3.13 Other lists of learning resources 4 See also Toggle See also subsection 4.1 Wiki 4.2 Wikipedia 4.3 MediaWiki 4.4 Wikimedia 4.5 Wikipedia related 4.1 Wiki 4.2 Wikipedia 4.3 MediaWiki 4.4 Wikimedia 4.5 Wikipedia related Wikipedia العربية Deutsch Français Resource Discuss Read Edit Edit source View history Read Edit Edit source View history What links here Related changes Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Commons Wikibooks Wikidata Wikinews Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource Wikispecies Wikivoyage Wiktionary Meta-Wiki Outreach MediaWiki Wikimania Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikidata item WP These learning resources aim at providing knowledge that all Wikipedia and w:Wikimedia users, authors and administrators should possess. It aims at answering questions such as: How can wikis and Wikipedia as phenomenon be understood? How to edit and administrate Wikipedia and Mediawiki sites? How can students, teachers, librarians, journalists, etc, use and relate to Wikipedia and other wikis? What are the main criticisms of Wikipedia? What research exists related to Wikipedia as phenomenon? What are the current wiki technology development trends? These learning resources aim at providing knowledge that all Wikipedia and w:Wikimedia users, authors and administrators should possess. It aims at answering questions such as: How can wikis and Wikipedia as phenomenon be understood? How to edit and administrate Wikipedia and Mediawiki sites? How can students, teachers, librarians, journalists, etc, use and relate to Wikipedia and other wikis? What are the main criticisms of Wikipedia? What research exists related to Wikipedia as phenomenon? What are the current wiki technology development trends? About Wikipedia Wikipedia is a multilingual, wiki -based, free-content online encyclopedia project. The name is a portmanteau of the words wiki, the Hawaiian word meaning quick, and encyclopedia. Wikipedia is written collaboratively by volunteers, allowing most of its articles to be edited by almost anyone with access to the website and is a free site for all types of ages. Its main servers are in Tampa, Florida, with additional servers in Amsterdam and Seoul. Wikipedia was launched as an English language project on January 15, 2001, as a complement to the expert-written and now defunct Nupedia , and is now operated by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. It was created by Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales; Sanger resigned from both Nupedia and Wikipedia on March 1, 2002. Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a multilingual free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". Wikipedia has more than fifty eight million articles in many languages, including more than 6 million articles in both the English-language version and the Cebuano-language version and more than two million in the German-language version. There are 250 language editions of Wikipedia, and 18 of them have more than 50,000 articles. The German-language edition has been distributed on DVD-ROM, and there have been proposals for an English DVD or print edition. Since its inception, Wikipedia has steadily risen in popularity, and has spawned several sister projects. According to Alexa, Wikipedia ranks among the top fifteen most visited sites, and many of its pages have been mirrored or forked by other sites, such as Answers.com. There has been controversy over Wikipedia's reliability and accuracy, with the site receiving criticism for its susceptibility to vandalism, uneven quality and inconsistency, systemic bias, and preference for consensus or popularity over credentials. Information is sometimes unconfirmed and questionable, lacking the proper sources that, in the eyes of most "Wikipedians" (as Wikipedia's contributors call themselves), are necessary for an article to be considered "high quality". However, a 2005 comparison performed by the science journal Nature of sections of Wikipedia and the Encyclopædia Britannica found that the two were close in terms of the accuracy of their articles on the natural sciences. This study was challenged by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., who described it as "fatally flawed". Wikipedia and the Neutrality Principle A precis of key ideas from Jose Van Dijck, who wrote a chapter on Wikipedia and the neutrality principle in her 2013 book, The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media (Oxford University Press). Learning resources The following is a list of learning resources that may be useful as course material on courses about Wikis and Wikipedia. The list is organized after resource type, and includes resources developed within this project and related Wikiversity projects as well as external links. Syllabi Suggested syllabus for a university level course named Wikis and Wikipedia - Authoring, Reliability and Technology. /Writing an article on Wikipedia : a course to take a new user through the process of writing or editing their first article. Assignments and exercises Wikipedia/Quizzes - Multiple choice questions about Wikipedia policies and Wikipedia criticism . Wikipedia pop quiz - at Fanpop.com - Multiple choice questions about Wikipedia history and Wikipedia statistics Inside_Wikipedia#Discussion - Suggested discussion topics about Wikipedia policies and Wikipedia criticism . Wikimedia Ethics/Suggested essays Wikipedia/Suggested essays Generating dynamic content with MediaWiki - Practical exercises Videos These are recorded seminars, lectures, webinars and instructions videos related to Wikipedia: Jimmy Wales, "The Intelligence of Wikipedia", Oxford Internet Institute webcast (54 minutes Real Media or MPEG4) Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales explains the history and growth of Wikipedia with a particular focus on the internal community process which ensure a constant growth in quality. Wikia training videos Youtube search: Wikipedia Slides See also: Commons:Category:Wikimedia_presentations_in_English and meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Presentations . These are slide show presentations, lecture notes and handouts related to Wikipedia: Anne Pemberton, Rachel Radom, "Wikipedia 360° - The Good, The Bad, and the Anonymous", Randall Library, University of North Carolina Wilmington, September 2007 Phoebe S. Ayers, "Wikipedia 101 - or, how I learned to stop worrying and trust the Internet", UC Davis University Library, California Library Association Annual Meeting, February 2007 Aubri Keleman, "Teaching in Wikiland - An introduction to using Wikis in the classroom, January 2006 Martha Groom, Andreas Brockhaus, "Using Wikipedia to Re-envision the Term Paper", University of Washington Bothell, October 2007 Ken Winter, "Wiki, the Web and WorldCat: Open Editing and Research In Action" Committee on Library and Information Science for Transportation Annual meeting, January 2006 Dirk Riehle, "Learning from Wikipedia: Open collaboration within organisations", Talk the Future - the Future of Work and Business Conference, September 2008 Scientific publications These are peer-reviewed academic papers related to Wikipedia, that students may review and use as references: Academic studies about Wikipedia A review of some research publications related to Wikipedia List of academic studies on Wikipedia ( w:WP:ACST ) List of academic conference presentations, peer-reviewed papers and other types of academic writing which focus on Wikipedia Wiki Research Bibliography - meta list article Wikimedia research - Wikiversity category Google scholar search: Wikipedia Text books These text books may be used as course literature: John Broughton, Wikipedia: The Missing Manual , O'Reilly, 2008 - Preview Phoebe Ayers ; Charles Matthews ; Ben Yates (September 2008). How Wikipedia Works - And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press . ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Dan Woods, Peter Thoeny, Ward Cunningham, Wikis For Dummies , 2007 - Preview Wiki Science - wikibook Starting and Running a Wiki Website - wikibook MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook - wikibook MediaWiki User Guide - wikibook List of books which have discussed Wikipedia Google books search for "Wikipedia" Glossaries These glossares may serve as lists of terms that a student should understand after a course about Wikipedia: Wikipedia:Glossary Wikiversity:Glossary Wikipedia articles These are articles, essays and help pages available at en.wikipedia.org, that may be useful as course materials on a course about Wikipedia: Introduction Welcome to Wikipedia Help pages Criticism of Wikipedia Reliability of Wikipedia Citing Wikipedia Researching with Wikipedia History of Wikipedia Wiki Wikipedia Criticisms Why Wikipedia is not so great School and university projects Case studies Wikimedia Ethics Case Studies Statistical sources Wikipedia statistics Wikipedia article traffic statistics - Comparison of invidual articles Wikimedia official statistics - Comparison of wiki language versions Wikistats by S23 - Statistics about Mediawikis - Comparison of wiki language versions List of Wikipedias - Comparison of wiki language versions Poll of Wikimedians by religion University level courses Informatics BA (A), Wikipedia – Authoring, Reliability and Technology, 7.5 higher education credits , Swedish distance course offered from fall 2009. Other courses, workshops, conferences and events Wikipedia academies Wikimania Elective part of the Australian Higher School Certificate syllabus English stage 6 , Standard Module C, Elective 1: The Global Village, 2009-2012 (Board of Studies, New South Wales). See media coverage: Wikipedia Signpost , www.brisbanetimes.com . Other lists of learning resources Government of Western Austarialian, Department of education & training, Resourcing the Curriculum: Wikis in te classroom Government of Western Austarialian, Department of education & training, Resourcing the Curriculum: Wikipedia K-12 wiki resources Utah State University list of resources: Wiki Utah State University list of resources: Web2.0: Wikis See also See also other wikiversity resources and pages: Wiki Learn to learn a wiki way Learning to edit a wiki Wiki Wiki portal Wikipedia Search for Wikipedia on Wikipedia . Inside Wikipedia Pywikipediabot Wikipedia service-learning courses Is Wikipedia a legitimate research source? MediaWiki Generating dynamic content with MediaWiki MediaWiki Project MediaWiki - a Wikiversity topic Wikimedia How to be a Wikimedia sysop Wikimedia studies portal - a Wikiversity portal School of WikiService Wikimedia Ethics Wikipedia related WikiGame Wikipedia Resources with related material at Wikipedia This page was last edited on 27 December 2025, at 23:11. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikiversity Disclaimers Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikipedia
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Writing style Toggle Writing style subsection 1.1 Tone 1.2 Balance 1.3 Attack pages 1.1 Tone 1.2 Balance 1.3 Attack pages 2 Reliable sources Toggle Reliable sources subsection 2.1 Challenged or likely to be challenged 2.2 Avoid misuse of primary sources 2.3 Self-published sources 2.3.1 Avoid self-published sources 2.3.2 Using the subject as a self-published source 2.4 Avoid gossip and feedback loops 2.5 Remove contentious material that is unsourced or poorly sourced 2.6 Further reading, External links, and See also 2.1 Challenged or likely to be challenged 2.2 Avoid misuse of primary sources 2.3 Self-published sources 2.3.1 Avoid self-published sources 2.3.2 Using the subject as a self-published source 2.3.1 Avoid self-published sources 2.3.2 Using the subject as a self-published source 2.4 Avoid gossip and feedback loops 2.5 Remove contentious material that is unsourced or poorly sourced 2.6 Further reading, External links, and See also 3 Presumption in favor of privacy Toggle Presumption in favor of privacy subsection 3.1 Avoid victimization 3.2 Public figures 3.3 People who are relatively unknown 3.4 Privacy of personal information and using primary sources 3.4.1 Privacy of names 3.5 Deadnaming and misgendering of transgender people 3.6 Subjects notable only for one event 3.7 People accused of crime 3.1 Avoid victimization 3.2 Public figures 3.3 People who are relatively unknown 3.4 Privacy of personal information and using primary sources 3.4.1 Privacy of names 3.4.1 Privacy of names 3.5 Deadnaming and misgendering of transgender people 3.6 Subjects notable only for one event 3.7 People accused of crime 4 Use in continued disputes 5 Applicability Toggle Applicability subsection 5.1 Non-article space 5.2 Usernames 5.3 Images 5.4 Categories, lists, and navigation templates 5.5 Recently dead or probably dead 5.6 Legal persons and groups 5.1 Non-article space 5.2 Usernames 5.3 Images 5.4 Categories, lists, and navigation templates 5.5 Recently dead or probably dead 5.6 Legal persons and groups 6 Maintenance Toggle Maintenance subsection 6.1 Importance 6.2 Templates 6.1 Importance 6.2 Templates 7 Relationship between the subject, the article, and Wikipedia Toggle Relationship between the subject, the article, and Wikipedia subsection 7.1 Dealing with edits by the subject of the article 7.2 Dealing with articles about yourself 7.3 Legal issues 7.4 How to contact the Wikimedia Foundation 7.5 Wikimedia Foundation resolution 7.1 Dealing with edits by the subject of the article 7.2 Dealing with articles about yourself 7.3 Legal issues 7.4 How to contact the Wikimedia Foundation 7.5 Wikimedia Foundation resolution 8 Role of administrators Toggle Role of administrators subsection 8.1 Page protection and blocks 8.2 Contentious topics 8.3 Deletion 8.3.1 Summary deletion, creation prevention, and courtesy blanking 8.3.2 Relatively unknown subjects 8.3.3 Restoration 8.3.4 Proposals 8.1 Page protection and blocks 8.2 Contentious topics 8.3 Deletion 8.3.1 Summary deletion, creation prevention, and courtesy blanking 8.3.2 Relatively unknown subjects 8.3.3 Restoration 8.3.4 Proposals 8.3.1 Summary deletion, creation prevention, and courtesy blanking 8.3.2 Relatively unknown subjects 8.3.3 Restoration 8.3.4 Proposals 9 See also Toggle See also subsection 9.1 Foundation policies and resolutions 9.2 Arbitration cases 9.3 Policies 9.4 Guidelines 9.5 Requests for comment 9.6 FAQs 9.7 Essays 9.8 Discussion forums 9.9 Related pages 9.1 Foundation policies and resolutions 9.2 Arbitration cases 9.3 Policies 9.4 Guidelines 9.5 Requests for comment 9.6 FAQs 9.7 Essays 9.8 Discussion forums 9.9 Related pages 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading Wikipedia : Biographies of living persons Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation Meta-Wiki Wikispecies Wikidata Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia policy . It describes a widely accepted standard that all editors should normally follow. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:BLP WP:BLP WP:BLP WP:BLP Report problems about particular biographical material on Wikipedia to the biographies of living persons noticeboard . .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} See also § Dealing with articles about yourself , below. This page in a nutshell: Material about living persons added to any Wikipedia page must be written with the greatest care and attention to verifiability , neutrality , and avoidance of original research . Content policies Neutral point of view No original research Verifiability Article titles Biographies of living persons Image use policy What Wikipedia is not Neutral point of view No original research Verifiability Article titles Biographies of living persons Image use policy What Wikipedia is not .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Editors must take particular care when adding information about living persons to any Wikipedia page, including but not limited to articles, talk pages, project pages, and drafts. [ a ] Such material requires a high degree of sensitivity, and must adhere strictly to all applicable laws in the United States, to this policy, and to Wikipedia's three core content policies: Neutral point of view (NPOV) Verifiability (V) No original research (NOR) Wikipedia must get the article right . Be very firm about the use of high-quality, reliable sources . All quotations and any material challenged or likely to be challenged must be supported by an inline citation to a reliable , published source. Contentious material about living (or, in some cases, recently deceased) persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced—whether the material is negative, positive, neutral, or just questionable—must be removed immediately and without waiting for discussion . [ 1 ] Users who persistently or egregiously violate this policy may be blocked from editing . Biographies of living persons (" BLPs ") must be written conservatively and with regard for the subject's privacy. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia , not a tabloid : it is not Wikipedia's job to be sensationalist, or to be the primary vehicle for the spread of titillating claims about people's lives; the possibility of harm to living subjects must always be considered when exercising editorial judgment. This policy applies to any living person mentioned in a BLP, whether or not that person is the subject of the article, and to material about living persons in other articles and on other pages, including talk pages. [ b ] The burden of evidence rests with the editor who adds or restores the material. Writing style WP:BLPSTYLE WP:BLPSTYLE Tone BLPs should be written responsibly, cautiously, and in a dispassionate tone, avoiding both understatement and overstatement. Articles should document in a non-partisan manner what reliable secondary sources have published about the subjects, and in some circumstances what the subjects have published about themselves. Summarize how actions and achievements are characterized by reliable sources without giving undue weight to recent events . Do not label people with contentious labels , loaded language , or terms that lack precision, unless a person is commonly described that way in reliable sources. Instead use clear, direct language and let facts alone do the talking. Balance WP:BLPBALANCE WP:BLPBALANCE Criticism and praise should be included if they can be sourced to reliable secondary sources, so long as the material is presented responsibly, conservatively, and in a disinterested tone. Do not give disproportionate space to particular viewpoints; the views of small minorities should not be included at all. Care must be taken with article structure to ensure the overall presentation and section headings are broadly neutral. Beware of claims that rely on guilt by association , and biased, malicious or overly promotional content. The idea expressed in Eventualism —that every Wikipedia article is a work in progress, and that it is therefore okay for an article to be temporarily unbalanced because it will eventually be brought into shape—does not apply to biographies. Given their potential impact on biography subjects' lives, biographies must be fair to their subjects at all times. Attack pages Pages that are unsourced and negative in tone, especially when they appear to have been created primarily to disparage the subject, should be deleted at once if there is no policy-compliant version to revert to; see § Summary deletion, creation prevention, and courtesy blanking , below . Non-administrators should tag them with {{ db-attack }} or {{ db-negublp }} . Creation of such pages, especially when repeated or in bad faith, is grounds for immediate blocking. Reliable sources WP:BLPRS WP:BLPRS WP:BLPSOURCES WP:BLPSOURCES WP:BLPSOURCE WP:BLPSOURCE Challenged or likely to be challenged Wikipedia's sourcing policy, Verifiability , says that all quotations and any material challenged or likely to be challenged must be attributed to a reliable, published source using an inline citation ; material not meeting this standard may be removed. This policy extends that principle, adding that contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced should be removed immediately and without discussion . This applies whether the material is negative, positive, neutral, or just questionable, and whether the material is in a biography or in some other article. Such material should not be added to an article when the only available sources are tabloid journalism . When material is both verifiable and noteworthy, it will have appeared in more reliable sources. Avoid misuse of primary sources WP:BLPPRIMARY WP:BLPPRIMARY Exercise extreme caution in using primary sources. Do not use trial transcripts and other court records, or other public documents, to support assertions about a living person. Do not use public records that include personal details, such as date of birth, home value, traffic citations, vehicle registrations, and home or business addresses. Where primary-source material has been discussed by a reliable secondary source, it may be acceptable to rely on it to augment the secondary source, subject to the restrictions of this policy, no original research , and the other sourcing policies. [ c ] Self-published sources Avoid self-published sources WP:BLPSPS WP:BLPSPS Never use self-published sources (including books, zines , websites, blogs, podcasts, or social network posts) as sources of material about a living person, unless written or published by the person themselves . "Self-published blogs" in this context refers to personal and group blogs. It does not refer to a reputable organisation publishing material about who it employs or to whom and why it grants awards, for example. Some news organizations host online columns that they call blogs, and these may be acceptable as sources so long as the writers are professionals and the blog is subject to the newspaper's full editorial control. Posts left by readers are never acceptable as sources. See § Images below for our policy on self-published images. Using the subject as a self-published source WP:BLPSELFPUB WP:BLPSELFPUB There are living persons who publish material about themselves , such as through press releases or personal websites. Such material may be used as a source only if: it is not unduly self-serving; it does not involve claims about third parties; it does not involve claims about events not directly related to the subject; there is no reasonable doubt as to its authenticity; and the article is not based primarily on such sources. Avoid gossip and feedback loops WP:BLPGOSSIP WP:BLPGOSSIP Avoid repeating gossip . Ask yourself whether the source is reliable; whether the material is being presented as true; and whether, even if true, it is relevant to a disinterested article about the subject. Be wary of relying on sources that use weasel words and that attribute material to anonymous sources. Also beware of circular reporting , in which material in a Wikipedia article is picked up by a source, which is later cited in the Wikipedia article to support the original edit. Remove contentious material that is unsourced or poorly sourced WP:GRAPEVINE WP:GRAPEVINE WP:BLPREMOVE WP:BLPREMOVE Remove immediately any contentious material about a living person that: is unsourced or poorly sourced; is an original interpretation or analysis of a source, or a synthesis of sources (see also Wikipedia:No original research ) ; relies on self-published sources, unless written by the subject of the BLP (see § Using the subject as a self-published source , above) ; or relies on sources that fail in some other way to meet verifiability standards. Note that, although the three-revert rule does not apply to such removals , what counts as exempt under BLP can be controversial. Editors who find themselves in edit wars over potentially defamatory material about living persons should consider raising the matter at the biographies of living persons noticeboard instead of relying on the exemption. Administrators are allowed to enforce the removal of clear BLP violations with page protection or by blocking the violator(s), even if they have been editing the article themselves or are in some other way involved. In less clear cases they should request the attention of an uninvolved administrator at the administrators' noticeboard/Incidents page . See § Role of administrators , below . Further reading, External links, and See also WP:BLPEL WP:BLPEL WP:BLPFR WP:BLPFR WP:BLPSEEALSO WP:BLPSEEALSO External links about living persons, whether in BLPs or elsewhere, are held to a higher standard than for other topics. Questionable or self-published sources should not be included in the "Further reading" or "External links" sections of BLPs, and, when including such links in other articles, make sure the material linked to does not violate this policy. Self-published sources written or published by the subject of a BLP may be included in the "Further reading" or "External links" sections of that BLP with caution (see § Using the subject as a self-published source , above) . In general, do not link to websites that contradict the spirit of this policy or violate the external links guideline . Where that guideline is inconsistent with this or any other policy, the policies prevail. "See also" links, whether placed in their own section or in a note within the text, should not be used to imply any contentious labeling, association, or claim regarding a living person, and must adhere to Wikipedia's policy of no original research . Presumption in favor of privacy Avoid victimization WP:AVOIDVICTIM WP:AVOIDVICTIM WP:VICTIMIZE WP:VICTIMIZE When writing about a person noteworthy only for one or two events, including every detail can lead to problems—even when the material is well sourced. When in doubt, biographies should be pared back to a version that is completely sourced, neutral, and on-topic. This is of particular importance when dealing with living individuals whose notability stems largely or entirely from being victims of another's actions. Wikipedia editors must not act, intentionally or otherwise, in a way that amounts to participating in or prolonging the victimization. Public figures WP:PUBLICFIGURE WP:PUBLICFIGURE WP:WELLKNOWN WP:WELLKNOWN WP:BLPPUBLIC WP:BLPPUBLIC In the case of public figures , there will be a multitude of reliable published sources, and BLPs should simply document what these sources say. If an allegation or incident is noteworthy, relevant, and well documented, it belongs in the article, even if it is negative and the subject dislikes all mention of it. If you cannot find multiple reliable third-party sources documenting the allegation or incident, leave it out. Example: "John Doe had a messy divorce from Jane Doe." Is the divorce important to the article, and was it published by third-party reliable sources? If not, leave it out. If so, avoid use of "messy" and stick to the facts: "John Doe and Jane Doe divorced." Example: A politician is alleged to have had an affair. It is denied, but multiple major newspapers publish the allegations, and there is a public scandal. The allegation belongs in the biography, citing those sources. It should state only that the politician was alleged to have had the affair, not that the affair actually occurred . If the subject has denied such allegations, their denial(s) should be reported too. People who are relatively unknown WP:NOTPUBLICFIGURE WP:NOTPUBLICFIGURE WP:NPF WP:NPF Many Wikipedia articles contain material on people who are not well known, regardless of whether they are notable enough for their own article. In such cases, exercise restraint and include only material relevant to the person's notability, focusing on high-quality secondary sources . Material published by the subject may be used, but with caution (see § Using the subject as a self-published source , above) . Material that may adversely affect a person's reputation should be treated with special care; in many jurisdictions, repeating a defamatory claim is actionable, and there are additional protections for subjects who are not public figures. Privacy of personal information and using primary sources WP:BLPPRIVACY WP:BLPPRIVACY WP:DOB WP:DOB With identity theft a serious ongoing concern, many people regard their full names and dates of birth as private. Wikipedia includes full names and dates of birth that have been widely published by reliable sources, or by sources linked to the subject such that it may reasonably be inferred that the subject does not object to the details being made public. If a subject complains about our inclusion of their date of birth, or the person is borderline notable , err on the side of caution and simply list the year, provided that there is a reliable source for it. In a similar vein, articles should not include postal addresses, e-mail addresses, telephone numbers, or other contact information for living persons, although links to websites maintained by the subject are generally permitted. See § Avoid misuse of primary sources regarding the misuse of primary sources to obtain personal information about subjects. The standard for inclusion of personal information of living persons is higher than mere existence of a reliable source that could be verified. [ 2 ] WP:DOBCONFLICT WP:DOBCONFLICT If multiple independent reliable sources state differing years or dates of birth in conflict, include all birth dates/years for which a reliable source exists, clearly noting discrepancies. In this situation, editors must not include only one date/year which they consider "most likely", or include merely a single date from one of two or more reliable sources. Original research must not be used to extrapolate the date of birth. [ 3 ] (e.g. Joan Crawford#Notes ) A verified social media account of an article subject saying about themselves something along the lines of "today is my 50th birthday" may fall under self-published sources for purposes of reporting a full date of birth. It may be usable if there is no reason to doubt it. [ 4 ] If you see personal information such as phone numbers, addresses, account numbers, etc. in a BLP or anywhere on Wikipedia, edit the page to remove it and contact the oversight team so that they can evaluate it and possibly remove it from the page history. To reduce the chances of triggering the Streisand effect , use a bland/generic edit summary and do not mention that you will be requesting Oversight. Privacy of names WP:BLPNAME WP:BLPNAME WP:LPNAME WP:LPNAME Caution should be applied when identifying individuals who are discussed primarily in terms of a single event. When the name of a private individual has not been widely disseminated or has been intentionally concealed, such as in certain court cases or occupations, it is often preferable to omit it, especially when doing so does not result in a significant loss of context. When deciding whether to include a name, its publication in non-media secondary sources, such as scholarly journals or the work of recognized experts, should be afforded greater weight than brief appearances in news stories. The appearance of names in citations, such as in newspaper headlines, is not restricted, but editors can consider finding alternative sources that do not use the name. [ d ] Consider whether the inclusion of names of living private individuals who are not directly involved in an article's topic adds significant value. The presumption in favor of privacy is strong in the case of family members of articles' subjects and other loosely involved, otherwise low-profile persons. The names of any immediate, former, or significant family members or any significant relationship of the subject of a BLP may be part of an article, if reliably sourced, subject to editorial discretion that such information is relevant to a reader's complete understanding of the subject. [ e ] Names of family members who are not also notable public figures must be removed from an article if they are not properly sourced. Deadnaming and misgendering of transgender people WP:RVDEADNAME WP:RVDEADNAME WP:RVMISGENDER WP:RVMISGENDER Whether a deadname or misgendering of a living person is removed is a matter of editorial judgment if it appears in reliable sources. In addition, whether revision deletion is used is based on administrative discretion, though suppression may be appropriate in some circumstances if there are privacy concerns . Both decisions are context-dependent. [ 5 ] Subjects notable only for one event WP:BLP1E WP:BLP1E Wikipedia is not news, or an indiscriminate collection of information . Being in the news does not in itself mean that someone should be the subject of a Wikipedia article. We generally should avoid having an article on a person when each of three conditions is met: Reliable sources cover the person only in the context of a single event. The person otherwise remains, and is likely to remain, a low-profile individual . Biographies in these cases can give undue weight to the event and conflict with neutral point of view . In such cases, it is usually better to merge the information and redirect the person's name to the event article. The event is not significant or the individual's role was either not substantial or not well documented. John Hinckley Jr. , for example, has a separate article because the single event he was associated with, the Reagan assassination attempt , was significant, and his role was both substantial and well documented. The significance of an event or the individual's role is indicated by how persistent the coverage is in reliable sources. It is important for editors to understand two clear differentiations of the people notable for only one event guideline ( WP:BIO1E ) when compared with this policy ( WP:BLP1E ): WP:BLP1E should be applied only to biographies of living people, or those who have recently died, and to biographies of low-profile individuals . In addition, some subject-specific notability guidelines, such as Wikipedia:Notability (sports) , provide criteria that may support the notability of certain individuals who are known chiefly for one event. People accused of crime WP:BLPCRIME WP:BLPCRIME WP:SUSPECT WP:SUSPECT A living person accused of a crime is presumed innocent until convicted by a court of law. Accusations, investigations, arrests and charges do not amount to a conviction. For individuals who are not public figures —that is, individuals not covered by § Public figures —editors must seriously consider not including material [ d ] —in any article—that suggests the person has committed, is suspected of, is a person of interest in, or is accused of having committed a crime, unless a conviction has been secured for that crime. Names or files of individuals identified as persons of interest should not be included in the article. If different judicial proceedings result in seemingly contradictory outcomes that do not overrule each other, [ f ] include sufficient explanatory information. {{ BLPCRIME editnotice }} can be used in the page notice of an article and {{ BLPCRIME talk notice }} as a talk page header. Use in continued disputes WP:BLPCOI WP:BLPCOI Wikipedia articles concerning living persons may include material—where relevant, properly weighted, and reliably sourced—about controversies or disputes in which the article subject has been involved. Wikipedia is not a forum provided for parties to off-wiki disputes to continue their hostilities. Experience has shown that misusing Wikipedia to perpetuate legal, political, social, literary, scholarly, or other disputes is harmful to the subjects of biographical articles, to other parties in the dispute, and to Wikipedia itself. Therefore, an editor who is involved in a significant controversy or dispute with another individual—whether on- or off-wiki—or who is an avowed rival of that individual, should not edit that person's biography or other material about that person, given the potential conflict of interest . More generally, editors who have a strongly negative or positive view of the subject of a biographical article should be especially careful to edit that article neutrally , if they choose to edit it at all. [ g ] Applicability BLP applies to all material about living persons anywhere on Wikipedia, including talk pages, edit summaries, user pages, images, categories, lists, article titles and drafts . Non-article space WP:BLPTALK WP:BLPTALK Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced and not related to making content choices should be removed, deleted, or oversighted , as appropriate. When seeking advice about whether to publish something about a living person, be careful not to post so much information on the talk page that the inquiry becomes moot. For example, it would be appropriate to begin a discussion by stating @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{color:#00B785}}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk{font-family:Georgia,"DejaVu Serif",serif;color:#008560;quotes:none}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-italic{font-family:inherit;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .inline-quote-talk-marks{quotes:"\"""\""} This link has serious allegations about the subject; should we summarize this someplace in the article? The same principle applies to problematic images. Questionable claims already discussed can be removed with a reference to the previous discussion. The BLP policy also applies to user and user talk pages. The single exception is that users may make any claim they wish about themselves in their user space, so long as they are not engaged in impersonation, and subject to what Wikipedia is not . However, minors are discouraged from disclosing identifying personal information on their userpages. [ h ] Although this policy applies to posts about Wikipedians in project space, some leeway is permitted to allow the handling of administrative issues by the community, but administrators are allowed to delete such material if it rises to the level of defamation, or if it constitutes a violation of no personal attacks . Usernames WP:BLPNAMEABUSE WP:BLPNAMEABUSE Usernames that contain libelous, blatantly false, or contentious statements or material about living persons should be immediately blocked and suppressed from all revisions and logs . This includes usernames that disclose any kind of non-public, private, or personally identifiable information about living persons, regardless of the legitimacy of the information and whether or not the information is correct. Requests for removing such usernames from logs should be reported to the Oversight team for evaluation. Images WP:BLPIMAGE WP:BLPIMAGE WP:MUG WP:MUG Images of living persons should not be used out of context to present a person in a false or disparaging light. This is particularly important for police booking photographs (mugshots), or situations where the subject did not expect to be photographed. Because a police booking photograph can imply that the person depicted was charged with or convicted of a specific crime, a top-quality reliable source with a widely acknowledged reputation for fact-checking and accuracy that links the photograph to the specific incident or crime in question must be cited. Images of living persons that have been created by Wikipedians or others may be used only if they have been released under a copyright licence that is compatible with Wikipedia:Image use policy . WP:AIIMGBLP WP:AIIMGBLP AI-generated images, cartoons or caricatures should not be used to depict subjects of BLPs. Marginal cases (such as major AI enhancement or where an AI-generated image or caricature of a living person is itself notable) are subject to case-by-case consensus. Categories, lists, and navigation templates WP:BLPCAT WP:BLPCAT WP:BLPLIST WP:BLPLIST Category names do not carry disclaimers or modifiers, so the case for each content category must be made clear by the article text and its cited sources . Categorization according to religious beliefs (or lack of such) or sexual orientation should not be done unless the subject has publicly self-identified with the belief or orientation in question, and the subject's beliefs or sexual orientation are relevant to their public life or notability , according to reliable published sources. WP:BLPCRIMINAL WP:BLPCRIMINAL WP:BLPRACIST WP:BLPRACIST Caution should be used with content categories that suggest a person has a poor reputation (see false light ). For example, Category:Criminals and its subcategories should be added only for an incident that is relevant to the person's notability ; the incident was published by reliable third-party sources ; the subject was convicted; and the conviction was not overturned on appeal. Do not categorize biographies of living people under such contentious topics as racism , sexism , extremism , and the like, since these have the effect of labeling a person as a racist, sexist, or extremist. (See also Wikipedia:Overcategorization § Subjective inclusion criteria and Wikipedia:Overcategorization § Opinion about a question or issue .) These principles apply equally to lists, navigation templates, and {{ Infobox }} statements (referring to living persons within any Wikipedia page) that are based on religious beliefs (or lack of such) or sexual orientation or suggest that any living person has a poor reputation. This policy does not limit the use of administrative categories for WikiProjects, article clean-up, or other normal editor activities. Recently dead or probably dead WP:BDP WP:BDP Anyone born within the past 115 years (on or after 16 January 1911 [ update ] ) is covered by this policy unless a reliable source has confirmed their death. Generally, this policy does not apply to material concerning people who are confirmed dead by reliable sources. The only exception would be for people who have recently died, in which case the policy can extend for an indeterminate period beyond the date of death—six months, one year, two years at the outside. Such extensions would apply particularly to contentious or questionable material about the subject that has implications for their living relatives and friends, such as in the case of a possible suicide or particularly gruesome crime. Even without confirmation of death, for the purposes of this policy, anyone born more than 115 years ago is presumed dead unless reliable sources confirm the person to have been living within the past two years. If the date of birth is unknown, editors should use reasonable judgement to infer—from dates of events noted in the article—if it is plausible that the person was born within the last 115 years and is therefore covered by this policy. Legal persons and groups WP:BLPGROUP WP:BLPGROUP This policy does not normally apply to material about corporations, companies, or other entities regarded as legal persons , though any such material must be written in accordance with other content policies. The extent to which the BLP policy applies to edits about groups is complex and must be judged on a case-by-case basis. A harmful statement about a small group or organization comes closer to being a BLP problem than a similar statement about a larger group; and when the group is very small, it may be impossible to draw a distinction between the group and the individuals that make up the group. When in doubt, make sure you are using high-quality sources . Maintenance Importance Wikipedia contains over a million articles about living persons . From both a legal and an ethical standpoint, it is essential that a determined effort be made to eliminate defamatory and other inappropriate material from these articles, but these concerns must be balanced against other concerns, such as allowing articles to show a bias in the subject's favor by removing appropriate material simply because the subject objects to it, or allowing articles about non- notable publicity-seekers to be retained. When in doubt about whether material in a BLP is appropriate, the article should be pared back to a policy-compliant version. Sometimes the use of administrative tools such as page protection and deletion is necessary for the enforcement of this policy, and in extreme cases action by Wikimedia Foundation staff is required. Templates {{ WikiProject banner shell |blp=yes}} may be added to the talk pages of BLPs and other articles that focus on living persons. {{ WikiProject banner shell |blp=other}} is suitable for articles containing material on the deceased that also contains material about living persons. For articles, {{ BLP dispute }} may be used on BLPs needing attention; {{ BLP sources }} on BLPs needing better sourcing (an alternative is {{ BLP primary sources }} ); and {{ BLP unreferenced }} for those with no sources at all. For editors violating this policy, the following can be used to warn them on their talk pages: {{ uw-biog1 }} {{ uw-biog2 }} {{ uw-biog3 }} {{ uw-biog4 }} {{ uw-biog4im }} {{ uw-bioblock }} for when a block is issued The template {{ BLP removal }} can be used on the talk page of an article to explain why material has been removed under this policy, and under what conditions the material may be replaced. Relationship between the subject, the article, and Wikipedia Dealing with edits by the subject of the article WP:BLPEDIT WP:BLPEDIT WP:BLPKIND WP:BLPKIND WP:BLPKINDNESS WP:BLPKINDNESS Subjects sometimes become involved in editing material about themselves, either directly or through a representative. The Arbitration Committee has ruled in favor of showing leniency to BLP subjects who try to fix what they see as errors or unfair material. Editors should make every effort to act with kindness toward the subjects of biographical material when the subjects arrive to express concern. Although Wikipedia discourages people from writing about themselves , removal of unsourced or poorly sourced material is acceptable. When a logged-out editor blanks all or part of a BLP, this might be the subject attempting to remove problematic material. Edits like these by subjects should not be treated as vandalism; instead, the subject should be invited to explain their concerns. The Arbitration Committee established the following principle in December 2005: Wikipedia:Please do not bite the newcomers , a guideline, advises Wikipedia users to consider the obvious fact that new users of Wikipedia will do things wrong from time to time. For those who either have or might have an article about themselves, there is a temptation—especially if apparently wrong or strongly negative information is included in such an article—to become involved in questions regarding their own article. This can open the door to rather immature behavior and loss of dignity for the new user. It is a violation of don't bite the newbies to strongly criticize users who fall into this trap, rather than see this phenomenon as a new editor mistake. [ 6 ] Wikipedia:Please do not bite the newcomers , a guideline, advises Wikipedia users to consider the obvious fact that new users of Wikipedia will do things wrong from time to time. For those who either have or might have an article about themselves, there is a temptation—especially if apparently wrong or strongly negative information is included in such an article—to become involved in questions regarding their own article. This can open the door to rather immature behavior and loss of dignity for the new user. It is a violation of don't bite the newbies to strongly criticize users who fall into this trap, rather than see this phenomenon as a new editor mistake. [ 6 ] Dealing with articles about yourself WP:BIOSELF WP:BIOSELF WP:BLPSELF WP:BLPSELF WP:BLPCOMPLAIN WP:BLPCOMPLAIN WP:BLPCOMPLAINT WP:BLPCOMPLAINT Wikipedia has editorial policies that will often help to resolve your concern, as well as many users willing to help and a wide range of escalation processes. Very obvious errors can be fixed quickly, including by yourself. But beyond that, post suggestions on the article talk page ( see Help:Talk pages ), or place {{ help me }} on your user talk page . You may also post an explanation of your concern on the biographies of living persons noticeboard and ask that uninvolved editors evaluate the article to make sure it is fairly written and properly sourced. If you are an article subject and you find the article about you contains your personal information or potentially libelous statements, contact the oversight team so that they can evaluate the issue and possibly remove it from the page history . Please bear in mind that Wikipedia is almost entirely operated by volunteers; impolite or demanding behavior, even if entirely understandable, will often be less effective. Legal issues Subjects who have legal or other serious concerns about material they find about themselves on a Wikipedia page, whether in a BLP or elsewhere, may contact the volunteer response team (known as VRT). Please e-mail info-en-q wikimedia.org with a link to the article and details of the problem; for more information on how to get an error corrected, see here . It is usually better to ask for help rather than trying to change the material yourself. As noted above, individuals involved in a significant legal or other off-wiki dispute with the subject of a biographical article are strongly discouraged from editing that article. How to contact the Wikimedia Foundation If you are not satisfied with the response of editors and admins to a concern about biographical material about living persons, you can contact the Wikimedia Foundation directly. See Contact us for details. Wikimedia Foundation resolution On April 9, 2009, the Wikimedia Foundation's Board of Trustees passed a resolution regarding Wikimedia's handling of material about living persons. It noted that there are problems with some BLPs being overly promotional in tone, being vandalized, and containing errors and smears. The Foundation urges that special attention be paid to neutrality and verifiability regarding living persons; that human dignity and personal privacy be taken into account, especially in articles of ephemeral or marginal interest; and that anyone who has a complaint about how they are described on the project's websites be treated with patience, kindness, and respect. Role of administrators WP:BLPADMINS WP:BLPADMINS Page protection and blocks Administrators who suspect malicious or biased editing, or believe that inappropriate material may be added or restored, may protect pages. Administrators are allowed to enforce the removal of clear BLP violations with page protection or by blocking the violator(s), even if they have been editing the article themselves or are in some other way involved. In less clear cases, they should request the attention of an uninvolved administrator at Wikipedia:Administrators Noticeboard/Incidents . See § Templates for appropriate templates to use when warning or blocking for BLP violations. Contentious topics WP:BLPCT WP:BLPCT WP:BLPDS WP:BLPDS "All living or recently deceased subjects of biographical content on Wikipedia articles" have been designated as a contentious topic by the Arbitration Committee . In this area, Wikipedia's norms and policies are more strictly enforced and Wikipedia administrators have additional authority to reduce disruption to the project. Deletion WP:BLPDEL WP:BLPDEL WP:BLPDELETE WP:BLPDELETE Summary deletion, creation prevention, and courtesy blanking Biographical material about a living individual that is not compliant with this policy should be improved and rectified; if this is not possible, then it should be removed. If the entire page is substantially of poor quality, primarily containing contentious material that is unsourced or poorly sourced, then it may be necessary to delete the entire page as an initial step, followed by discussion if requested. Page deletion is normally a last resort. If a dispute centers around a page's inclusion (e.g., because of questionable notability or where the subject has requested deletion), this is addressed via deletion discussions rather than by summary deletion. Summary deletion is appropriate when the page contains unsourced negative material or is written non-neutrally, and when this cannot readily be rewritten or restored to an earlier version of an acceptable standard. The deleting administrator should be prepared to explain the action to others, by e-mail if the material is sensitive. Those who object to the deletion should bear in mind that the deleting admin may be aware of issues that others are not. Disputes may be taken to deletion review , but protracted public discussion should be avoided for deletions involving sensitive personal material about living persons, particularly if it is negative. Such debates may be courtesy blanked upon conclusion. After the deletion, any administrator may choose to protect it against re-creation . Even if the page is not protected against re-creation, it should not be re-created unless a consensus has demonstrated support of re-creation that is consistent with our policies. Relatively unknown subjects WP:BLPREQUESTDELETE WP:BLPREQUESTDELETE Someone who does not wish to be the subject of a BLP may nominate it for deletion at Articles for deletion (or Miscellany for deletion for drafts) or request that a member of the Volunteer Response Team do so for them. Unless the subject clearly passes the general notability guideline (GNG) [ 7 ] or is a current or former elected or appointed official , editors should seriously consider honoring such requests. Factors weighing in favor of deletion include a problematic article history, real-world harms identified by the subject, and the subject being only minimally notable or notable for only one event . Per the deletion policy , if there is no consensus to keep or delete after an article's subject requests deletion, an administrator may close as delete. Deletion under this section does not prevent a person from being mentioned in other articles, nor prevent a redirect from being created from their name to somewhere they are mentioned, although this policy's privacy section may apply in some cases. Restoration WP:BLPUNDEL WP:BLPUNDEL WP:BLPRESTORE WP:BLPRESTORE WP:BLPREQUESTRESTORE WP:BLPREQUESTRESTORE To ensure that material about living people is written neutrally to a high standard, and based on high-quality reliable sources, the burden of proof is on those who wish to retain, restore, or undelete the disputed material. When material about living persons has been deleted on good-faith BLP objections, any editor wishing to add, restore, or undelete it must ensure it complies with Wikipedia's content policies. If it is to be restored without significant change, consensus must be obtained first. Material that has been repaired to address concerns should be judged on a case-by-case basis. In the case of an administrator deleting a complete article, wherever possible such disputed deletions should be discussed first with the administrator who deleted the article. Proposals All BLPs must have at least one source that supports at least one statement made about the person in the article, or it may be proposed for deletion. The tag may not be removed until a reliable source is provided, and if none is forthcoming, the article may be deleted after seven days. This does not affect other deletion processes mentioned in BLP policy and elsewhere. See also Foundation policies and resolutions Wikimedia Foundation privacy policy Wikimedia Foundation resolution on biographies of living persons , passed in April 2009, amended November 2013. Arbitration cases Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Badlydrawnjeff , July 2007. Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Editing of BLP § Biographies of living persons , June 2008. Arbitration Committee/Motion regarding BLP deletions , January 2010. Wikipedia:Arbitration/Requests/Case/Manipulation of BLPs , September 2011. Policies Attack page Neutral point of view No original research Verifiability What Wikipedia is not Guidelines Autobiography Conflict of interest Fringe theories § Treatment of living persons Manual of Style/Biography Notability (people) Requests for comment Requests for comment/Biographies of living people— Phase I ; Phase II FAQs FAQ/Article subjects Essays An article about yourself isn't necessarily a good thing Avoiding harm Coatrack articles Criticism Minors and persons judged incompetent Signatures of living persons Verifiable but not false Discussion forums Biographies of living persons/Noticeboard WikiProject Deletion sorting/Living people Related pages Wikipedia:A picture of you Wikipedia:Requested articles/Biography Wikipedia:Unreferenced BLP Rescue Wikipedia Seigenthaler biography incident , the 2005 controversy that led to the introduction of the biographies of living persons policy. Notes ^ People are presumed to be living unless there is reason to believe otherwise. This policy does not apply to people declared dead in absentia . ^ For examples of arbitration cases that refer to this policy's parameters, see: Rachel Marsden case , 28 November 2006: "Wikipedia:Biographies of living persons applies to all living persons in an entry, not merely the subject of the entry." Manning naming dispute , 16 October 2013: "The biographies of living persons policy applies to all references to living persons throughout Wikipedia, including the titles of articles and pages and all other portions of any page." Manning naming dispute , 16 October 2013: "The biographies of living persons policy applies to all references to living persons throughout Wikipedia, including the titles of articles and pages and all other portions of any page." ^ Please note that exceptional claims require exceptional sources. ^ a b Outcome of the May 2025 RFC: "There is a unanimous consensus for Option D, not restricting the use of the name in sources or other non-content material on Wikipedia. Participants pointed out that applying a content restriction to the sources would be too restrictive for writing the article. Additionally, many editors suggested that replacement sources not naming the person should be privileged if they could be found, a suggestion which wasn't opposed in the discussion." , see: Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)/Archive 202 § RfC: Exclusion of a person's name following consensus . ^ This is generally interpreted by the community to include the removal of names of non-notable minors from articles about their notable family members, such as when a notable individual births or sires a non-notable minor. Notability is not presumed or inherited with extremely limited exception (such as heir to a throne or similar). ^ For example, O. J. Simpson was acquitted in 1995 of the murder of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman , but was later found liable for their wrongful deaths in a civil trial. ^ The Columbia Center for New Media Teaching and Learning , Columbia University: "A conflict of interest involves the abuse – actual, apparent, or potential – of the trust that people have in professionals. The simplest working definition states: A conflict of interest is a situation in which financial or other personal considerations have the potential to compromise or bias professional judgment and objectivity. An apparent conflict of interest is one in which a reasonable person would think that the professional's judgment is likely to be compromised. A potential conflict of interest involves a situation that may develop into an actual conflict of interest. It is important to note that a conflict of interest exists whether or not decisions are affected by a personal interest; a conflict of interest implies only the potential for bias, not a likelihood. It is also important to note that a conflict of interest is not considered misconduct in research, since the definition for misconduct is currently limited to fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism." The New York Times Company : "Conflicts of interest, real or apparent, may arise in many areas. They may involve tensions between journalists' professional obligations to our audience and their relationships with news sources, advocacy groups, advertisers, or competitors; with one another; or with the company or one of its units. And at a time when two-career families are the norm, the civic and professional activities of spouses, household members and other relatives can create conflicts or the appearance of them." The New York Times Company : "Conflicts of interest, real or apparent, may arise in many areas. They may involve tensions between journalists' professional obligations to our audience and their relationships with news sources, advocacy groups, advertisers, or competitors; with one another; or with the company or one of its units. And at a time when two-career families are the norm, the civic and professional activities of spouses, household members and other relatives can create conflicts or the appearance of them." ^ See Wikipedia:Credentials and its talk page. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Wales, Jimmy (16 May 2006). "Zero information is preferred to misleading or false information" . WikiEN-l (Mailing list). Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on 22 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . It should be removed, aggressively, unless it can be sourced. This is true of all information, but it is particularly true of negative information about living persons. Wales, Jimmy (19 May 2006). "Zero information is preferred to misleading or false information" . WikiEN-l (Mailing list). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . If you see an unsourced statement that would be libel if false, and it makes you feel suspicious enough to want to tag it as {{citation needed}} , please do not do that! Please just remove the statement and ask a question on the talk page. Wales, Jimmy (4 August 2006). "Archives/Jimbo Keynote" . Wikimania 2006 . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on 8 August 2006 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . One of the social things that I think we can do is WP:BIO [...] I think social policies have evolved in recent years, I mean the recent months, to actually handle this problem a lot better. A lot of the admins and experienced editors are taking a really strong stand against unsourced claims, which is always a typical example of the problem. [...] And the few people who are still sort of in the old days, saying, 'Well, you know, it's a wiki, why don't we just... ', yeah, they're sort of falling by the wayside, because lots of people are saying actually, we have a really serious responsibility to get things right. ^ Wikipedia talk:Biographies of living persons/Archive 45 § Removal of WP:DOB ^ Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)/Archive 165 § People's birthdate, conflicting (reliable) sources, and WP:SYNTHESIS ^ Wikipedia talk:Biographies of living persons/Archive 48 § Tweets announcing "Happy birthday to me! I'm 21 today!" ^ Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)/Archive 183#Revision deletion and oversight for deadnames Campaigns and pressure groups to publish people's deadnames shouldn't expect to be tolerated here. Campaigns and pressure groups to expunge them all are also unwelcome. ^ Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Rangerdude § Mercy . Passed 6-0-1. ^ As opposed to being a borderline pass, or only passing a subject-specific notability guideline —or none of the above, in which case the article should be deleted on notability grounds regardless. Further reading Wikimedia Foundation Resolution: Biographies of living people (2009), Media about living people (2013) v t e Wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) v t e Five pillars Ignore all rules Five pillars Ignore all rules Ignore all rules Content (?) P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs LLMs Conduct (?) P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Signatures Deletion (?) P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Enforcement (?) P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Editing (?) P Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace P Editing policy Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Article size Summary style Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Manual of Style Contents Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Project content (?) G Project namespace WikiProjects User pages User boxes Shortcuts Subpages G Project namespace WikiProjects User pages User boxes Shortcuts Subpages Project namespace WikiProjects WikiProjects User pages User boxes User boxes Shortcuts Subpages WMF (?) P Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy P Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy List of all policies and guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines Summaries of values and principles FAQ List of all policies and guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines Summaries of values and principles FAQ Wikipedia policies Wikipedia glossary items WikiProject Biography work groups and child projects Wikipedia BLP policy Wikipedia content policies Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Wikipedia move-protected project pages This page was last edited on 13 January 2026, at 18:09 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:LIVING
|
Menu Weekly edition Search Featured Coronavirus US presidential transition Climate change Brexit The World in 2021 1843 magazine Featured Coronavirus US presidential transition Climate change Brexit The World in 2021 1843 magazine Sections The world this week Leaders Letters Briefing United States The Americas Asia China Middle East & Africa Europe Britain International Business Finance & economics Science & technology Books & arts Graphic detail Obituary Special reports Technology Quarterly Essay By Invitation Schools brief The World If Open Future Prospero The Economist Explains Sections The world this week Leaders Letters Briefing United States The Americas Asia China Middle East & Africa Europe Britain International Business Finance & economics Science & technology Books & arts Graphic detail Obituary Special reports Technology Quarterly Essay By Invitation Schools brief The World If Open Future Prospero The Economist Explains More Newsletters Podcasts Video Subscriber events iOS app Android app More Newsletters Podcasts Video Subscriber events iOS app Android app Manage my account Sign out The other tech giant Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher The crowdsourced encyclopedia is a welcome oddity on the modern internet International Jan 9th 2021 edition Jan 9th 2021 Facebook Twitter LinkedIn WhatsApp L YING DRUNK in a field outside the Austrian city of Innsbruck in 1971, inspiration struck Douglas Adams, a science-fiction writer. He looked at his copy of “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Europe”, and then up at the stars, and came up with the idea for a “Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy”. It would be a (fictional) mixture of travel book and encyclopedia, but with an absurd-seeming twist: instead of being written by experts, anyone could contribute. Adams played his idea for laughs. But today it looks as prescient as it was funny. On January 15th Wikipedia—“the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit”—will celebrate its 20th anniversary. It will do so as the biggest and most-read reference work ever. Wikipedia hosts more than 55m articles in hundreds of languages, each written by volunteers. Its 6.2m English-language articles alone would fill some 2,800 volumes in print. Alexa Internet, a web-analysis firm, ranks Wikipedia as the 13th-most-popular site on the internet, ahead of Reddit, Netflix and Instagram. Yet Wikipedia is an oddity. It defies the Silicon Valley recipe for success. The site has no shareholders, has generated no billionaires and sells no advertising. Today’s aspiring tech giants burn vast quantities of investors’ money subsidising taxi rides (Uber) or millennial messaging (Snap) in pursuit of “scale”. Wikipedia grew organically, as more and more ordinary people decided to contribute. The site has its roots in the techno-optimism that characterised the internet at the end of the 20th century. It held that ordinary people could use their computers as tools for liberation, education and enlightenment. Like most Utopian thinking, the idea of an amateur encyclopedia was, for many years, treated as a bit of a joke. “A few endorse Wikipedia heartily. This mystifies me,” wrote a former president of the American Library Association in 2007. “A professor who encourages the use of Wikipedia is the intellectual equivalent of a dietician who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything,” he sneered. Even now, after numerous academic studies highlighting its reliability, Wikipedia still lacks the gravitas and authority of older encyclopedias like “Britannica”, which are written by paid academic experts rather than amateurs. Schools, universities and The Economist ’s fact-checkers frown on relying on it. Wikipedia may not have vanquished its doubters in theory. But it has triumphed in practice. With over 20bn page views a month, it has become the standard reference work for anyone with an internet connection. As social-media sites are lambasted for censorship, “fake news”, disinformation and conspiracy theories, its reputation is higher than ever. Toby Negrin, who sits on the board of the Wikimedia Foundation, the San Francisco-based charity that provides the site’s infrastructure, describes the online encyclopedia as a “guardian of truth”. That sounds grandiose. But other tech behemoths now use it as a neutral arbiter. Conspiracy-theory videos on YouTube often come tagged with warning information from Wikipedia. Since 2018 Facebook has used Wikipedia to provide information buttons with the sources of news articles. Others are also enthusiastic. In October the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) started working with Wikipedia to make information on covid-19 available via the site. It considered the collaboration vital to its efforts to prevent an “infodemic” of misinformation about the virus. Brewster Kahle, the founder of the Internet Archive, which preserves websites for posterity, describes Wikipedia as “a treasure of the internet”. Wikipedia’s value and influence are hard to compute. Its revenues come from charitable grants and donations from its users. “Wikipedia is an example of what I like to call ‘digital dark matter’,” says Shane Greenstein, an economist at Harvard who has studied the site closely. Like parenting and housework, contributing to it is a valuable service that, because it is unpaid, remains mostly invisible to standard economic tools. A few researchers have tried to guess. One study in 2018 estimated that American consumers put a value of about $150 a year on Wikipedia. If true, the site would be worth around $42bn a year in America alone. Then add indirect benefits. Many firms use Wikipedia in profitable ways. Amazon and Apple rely on it to allow Alexa and Siri, their voice assistants, to answer factual questions. Google uses it to populate the “fact boxes” that often accompany searches based on factual questions. Facebook has started to do something similar. This drives traffic to Wikipedia from those keen to learn more. AI language models of the sort employed by Google or Facebook need huge collections of text on which to train. Wikipedia fits the bill nicely. The cult of the amateur Its biggest power is its subtlest. Since it is the first resort of students, professors, journalists and any number of curious people, its contributors do much to make the intellectual weather. The WHO ’s decision to work with Wikipedia reflects research suggesting that the site is the most-read source of medical information in the world—for doctors as well as patients. Its reach is clearest when things go wrong. In 2008 one user inserted a joke claiming that the South American coati, a small mammal, is sometimes known as the “Brazilian aardvark”. By the time the jape was revealed, in 2014, it had found its way on to various websites and into news articles and a book published by a university press. In 2012 a senior British judge was caught out when, in a report on the shortcomings and criminality of parts of the British press, he named Brett Straub as one of the founders of the Independent , a newspaper. Mr Straub has nothing to do with the Independent . His friends had been adding his name to Wikipedia’s pages as a joke. Yet despite a string of notable embarrassments—and its own disclaimer that “Wikipedia is not a reliable source”—it is, on the whole, fairly accurate. An investigation by Nature in 2005 compared the site with “Britannica”, and found little difference in the number of errors that experts could find in a typical article. Other studies, conducted since, have mostly endorsed that conclusion. Explaining exactly why Wikipedia’s articles are so good is trickier. A common joke holds that it is just as well that Wikipedia works in practice, because it does not work in theory. Deliberate decisions are one explanation. Wikipedia compares well with other reference works when it comes to honest mistakes, but it is uniquely vulnerable to vandalism and pranks. In an effort to combat them, says Mr Negrin, the site has developed algorithms that monitor articles for mischief. For America’s recent presidential election, editing articles was restricted to accounts more than 30 days old, and with at least 500 edits to their name. Other reasons are structural. The site’s open nature and its popularity help ensure that errors in well-read articles are usually spotted and fixed quickly. (By the same token, mistakes in more obscure entries may languish for years.) Mr Greenstein notes that, unlike with a printed encyclopedia, “another paragraph doesn’t cost anything”. That means that ideological rows can often be defused simply by adding paragraphs outlining different views. The site’s intimidating list of rules means that new editors face a steep learning curve. But it also helps to filter out dilettantes, ideologues and bores with an axe to grind. Wikipedia’s not-for-profit structure, points out Mr Kahle, means it can focus on the interests of readers and editors without having to consider the (possibly conflicting) demands of advertisers. The site is unusual since it is run by humans, not algorithms. Though social-media sites rely on idiot-savant computer programs to maximise “engagement” (ie, to sell more advertising), Wikipedia’s humans try to uphold woolly ideals such as accuracy, impartiality and arguing in good faith. Much of its success, in other words, is because of the culture its users have created. It is evident in the discussion pages that accompany every article, as the site’s contributors debate with each other the noteworthiness of a topic, the quality of its primary sources, what information to include and to leave out, and more. Rules of thumb gradually become more solid guidelines. The Wikipedia page outlining the “Neutral Point of View”—one of the most widely discussed and referred to—runs to 4,500 words. It includes recommendations on how best to describe aesthetic opinions, which assumptions count as necessary, and which must be justified. It also points out the risks of providing “false balance” about controversial subjects. Cultures constantly change. Relying on Wikipedia’s current one may, therefore, seem a risky strategy. Katherine Maher, the Wikimedia Foundation’s executive director, says that if Wikipedia did not already exist it might not be possible to create it on today’s fragmented, commercially minded internet. But given that it does, she is bullish about its prospects for survival. Much of the site’s work appeals to human nature, she says: “People love to be right, to demonstrate their competence.” Even errors can be helpful. Ms Maher cites Cunningham’s Law, which holds that “the best way to get the right answer to a question on the internet...is to post the wrong answer.” She recalls meeting a committed Chinese editor who began contributing to the Chinese-language project because “a lot of what he saw was just wrong, and he felt he had to fix it!” Keeping Wikipedia’s culture healthy means moving with the times. “Wikipedia is a child of the desktop internet,” says Mr Negrin. But “increasingly, when people talk about internet users, they’re talking about smartphones.” So the foundation is improving the site’s mobile-editing tools. Typing long articles on a smartphone is inescapably awkward, so attention has focused on helping users to make “micro-edits”, such as fixing spelling mistakes or correcting dates. The hope is that this will also act as a gateway drug for young editors and for those in poorer countries for whom smartphones are the standard or only way of getting online. Attracting a steady supply of new editors is vital for Wikipedia’s long-term survival. So is attracting new kinds of contributors. Ms Maher estimates around 80% of Wikipedia’s editors are male, and skewed towards North America and Europe (see Graphic Detail ). The encyclopedia itself is popular in America, Europe, Russia and Japan, but not much read in India and sub-Saharan Africa (see chart). Changing that, she says, is vital to the health of a project whose idealism remains undimmed. “Our vision is a world where every single human being can share in all knowledge,” she says. This time, such Utopianism is harder to dismiss. After all, it is backed up by 20 years of success. ■ This article appeared in the International section of the print edition under the headline "The other tech giant" Reuse this content The Trust Project {"@context":" More from International No time to give up Laws to catch human-rights abusers are growing teeth Year in review: the coronavirus Lessons from the pandemic Down in the dumps Covid-19 has posed new challenges to the world’s waste-pickers The best of our journalism, hand-picked each day Sign up to our free daily newsletter, The Economist today Sign up now The other tech giant Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher The crowdsourced encyclopedia is a welcome oddity on the modern internet Facebook Twitter LinkedIn WhatsApp L YING DRUNK in a field outside the Austrian city of Innsbruck in 1971, inspiration struck Douglas Adams, a science-fiction writer. He looked at his copy of “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Europe”, and then up at the stars, and came up with the idea for a “Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy”. It would be a (fictional) mixture of travel book and encyclopedia, but with an absurd-seeming twist: instead of being written by experts, anyone could contribute. Adams played his idea for laughs. But today it looks as prescient as it was funny. On January 15th Wikipedia—“the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit”—will celebrate its 20th anniversary. It will do so as the biggest and most-read reference work ever. Wikipedia hosts more than 55m articles in hundreds of languages, each written by volunteers. Its 6.2m English-language articles alone would fill some 2,800 volumes in print. Alexa Internet, a web-analysis firm, ranks Wikipedia as the 13th-most-popular site on the internet, ahead of Reddit, Netflix and Instagram. Yet Wikipedia is an oddity. It defies the Silicon Valley recipe for success. The site has no shareholders, has generated no billionaires and sells no advertising. Today’s aspiring tech giants burn vast quantities of investors’ money subsidising taxi rides (Uber) or millennial messaging (Snap) in pursuit of “scale”. Wikipedia grew organically, as more and more ordinary people decided to contribute. The site has its roots in the techno-optimism that characterised the internet at the end of the 20th century. It held that ordinary people could use their computers as tools for liberation, education and enlightenment. Like most Utopian thinking, the idea of an amateur encyclopedia was, for many years, treated as a bit of a joke. “A few endorse Wikipedia heartily. This mystifies me,” wrote a former president of the American Library Association in 2007. “A professor who encourages the use of Wikipedia is the intellectual equivalent of a dietician who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything,” he sneered. Even now, after numerous academic studies highlighting its reliability, Wikipedia still lacks the gravitas and authority of older encyclopedias like “Britannica”, which are written by paid academic experts rather than amateurs. Schools, universities and The Economist ’s fact-checkers frown on relying on it. Wikipedia may not have vanquished its doubters in theory. But it has triumphed in practice. With over 20bn page views a month, it has become the standard reference work for anyone with an internet connection. As social-media sites are lambasted for censorship, “fake news”, disinformation and conspiracy theories, its reputation is higher than ever. Toby Negrin, who sits on the board of the Wikimedia Foundation, the San Francisco-based charity that provides the site’s infrastructure, describes the online encyclopedia as a “guardian of truth”. That sounds grandiose. But other tech behemoths now use it as a neutral arbiter. Conspiracy-theory videos on YouTube often come tagged with warning information from Wikipedia. Since 2018 Facebook has used Wikipedia to provide information buttons with the sources of news articles. Others are also enthusiastic. In October the World Health Organisation ( WHO ) started working with Wikipedia to make information on covid-19 available via the site. It considered the collaboration vital to its efforts to prevent an “infodemic” of misinformation about the virus. Brewster Kahle, the founder of the Internet Archive, which preserves websites for posterity, describes Wikipedia as “a treasure of the internet”. Wikipedia’s value and influence are hard to compute. Its revenues come from charitable grants and donations from its users. “Wikipedia is an example of what I like to call ‘digital dark matter’,” says Shane Greenstein, an economist at Harvard who has studied the site closely. Like parenting and housework, contributing to it is a valuable service that, because it is unpaid, remains mostly invisible to standard economic tools. A few researchers have tried to guess. One study in 2018 estimated that American consumers put a value of about $150 a year on Wikipedia. If true, the site would be worth around $42bn a year in America alone. Then add indirect benefits. Many firms use Wikipedia in profitable ways. Amazon and Apple rely on it to allow Alexa and Siri, their voice assistants, to answer factual questions. Google uses it to populate the “fact boxes” that often accompany searches based on factual questions. Facebook has started to do something similar. This drives traffic to Wikipedia from those keen to learn more. AI language models of the sort employed by Google or Facebook need huge collections of text on which to train. Wikipedia fits the bill nicely. The cult of the amateur Its biggest power is its subtlest. Since it is the first resort of students, professors, journalists and any number of curious people, its contributors do much to make the intellectual weather. The WHO ’s decision to work with Wikipedia reflects research suggesting that the site is the most-read source of medical information in the world—for doctors as well as patients. Its reach is clearest when things go wrong. In 2008 one user inserted a joke claiming that the South American coati, a small mammal, is sometimes known as the “Brazilian aardvark”. By the time the jape was revealed, in 2014, it had found its way on to various websites and into news articles and a book published by a university press. In 2012 a senior British judge was caught out when, in a report on the shortcomings and criminality of parts of the British press, he named Brett Straub as one of the founders of the Independent , a newspaper. Mr Straub has nothing to do with the Independent . His friends had been adding his name to Wikipedia’s pages as a joke. Yet despite a string of notable embarrassments—and its own disclaimer that “Wikipedia is not a reliable source”—it is, on the whole, fairly accurate. An investigation by Nature in 2005 compared the site with “Britannica”, and found little difference in the number of errors that experts could find in a typical article. Other studies, conducted since, have mostly endorsed that conclusion. Explaining exactly why Wikipedia’s articles are so good is trickier. A common joke holds that it is just as well that Wikipedia works in practice, because it does not work in theory. Deliberate decisions are one explanation. Wikipedia compares well with other reference works when it comes to honest mistakes, but it is uniquely vulnerable to vandalism and pranks. In an effort to combat them, says Mr Negrin, the site has developed algorithms that monitor articles for mischief. For America’s recent presidential election, editing articles was restricted to accounts more than 30 days old, and with at least 500 edits to their name. Other reasons are structural. The site’s open nature and its popularity help ensure that errors in well-read articles are usually spotted and fixed quickly. (By the same token, mistakes in more obscure entries may languish for years.) Mr Greenstein notes that, unlike with a printed encyclopedia, “another paragraph doesn’t cost anything”. That means that ideological rows can often be defused simply by adding paragraphs outlining different views. The site’s intimidating list of rules means that new editors face a steep learning curve. But it also helps to filter out dilettantes, ideologues and bores with an axe to grind. Wikipedia’s not-for-profit structure, points out Mr Kahle, means it can focus on the interests of readers and editors without having to consider the (possibly conflicting) demands of advertisers. The site is unusual since it is run by humans, not algorithms. Though social-media sites rely on idiot-savant computer programs to maximise “engagement” (ie, to sell more advertising), Wikipedia’s humans try to uphold woolly ideals such as accuracy, impartiality and arguing in good faith. Much of its success, in other words, is because of the culture its users have created. It is evident in the discussion pages that accompany every article, as the site’s contributors debate with each other the noteworthiness of a topic, the quality of its primary sources, what information to include and to leave out, and more. Rules of thumb gradually become more solid guidelines. The Wikipedia page outlining the “Neutral Point of View”—one of the most widely discussed and referred to—runs to 4,500 words. It includes recommendations on how best to describe aesthetic opinions, which assumptions count as necessary, and which must be justified. It also points out the risks of providing “false balance” about controversial subjects. Cultures constantly change. Relying on Wikipedia’s current one may, therefore, seem a risky strategy. Katherine Maher, the Wikimedia Foundation’s executive director, says that if Wikipedia did not already exist it might not be possible to create it on today’s fragmented, commercially minded internet. But given that it does, she is bullish about its prospects for survival. Much of the site’s work appeals to human nature, she says: “People love to be right, to demonstrate their competence.” Even errors can be helpful. Ms Maher cites Cunningham’s Law, which holds that “the best way to get the right answer to a question on the internet...is to post the wrong answer.” She recalls meeting a committed Chinese editor who began contributing to the Chinese-language project because “a lot of what he saw was just wrong, and he felt he had to fix it!” Keeping Wikipedia’s culture healthy means moving with the times. “Wikipedia is a child of the desktop internet,” says Mr Negrin. But “increasingly, when people talk about internet users, they’re talking about smartphones.” So the foundation is improving the site’s mobile-editing tools. Typing long articles on a smartphone is inescapably awkward, so attention has focused on helping users to make “micro-edits”, such as fixing spelling mistakes or correcting dates. The hope is that this will also act as a gateway drug for young editors and for those in poorer countries for whom smartphones are the standard or only way of getting online. Attracting a steady supply of new editors is vital for Wikipedia’s long-term survival. So is attracting new kinds of contributors. Ms Maher estimates around 80% of Wikipedia’s editors are male, and skewed towards North America and Europe (see Graphic Detail ). The encyclopedia itself is popular in America, Europe, Russia and Japan, but not much read in India and sub-Saharan Africa (see chart). Changing that, she says, is vital to the health of a project whose idealism remains undimmed. “Our vision is a world where every single human being can share in all knowledge,” she says. This time, such Utopianism is harder to dismiss. After all, it is backed up by 20 years of success. ■ This article appeared in the International section of the print edition under the headline "The other tech giant" More from International No time to give up Laws to catch human-rights abusers are growing teeth Year in review: the coronavirus Lessons from the pandemic Down in the dumps Covid-19 has posed new challenges to the world’s waste-pickers The best of our journalism, hand-picked each day Sign up to our free daily newsletter, The Economist today Subscribe Group subscriptions Reuse our content Help Keep updated Facebook Instagram Twitter LinkedIn YouTube RSS Published since September 1843 to take part in “a severe contest between intelligence, which presses forward, and an unworthy, timid ignorance obstructing our progress.” The Economist About Advertise Press centre The Economist Group The Economist Group The Economist Intelligence Unit The Economist Events The Economist Store Careers Which MBA? GMAT Tutor GRE Tutor Executive Jobs Executive Education Navigator Terms of Use Privacy Cookie Policy Manage Cookies Accessibility Modern Slavery Statement Do Not Sell My Personal Information Copyright © The Economist Newspaper Limited 2021 . All rights reserved.
|
https://web.archive.org/web/20210107165356/https://www.economist.com/international/2021/01/09/wikipedia-is-20-and-its-reputation-has-never-been-higher
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_note-17
|
Hoamseiten Zuafoisartikl ThemenPortal Lezde Endarunga Neie Artike AutornKaffee Stammdisch Mir fehlt ein Wort AutornPortal Qualitätssicherung Etz spendn! Nutzakonto ooleng Omejdn Etz spendn! Nutzakonto ooleng Omejdn Wikipedia : Hoamseitn Hoamseitn dischkrian Leesen Quëntext auhzaang Gschicht åhschaun Leesen Quëntext auhzaang Gschicht åhschaun Links auf de Seitn Valinkts priafm Permanénter Link Seiteninformazión Gekürzte URL abrufen QR-Code runterladen Buach erstën Ois PDF owerloden Seitn ausdrucka Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Mehrsprachige Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wikidata-Item Boarische W IKIPEDI A Griass di! Servus! Hawedere! in da boarischn Wikipedia mid 27.210 Artike. Des is de Wikipedia in Boarischa Sproch und in de boarischn Dialekt in Bayern , Esterreich , Sidtiroi . Beschreibung • Description • Descripción • Description • Descrizione Boarische W IKIPEDI A Griass di! Servus! Hawedere! in da boarischn Wikipedia mid 27.210 Artike. Des is de Wikipedia in Boarischa Sproch und in de boarischn Dialekt in Bayern , Esterreich , Sidtiroi . Beschreibung • Description • Descripción • Description • Descrizione A beriga Artike A beriga Artike De Spinnarin am Kreiz De Spinnarin am Kreiz ( Spinnerin am Kreuz ) steht im 10.Hieb ( Favoritn ) aun da Triesta Stroßn, es is a oiz Woazeichn in an gotischn Stüü des a jeda kennt, der scho amoi durtn voabeikumman is, wauna in de Stod eine oda ausse hod miassn. Gwiß is, doss an dera Stöö scho vuam Joa 1446 a „Staananes Kreiz“ gstaundn is. Es kaunn oba weda de Grenz vom Weana Burgfriedn auzaagt haum, de is goa ned soweit gaugan, no de Grenz vom Weana Laundesgrichtssprengl, wäu dea wor weida draußt. Woascheinlich is de Säun durtn gstaundn, wäu glei danem de Hiirichtungsstättn gwesn is... weida lesn (Artike af Weanarisch) De Spinnarin am Kreiz ( Spinnerin am Kreuz ) steht im 10.Hieb ( Favoritn ) aun da Triesta Stroßn, es is a oiz Woazeichn in an gotischn Stüü des a jeda kennt, der scho amoi durtn voabeikumman is, wauna in de Stod eine oda ausse hod miassn. Gwiß is, doss an dera Stöö scho vuam Joa 1446 a „Staananes Kreiz“ gstaundn is. Es kaunn oba weda de Grenz vom Weana Burgfriedn auzaagt haum, de is goa ned soweit gaugan, no de Grenz vom Weana Laundesgrichtssprengl, wäu dea wor weida draußt. Woascheinlich is de Säun durtn gstaundn, wäu glei danem de Hiirichtungsstättn gwesn is... weida lesn (Artike af Weanarisch) Hosd scho gwisst? Hosd scho gwisst? Drahdiwaberl ...dass Kreisl koa echt boarisches Wort ned is, aa ned Kroasl oda Krasl. ...dass af echt Boarisch dafia Dralla, Bea, Tranl, Woifal, damischa Hansl oda Drahdiwaberl hoasst. ...dass Drahdiwaberl vo "Drah di Waberl" kimmt, wos sovui wia "Drah di Barbara" moant. ...dass Drahdiwaberl aa a Kindaliad is, wo in Bayern a weng vaendat aa zan Woidjaga an Drahadanz gsunga wead. ...dass des jidische Drallaspui Dreidl vom oiddeitschn Drallaspui Toton hea kimmt. ...dass Kreisl koa echt boarisches Wort ned is, aa ned Kroasl oda Krasl. ...dass af echt Boarisch dafia Dralla, Bea, Tranl, Woifal, damischa Hansl oda Drahdiwaberl hoasst. ...dass Drahdiwaberl vo "Drah di Waberl" kimmt, wos sovui wia "Drah di Barbara" moant. ...dass Drahdiwaberl aa a Kindaliad is, wo in Bayern a weng vaendat aa zan Woidjaga an Drahadanz gsunga wead. ...dass des jidische Drallaspui Dreidl vom oiddeitschn Drallaspui Toton hea kimmt. A berigs Buidl A berigs Buidl Pinguina Dass de Pinguin danzn kina, hamma scho aus Hollywoodfuim gleant, z.B. in Happy Feet . Oba kinan de Pinguin aa fliagn? Af dem Buidl schaugts ganz danoch aus. De Frog is nua wia de Landung ausschaug, wei afd Babbn fliagn ko unsaoana aa... Dass de Pinguin danzn kina, hamma scho aus Hollywoodfuim gleant, z.B. in Happy Feet . Suacha Suacha Artikl vo A - Z • Themenportale • Suachhuif Midmocha Midmocha Griaßde • Midmochtipps • FAQ in deitsch • Wia schreib i a guads Boarisch? • Berige Artikl • Zimftige Artikl • Zuafällige Artikl Samsda, 10. Jénner 2026, 2. KW Samsda, 10. Jénner 2026, 2. KW Spruch: "Ja, leck mi do am Oarsch!" [ Ausruf großer Begeisterung. ] → Boarische Spruchsammlung → Boarische Fluachsammlung Spruch: "Ja, leck mi do am Oarsch!" [ Ausruf großer Begeisterung. ] → Boarische Spruchsammlung → Boarische Fluachsammlung Boarisch : Breissisch Boarisch : Breissisch Leidln, vawendts wieda meara echt Boarische Weata! De hom Schwung, de ham Kroft und an guadn Klang. Desmoi auf Weanarisch: Bischgodn : Löffelbiskuit Leidln, vawendts wieda meara echt Boarische Weata! De hom Schwung, de ham Kroft und an guadn Klang. Desmoi auf Weanarisch: Bischgodn : Löffelbiskuit Audio/Video Audio/Video Voimundoartn vo Oidbayern (aus vaschiedne Regiona) Voimundoartn vo Östareich (aus vaschiedne Regiona) Voimundoartn vo Oidbayern (aus vaschiedne Regiona) Voimundoartn vo Östareich (aus vaschiedne Regiona) Nochrichtn Nochrichtn Da MERKUR iwad Boarische Wikipedia Bairisch im Internet: Dialekt bei Wikipedia Boarisch in da Wissnschoft Bayerisches Wörterbuch Wörterbuch der bairischen Mundarten in Österreich De TZ af Boarisch TZ auf Bairisch Artiken iba de Stickln vom Nestroy Stickln vom Johann Nepomuk Nestroy (gschriem vo an bekanntn Weana Autor) Bairisch im Internet: Dialekt bei Wikipedia Bayerisches Wörterbuch Wörterbuch der bairischen Mundarten in Österreich TZ auf Bairisch Commons Hauptseitn Commons Wikisource Boarischa Text Original Literatua Wikibooks Boarische Biacharei Wikibooks Wikiquote Boarischa Spruch Wikiquote Wiktionary Boarisches Weatabuach Wiktionary Wikinews Boarische Nochrichtn Wikinews Meta-Wiki Koordination Wikispecies Oartnvazeichnis Commons Hauptseitn Commons Wikisource Boarischa Text Original Literatua Wikibooks Boarische Biacharei Wikibooks Wikiquote Boarischa Spruch Wikiquote Wiktionary Boarisches Weatabuach Wiktionary Wikinews Boarische Nochrichtn Wikinews Meta-Wiki Koordination Wikispecies Oartnvazeichnis Alemannisch Deutsch English Nordfriisk Ripoarisch Plattdüütsch Deitsch Pälzisch Seeltersk De Seitn is zletzt am 2. Mäerz 2023 um 23:52 gändert worn. Abruafstatistik Dea Text is unta da Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike“ vafigbor; zuasätzliche Bedingunga kennan owendbor sei. Oazlheitn san in de Nutzungsbedingunga bschriebm. Datenschutz Iwer Wikipedia Hoftungsausschlus Verhaltenskodex Entwickla Statistiken Stellungsnåm zua dé Cookies Mobile Osicht
|
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Hoamseitn#bodyContent
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Heir apparent 3 Early reign 4 Personal rule Toggle Personal rule subsection 4.1 Parliament prorogued 4.2 Finances 4.1 Parliament prorogued 4.2 Finances 5 Religious conflicts Toggle Religious conflicts subsection 5.1 Bishops' Wars 5.1 Bishops' Wars 6 Long Parliament Toggle Long Parliament subsection 6.1 Tensions escalate 6.2 Irish rebellion 6.3 Five members 6.1 Tensions escalate 6.2 Irish rebellion 6.3 Five members 7 English Civil War Toggle English Civil War subsection 7.1 Captivity 7.1 Captivity 8 Trial 9 Execution 10 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 10.1 Art 10.2 Assessments 10.1 Art 10.2 Assessments 11 Titles, styles, honours and arms Toggle Titles, styles, honours and arms subsection 11.1 Titles and styles 11.2 Honours 11.3 Arms 11.1 Titles and styles 11.2 Honours 11.3 Arms 12 Issue 13 Ancestry 14 Notes 15 References Toggle References subsection 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 16.1 Historiography 16.1 Historiography 17 External links Charles I of England Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 IsiNdebele seSewula Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Charles I Portrait, 1636 King of England and Ireland ( more... ) Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 Coronation 2 February 1626 Predecessor James I Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Charles II ( de jure ) Council of State ( de facto ) Charles II ( de jure ) Council of State ( de facto ) King of Scotland ( more... ) Reign 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 Coronation 18 June 1633 Predecessor James VI Successor Charles II Born 19 November 1600 Dunfermline Palace , Dunfermline, Scotland Died 30 January 1649 (1649-01-30) (aged 48) Whitehall , Westminster, England Cause of death Execution by beheading Burial 9 February 1649 St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle , England Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Henrietta Maria of France ( m. 1625) Issue more... Charles II Mary, Princess of Orange James VII & II Elizabeth Anne Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans Charles II Mary, Princess of Orange James VII & II Elizabeth Anne Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans House Stuart Father James VI and I Mother Anne of Denmark Religion Protestant Signature Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) [ a ] was King of England , Scotland , and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland . After his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 upon the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales . An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to Infanta Maria Anna of Spain culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiation. Two years later, shortly after his accession, he married Henrietta Maria of France . After his accession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the English Parliament , which sought to curb his royal prerogative . He believed in the divine right of kings and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without Parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch . His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters , who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War . His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars , strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War . After his defeat in 1645 at the hands of the Parliamentarian New Model Army , he fled north from his base at Oxford. Charles surrendered to a Scottish force and, after lengthy negotiations between the English and Scottish parliaments, was handed over to the Long Parliament in London. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy , and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight , he forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648, the New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic . The monarchy was restored in 1660, with Charles's son Charles II as king. Early life The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark , Charles was born at Dunfermline Palace , Fife, on 19 November 1600. [ 1 ] At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by David Lindsay , Bishop of Ross , and created Duke of Albany , the traditional title of the second son of the king of Scotland , with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond , Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch. [ 2 ] James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England , and when she died childless in March 1603, he became king of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health, [ 3 ] he remained in Scotland with his father's friend Lord Fyvie appointed as his guardian. [ 4 ] By 1604, when Charles was three-and-a-half, he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, and it was decided that he was strong enough to journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, he left Dunfermline for England, where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. [ 5 ] In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey , the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey , who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. [ 6 ] His speech development was also slow, and he had a stammer for the rest of his life. [ 7 ] In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York , as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath . [ 8 ] Thomas Murray , a presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. [ 9 ] Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion. [ 10 ] In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter . [ 11 ] Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, [ 11 ] which might have been caused by rickets . [ 6 ] He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. [ 10 ] Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller [ b ] elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales , whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate. [ 12 ] But in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria ). [ 13 ] Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent . As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, he automatically gained several titles, including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay . In November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester . [ 14 ] Heir apparent In 1613, Charles's sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine , and moved to Heidelberg . [ 15 ] In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , a Catholic , was elected king of Bohemia . The next year, the Bohemians rebelled , defenestrating the Catholic governors . In August 1619, the Bohemian Diet chose Frederick, who led the Protestant Union , as their monarch, while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election . Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the Emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War . The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants. [ 16 ] In 1620, King Frederick was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands . [ 17 ] James, however, had been seeking marriage between Prince Charles and Ferdinand's niece, Infanta Maria Anna of Spain , and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe. [ 18 ] Negotiation with Spain proved unpopular with both the public and James's court. [ 19 ] The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales. [ 20 ] James's Lord Chancellor , Francis Bacon , was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption. [ 21 ] The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the King's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder . The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , Archbishop William Laud , and Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford . James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant princess of Wales . [ 22 ] Like his father, Charles considered discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative . [ 23 ] In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence. [ 24 ] Charles and Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince, [ 25 ] travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match. [ 26 ] The trip was an embarrassing failure. [ 27 ] The infanta thought Charles little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Catholicism as a condition of the match. [ 28 ] They insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the English penal laws , which Charles knew Parliament would not agree to, and that the infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the treaty's terms. [ 29 ] A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares , the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally. [ 30 ] When he returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome, [ 31 ] he and Buckingham pushed the reluctant James to declare war on Spain . [ 32 ] With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 to request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer , Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex , who opposed war on grounds of cost and quickly fell in much the same manner Bacon had. [ 33 ] James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned Charles that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool. [ 34 ] An underfunded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast. [ 35 ] By 1624, the increasingly ill James was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom. [ 36 ] Early reign With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France. [ 37 ] On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris . [ 38 ] He had seen her in Paris while en route to Spain. [ 39 ] They met in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury . Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the marriage was consummated, to forestall any opposition. [ 40 ] Many members of the Commons opposed his marriage to a Catholic, fearing that he would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England . Charles told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, but promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with his brother-in-law Louis XIII of France. [ 41 ] Moreover, the treaty loaned to the French seven English naval ships that were used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle in September 1625. [ 42 ] Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey , but without his wife at his side, because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony. [ 43 ] Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu , who was in disrepute among the Puritans . [ 44 ] In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel , Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination , the doctrine that God preordained salvation and damnation . Anti-Calvinists—known as Arminians —believed that people could accept or reject salvation by exercising free will . [ 45 ] Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage. [ 46 ] With King James's support, Montagu produced another pamphlet, Appello Caesarem , published in 1625 shortly after James's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made him a royal chaplain, heightening many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid Catholicism's resurgence. [ 47 ] Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World , hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets . Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans. [ 48 ] Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI had been granted the right for life. [ 49 ] In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue. [ 50 ] The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading . [ 51 ] Although no act of Parliament for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties. [ 52 ] A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under Buckingham's leadership went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the Duke. [ 53 ] In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support, [ 54 ] and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham— Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot —arrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released. [ 55 ] On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given." [ 56 ] Despite the protests, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead. [ 57 ] Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure , appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the King expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626. [ 58 ] Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle. [ 59 ] The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenots—and his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Ré —spurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the Duke. [ 60 ] Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench , the " Five Knights' Case ", found that the King had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan. [ 61 ] Summoned again in March 1628, Parliament adopted a Petition of Right on 26 May, calling upon Charles to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes. [ 62 ] Charles assented to the petition on 7 June, [ 63 ] but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and reasserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament. [ 64 ] On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated. [ 65 ] Charles was deeply distressed. According to Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon , he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears". [ 66 ] He remained grieving in his room for two days. [ 67 ] In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, accentuating the gulf between the court and the nation and between the Crown and the Commons. [ 68 ] Buckingham's death effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, but it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament. [ 69 ] It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end. [ 70 ] Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria. [ 71 ] She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew stronger. [ 72 ] Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality. [ 73 ] Personal rule Parliament prorogued In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. [ 77 ] Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle , a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage. [ 78 ] Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March, [ 79 ] members held the Speaker , Sir John Finch , down in his chair so that the session could be prolonged long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism, and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber. [ 80 ] This was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter, [ 81 ] thereby turning the men into martyrs [ 82 ] and giving popular cause to their protest. [ 83 ] Personal rule necessitated peace. Without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or Buckingham's help, Charles made peace with France and Spain . [ 84 ] The next 11 years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are known as the Personal Rule or the "eleven years' tyranny". [ 85 ] Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent. [ d ] But only Parliament could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives. [ 87 ] Finances A large fiscal deficit had arisen during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. [ 89 ] Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, Charles had little financial capacity to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign, he was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister Elizabeth and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate. [ 90 ] England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation. [ 91 ] To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined those who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. [ 92 ] [ e ] The chief tax Charles imposed was a feudal levy known as ship money , [ 94 ] which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. But Charles argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy , provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined. [ 95 ] Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but England's 12 common law judges ruled the tax within the King's prerogative, though some had reservations. [ 96 ] The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges found against Hampden only by the narrow margin of 7–5. [ 97 ] Charles also derived money by granting monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action , which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s. [ 98 ] [ f ] One such monopoly was for soap, pejoratively called " popish soap " because some of its backers were Catholics. [ 100 ] Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent. [ 101 ] In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment. [ 102 ] The programme's focus was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming, or in the case of the Forest of Dean , development for the iron industry. Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances, including those known as the Western Rising . [ 103 ] Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in mid-1640. The City of London , preoccupied with its own grievances, refused to make any loans to him, as did foreign powers. In this extremity, in July Charles seized silver bullion worth £130,000 held in trust at the mint in the Tower of London , promising its later return at 8% interest to its owners. [ 104 ] In August, after the East India Company refused to grant a loan, [ 105 ] Lord Cottington seized the company's stock of pepper and spices and sold it for £60,000 (far below its market value), promising to refund the money with interest later. [ 106 ] Religious conflicts Throughout Charles's reign, the English Reformation was in the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, which opponents viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Catholicism. Puritan reformers considered Charles too sympathetic to Arminianism, [ g ] and opposed his desire to move the Church of England in a more traditional and sacramental direction. [ 108 ] In addition, his Protestant subjects followed the European war closely [ 109 ] and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively. [ 110 ] In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury . [ 111 ] They initiated a series of reforms to promote religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer , organising the internal architecture of English churches to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and reissuing King James's Declaration of Sports , which permitted secular activities on the sabbath. [ 112 ] The Feoffees for Impropriations , an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved. [ 113 ] Laud prosecuted those who opposed his reforms in the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber , the two most powerful courts in the land. [ 114 ] The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views and unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen. [ 115 ] For example, in 1637 William Prynne , Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried , whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets. [ 116 ] When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from it; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633. [ 118 ] To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted using the Anglican rite. [ 119 ] In 1637, he ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer , without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk . [ 120 ] Although it had been written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing it as a vehicle to introduce Anglicanism to Scotland. [ 121 ] On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh on the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant , whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations not authorised by Kirk and Parliament. [ 122 ] When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government , and adopted presbyterian government by elders and deacons. [ 123 ] Bishops' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639. [ 124 ] He did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, instead raising an army without parliamentary aid and marching to Berwick-upon-Tweed , on the Scottish border. [ 125 ] The army did not engage the Covenanters , as the King feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots. [ 126 ] In the Treaty of Berwick , Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called. [ 127 ] The military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise funds from Spain while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs , where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy . [ 128 ] Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture. [ 129 ] Both the English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640. [ 130 ] In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May. [ 130 ] But in the English general election in March, court candidates fared badly, [ 131 ] and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate. [ 132 ] The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the King would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at £1 million). [ 133 ] Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons. [ 134 ] The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of the Earl of Northumberland, [ 135 ] the Short Parliament (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled. [ 136 ] By this stage the Earl of Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632, [ 138 ] had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and, together with Archbishop Laud, pursued a policy that he termed " Thorough ", which aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests. [ 139 ] Although originally a critic of the King, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628, in part due to the Duke of Buckingham's persuasion, [ 140 ] and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers. [ 141 ] Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the King's consent, and in August 1640 the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland . [ 142 ] Following the illness of Lord Northumberland, who was the King's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery. [ 143 ] The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War, [ 144 ] had far greater morale and training than their English counterparts. They met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne , where they defeated the English forces at the Battle of Newburn and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring County Palatine of Durham . [ 145 ] As demands for a parliament grew, [ 146 ] Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers . By the time it met, on 24 September at York , Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace. [ 147 ] A cessation of arms was negotiated in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon , signed in October 1640. [ 148 ] This stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day indefinitely until a final settlement was negotiated and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces. [ 149 ] Consequently, Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament . Once again, his supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November, more than 350 opposed the King. [ 150 ] Long Parliament Tensions escalate The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the King's leading counsellors for high treason. [ 151 ] Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Finch, now Lord Keeper of the Great Seal , was impeached the next day, and fled to The Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December. [ 152 ] To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act , which required Parliament to be summoned at least every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the King failed to do so. [ 153 ] The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641. [ 154 ] Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly John Pym , and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641. [ 156 ] But Sir Henry Vane 's key allegation that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated, and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed. [ 157 ] Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder , which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death. [ 158 ] Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune", [ 159 ] and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent. [ 160 ] Furthermore, many members and most peers opposed the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice". [ 161 ] But increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue. [ 162 ] The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May. [ 163 ] On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government". While those who signed the petition undertook to defend the King's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", Parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects". [ 164 ] Fearing for his family's safety in the face of unrest, Charles reluctantly assented to Strafford's attainder on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops. [ 165 ] Strafford was beheaded three days later. [ 166 ] Also in early May, Charles assented to an unprecedented Act that forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without its consent. [ 167 ] In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. [ 168 ] All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act. [ 169 ] The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords. [ 170 ] Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by signing a final settlement of the Bishops' Wars , then securing the Scots' favour on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of presbyterianism in Scotland. [ 171 ] But after an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as the Incident , Charles's credibility was significantly undermined. [ 172 ] Irish rebellion Ireland's population was split into three main sociopolitical groups: the Gaelic Irish , who were Catholic; the Old English , who were descended from medieval Normans and also predominantly Catholic; and the New English , who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order. [ 173 ] He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the King and weakened the Irish Parliament's authority, [ 174 ] while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to Presbyterians. [ 175 ] As a result, all three groups had become disaffected. [ 176 ] Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined to present evidence against him. [ 177 ] In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the King had been led astray by malign counsellors, [ 178 ] and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the King was directly involved in governance. [ 179 ] Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland. [ 180 ] The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment, [ 164 ] until lack of money eventually forced Charles to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial. [ 181 ] Disputes over the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant, [ 182 ] particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster , [ 183 ] coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England, [ 184 ] sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the King. [ 185 ] In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance , a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the King was an unwitting member), [ 186 ] but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes, 159 to 148. [ 187 ] Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked. [ 188 ] The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity. [ 189 ] Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland, [ 190 ] including massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords. [ 191 ] Rumours of "papist" conspiracies circulated in England, [ 192 ] and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority. [ 193 ] The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces he raised might later be used against Parliament itself. [ 194 ] Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles. [ 195 ] Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent. [ 196 ] The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the King. [ 197 ] In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into lawlessness, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford , an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer. [ 198 ] When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, he decided to take drastic action. [ 199 ] Five members Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots. [ 200 ] On 3 January 1642, Charles directed Parliament to give up five specific members of the Commons—Pym, John Hampden , Denzil Holles , William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig —and one peer, Lord Mandeville , on the grounds of high treason. [ 201 ] When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which he resolved to do personally. [ 202 ] But news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January. [ 203 ] Having displaced Speaker William Lenthall from his chair, the King asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees, [ 204 ] famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." [ 205 ] Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire empty-handed. [ 206 ] The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. [ 207 ] No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege . [ 208 ] In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder. [ 209 ] Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January, [ 210 ] moving two days later to Windsor Castle . [ 211 ] After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull . [ 212 ] To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor , Sir John Hotham , who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw. [ 213 ] English Civil War In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array , and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia. [ 214 ] The negotiations proved futile, and Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. [ 215 ] By then, his forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford . Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy. [ 216 ] After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill , on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey , and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth . [ 217 ] Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train. [ 218 ] Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded. [ 219 ] In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved". [ 220 ] He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat. [ 220 ] He overwintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April. [ 221 ] The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643. [ 222 ] After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and laid siege to Gloucester , further up the river Severn . His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle . [ 223 ] The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at Newbury, Berkshire , on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the battle stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged. [ 224 ] In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the Oxford Parliament , which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons. [ 225 ] Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife. [ 226 ] In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York , which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the Battle of Marston Moor just a few days later. [ 227 ] The King continued his campaign in the south , encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex . [ 228 ] Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively. [ 229 ] Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides rearmed and reorganised, were again unsuccessful. [ 230 ] At the Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge against the flank of Parliament's New Model Army , but elsewhere on the field, opposing forces pushed Charles's troops back. Attempting to rally his men, Charles rode forward, but as he did so, Robert Dalzell, 1st Earl of Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the King's safety. The royalist soldiers misinterpreted Carnwath's action as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position. [ 231 ] The military balance tipped decisively in Parliament's favour. [ 232 ] There followed a series of defeats for the royalists, [ 233 ] and then the siege of Oxford , from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646. [ 234 ] He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging Newark , and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne . [ 235 ] After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future, [ i ] the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647. [ 237 ] Captivity Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army. [ 238 ] By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by congregationalist Independents , who sought a greater political role. [ 239 ] Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat. [ 240 ] He was taken first to Newmarket , at his own suggestion, [ 241 ] and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court , while more fruitless negotiations took place. [ 242 ] By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps to France, Southern England or Berwick-upon-Tweed , near the Scottish border. [ 243 ] He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond , Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight , whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic. [ 244 ] But Hammond confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody. [ 245 ] From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the " Engagement ", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years. [ 246 ] The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War , and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent , Essex, and Cumberland , and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war. [ 247 ] Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations, [ 248 ] which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight. [ 249 ] On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the King, [ 250 ] but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power. [ 251 ] Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day. [ 252 ] In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride , [ 253 ] while others stayed away voluntarily. [ 254 ] The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament . It was for all practical purposes a military coup. [ 255 ] Trial Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle . [ 257 ] In January 1649, the Rump Parliament House of Commons indicted him for treason; however, the House of Lords rejected the charge. [ 258 ] The idea of trying a king was novel. [ 259 ] The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England— Henry Rolle , Oliver St John and John Wilde —all opposed the indictment as unlawful. [ 260 ] The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent. [ 261 ] The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away. [ 262 ] Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall . [ 263 ] John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook . [ 264 ] Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country. [ 266 ] The charge stated that he was devising "a wicked design to erect and uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people". In carrying this out he had "traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation." [ 266 ] Presaging the modern concept of command responsibility , [ 267 ] the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby." [ 268 ] An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war. [ 269 ] Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused, [ 270 ] stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?" [ 271 ] He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch, [ 259 ] that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}} no earthly power can justly call me (who am your King) in question as a delinquent ... this day's proceeding cannot be warranted by God's laws; for, on the contrary, the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted, and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament ... for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong ... the higher House is totally excluded; and for the House of Commons, it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting ... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government. [ 272 ] no earthly power can justly call me (who am your King) in question as a delinquent ... this day's proceeding cannot be warranted by God's laws; for, on the contrary, the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted, and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament ... for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong ... the higher House is totally excluded; and for the House of Commons, it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting ... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government. [ 272 ] The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'." [ 273 ] At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court, [ 274 ] which then heard more than 30 witnesses against him in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The next day, the King was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty, and sentenced. [ 275 ] The judgement read, "For all which treasons and crimes this court doth adjudge that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, shall be put to death by the severing of his head from his body." [ 266 ] Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant. [ 276 ] Execution Charles's execution was scheduled for 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry . They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell. [ 277 ] The next morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear: [ 278 ] [ 279 ] "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation." [ 278 ] He walked under guard from St James's Palace , where he had been confined, to the Palace of Whitehall , where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House . [ 280 ] Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. [ 281 ] He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford : "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me." [ 282 ] He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things." [ 283 ] He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be." [ 284 ] At about 2:00 pm, [ 285 ] Charles, aged 48, put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded in one clean stroke. [ 286 ] According to observer Philip Henry , a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd, [ 287 ] some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the King's blood as a memento. [ 288 ] The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity. The commissioners approached Richard Brandon , the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200—a considerably large sum for the time. It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but others have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce , William Hulet and Hugh Peters . [ 291 ] The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the King's body at Windsor in 1813, [ 292 ] [ j ] suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman. [ 294 ] It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" [ 295 ] Charles's head was exhibited, [ 296 ] but those words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised. [ 295 ] On the day after the execution, the King's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin. [ 297 ] The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster Abbey , so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February. [ 298 ] He was buried in private on 9 February 1649 in the chapel's quire, alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour , in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle . [ 299 ] The King's son, Charles II , later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park , London, but it was never built. [ 137 ] Legacy Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purportedly written by him appeared for sale. [ 297 ] This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek for the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book. [ 300 ] Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom, [ 301 ] and in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 King Charles the Martyr was added to the Church of England's liturgical calendar . [ 302 ] High church Anglicans held special services on the anniversary of his death. Churches, such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells , and Anglican devotional societies such as the Society of King Charles the Martyr , were founded in his honour. [ 137 ] With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or " Commonwealth ". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and a Council of State assumed executive power. [ 303 ] All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Anglo-Scottish War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . [ 304 ] Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653, [ 305 ] thereby establishing the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector . [ 306 ] Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard . [ 307 ] Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660. [ 308 ] Charles's unprecedented 1642 invasion of the House of Commons' chamber, a grave violation of the liberties of Parliament, and his unsuccessful attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament are commemorated annually at the State Opening of Parliament . [ 309 ] Art Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623, [ 310 ] Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled. [ 311 ] In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez , and acquired works by Titian and Correggio , among others. [ 312 ] In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall , by Peter Paul Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as Gerard van Honthorst , Daniel Mytens , and Anthony van Dyck . [ 313 ] His close associates, including the Duke of Buckingham and Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel , shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall Group . [ 314 ] In 1627 and 1628, Charles purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua , which included work by Titian, Correggio, Raphael , Caravaggio , Andrea del Sarto and Andrea Mantegna . [ 315 ] His collection grew further to encompass Gian Lorenzo Bernini , Pieter Bruegel the Elder , Leonardo da Vinci , Hans Holbein the Younger , Wenceslaus Hollar , Tintoretto and Veronese , and self-portraits by both Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt . [ 316 ] By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1,760 paintings, [ 317 ] most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament. [ 318 ] Assessments In the words of John Philipps Kenyon , "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy". [ 319 ] Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr, [ 137 ] he was condemned by Whig historians , such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner , who thought him duplicitous and delusional. [ 320 ] In recent decades, most historians have criticised him, [ 321 ] the main exception being Kevin Sharpe , who offered a more sympathetic view that has not been widely adopted. [ 322 ] Sharpe argued that the King was a dynamic man of conscience, but Barry Coward thought Charles "the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI", [ 323 ] a view shared by Ronald Hutton , who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages". [ 324 ] Archbishop William Laud , whom Parliament beheaded during the war, called Charles a "mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great." [ 325 ] Charles was more sober and refined than his father, [ 326 ] but he was intransigent. He deliberately pursued unpopular policies that brought ruin on himself. [ 327 ] Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings , but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions. [ 328 ] He thought he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone". [ 329 ] Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch [ 330 ] 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York [ 330 ] 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay [ 330 ] 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester [ 330 ] 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king in England was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc." [ 331 ] The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. [ 332 ] The authors of his death warrant called him "Charles Stuart, King of England". [ 333 ] Honours KB : Knight of the Bath , 6 January 1605 [ 334 ] KG : Knight of the Garter , 24 April 1611 [ 334 ] Arms As Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules . [ 335 ] As the Prince of Wales, he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points. [ 336 ] As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules ( for Scotland ); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter. [ 337 ] Coat of arms as Duke of York from 1611 to 1612 Coat of arms as heir apparent and Prince of Wales used from 1612 to 1625 Coat of arms of Charles I used (outside Scotland) from 1625 to 1649 Coat of arms of Charles I used in Scotland from 1625 to 1649 Issue Charles had nine children, five of whom reached adulthood. Two of his sons eventually succeeded as king, and two children died at or shortly after birth. [ 338 ] Name Birth Death Notes Charles James, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay 13 May 1629 13 May 1629 Born and died the same day. Buried as "Charles, Prince of Wales". [ 339 ] Charles II 29 May 1630 6 February 1685 Married Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705) in 1662. No legitimate liveborn issue, but many acknowledged illegitimate offspring. Mary, Princess Royal 4 November 1631 24 December 1660 Married William II, Prince of Orange (1626–1650) in 1641. She had one child: William III & II . James II & VII 14 October 1633 6 September 1701 Married (1) Anne Hyde (1637–1671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II and Anne, Queen of Great Britain ; Married (2) Mary of Modena (1658–1718) in 1673. Had issue. Elizabeth 29 December 1635 8 September 1650 Died young. Anne 17 March 1637 5 November 1640 Died young. Catherine 29 June 1639 29 June 1639 Born and died the same day. Henry, Duke of Gloucester 8 July 1640 13 September 1660 No issue. Henrietta 16 June 1644 30 June 1670 Married Philip, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701) in 1661. Had issue. Ancestry Ancestors of Charles I of England [ 340 ] 8. Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox 4. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley 9. Margaret Douglas [ k ] 2. James I of England (VI of Scotland) 10. James V of Scotland [ k ] 5. Mary, Queen of Scots 11. Mary of Guise 1. Charles I of England 12. Christian III of Denmark [ l ] 6. Frederick II of Denmark 13. Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg 3. Anne of Denmark 14. Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg 7. Sophia of Mecklenburg 15. Elizabeth of Denmark [ l ] 8. Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox 4. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley 9. Margaret Douglas [ k ] 2. James I of England (VI of Scotland) 10. James V of Scotland [ k ] 5. Mary, Queen of Scots 11. Mary of Guise 1. Charles I of England 12. Christian III of Denmark [ l ] 6. Frederick II of Denmark 13. Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg 3. Anne of Denmark 14. Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg 7. Sophia of Mecklenburg 15. Elizabeth of Denmark [ l ] Notes ^ All dates in this article are given in the Julian calendar , which was used in Great Britain and Ireland throughout Charles's lifetime. However, years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March , which was the English New Year until 1752. ^ Charles grew to a peak height of 5 feet 4 inches (163 cm). [ 7 ] ^ Rubens, who acted as the Spanish representative during peace negotiations in London, painted Landscape with Saint George and the Dragon in 1629–30. [ 74 ] The landscape is modelled on the Thames Valley , and the central figures of Saint George (England's patron saint ) and a maiden resemble the King and Queen. [ 75 ] The dragon of war lies slain under Charles's foot. [ 76 ] ^ For example, James I ruled without Parliament between 1614 and 1621. [ 86 ] ^ For comparison, a typical farm labourer could earn 8d a day, or about £10 a year. [ 93 ] ^ The statute forbade grants of monopolies to individuals but Charles circumvented the restriction by granting monopolies to companies. [ 99 ] ^ Their hostility was summarised in 1641 by Francis Rous , "For Arminianism is the span of a Papist, and if you mark it well, you shall see an Arminian reaching to a Papist, a Papist to a Jesuit, a Jesuit to the Pope, and the other to the King of Spain. And having kindled fire in our neighbours, they now seek to set on flame this kingdom also." [ 107 ] ^ The picture was originally painted for the sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini , who used it to carve a bust of the King, destroyed by fire in 1698; on seeing the painting, Bernini allegedly remarked the sitter was the saddest person he had ever seen and was destined for a violent death. [ 117 ] ^ The Scots were promised £400,000 in instalments. [ 236 ] ^ In 1813, part of Charles's beard, a piece of neck bone, and a tooth were taken as relics. They were placed back in the tomb in 1888. [ 293 ] ^ a b James V and Margaret Douglas were both children of Margaret Tudor , the daughter of Henry VII of England : James V by James IV of Scotland , Margaret by Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus . [ 340 ] ^ a b Christian III and Elizabeth were both children of Frederick I of Denmark : Christian by Anne of Brandenburg , Elizabeth by Sophia of Pomerania . [ 340 ] References Citations ^ Cust 2005 , p. 2; Weir 1996 , p. 252. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 4–5. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 2. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 2. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 3; Gregg 1981 , p. 9. ^ a b Gregg 1981 , p. 11. ^ a b Gregg 1981 , p. 12. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 13. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 16; Hibbert 1968 , p. 22. ^ a b Carlton 1995 , p. 16. ^ a b Gregg 1981 , p. 22. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 18–19; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 21–23. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 29. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 47. ^ Hibbert 1968 , p. 24. ^ Hibbert 1968 , p. 49; Howat 1974 , pp. 26–28. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 63; Howat 1974 , pp. 27–28; Kenyon 1978 , p. 79. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 5; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 49–50. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 152. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 67–68; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 49–50. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 31. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 8. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 5–9. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 33; Gregg 1981 , p. 68. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 4; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 30–32. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 34–38; Cust 2005 , pp. 32–34; Gregg 1981 , pp. 78–82; Hughes-Hallett 2024 , pp. 239–329; Quintrell 1993 , p. 11. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 87–89; Quintrell 1993 , p. 11; Sharpe 1992 , p. 5. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 84. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 85–87. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 42–43; Cust 2005 , pp. 34–35. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 46; Cust 2005 , p. 31; Gregg 1981 , p. 90; Hibbert 1968 , p. 63; Quintrell 1993 , p. 11; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 5–6. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 47; Cust 2005 , pp. 36–38; Gregg 1981 , p. 94; Sharpe 1992 , p. 6. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 97–99. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 52; Gregg 1981 , p. 99; Hibbert 1968 , p. 64. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 56; Gregg 1981 , p. 124; Kenyon 1978 , p. 92; Schama 2001 , p. 65. ^ Trevelyan 1922 , p. 130. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 47; Gregg 1981 , pp. 103–105; Howat 1974 , p. 31. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 114; Hibbert 1968 , p. 86; Weir 1996 , p. 252. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 38; Gregg 1981 , p. 80. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 126. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 55, 70. ^ Quintrell 1993 , pp. 16, 21. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 76; Gregg 1981 , p. 156; Weir 1996 , p. 252. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 130–131. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 84–86. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 153. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 131. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 46; Gregg 1981 , p. 129. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 68–69; Gregg 1981 , p. 129. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 129; Smith 1999 , pp. 54, 114. ^ Smith 1999 , pp. 54, 114. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 138. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 71–75; Cust 2005 , pp. 50–52; Gregg 1981 , pp. 138–147; Quintrell 1993 , pp. 21–28. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 150. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 80; Gregg 1981 , pp. 149–151. ^ Loades 1974 , pp. 369–370. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 75, 81; Quintrell 1993 , p. 29. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 86–88; Gregg 1981 , pp. 154–160; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 91–95. ^ Howat 1974 , p. 35. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 173–174. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 162; Cust 2005 , p. 67. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 170–173. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 101; Cust 2005 , p. 74; Quintrell 1993 , p. 39. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 75; Gregg 1981 , p. 175; Quintrell 1993 , p. 40. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 103–104; Cust 2005 , p. 76; Gregg 1981 , pp. 175–176; Kenyon 1978 , p. 104. ^ Quoted in Cust 2005 , p. 77. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 104; Gregg 1981 , p. 176. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 110–112; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 48–49. ^ Howat 1974 , p. 38; Kenyon 1978 , pp. 107–108. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 112–113; Kenyon 1978 , p. 105; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 170–171. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 107; Sharpe 1992 , p. 168. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 113; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 109–111; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 170–171. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 148–150; Hibbert 1968 , p. 111. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 190–195. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 146; Cust 2005 , p. 161; Gregg 1981 , p. 195. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 146; Cust 2005 , p. 161. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 114–115. ^ Quintrell 1993 , p. 42. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 118; Gregg 1981 , p. 185; Quintrell 1993 , p. 43. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 118; Gregg 1981 , p. 186; Robertson 2005 , p. 35. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 118; Gregg 1981 , p. 186; Quintrell 1993 , p. 43. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 121; Hibbert 1968 , p. 108. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 121–122. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 169–171; Gregg 1981 , pp. 187–197; Howat 1974 , p. 38; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 65–68. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 153–154; Sharpe 1992 , p. xv. ^ Sharpe 1992 , p. 603. ^ Starkey 2006 , p. 104. ^ Weightman 1906 , p. 185. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 40. ^ Sharpe 1992 , pp. 509–536, 541–545, 825–834. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 220. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 190; Gregg 1981 , p. 228. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 18. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 191; Quintrell 1993 , p. 62. ^ Adamson 2007 , pp. 8–9; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 585–588. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 130, 193; Quintrell 1993 , p. 64. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 194; Gregg 1981 , pp. 301–302; Quintrell 1993 , pp. 65–66. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 385. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 167; Gregg 1981 , pp. 215–216; Hibbert 1968 , p. 138; Loades 1974 , p. 385. ^ Young 1997 , p. 97. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 185; Cust 2005 , pp. 212–217; Gregg 1981 , p. 286; Quintrell 1993 , pp. 12–13. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 190; Gregg 1981 , pp. 224–227; Quintrell 1993 , pp. 61–62; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 116–120. ^ Sharp 1980 , pp. 82 ff. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 312–313. ^ Sharpe 1992 , p. 906. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 314. ^ Hunneyball 2010 . ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 97–103. ^ Donaghan 1995 , pp. 65–100. ^ Howat 1974 , pp. 40–46. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 133. ^ Coward 2003 , pp. 174–175; Cust 2005 , pp. 133–147; Gregg 1981 , pp. 267, 273; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 284–292, 328–345, 351–359. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 175; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 310–312. ^ Coward 2003 , pp. 175–176. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 176; Kenyon 1978 , pp. 113–115; Loades 1974 , p. 393; Sharpe 1992 , p. 382. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 176; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 680, 758–763. ^ Jordan & Walsh 2012 , p. 58. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 212, 219; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 774–776. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 219; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 780–781. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 223–224; Gregg 1981 , p. 288; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 783–784; Starkey 2006 , p. 107. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 195; Trevelyan 1922 , pp. 186–187. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 189–197; Cust 2005 , pp. 224–230; Gregg 1981 , pp. 288–289; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 788–791. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 236–237. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 197–199; Cust 2005 , pp. 230–231; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 792–794. ^ Adamson 2007 , p. 9; Gregg 1981 , pp. 290–292; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 797–802. ^ Adamson 2007 , p. 9; Cust 2005 , pp. 246–247; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 805–806. ^ Adamson 2007 , pp. 9–10; Cust 2005 , p. 248. ^ Howat 1974 , pp. 44, 66; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 809–813, 825–834, 895. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 251; Gregg 1981 , p. 294. ^ a b Adamson 2007 , p. 11. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 401. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 402. ^ Adamson 2007 , p. 14. ^ Adamson 2007 , p. 15. ^ Adamson 2007 , p. 17. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 211–212; Cust 2005 , pp. 253–259; Gregg 1981 , pp. 305–307; Loades 1974 , p. 402. ^ a b c d Kishlansky & Morrill 2008 . ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 243. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 185–186; Quintrell 1993 , p. 114. ^ Quintrell 1993 , p. 46. ^ Sharpe 1992 , p. 132. ^ Stevenson 1973 , pp. 183–208. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 313–314; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 147, 150. ^ Stevenson 1973 , p. 101. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 262–263; Gregg 1981 , pp. 313–315. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 264–265; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 914–916. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 214; Cust 2005 , pp. 265–266; Sharpe 1992 , pp. 916–918. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 315; Stevenson 1973 , pp. 212–213. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 404; Stevenson 1973 , pp. 212–213. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 216; Gregg 1981 , pp. 317–319. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 323. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 324–325. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 276; Russell 1991 , p. 225. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 220; Gregg 1981 , p. 326. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Portrait of Charles I, King of the Great Britain (1600–1649)" . The State Hermitage Museum . Retrieved 11 September 2022 . ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 327; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 151–153. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 222; Gregg 1981 , p. 328; Hibbert 1968 , p. 154. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 222; Hibbert 1968 , p. 154 and Sharpe 1992 , p. 944 assume that Pym was involved with the launch of the bill; Russell 1991 , p. 288, quoting and agreeing with Gardiner, suspects that it was initiated by Pym's allies only. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 222–223; Cust 2005 , p. 282; Gregg 1981 , p. 330. ^ Hibbert 1968 , pp. 154–155. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 330; see also Cust 2005 , p. 282 and Sharpe 1992 , p. 944. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 283–287; Russell 1991 , pp. 291–295 ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 329, 333. ^ a b Kenyon 1978 , p. 127. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 223; Cust 2005 , p. 287; Gregg 1981 , pp. 333–334; Hibbert 1968 , p. 156. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 191; Gregg 1981 , p. 334; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 156–157. ^ Hibbert 1968 , p. 156; Kenyon 1978 , pp. 127–128. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 335; Kenyon 1978 , p. 128. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 129. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 130. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 225–226; Starkey 2006 , p. 112. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 226; Kenyon 1978 , p. 133; Stevenson 1973 , pp. 238–239. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 183; Robertson 2005 , pp. 42–43. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 125. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 172. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 183, 229; Robertson 2005 , p. 42. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 130. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 131. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 137. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 229; Cust 2005 , p. 306. ^ Russell 1991 , p. 298. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 3. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 413; Russell 1990 , p. 43. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 307–308; Russell 1990 , p. 19. ^ Schama 2001 , p. 118. ^ Starkey 2006 , p. 112. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 340–341; Loades 1974 , p. 415; Smith 1999 , p. 127; Starkey 2006 , p. 113. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 135; Smith 1999 , p. 128. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 414. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 230; Schama 2001 , pp. 118–120. ^ Gillespie 2006 , p. 144; Schama 2001 , pp. 118–120. ^ Loades 1974 , pp. 416–417; Schama 2001 , pp. 118–120. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 341–342. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 200. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 136. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 237. ^ Smith 1999 , p. 129. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 137. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 235–236; Cust 2005 , pp. 323–324; Gregg 1981 , p. 343; Hibbert 1968 , p. 160; Loades 1974 , p. 417. ^ Starkey 2006 , p. 113. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 232; Cust 2005 , p. 320; Hibbert 1968 , p. 177. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 321–324; Gregg 1981 , p. 343; Hibbert 1968 , p. 178; Starkey 2006 , pp. 113–114. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 232; Cust 2005 , pp. 320–321; Hibbert 1968 , p. 179. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 233; Gregg 1981 , p. 344. ^ Robertson 2005 , p. 62. ^ Starkey 2006 , p. 114. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 418; Starkey 2006 , pp. 114–115. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 344. ^ Loades 1974 , p. 418. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 326–327; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 180–181. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 234, 236; Hibbert 1968 , p. 181. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 237–238; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 181–182. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 238; Cust 2005 , pp. 338–341; Gregg 1981 , p. 351. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 350. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 352; Hibbert 1968 , p. 182; Loades 1974 , p. 422. ^ Loades 1974 , pp. 423–424. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 366–367. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 248. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 368. ^ a b Carlton 1995 , p. 249. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 254; Cust 2005 , p. 371 ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 378, 385; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 195–198. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 257. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 258. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 381–382. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 263; Gregg 1981 , p. 382 ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 382–386. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 268–269, 272; Cust 2005 , p. 389; Gregg 1981 , pp. 387–388 ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 388–389. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 275–278; Gregg 1981 , pp. 391–392 ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 404–405; Gregg 1981 , p. 396 ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 403–405; Gregg 1981 , pp. 396–397; Holmes 2006 , pp. 72–73. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 294; Cust 2005 , p. 408; Gregg 1981 , p. 398; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 230, 232–234, 237–238. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 300; Gregg 1981 , p. 406; Robertson 2005 , p. 67. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 303, 305; Cust 2005 , p. 420; Gregg 1981 , pp. 407–408. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 309; Hibbert 1968 , p. 241. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 411. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 310; Cust 2005 , pp. 429–430; Gregg 1981 , pp. 411–413. ^ Coward 2003 , pp. 224–236; Edwards 1999 , p. 57; Holmes 2006 , pp. 101–109. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 412–414. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 311; Cust 2005 , p. 431. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 312–314. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 435–436. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 419; Hibbert 1968 , p. 247. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 419–420. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 437; Hibbert 1968 , p. 248. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 329–330; Gregg 1981 , p. 424. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 442. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 331; Gregg 1981 , p. 426. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 237; Robertson 2005 , p. 118. ^ Hibbert 1968 , p. 251; Starkey 2006 , pp. 122–124. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 429. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 336; Hibbert 1968 , p. 252. ^ Coward 2003 , p. 237; Starkey 2006 , p. 123. ^ Edwards 1999 , pp. 84–85; Robertson 2005 , pp. 118–119; Starkey 2006 , p. 123. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 326; Gregg 1981 , p. 422. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 335–337; Gregg 1981 , pp. 429–430; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 253–254. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 99; Gregg 1981 , p. 432; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 255, 273. ^ a b Robertson 2002 , pp. 4–6. ^ Edwards 1999 , pp. 99, 109. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 452; Gregg 1981 , p. 432; Robertson 2005 , p. 137. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 433. ^ Edwards 1999 , pp. 125–126; Gregg 1981 , p. 436. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 435–436; Robertson 2005 , pp. 143–144. ^ Gregg 1981 , between pages 420 and 421. ^ a b c Gardiner 1906 , pp. 371–374. ^ Robertson 2005 , pp. 15, 148–149. ^ Gardiner 1906 , pp. 371–374; Gregg 1981 , p. 437; Robertson 2005 , pp. 15, 149. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 304. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 345–346; Edwards 1999 , pp. 132–146; Gregg 1981 , pp. 437–440. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 345; Robertson 2002 , pp. 4–6. ^ Gardiner 1906 , pp. 374–376. ^ Robertson 2005 , p. 15. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 347; Edwards 1999 , p. 146. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 440–441. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 162; Hibbert 1968 , p. 267. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 350–351; Gregg 1981 , p. 443; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 276–277. ^ a b Charles I (r. 1625–49) , Official website of the British monarchy , retrieved 20 April 2013 . ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 352; Edwards 1999 , p. 168. ^ Carlton 1995 , pp. 352–353; Gregg 1981 , p. 443. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 353; Edwards 1999 , p. 178; Gregg 1981 , p. 444; Hibbert 1968 , p. 279; Holmes 2006 , p. 93. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 353; Edwards 1999 , p. 179; Gregg 1981 , p. 444; Hibbert 1968 , pp. 157, 279. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 444; see also a virtually identical quote in Edwards 1999 , p. 180. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 354; Edwards 1999 , p. 182; Hibbert 1968 , p. 279; Starkey 2006 , p. 126. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 354; Edwards 1999 , p. 183; Gregg 1981 , pp. 443–444. ^ Hibbert 1968 , pp. 279–280; Robertson 2005 , p. 200. ^ Hibbert 1968 , p. 280. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 184; Gregg 1981 , p. 445; Hibbert 1968 , p. 280. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 197; Gregg 1981 , p. 445; Hibbert 1968 , p. 280. ^ Higgins 2009 . ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 173. ^ Robertson 2005 , p. 201. ^ Henry VIII's Final Resting Place (PDF) , St George's Chapel, Windsor , archived (PDF) from the original on 14 October 2017 , retrieved 13 October 2017 ; Morris, John S. (2007), "Sir Henry Halford, president of the Royal College of Physicians, with a note on his involvement in the exhumation of King Charles I", Postgraduate Medical Journal , 83 (980): 431– 433, doi : 10.1136/pgmj.2006.055848 , ISSN 0032-5473 , PMC 2600044 , PMID 17551078 ^ Robertson 2005 , p. 333. ^ a b Edwards 1999 , p. 183. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 183; Gregg 1981 , p. 445. ^ a b Gregg 1981 , p. 445. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 188; Gregg 1981 , p. 445. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 189; Gregg 1981 , p. 445. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 445; Robertson 2005 , pp. 208–209. ^ Cust 2005 , p. 461. ^ Mitchell 2012 , p. 99. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 190; Kenyon 1978 , p. 166. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 190; Kenyon 1978 , pp. 166–168; Loades 1974 , pp. 450–452. ^ Holmes 2006 , p. 121; Kenyon 1978 , p. 170; Loades 1974 , p. 454. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 190; Loades 1974 , pp. 455–459. ^ Holmes 2006 , p. 174; Kenyon 1978 , p. 177; Loades 1974 , p. 459. ^ Holmes 2006 , pp. 175–176; Kenyon 1978 , pp. 177–180. ^ Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). "Black Rod" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 24– 25. ; Bagley, John Joseph; Lewis, A. S. (1977). Lancashire at War: Cavaliers and Roundheads, 1642–51: a Series of Talks Broadcast from BBC Radio Blackburn . Dalesman. p. 15. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 83; Hibbert 1968 , p. 133. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 141; Cust 2005 , pp. 156–157; Gregg 1981 , p. 194; Hibbert 1968 , p. 135. ^ Gregg 1981 , p. 83. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 145; Hibbert 1968 , p. 134. ^ Millar 1958 , p. 6. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 167–169; see also Carlton 1995 , p. 142; Cust 2005 , p. 157 and Hibbert 1968 , p. 135. ^ Gregg 1981 , pp. 249–250, 278. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 142. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. 143. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 93. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 414, 466; Kenyon 1978 , p. 93. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. xvi; Coward 2003 , p. xxiii; Cust 2005 , pp. 472–473. ^ Carlton 1995 , p. xvii; Coward 2003 , p. xxii; Cust 2005 , p. 466. ^ Coward 2003 , p. xxii. ^ Quoted in Carlton 1995 , p. xvii ^ Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain Peter Heylin in Cyprianus Angelicus , 1688 ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 93; Robertson 2005 , p. 32. ^ Cust 2005 , pp. 466–474. ^ Kenyon 1978 , p. 94; Sharpe 1992 , p. 198. ^ Gardiner 1906 , p. 83. ^ a b c d Weir 1996 , p. 252. ^ Wallis 1921 , p. 61 . ^ Weir 1996 , p. 286. ^ Edwards 1999 , p. 160; Gregg 1981 , pp. 436, 440. ^ a b Cokayne, Gibbs & Doubleday 1913 , p. 445 ; Weir 1996 , p. 252. ^ Ashmole 1715 , p. 532. ^ Ashmole 1715 , pp. 531, 534. ^ Johnston 1906 , p. 18. ^ Weir 1996 , pp. 252–254. ^ Cokayne, Gibbs & Doubleday 1913 , p. 446 . ^ a b c Louda & Maclagan 1999 , pp. 27, 50. Sources Adamson, John (2007), The Noble Revolt , London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-2978-4262-0 Ashmole, Elias (1715), The History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter , London: Bell, Taylor, Baker, and Collins Carlton, Charles (1995), Charles I: The Personal Monarch (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-4151-2141-8 Cokayne, George Edward ; Gibbs, Vicary ; Doubleday, Arthur (1913), The Complete Peerage , vol. III, London: St Catherine Press Coward, Barry (2003), The Stuart Age (3rd ed.), London: Longman, ISBN 978-0-5827-7251-9 Cust, Richard (2005), Charles I: A Political Life , Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-5820-7034-1 Donaghan, Barbara (1995), "Halcyon Days and the Literature of the War: England's Military Education before 1642", Past and Present , vol. 147, no. 147, pp. 65– 100, doi : 10.1093/past/147.1.65 , JSTOR 651040 Edwards, Graham (1999), The Last Days of Charles I , Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-7509-2079-3 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1906), The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660 (3rd ed.), Oxford: Clarendon Press, OL 13527275M Gillespie, Raymond (2006), Seventeenth Century Ireland (3rd ed.), Dublin: Gill & McMillon, ISBN 978-0-7171-3946-0 Gregg, Pauline (1981), King Charles I , London: Dent, ISBN 0-4600-4437-0 Hibbert, Christopher (1968), Charles I , London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Higgins, Charlotte (24 November 2009), "Delaroche masterpiece feared lost in war to go on show at National Gallery" , The Guardian , retrieved 22 October 2013 Holmes, Clive (2006), Why was Charles I Executed? , London & New York: Hambledon Continuum, ISBN 1-8528-5282-8 Howat, G. M. D. (1974), Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy , London: Adam & Charles Black, ISBN 0-7136-1450-1 Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2024), The Scapegoat: The Brilliant Brief Life of the Duke of Buckingham , HarperCollins Hunneyball, Paul (2010), ROUS, Francis (1581-1659), of Landrake, Cornw.; later of Brixham, Devon, Eton, Bucks. and Acton, Mdx; in The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1604-1629 , CUP, ISBN 978-1-1070-0225-8 Jordan, Don; Walsh, Michael (2012), The King's Revenge; Charles II and the Greatest Manhunt in British History , Little, Brown, ISBN 978-1-4087-0327-4 Johnston, G. Harvey (1906), The Heraldry of the Stewarts , Edinburgh & London: W. & A. K. Johnston Kenyon, J. P. (1978), Stuart England , London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-7139-1087-9 Kishlansky, Mark A. ; Morrill, John (October 2008) [2004], "Charles I (1600–1649)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/5143 (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) Loades, D. M. (1974), Politics and the Nation , London: Fontana, ISBN 0-0063-3339-7 Louda, Jiří ; Maclagan, Michael (1999) [1981], Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe (2nd ed.), London: Little, Brown, ISBN 978-0-3168-4820-6 Millar, Oliver (1958), Rubens: the Whitehall Ceiling , Oxford University Press Mitchell, Jolyon (2012), Martyrdom: A Very Short Introduction , Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1916-4244-9 Quintrell, Brian (1993), Charles I: 1625–1640 , Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-5820-0354-7 Robertson, Geoffrey (2002), Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (2nd ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-1410-1014-4 Robertson, Geoffrey (2005), The Tyrannicide Brief , London: Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-7011-7602-4 Russell, Conrad (1990), The Causes of the English Civil War , Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-1982-2141-8 Russell, Conrad (1991), The Fall of the British Monarchies 1637–1642 , Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-1982-0588-0 Schama, Simon (2001), A History of Britain: The British Wars 1603–1776 , London: BBC Worldwide, ISBN 0-5635-3747-7 Sharp, Buchanan (1980), In Contempt of All Authority , Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-5200-3681-6 Sharpe, Kevin (1992), The Personal Rule of Charles I , New Haven & London: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-3000-5688-5 Smith, David L. (1999), The Stuart Parliaments 1603–1689 , London: Arnold, ISBN 0-3406-2502-3 Starkey, David (2006), Monarchy , London: HarperPress, ISBN 978-0-0072-4750-9 Stevenson, David (1973), The Scottish Revolution 1637–1644 , Newton Abbot: David & Charles, ISBN 0-7153-6302-6 Trevelyan, G. M. (1922), England under the Stuarts (10th ed.), London: Putnam Wallis, John Eyre Winstanley (1921), English Regnal Years and Titles: Hand-lists, Easter dates, etc , London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge Weightman, A. E. (1906), "The Royal Farthing Tokens" (PDF) , British Numismatic Journal , vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 181– 217, archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2018 Weir, Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: A Complete Genealogy (Revised ed.), London: Pimlico, ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5 Young, Michael B. (1997), Charles I , Basingstoke: Macmillan, ISBN 0-3336-0135-1 Further reading Ashley, Maurice (1987), Charles I and Cromwell , London: Methuen, ISBN 978-0-4131-6270-0 Brotton, Jerry (2007), The Sale of the Late King's Goods: Charles I and His Art Collection , Pan Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-3304-2709-8 Cressy, David (2015), Charles I and the People of England , Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-1987-0829-7 de Lisle, Leanda (2017), The White King: Charles I, Traitor, Murderer, Martyr , New York: PublicAffairs, ISBN 978-1-6103-9560-1 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1882), The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637–1649 : Volume I (1637–1640) ; Volume II (1640–1642) Hibbard, Caroline M. (1983), Charles I and the Popish Plot , Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0-8078-1520-9 Lockyer, Roger , ed. (1959), The Trial of Charles I , London: Folio Society Ollard, Richard (1979), The Image of the King: Charles I and Charles II , London: Hodder & Stoughton Reeve, L. J. (1989), Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-5215-2133-5 Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1955), The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 1637–1641 , London: Collins Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1958), The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641–1647 , London: Collins Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1964), A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I , London: Macmillan Yorke, Philip Chesney (1911). "Charles I. (King of England)" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 5 (11th ed.). pp. 906– 912. Historiography Braddick, Michael (2004), "State Formation and the Historiography of Early Modern England", History Compass , vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1– 17, doi : 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00074.x Burgess, Glenn (1990), "On revisionism: an analysis of early Stuart historiography in the 1970s and 1980s", Historical Journal , vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 609– 627, doi : 10.1017/S0018246X90000013 Coward, Barry ; Gaunt, Peter (2017), The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714 (5th ed.), pp. 54– 97 Cressy, David (2015), "The Blindness of Charles I", Huntington Library Quarterly , vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 637– 656, doi : 10.1353/hlq.2015.0031 , S2CID 159801678 online Devereaux, Simon (2009), "The historiography of the English state during 'the Long Eighteenth Century': Part I–Decentralized perspectives", History Compass , vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 742– 764, doi : 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00591.x Harris, Tim (2015), "Revisiting the Causes of the English Civil War", Huntington Library Quarterly , vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 615– 635, doi : 10.1353/hlq.2015.0025 , S2CID 147299268 online Holmes, Clive (1980), "The County Community in Stuart Historiography", Journal of British Studies , vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 54– 73, doi : 10.1086/385755 Kishlansky, Mark A. (2005), "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity", Past and Present , vol. 189, no. 1, pp. 41– 80, doi : 10.1093/pastj/gti027 , S2CID 162382682 Lake, Peter (2015), "From Revisionist to Royalist History; or, Was Charles I the First Whig Historian", Huntington Library Quarterly , vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 657– 681, doi : 10.1353/hlq.2015.0037 , S2CID 159530910 online Lee, Maurice Jr (1984), "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King after All?", Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies , vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 151– 163, doi : 10.2307/4049286 , JSTOR 4049286 Russell, Conrad (1990), "The Man Charles Stuart", The Causes of the English Civil War , Oxford University Press, pp. 185– 211 External links Portraits of King Charles I at the National Portrait Gallery, London Charles I at the official website of the British monarchy Charles I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust Charles I at BBC History The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States) Works by Charles I, King of England at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Charles I of England at the Internet Archive Charles I of England House of Stuart Born: 19 November 1600 Died: 30 January 1649 Regnal titles Preceded by James I & VI King of England and Ireland 1625–1649 Vacant Commonwealth Title next held by Charles II King of Scotland 1625–1649 Succeeded by Charles II British royalty Preceded by Henry Frederick Duke of Cornwall Duke of Rothesay 1612–1625 Vacant Title next held by Charles (II) Prince of Wales 1616–1625 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e English , Scottish , and British monarchs v t e Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. v t e Pictish and Scottish monarchs v t e Monarchs of the Picts (traditional) Drest I Talorc I Nechtan I Drest II Galan Erilich Drest III Drest IV Gartnait I Cailtram Talorc II Drest V Galam Cennalath Bridei I Gartnait II Nechtan II Cinioch Gartnait III Bridei II Talorc III Talorgan I Gartnait IV Drest VI Bridei III Taran Bridei IV Nechtan III Drest VII Alpín I Óengus I Bridei V Ciniod I Alpín II Talorgan II Drest VIII Conall Constantine (I) Óengus II Drest IX Uuen Uurad Bridei VI Ciniod II Bridei VII Drest X Drest I Talorc I Nechtan I Drest II Galan Erilich Drest III Drest IV Gartnait I Cailtram Talorc II Drest V Galam Cennalath Bridei I Gartnait II Nechtan II Cinioch Gartnait III Bridei II Talorc III Talorgan I Gartnait IV Drest VI Bridei III Taran Bridei IV Nechtan III Drest VII Alpín I Óengus I Bridei V Ciniod I Alpín II Talorgan II Drest VIII Conall Constantine (I) Óengus II Drest IX Uuen Uurad Bridei VI Ciniod II Bridei VII Drest X Monarchs of the Scots (traditional) Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I (II) Áed Giric Eochaid (uncertain) Donald II Constantine II (III) Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III (IV) Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Canmore Donald III Duncan II Donald III Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I the Lion Alexander II Alexander III Margaret First Interregnum John Second Interregnum Robert I David II Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary James VI 1 Charles I 1 Charles II 1 James VII 1 Mary II 1 William II 1 Anne 1 Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I (II) Áed Giric Eochaid (uncertain) Donald II Constantine II (III) Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III (IV) Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Canmore Donald III Duncan II Donald III Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I the Lion Alexander II Alexander III Margaret First Interregnum John Second Interregnum Robert I David II Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary James VI 1 Charles I 1 Charles II 1 James VII 1 Mary II 1 William II 1 Anne 1 1 also monarch of England and Ireland . 1 also monarch of England and Ireland . v t e Princes of Wales v t e Edward of Caernarfon (1301–1307) Edward the Black Prince (1343–1376) Richard of Bordeaux (1376–1377) Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413) Edward of Westminster (1454–1471) Edward (1471–1483) Edward of Middleham (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1728–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) Edward of Caernarfon (1301–1307) Edward the Black Prince (1343–1376) Richard of Bordeaux (1376–1377) Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413) Edward of Westminster (1454–1471) Edward (1471–1483) Edward of Middleham (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1728–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) See also : Principality of Wales v t e Dukes of Albany v t e Robert Stewart (1398–1420) Murdoch Stewart (1420–1425) Alexander Stewart (c. 1458–1485) John Stewart (1485–1536) Arthur or Robert Stewart (1541) Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (1565–1567) James Stuart (1567) Charles Stuart (1603–1625) James Stuart (1660–1685) Ernest Augustus (1716–1728) Edward (1760–1767) Frederick (1784–1827) Prince Leopold (1881–1884) Prince Charles Edward (1884–1919) Robert Stewart (1398–1420) Murdoch Stewart (1420–1425) Alexander Stewart (c. 1458–1485) John Stewart (1485–1536) Arthur or Robert Stewart (1541) Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (1565–1567) James Stuart (1567) Charles Stuart (1603–1625) James Stuart (1660–1685) Ernest Augustus (1716–1728) Edward (1760–1767) Frederick (1784–1827) Prince Leopold (1881–1884) Prince Charles Edward (1884–1919) italics denote Dukes of York and Albany v t e Dukes of Cornwall v t e Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Cornwall Portal v t e Dukes of Rothesay v t e David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) v t e Dukes of York v t e Edmund of Langley (1385–1402) Edward of Norwich (1402–1415) Richard Plantagenet (1415–1460) Edward of York (1460–1461) Richard of Shrewsbury (1474–1483) Henry (1494–1509) Charles (1605–1625) James (1633/1644–1685) Ernest Augustus (1716–1728) Edward (1760–1767) Frederick (1784–1827) George (1892–1910) Albert (1920–1936) Andrew (1986–2025; extant, not in use) Edmund of Langley (1385–1402) Edward of Norwich (1402–1415) Richard Plantagenet (1415–1460) Edward of York (1460–1461) Richard of Shrewsbury (1474–1483) Henry (1494–1509) Charles (1605–1625) James (1633/1644–1685) Ernest Augustus (1716–1728) Edward (1760–1767) Frederick (1784–1827) George (1892–1910) Albert (1920–1936) Andrew (1986–2025; extant, not in use) italics denote Dukes of York and Albany v t e Anglicanism v t e Communions Anglican Communion Anglican realignment Continuing Anglican movement Personal ordinariates Porvoo Communion Anglican Communion Anglican realignment Continuing Anglican movement Personal ordinariates Porvoo Communion History History of Christianity in Britain Celtic Christianity Anglo-Saxon Christianity Æthelberht Edwin Offa Augustine of Canterbury Paulinus Hygeberht Bede Medieval architecture Henry VIII English Reformation Cranmer Dissolution of Monasteries Church of England Church of Ireland Apostolic succession Edward VI Edwardian Reformation Elizabeth I Parker Hooker James I King James Version Charles I Laud Caroline Divines Nonjuring schism Oxford Movement Anglo-Catholicism Modern Church History of Christianity in Britain Celtic Christianity Anglo-Saxon Christianity Celtic Christianity Anglo-Saxon Christianity Æthelberht Edwin Offa Augustine of Canterbury Paulinus Hygeberht Bede Medieval architecture Henry VIII English Reformation Cranmer Dissolution of Monasteries Church of England Church of Ireland Apostolic succession Edward VI Edwardian Reformation Elizabeth I Parker Hooker James I King James Version Charles I Laud Caroline Divines Nonjuring schism Oxford Movement Anglo-Catholicism Modern Church Theology Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Thirty-nine Articles The Books of Homilies Lambeth Quadrilateral Sacraments Eucharist Mary Saints Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Father Son Holy Spirit Thirty-nine Articles The Books of Homilies Lambeth Quadrilateral Sacraments Eucharist Mary Saints Liturgy and worship Book of Common Prayer 1549 1552 1662 1928 1962 1979 Morning / Evening Prayer Liturgical year Biblical canon Books of Homilies High / Low / Broad church Book of Common Prayer 1549 1552 1662 1928 1962 1979 1549 1552 1662 1928 1962 1979 Morning / Evening Prayer Liturgical year Biblical canon Books of Homilies High / Low / Broad church Related topics Converts to Anglicanism Heraldry Ministry Monasticism Music Anglican prayer beads Anglicanism of the Americas Free Church of England Reformed Episcopal Church Converts to Anglicanism Heraldry Ministry Monasticism Music Anglican prayer beads Anglicanism of the Americas Free Church of England Reformed Episcopal Church Christianity portal Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Chile Greece Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Chile Greece Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Artists ULAN MusicBrainz RKD Artists FID ULAN MusicBrainz RKD Artists FID People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Charles I of England 1600 births 1649 deaths 16th-century Scottish peers 17th-century Scottish monarchs 17th-century English monarchs 17th-century Irish monarchs 17th-century English nobility 17th-century princes of Wales 17th-century Scottish peers 17th-century dukes of Cornwall Protestant monarchs Anglican saints English pretenders to the French throne Princes and great stewards of Scotland House of Stuart Dukes of Albany Dukes of Rothesay Dukes of York Earls of Ross Peers of Scotland created by James VI Peers of England created by James I Knights of the Garter People from Dunfermline People of the English Civil War Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime Executed monarchs Dethroned monarchs Executed British royalty People executed under the Interregnum (England) for treason against England People executed under the Interregnum (England) by decapitation Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle People executed by public decapitation English Christian royal saints Scottish royal saints Irish royal saints Heads of state and government who were later imprisoned Children of James VI and I Sons of kings People with speech disorders 17th-century English knights Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Use British English from August 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2024 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links This page was last edited on 9 January 2026, at 22:02 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_note-216
|
Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.10567?context=cs
|
Przodniŏ zajta Ôstatnie zmiany Prawidła zapisowaniŏ Sztamtisz Losowŏ zajta Pōmoc Dej znać ô felerze 🔧 Dŏwki Twōrz nowe kōnto Wloguj sie Dŏwki Twōrz nowe kōnto Wloguj sie Wykŏz inhaltu Przodek 1 Wydarzyńa na śwjeće 17 styczńa Аԥсшәа Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Kotava Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo ગુજરાતી Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Kongo Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Kurdî Коми Latina Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Limburgs Ligure Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Malagasy Олык марий Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Papiamentu Polski پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Руски Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Anarâškielâ ChiShona Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 Хальмг მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Zajta Dyskusyjŏ Czytej Edytuj Edytuj tekst zdrzōdłowy Pokŏż historyjõ Czytej Edytuj Edytuj tekst zdrzōdłowy Pokŏż historyjõ Co sam linkuje Zmiany we linkowanych Zaladuj zbiōr Link trwały Informacyjŏ ô zajcie Cytuj tã zajtã Ôbejrzij skrōcōny URL Pobier QR-kod Przełącz na starszy parser Stwōrz ksiōnżkã Pobier kej PDF Wersyjŏ do durku Wikimedia Commons Elymynt Wikidane Sztwŏrtek 15 stycznia 2026 szl: 59 764 17 styczńa – śedymnosty dźyń styczńa , a 17. dźyń roku podug używanygo na Ślůnsku grygůrjańskigo kalyndorza . Do kůńca roku uostoło 348 dńi (349 dńi we przistympnym roku). Sztwŏrtek 15 stycznia 2026 szl: 59 764 Sztwŏrtek 15 stycznia 2026 szl: 59 764 17 styczńa – śedymnosty dźyń styczńa , a 17. dźyń roku podug używanygo na Ślůnsku grygůrjańskigo kalyndorza . Do kůńca roku uostoło 348 dńi (349 dńi we przistympnym roku). Wydarzyńa na śwjeće [ edytuj zdrzōdło ] 1996 - Czesko Republika złożůła wńosek uo wkludzeńy jům do Ojropejskij Uńiji Uobejzdrzij wszyjske dńi roku: Styczyń • Luty • Marzec • Kwjećyń • Moj • Czyrwjec • Lipjec • Śyrpjyń • Wrześyń • Paźdźerńik • Listopad • Grudźyń Wydarzyńa na śwjeće 1996 - Czesko Republika złożůła wńosek uo wkludzeńy jům do Ojropejskij Uńiji Styczyń Ta zajta bōła ôstatni rŏz edytowanŏ 12:54, 12 kwi 2014. Strona została wyrenderowana z wykorzystaniem Parsoida . Tekst je dostympny na licyncyji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na takich samych warōnkach , ze możliwymi ekstra ôgraniczyniami. Wejzdrzij na warōnki używaniŏ po wiyncyj informacyji. Prawidła chrōniyniŏ prywatności Ô Wikipedia Prawne informacyje Code of Conduct Dlŏ deweloperōw Sztatystyki Kōmunikat ô cookies Wersyjŏ dlŏ mobilniŏkōw
|
https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/17_stycz%C5%84a
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-38
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Websites Toggle Websites subsection 2.1 Business Insider and Tech Insider 2.2 Insider 2.3 Markets Insider 2.4 Insider Reviews 2.1 Business Insider and Tech Insider 2.2 Insider 2.3 Markets Insider 2.4 Insider Reviews 3 References 4 External links Insider Inc. Español Français Italiano 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Insider Inc. headquarters at One Liberty Plaza in Lower Manhattan , New York City Formerly Business Insider Inc. (2007–2017) Company type Subsidiary Industry Online media Founded 2007 ; 19 years ago ( 2007 ) Founders .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Henry Blodget Kevin P. Ryan Henry Blodget Kevin P. Ryan Headquarters One Liberty Plaza , New York City , New York , U.S. Key people Barbara Peng [ 1 ] ( CEO ) Nicholas Carlson [ 2 ] (editor-in-chief) Barbara Peng [ 1 ] ( CEO ) Nicholas Carlson [ 2 ] (editor-in-chief) Number of employees 551 (2019) Parent Axel Springer SE Website www .insider-inc .com Insider Inc. (formerly Business Insider Inc. ) is an American online media company known for publishing Business Insider and other media websites. It is a subsidiary of the German publisher Axel Springer SE , the largest in Europe. History Business Insider was founded in 2007 by Henry Blodget and Kevin P. Ryan . [ 3 ] In 2013, Jeff Bezos led an effort to raise US$ 5 million for Business Insider Inc. through his investment company Bezos Expeditions . [ 4 ] On September 29, 2015, Axel Springer SE announced that it had acquired 88% of the stake in Business Insider Inc. for a reported US$ 343 million ( € 306 million). [ 5 ] [ 6 ] After the purchase, Axel Springer SE held a stake of approximately 97%, and Jeff Bezos held the remaining shares through Bezos Expeditions. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Business Insider Inc.'s name was changed to Insider Inc. in December 2017 as the company planned on becoming a general interest news publisher. [ 9 ] Nicholas Carlson is Global Editor-in-Chief of Insider. [ 2 ] In January 2018, the firm moved its global headquarters in New York City from the Flatiron District to the Financial District . [ 10 ] In March 2018, it launched its first advertising campaign, with the tagline "Get in." [ 11 ] The firm started using the Digital Content Ratings of Nielsen Holdings to measure its digital video audience in July 2018. [ 12 ] Websites Business Insider and Tech Insider Business Insider is the original publication of Insider Inc., focusing on business and financial news. [ 3 ] The website Tech Insider originally started as a standalone technology-focused news website in 2015, [ 13 ] but it was eventually incorporated into a section of Business Insider. [ 14 ] Insider Type of site Financial news website Available in English URL insider .com Commercial Yes Current status Active In 2015, Business Insider started establishing a social media presence on Twitter and Facebook for Insider , its general news site comparable to BuzzFeed . [ 15 ] The website Insider.com launched in May 2016 and focuses on news and lifestyle articles and video. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Markets Insider In October 2016, Business Insider started Markets Insider , a globally-focused markets data and news service. Data is provided by Germany-based finance portal Finanzen.net , another Axel Springer holding. [ 18 ] Insider Reviews In 2015, the company launched Insider Picks , the precursor to what is now Insider Reviews , to help shoppers navigate the complex retail industry and make the best purchasing decisions. [ 19 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Sriram, Akash (November 14, 2023). "Insider co-founder Henry Blodget to step down as CEO" . Reuters . Retrieved January 15, 2024 . ^ a b Blodget, Henry (October 16, 2017). "Nicholas Carlson named Global Editor-in-Chief of Business Insider" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on October 18, 2017 . Retrieved May 3, 2019 . ^ a b Auletta, Ken (April 8, 2013). "Business Outsider" . The New Yorker . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Lee, Edmund (April 5, 2013). "Amazon CEO invests in Blodget's news site" . Bloomberg News . Archived from the original on February 5, 2023 . Retrieved February 5, 2023 – via Crain's New York Business. ^ Spangler, Todd (September 29, 2015). "Germany's Axel Springer Buys Business Insider in $343 Million Deal" . Variety . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ "US-Nachrichtenseite: Springer kauft "Business Insider" für 300 Millionen Euro" . Der Spiegel (in German). September 29, 2015. Archived from the original on September 30, 2015 . Retrieved September 29, 2015 . ^ Sawers, Paul (September 29, 2015). "Axel Springer splurges $343M to acquire Business Insider, but Jeff Bezos retains 3% stake" . VentureBeat . Retrieved February 5, 2023 . ^ Killoran, Ellen (September 30, 2015). "Is Business Insider Really Worth $343 Million To Axel Springer?" . Forbes . Archived from the original on February 5, 2023 . Retrieved May 3, 2019 . ^ Moses, Lucia (August 22, 2018). "Business Insider shifts to focus on business as Insider brand takes lifestyle, general news content" . Digiday . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . ^ Cain, Aine; Jacobs, Sarah (January 26, 2018). "Take a tour of the brand new global headquarters of Insider Inc., steps away from Wall Street" . Business Insider . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Fuller, Melynda (March 29, 2018). "Insider Inc. Debuts First Ad Campaign To Unify Brand" . MediaPost . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Willens, Max (July 30, 2018). "Aiming for TV dollars, digital publishers adopt Nielsen's Digital Content Ratings" . Digiday . Retrieved July 30, 2018 . ^ "Business Insider Broadens Ambitions With New Tech Site" . The Wall Street Journal . July 27, 2015. ^ Mullin, Benjamin (December 14, 2017). "Business Insider Inc. Drops 'Business' From Its Name as Company Broadens Coverage, Distribution" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ Moses, Lucia (September 1, 2015). "With its news brand, Business Insider takes a page from BuzzFeed" . Digiday . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Blodget, Henry (May 25, 2016). "Announcing the launch of 'Insider' — because there's more to life than work!" . Business Insider . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Benes, Ross (April 18, 2017). "How Business Insider's distributed brand Insider is diversifying from Facebook" . Digiday . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ Alpert, Lukas I. (October 24, 2016). "Business Insider Launches Markets Data Site With Help From Axel Springer" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved July 20, 2018 . ^ "How we test products at Insider Reviews" . Insider . June 19, 2021 . Retrieved August 21, 2023 . External links Official website 2007 establishments in New York City American companies established in 2007 Companies based in Manhattan Mass media companies established in 2007 Mass media companies based in New York City American subsidiaries of foreign companies Axel Springer SE 2015 mergers and acquisitions CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use mdy dates from July 2020 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia This page was last edited on 29 July 2025, at 05:31 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insider_Inc.
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to 2026 in science at Wikimedia Commons v t e 2020s articles v t e History Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Events COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Govt UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size Years Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Categories General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling Wrestling Portal:Current events v t e Overviews of the 2020s v t e History World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history United Kingdom World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history Political history United Kingdom Culture Film Music Latin Fashion Video games Film Music Latin Latin Fashion Video games Societal Society Economy Society Economy Science Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Related Year in topic List of timelines Year in topic List of timelines Science Technology Astronomy Outer space Current events 2026 in science 21st century in science 2020s in technology 2026-related lists Science timelines by year CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2025 Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 02:35 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_in_science#cite_note-7
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_ref-234
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 1.1 Tim Burton films 1.1.1 Early life 1.1.2 Becoming Batman 1.1.3 Joker and 20th anniversary of his parents' murder 1.1.4 Christmas celebration 1.1.5 Catwoman and Penguin's plot 1.2 Joel Schumacher films 1.2.1 Early life 1.2.2 Two-Face and the Riddler alliance 1.2.3 Adopting Dick Grayson and becoming the Dynamic Duo 1.2.4 Mister Freeze and Poison Ivy 1.2.5 Arrival of Barbara Wilson and Polar Ice Cap 1.3 The Flash 1.3.1 Flashpoint and the two Barrys 1.3.2 Battle against Zod 1.3.3 Timeline change 1.1 Tim Burton films 1.1.1 Early life 1.1.2 Becoming Batman 1.1.3 Joker and 20th anniversary of his parents' murder 1.1.4 Christmas celebration 1.1.5 Catwoman and Penguin's plot 1.1.1 Early life 1.1.2 Becoming Batman 1.1.3 Joker and 20th anniversary of his parents' murder 1.1.4 Christmas celebration 1.1.5 Catwoman and Penguin's plot 1.2 Joel Schumacher films 1.2.1 Early life 1.2.2 Two-Face and the Riddler alliance 1.2.3 Adopting Dick Grayson and becoming the Dynamic Duo 1.2.4 Mister Freeze and Poison Ivy 1.2.5 Arrival of Barbara Wilson and Polar Ice Cap 1.2.1 Early life 1.2.2 Two-Face and the Riddler alliance 1.2.3 Adopting Dick Grayson and becoming the Dynamic Duo 1.2.4 Mister Freeze and Poison Ivy 1.2.5 Arrival of Barbara Wilson and Polar Ice Cap 1.3 The Flash 1.3.1 Flashpoint and the two Barrys 1.3.2 Battle against Zod 1.3.3 Timeline change 1.3.1 Flashpoint and the two Barrys 1.3.2 Battle against Zod 1.3.3 Timeline change 2 Production Toggle Production subsection 2.1 Casting 2.2 Recast 2.3 Batsuits 2.1 Casting 2.2 Recast 2.3 Batsuits 3 In other media Toggle In other media subsection 3.1 Cancelled appearances 3.2 Television 3.3 Video games 3.4 Comic books 3.4.1 Film adaptations 3.4.2 Comic continuation 3.5 Novels 3.6 Batman: Resurrection 3.7 Batman: Revolution 3.1 Cancelled appearances 3.2 Television 3.3 Video games 3.4 Comic books 3.4.1 Film adaptations 3.4.2 Comic continuation 3.4.1 Film adaptations 3.4.2 Comic continuation 3.5 Novels 3.6 Batman: Resurrection 3.7 Batman: Revolution 4 Reception and legacy Toggle Reception and legacy subsection 4.1 Birdman comparisons 4.1 Birdman comparisons 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Bruce Wayne (1989 film series character) Italiano Русский Simple English 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Bruce Wayne .mw-parser-output .noitalic{font-style:normal} Burton and Schumacher 's Batman and DC Extended Universe character Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman in Batman Returns (1992) First appearance Batman (1989) Last appearance The Flash (2023) Based on Batman by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Adapted by Sam Hamm Warren Skaaren Sam Hamm Warren Skaaren Portrayed by Michael Keaton ( Batman , Batman Returns , The Flash ) Val Kilmer ( Batman Forever ) George Clooney ( Batman & Robin , The Flash ) Michael Keaton ( Batman , Batman Returns , The Flash ) Val Kilmer ( Batman Forever ) George Clooney ( Batman & Robin , The Flash ) In-universe information Alias Batman Occupation Philanthropist Vigilante Philanthropist Vigilante Family Thomas Wayne (father) Martha Wayne (mother) Alfred Pennyworth (surrogate father) Thomas Wayne (father) Martha Wayne (mother) Alfred Pennyworth (surrogate father) Significant others Vicki Vale Selina Kyle Chase Meridian Julie Madison Vicki Vale Selina Kyle Chase Meridian Julie Madison Children Dick Grayson (surrogate son) Home Wayne Manor , Gotham City Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Peak human physical and mental condition Mastery of stealth and espionage Utilizes high-tech equipment and weapons Money / Riches Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Peak human physical and mental condition Mastery of stealth and espionage Utilizes high-tech equipment and weapons Money / Riches Bruce Wayne , better known by his vigilante superhero alias Batman , is a fictional character who is featured as the main protagonist in Warner Bros. ' initial Batman film series (1989–1997), and later as a supporting character in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film The Flash (2023). Based on the DC Comics character of the same name , he was portrayed by Michael Keaton in Tim Burton 's Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992), before being recast with Val Kilmer and George Clooney in Joel Schumacher 's Batman Forever (1995) and Batman & Robin (1997) respectively. Both Keaton and Clooney reprised their roles in The Flash , which retroactively incorporates versions of them into two alternate timelines of the DCEU's continuity. [ 1 ] Keaton's portrayal of the character was critically acclaimed and influenced subsequent interpretations. [ 2 ] Fictional character biography Tim Burton films Early life As a child, Wayne went to see the musical film Footlight Frenzy with his parents, Thomas and Martha , at the Monarch Theatre. As the Waynes walked down an alley , Thomas and Martha were shot and killed by mugger . The mugger prepared to kill Bruce, as well, asking the boy, "Have you ever danced with the devil in the pale moonlight?"; the mugger's accomplice entreats him to run from the police, however, so he spares Bruce's life. After this, he was raised by Alfred Pennyworth ( Michael Gough ), the family butler. Becoming Batman After decades of training, Wayne, who inherited his parents' wealth after their deaths, had his company Wayne Enterprises purchase equipment and built an advanced combat suit and the Batcave , a secret sophisticated lair under Wayne Manor , and began fighting crime in Gotham City as Batman (Keaton), who quickly becomes an urban legend that strikes fear in the hearts of Gotham's criminal element, especially after the death of gangster Johnny Gobbs, whose body was found drained of blood following an altercation with the vigilante. Publicly, Wayne poses as an eccentric playboy, throwing lavish fundraisers for the city and collecting rare art from around the world. Wayne hosts a fundraiser at Wayne Manor to help fund Gotham City's 200th Anniversary Parade, where he meets photographer Vicki Vale ( Kim Basinger ). Wayne and Vicki soon fall in love. Wayne finds in reviewing the Manor's surveillance cameras that Commissioner James Gordon ( Pat Hingle ), who left the party unexpectedly, has been summoned to Axis Chemicals to stop a break-in by Jack Napier ( Jack Nicholson ), crime lord Carl Grissom's ( Jack Palance ) right-hand man. As Batman, he fights Napier and his men, and during the fight, Napier falls into a vat of chemicals, transforming him into the insane, disfigured criminal mastermind the Joker . Joker and 20th anniversary of his parents' murder On the 20th anniversary of his parents' murder, Wayne leaves lunch with Vicki, and witnesses the Joker killing one of Grissom's associates. As Batman, he discovers that the Joker has poisoned various consumer products with his Smilex toxin. Wayne is informed by Alfred that he has a date with Vale at the Flugelheim Museum. Wayne states he has no plans to meet Vale that day, and realizes that the meeting was set up by the Joker. After a battle with the Joker's men, Batman and Vicki return to the Batcave, where he reveals his investigation of Joker's lethal chemicals to Vale, giving her an antidote to publish. Wayne nearly reveals to Vale that he is Batman, but they are interrupted by the Joker, who asks Wayne, "Have you ever danced with the devil by the pale moonlight?" before shooting the stunned billionaire, who survives because he is wearing body armor. When the Joker publicly challenges Batman to fight him during the anniversary gala, Wayne recognizes him as the mugger who killed his parents. On that same night, Alfred allows Vicki to enter the Batcave, thus revealing his employer's secret identity. At the anniversary parade, Batman intercepts the Joker's parade float, with which the Joker plans to kill thousands of people with his toxin, in his customized, bat-shaped aircraft . After Batman foils his plan, the Joker shoots down the plane, and Batman pursues him and Vale into the cathedral, eventually finding them at the top level. Batman confronts the Joker over killing his parents, and gets into brutal hand-to-hand combat with the villain. As the Joker tries to escape on a helicopter, Batman uses his grappling gun to tie one of the cathedral's gargoyles to the Joker's leg; when the gargoyle breaks free from its foundations, the Joker falls to his death. In the aftermath, Batman gives the Gotham City Police Department (GCPD) his own personalized signal as a way of contacting him for help. Christmas celebration During Gotham's Christmas celebrations, Batman discovers the Red Triangle Gang has interrupted the annual tree lighting ceremony. Despite managing to fight them off, he is too late to stop them from taking billionaire industrialist Max Shreck ( Christopher Walken ) hostage. The next day, a member of the gang kidnaps the mayor's infant son, but the child is saved by the Penguin ( Danny DeVito ), a deformed mystery man who has lived in the sewers ever since his parents threw him into Gotham's reservoir. Though Penguin is immediately accepted by the public and allowed inside the Hall of Records to find his birth parents, Batman remains suspicious and discovers the Penguin may have once been a performer in the Red Triangle Circus and connected to a series of missing children cases. He deduces that the Penguin is the gang's leader and is planning something else, already knowing who his parents are. Penguin becomes popular with the citizens of Gotham, and they discover his name is Oswald Cobblepot, with his parents having died years earlier. Meanwhile, Wayne meets with Shreck, who had been blackmailed into helping Oswald return to the surface, to contest his plans to build a new power plant. He meets Shreck's secretary Selina Kyle ( Michelle Pfeiffer ), unaware that she is the masked vigilante Catwoman, who is planning to kill Shreck as revenge for trying to kill her when she discovered that his power plant would actually drain Gotham of its energy and leave the city at the mercy of the Shreck family. Catwoman and Penguin's plot With Shreck's backing, the Penguin officially announces his plans to run for Mayor of Gotham City. Soon afterward, Wayne and Kyle discover that Cobblepot attempted to frame Batman by kidnapping the Ice Princess ( Cristi Conaway ), who was to relight the tree, and leaving behind a batarang . While Batman investigates the kidnapping, the Red Triangle Gang sabotages the Batmobile to allow the Penguin remote control access. Batman finds the Ice Princess standing on the edge of a rooftop, but the Penguin arrives and startles the girl by opening one of his trick umbrellas and releasing a swarm of bats, which knocks her off the roof to her death. She lands on the button to light the tree, causing a mass swarm of bats to attack the onlookers. Batman is forced to flee, now the chief suspect in the murder. Batman returns to the Batmobile, but the car, having been hacked by the Penguin, takes him on a destructive joyride, though Batman is able to disable the signal and escape. With Alfred's help, Batman hacks into the Gotham Plaza's speakers during one of the Penguin's speeches and plays a recording of the villain bragging about having manipulated the entire city, causing a backlash from the crowd. At Shreck's masked ball, Kyle tells Wayne her plans to kill Shreck, and the two deduce each other's secret identities. At that moment, the Penguin crashes through the floor of the room, announcing his plans to kill all of the first-born sons of Gotham and take Shreck hostage. Batman arrives and interrogates Penguin's right-hand man, learning of the Penguin's hideout underneath the Arctic World exhibit at the abandoned Gotham Zoo. Batman discovers that the Penguin plans to massacre Gotham by sending his penguins to fire missiles at the city. With Pennyworth's help, Batman reprograms the penguins to fire upon the Penguin's hideout. Batman and Penguin fight until the Penguin falls into the toxic waters in the sewer; the mortally injured Penguin make a futile attempt to kill Batman before succumbing to his wounds. Batman attempts to stop Catwoman from killing Shreck and reveals his secret identity. Catwoman kills Shreck by kissing him with a Taser in her mouth before she mysteriously disappears. After the GCPD seizes the Penguin's destroyed lair, Wayne finds Kyle's black cat , Miss Kitty, in an alleyway, as a very much alive Catwoman watches him from a rooftop while the Bat Signal shines in the sky. Joel Schumacher films Early life While the previous films are used as a backstory, Batman's origin is expanded with more details. After his parents' wake, Bruce finds his father's diary. During a storm, he ran away with the diary and falls into a cave filled with bats on the family grounds. Two-Face and the Riddler alliance Batman (Kilmer) is called to stop the gangster Two-Face ( Tommy Lee Jones ) from robbing the Second Bank of Gotham, with help from Gordon and psychologist Chase Meridian ( Nicole Kidman ), who becomes instantly attracted to him. Two-Face was once Gotham's District Attorney, Harvey Dent, before a criminal scarred half of his face with acid, for which he blames Batman. The Dark Knight stops Two-Face from robbing the bank, but Two-Face escapes. The next day, Bruce Wayne visits Wayne Enterprises and becomes acquainted with Edward Nygma ( Jim Carrey ), an employee who is obsessed with him. Nygma has developed the Box, a machine capable of transmitting television signals directly into the human brain. He asks Wayne to fund his invention, but Wayne turns him down, believing the science behind the Box "raises too many questions." Seeking revenge, Nygma reinvents himself as "the Riddler" and allies himself with Two-Face in a plot to destroy both Batman and Bruce Wayne, whom Nygma has discovered are one and the same. Adopting Dick Grayson and becoming the Dynamic Duo During a charity circus performance, Wayne witnesses Two-Face attack and murder a family of acrobats dubbed the Flying Graysons, leaving their youngest son, Dick ( Chris O'Donnell ), an orphan. Feeling a kinship with Dick, Wayne takes him in as his ward. Dick soon discovers Wayne's secret identity and asks Wayne to take him on as his crimefighting partner so he can kill Two-Face and avenge his family. Wayne, who still feels responsible for his parents' deaths, refuses, not wanting to be responsible for another lost life. Meanwhile, Wayne soon starts a romantic relationship with Meridian, who tries to help him move on from the trauma of his parents' deaths. Wayne decides to abandon his war on crime and lead a normal life with her. Before he can tell her, however, Riddler and Two-Face attack Wayne Manor, take Meridian hostage and destroy the Batcave. Batman tracks the villainous duo to their hideout, with help from Dick, whom he has finally accepted as his crimefighting partner, Robin . Two-Face and the Riddler take Meridian and Robin hostage, setting a trap that would force Batman to choose between saving one life or the other. Instead, Batman destroys the Box, driving the Riddler insane, and saves Meridan and Robin. Two-Face corners them at gunpoint, and while flipping his coin to decide their fates, Batman throws a handful of coins at him, causing him to fall to his death, avenging Dick's family. Wayne accepts that he is both Batman and Bruce Wayne, and that he fights crime because he chooses to, not because he has to. Mister Freeze and Poison Ivy The new villain Mr. Freeze ( Arnold Schwarzenegger ) surfaces and commits a string of diamond thefts, catching the attention of Batman (Clooney) and Robin. After Freeze freezes but spares Robin in order to escape, Wayne chastises Dick, who has begun to chafe under Wayne's leadership. Wayne deduces that Freeze is Dr. Victor Fries, whose wife, Nora , is suffering from MacGregor's syndrome and was placed in cryogenic sleep until Freeze finds a cure. In his prior research, Fries accidentally fell backwards into a tank of modified liquid nitrogen, rendering him unable to survive outside of a subzero environment. In order to lure Freeze in, Wayne hosts a charity ball auctioning off the Wayne family diamonds with himself and Dick attending as Batman and Robin, leading to an ensuing battle and Freeze's capture. Wayne and Grayson become acquainted with Dr. Pamela Isley, who is secretly the metahuman ecoterrorist Poison Ivy , and who seduces Robin and allies with Freeze, breaking him out of Arkham Asylum . Ivy then unplugs Nora's life support and convinces Freeze that Batman is responsible. Arrival of Barbara Wilson and Polar Ice Cap Alfred's niece Barbara Wilson ( Alicia Silverstone ) comes to visit Wayne Manor, at about the same time that Wayne discovers that Alfred is dying of McGregor's Syndrome. She soon discovers the Batcave, and becomes Batgirl . Batman and Robin reluctantly allow her to help them defeat Freeze and Ivy, who are trying to turn Gotham City into a giant polar ice cap with a giant freeze ray that Freeze invented. Batgirl defeats Ivy, and the three head to the observatory to stop Freeze. Robin and Batgirl defeat Ivy's minion Bane ( Robert Swenson ) while Batman faces and subdues Freeze, redirecting the telescope's satellites to reflect sunlight to thaw Gotham, but Freeze detonates several bombs that he had placed around the freeze ray, destroying it. Nevertheless, Robin and Batgirl are still able to thaw the city. Batman reveals to a defeated Freeze that Nora is still alive, having been rescued in time. Batman appeals to Freeze's humanity and asks him for the cure to MacGregor's syndrome's early stages to save Pennyworth. Freeze provides him with the cure and returns to Arkham to torment Ivy, his new cellmate, while Pennyworth makes a full recovery and reunites with Wayne, Grayson, and Barbara. The Flash Flashpoint and the two Barrys Barry Allen / The Flash ( Ezra Miller ) travels back in time to prevent the murder of his mother, and accidentally lands ten years back in an alternate 2013, where various events prior to the date of his mother's murder have changed, and an older Wayne (Keaton) has retired as Batman and lives as a recluse in Wayne Manor, after having stopped "all crime" in Gotham. He encounters Barry, who has broken into the manor, as well as a younger Barry from his timeline that has just gained powers that were accidentally transferred to him by the older Barry. Wayne theorizes that the Flash has tangled multiple universes into one (thus placing him in this universe), and the older Barry explains that General Zod ( Michael Shannon ) and his army are preparing to invade Earth [ a ] and that they must find Superman to help them defeat Zod. Wayne declines and leaves them. The two Barrys break into the Batcave and use the computer to try and locate Superman. After seeing the older Barry working to find him, Wayne changes his mind and comes out of retirement to help the Barrys find Superman, who they believe is being held at a military site in Siberia . The group travels to Siberia to rescue Superman, but instead find his cousin Kara Zor-El ( Sasha Calle ). They return to the manor with Kara, who leaves to find Zod. Wayne helps the older Barry recreate the incident that granted him his powers. Barry is struck by lightning, but before Wayne can activate it again, the circuits of the machine fry. Kara returns and flies Barry into the sky to be struck again, and he successfully regains his powers. Battle against Zod Wayne, the Barrys, and Kara form this timeline's Justice League to fight Zod's forces in a desert. Kara is killed by Zod and Wayne dies after being unable to eject himself out of the Batwing which crashes into a Kryptonian ship. The Barrys attempt to go back in time to ensure both Wayne and Kara live, but fail. After confronting a dark alternate self , Barry goes back once again and allows his mother's death to occur, unraveling the universes and preventing Zod's successful invasion. Timeline change After returning to his original timeline, the older Barry's father is proven innocent of the murder of his wife, and that reality's Bruce Wayne calls Allen to congratulate him. When he arrives to the courthouse, Wayne (Clooney) looks different than the one Allen knows ( Ben Affleck ), as he slightly altered the timeline on his way back to create evidence that proved his father's innocence. Production Casting Multiple actors were considered for the role of Batman during production. In Tom Mankiewicz 's original script which Ghostbusters director Ivan Reitman was attached to, actor Bill Murray was considered for the role in a script that featured Eddie Murphy as Dick Grayson / Robin . Gremlins director Joe Dante was attached to the project as well at one point. The script was intended as a comedy, but was altered significantly after Tim Burton 's involvement. Mel Gibson , Kevin Costner , Charlie Sheen , Tom Selleck , Harrison Ford , Pierce Brosnan , Ray Liotta , Willem Dafoe , Alec Baldwin , Kurt Russell , Patrick Swayze , John Travolta , Richard Gere , Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Biehn , Dennis Quaid , Bruce Willis , Steven Seagal , and Jean-Claude Van Damme were all considered for the role. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Eventually, producer Jon Peters suggested Michael Keaton , claiming he had the right "edgy, tormented quality" for the role, and based his argument on Keaton's dramatic performance in the film Clean and Sober . At the time, Keaton was primarily known for comedic parts in Mr. Mom and Beetlejuice , the latter also being directed by Burton. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Keaton's casting as the character caused an uproar from fans of the character, who claimed Keaton was too comedic and too short for the role. [ 11 ] Over 50,000 recorded protest letters were sent to Warner Bros. offices, and the casting was questioned by screenwriter Sam Hamm , producer Michael Uslan and even Batman co-creator Bob Kane . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Recast While Keaton decided not to reprise the role of Batman for the third film, Tim Burton was still involved as producer and pushed Johnny Depp to replace Keaton, [ 16 ] before Val Kilmer got the role. [ 17 ] Kilmer decided not to return and was replaced by George Clooney for the fourth film, [ 18 ] with director Joel Schumacher feeling that Clooney could provide a lighter interpretation of the character than Keaton and Kilmer. [ 19 ] Batsuits The Batsuit worn by Keaton was designed by costume designer Bob Ringwood . Ringwood turned down the opportunity to work on James Bond film Licence to Kill to work on Batman . Ringwood stated that designing the Batsuit was difficult, claiming "the image of Batman in the comics is this huge, big six-foot-four hunk with a dimpled chin. Michael Keaton is a guy with average build. The problem was to make somebody who was average-sized and ordinary-looking into this bigger-than-life creature." [ 20 ] Producer Jon Peters had requested for the Batsuit to feature a Nike product-placement, but was shot down by Burton and Ringwood, feeling that it would not be intimidating. [ 21 ] 28 latex designs of the suit were made, as well as 25 different capes and 6 different heads. [ 22 ] It was decided the use of spandex as in the comics and previous adaptations would not be intimidating enough, so the character was given black armor pieces. The Batsuit was upgraded for Batman Returns , using more flexible foam latex, as well as a more traditional chest emblem. The updated Batsuit also featured a zipper to allow for urination in between takes and an updated plated armor torso that did not resemble sculpted muscles. [ 23 ] Keaton still had difficulty hearing but found the neck movement much less restrictive than with the first costume. Due to the second costume's much thinner cowl with increased flexibility, a greater range of head-turning was allowed but could still leave gaps folding away from the cheek. The infamous "Bat-Turn" movement became an iconic part of the character's body language despite not truly needing to depend upon it, contrary to speculation from contemporary pundits. The wardrobe department spent seven weeks sculpting Batman Forever costumes on his body cast, preceding under the assumption that he would be returning. The addition of nipples and an enlarged codpiece to the Batsuit and Robin's costume in Batman & Robin was the subject of ridicule and criticism. [ 24 ] In other media Cancelled appearances In the cancelled film, Superman Lives , Keaton was set to reprise his role as Batman in a cameo appearance. [ 25 ] In the DC Extended Universe , Keaton was expected to take over the role of Batman from Ben Affleck ; in the original ending of The Flash (2023) it would've incorporating his Batman into the main timeline of the DCEU's continuity. [ 26 ] All plans were later cancelled due to James Gunn and Peter Safran 's reboot of the franchise, the DC Universe (DCU). In the cancelled film, Batgirl , Keaton reprised his role of Batman in a supporting mentor role to Leslie Grace 's Barbara Gordon / Batgirl . In August 2022, DC Films and HBO Max parent Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD) announced that, while the film had entered post-production, the studio no longer planned to release it as scheduled due to the company's cost-cutting measures and a refocus on theatrical releases. In Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (2023), Keaton filmed a cameo that was later cut from the theatrical release. In the cancelled film, Batgirl , Keaton reprised his role of Batman in a supporting mentor role to Leslie Grace 's Barbara Gordon / Batgirl . In August 2022, DC Films and HBO Max parent Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD) announced that, while the film had entered post-production, the studio no longer planned to release it as scheduled due to the company's cost-cutting measures and a refocus on theatrical releases. In Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (2023), Keaton filmed a cameo that was later cut from the theatrical release. Television Keaton's Batman was referenced in the Arrowverse television crossover event " Crisis on Infinite Earths ". [ 27 ] This series establishes the universe in which Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992) exist as " Earth-89 ", with Robert Wuhl , who portrayed Alexander Knox in Batman , reprising his role for the series for a cameo appearance . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] In the crossover, Bruce Wayne / Batman is mentioned as having captured the Joker (despite his apparent death) and married Selina Kyle / Catwoman. Video games The suit from Tim Burton's first Batman film was added as an alternate skin to Batman: Arkham Knight during a free update in August 2015. The suit from Tim Burton's first Batman film was added as a costume for Batman in Multiversus as part of an 85th anniversary celebration for the character. Comic books Film adaptations A comic adaptation of Tim Burton's Batman titled Batman: The Official Comic Adaptation of the Warner Bros Motion Picture was released in June 1989. Longtime Batman editor at DC Dennis O'Neil adapted the screenplay, with art provided by Jerry Ordway . A comic adaptation for Batman Returns titled Batman Returns: The Official Comic Adaptation of the Warner Bros Motion Picture was released in June 1992. The story was once again adapted by Dennis O' Neil, with pencils provided by Steve Erwin and inked embellishments by José Luis García-López . Many of the illustrations García-López did for the film's style guide were re-purposed for the comic adaptation. Comic continuation A comic continuation that was to chronicle the events of Tim Burton's failed third Batman film titled Batman '89 was submitted to DC Comics written by Joe Quinones and Kath Leth in March 2016. The run was inspired by DC's recent comic run Batman '66 , which was a continuation of the 1966 television series starring Adam West and Burt Ward . [ 30 ] The story was to be a direct sequel to Burton's Batman films, with visual allusions to Michael Keaton as Batman, Billy Dee Williams (who portrayed a pre-disfigurement Harvey Dent in Batman ) as Two-Face, Marlon Wayans as Robin, Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman, and Robin Williams as The Riddler. The story would also introduce iterations of Barbara Gordon , Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn into the story's fictional universe . [ 31 ] However, the comic run was initially rejected by DC. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] In February 2021, it was confirmed that DC would in fact be proceeding to develop a comic continuation of Burton's Batman films, with Sam Hamm returning to write the script while Joe Quinones provides the comic's art. [ 35 ] Novels Batman: Resurrection On April 11, 2024, it was announced that a new novel, Batman: Resurrection , set in the Tim Burton Batman universe would be written by author John Jackson Miller . The book serves as a direct sequel to Batman (1989) and is set between the events of the 1989 film and its sequel, Batman Returns (1992), and deals primarily with the aftermath of the Joker's rampage while the remnants of his Smylex formula brings Batman into conflict with two new foes in the form of Karlo Babić and Dr. Hugo Strange . The book was released on October 15, 2024. [ 36 ] Batman: Revolution A sequel to Batman: Resurrection , titled Batman: Revolution , was revealed by Miller following the former's release and is scheduled for release on October 28, 2025 [ 37 ] Reception and legacy Michael Keaton's portrayal as Batman was seen as hugely influential towards further adaptations of the character. [ 38 ] Keaton's portrayal inspired the portrayal by Kevin Conroy in Batman: The Animated Series . As the first version of the character to carry a grapple device with a motorized reel, as well a cape that can harden and transform into a hang-glider, these concepts would become highly influential for most contemporary appearances of the character. [ 39 ] Keaton's grim, monosyllabic persona in-costume has been paid tribute to throughout multiple adaptations of the character, including video game appearances and homages. This adaptation of the character was also seen as the first to change their voice while in costume as Batman, something which future actors Kevin Conroy , Ben Affleck and Christian Bale would also add to their interpretations. [ 40 ] Michael Keaton's portrayal of the character appears on AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains at #46 on the heroes side, while Jack Nicholson 's portrayal as The Joker ranked 45th on the villains side. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Birdman comparisons Due to his involvement in the film, Michael Keaton's role in the film Birdman directed by Alejandro G. Iñárritu has been compared to Keaton's own experiences as Batman. Many people have come to the conclusion that the film is a reflection of Michael Keaton's life post-Batman, as the film itself focuses on Riggan Thompson, a struggling, aging actor who is best known for having played a winged superhero earlier in his career. When Iñárritu contacted Keaton about taking the role of Riggan, Keaton asked him if he was making fun of him for playing Batman. [ 43 ] Despite comparisons between Riggan and Keaton and many people believing that the role was taken by the actor to let out frustration at the role, Keaton has claimed that he loves talking about his time as Batman, and is extremely grateful for the role. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Keaton was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in Birdman , his first-ever nomination, and this helped him gain the villainous role of Adrian Toomes / Vulture in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017). [ 47 ] See also Bruce Wayne (Dark Knight trilogy) Bruce Wayne (DC Extended Universe) Notes ^ As depicted in Man of Steel (2013). References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Kreps, Daniel (October 16, 2021). "Michael Keaton's Batman Returns in New Teaser for 'The Flash' " . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 3, 2021 . ^ Meyer, Joshua (June 20, 2019). "30 Years Later, Michael Keaton is Still the Best Batman" . /FILM . Archived from the original on February 21, 2020 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Busch, Jenna (July 3, 2014). "Interview: Batman Producer Michael Uslan Talks the Legacy of Superhero Cinema" . Superhero Hype! . Archived from the original on December 7, 2019 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ Beaumont-Thomas, Ben (August 21, 2014). "Pierce Brosnan: I turned down Tim Burton's Batman" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on December 7, 2019 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ Gilchrist, Todd (November 4, 2011). "Ray Liotta Says Tim Burton Wanted To Meet With Him For 'Batman' " . Indiewire . Archived from the original on September 3, 2014 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ Wigler, Josh (October 27, 2009). "Exclusive: Willem Dafoe As Batman? It Almost Happened!" . MTV . Archived from the original on September 9, 2015 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ "How Tim Burton's Batman set the stage for comic books' Hollywood takeover" . June 20, 2019. ^ de Vries, Hilary (February 5, 1989). " Batman Battles for Big Money" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 7, 2019 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ John Peters, The Death of "Superman Lives": What Happened? , 2015 ^ Daniels, Les (2000). Batman: The Complete History . San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books . p. 164. ISBN 0-8118-2470-5 . ^ Lowry, Brian (August 23, 2013). "Batman Backlash: Ben Affleck Has Nothing on Michael Keaton" . Variety . Archived from the original on November 21, 2019 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ "Batman" . Steve Englehart . Archived from the original on December 14, 2007 . Retrieved December 7, 2019 . ^ Griffin, Nancy; Masters, Kim (1997). "Hit Men". Hit & Run: How Jon Peters and Peter Guber Took Sony For A Ride In Hollywood . New York City: Simon & Schuster . pp. 158– 174. ISBN 0-684-80931-1 . ^ Rebello, Stephen (November 1989). "Sam Hamm - Screenwriter". Cinefantastique . pp. 34– 41. ^ Burton, Byron (June 21, 2019). "The Battle to Make Tim Burton's 'Batman' " . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ "Johnny Depp Was Almost Batman in Batman Forever" . December 10, 2009. ^ Nathan, Ian (August 1995). "Hold me, thrill me, kiss me, Kilmer". Empire . pp. 108– 117. ^ Couch, Aaron (June 20, 2017). " ' Batman & Robin ' at 20: Joel Schumacher and More Reveal What Really Happened" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on November 1, 2022 . Retrieved November 1, 2022 . ^ " Batman & Robin : About The Production" . Film Scouts . Archived from the original on June 2, 2015 . Retrieved August 7, 2014 . ^ Jody Duncan Shannon (February 1990). "Building the Bat-suit". Cinefex . pp. 16– 24. ^ Bob Ringwood, Tim Burton , Designing the Batsuit , 2005, Warner Home Video ^ "Reinventing the Batsuit for the Modern Era" . American Movies Classic . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Bob Ringwood, Michelle Pfeiffer , Sleek, Sexy and Sinister: The Costumes of Batman Returns , 2005, Warner Home Video ^ Joel Schumacher , Peter MacGregor-Scott, Chris O'Donnell , Val Kilmer , Uma Thurman , John Glover , Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Part 6-Batman Unbound , 2005, Warner Home Video ^ Michael Keaton's Batman Scene In The Unmade Superman Lives Explained ^ Couch, Aaron (August 3, 2022). "Behind the Cancellation of 'Batgirl' " . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 2, 2022 . ^ Spencer, Samuel (December 9, 2019). " 'Crisis On Infinite Earths' Explained: Why Robert Wuhl Has Returned As Alexander Knox" . Newsweek . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Abdulbaki, Mae (December 8, 2019). "Every Arrow-verse Cameo From The Crisis On Infinite Earths Crossover So Far" . Cinema Blend . Archived from the original on December 9, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Flook, Ray (December 8, 2019). " "Crisis" Management: So Michael Keaton, Adam West & "Titans" Fans Should Be Happy [SPOILERS]" . Bleeding Cool . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Johnston, Rich (March 22, 2013). "DC Comics To Publish A Batman Sixties TV Show Comic, As Well As A Batusi Exclusive Toy For San Diego Comic Con" . Bleeding Cool . Archived from the original on December 12, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Whitbrook, James (September 3, 2016). "Behold the Batman '89 Comic That DC Rejected Because They Hate Joy" . Gizmodo . Archived from the original on August 22, 2020 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Moore, Trent (March 10, 2016). "Check Out The Burton-Inspired Batman '89 Comic Dc Decided Not To Make" . Syfy . Archived from the original on December 12, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Melrose, Kevin (March 9, 2016). "Rejected 'Batman '89' comic would've picked up where Burton left off" . CBR . Archived from the original on December 12, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Johnston, Rich (March 9, 2016). "The Kate Leth/Joe Quinones Tim Burton-Style Batman '89 Comic That DC Turned Down" . Bleeding Cool . Archived from the original on December 12, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Aguilar, Matthew (February 16, 2021). "DC Returns to Batman '89 and Superman '78 in New Comic Series" . ComicBook.com . ^ Whitbrook, James (April 11, 2024). "Batman 1989 Continues, in a Brand New Novel" . Gizmodo . Retrieved April 14, 2024 . ^ "New Batman: Resurrection Book Fills In The Gap Between Batman 1989 And Batman Returns" . slashfilm.com . October 15, 2024. ^ Mancuso, Vinnie (June 20, 2019). "What Michael Keaton's 'Batman' Understands About Bruce Wayne Better than Anyone Else" . Collider . Archived from the original on December 12, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Jensen, Jeff (June 15, 2007). "Batman's New Suit" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on September 14, 2010 . Retrieved December 12, 2019 . ^ Murray, Rebecca (March 18, 2017). "Christian Bale Talks About 'Batman Begins' " . Liveabout . Archived from the original on August 13, 2019 . Retrieved December 4, 2019 . ^ "AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains" . American Film Institute . 2003. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018 . Retrieved December 4, 2019 . ^ Wigler, Josh. "Michael Keaton Reveals The Secret Origin Of His Batman Voice" . MTV . Archived from the original on December 4, 2019 . Retrieved December 4, 2019 . ^ Foundas, Scott (August 27, 2014). "Interview: 'Birdman' Director Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu on His First Comedy" . Variety . Archived from the original on February 25, 2015 . Retrieved December 18, 2019 . ^ Romano, Nick (December 24, 2014). "Why Michael Keaton Thinks The Birdman-Batman Comparisons Are Superficial" . Cinema Blend . Archived from the original on December 18, 2019 . Retrieved December 18, 2019 . ^ Rose, Charlie (October 13, 2014). "Michael Keaton on "Birdman" vs. "Batman" (Oct. 13, 2014) | Charlie Rose" . Archived from the original on August 22, 2020 . Retrieved December 18, 2019 – via YouTube. ^ Chitwood, Adam (December 29, 2014). "Watch: Michael Keaton Talks Comparisons Between BIRDMAN and His BATMAN History in Exclusive Clip from EPIX's HOLLYWOOD SESSIONS" . Collider . Archived from the original on December 18, 2019 . Retrieved December 18, 2019 . ^ Weiss, Josh (July 7, 2017). "Michael Keaton Was Destined for 'Spider-Man: Homecoming' " . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on December 18, 2019 . Retrieved December 18, 2019 . External links Bruce Wayne (Burtonverse) on DC Database , a DC Comics wiki .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman (1989–97 film series) v t e Films Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) DC Extended Universe The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) Batman (1989) Batman Returns (1992) Batman Forever (1995) Batman & Robin (1997) DC Extended Universe The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) The Flash (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) Other media Batman OnStar commercials (2000–02) Batman '89 (2021–present) Batman: Resurrection (2024) Batman: Revolution (2025) Batman OnStar commercials (2000–02) Batman '89 (2021–present) Batman: Resurrection (2024) Batman: Revolution (2025) Characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Jack Napier / Joker Selina Kyle / Catwoman Barry Allen / Flash Bruce Wayne / Batman Jack Napier / Joker Selina Kyle / Catwoman Barry Allen / Flash Music Batman Batman: Original Motion Picture Score (1989) Batman (1989) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns Batman Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1992) " Face to Face " Batman Forever Batman Forever: Original Motion Picture Score Album (1995) Batman Forever: Music from the Motion Picture (1995) " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " Batman & Robin Batman & Robin: Music from and Inspired by the "Batman & Robin" Motion Picture (1997) " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " Batman Batman: Original Motion Picture Score (1989) Batman (1989) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman: Original Motion Picture Score (1989) Batman (1989) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns Batman Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1992) " Face to Face " Batman Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1992) " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever Batman Forever: Original Motion Picture Score Album (1995) Batman Forever: Music from the Motion Picture (1995) " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " Batman Forever: Original Motion Picture Score Album (1995) Batman Forever: Music from the Motion Picture (1995) " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game " " Nobody Lives Without Love " " Smash It Up " " The Riddler " " The Passenger " Batman & Robin Batman & Robin: Music from and Inspired by the "Batman & Robin" Motion Picture (1997) " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " Batman & Robin: Music from and Inspired by the "Batman & Robin" Motion Picture (1997) " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Lazy Eye " " Poison Ivy " " Moaner " Video games Batman: The Movie (1989–90) PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade Batman Returns (1992) Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Batman Forever (1995) arcade Batman & Robin (1998) Batman: The Movie (1989–90) PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade PC NES Game Boy Sega Genesis PC Engine arcade Batman Returns (1992) Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Lynx NES SNES Sega systems Batman Forever (1995) arcade arcade Batman & Robin (1998) Related Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman Forever Pinball Batmania Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman Forever Pinball Batmania Category Category v t e DC Extended Universe v t e DC Studios Development Accolades DC Universe DC Studios Development Accolades DC Universe Films Man of Steel (2013) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Suicide Squad (2016) accolades Wonder Woman (2017) Justice League (2017) production Zack Snyder's Justice League Aquaman (2018) Shazam! (2019) Birds of Prey (2020) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) The Suicide Squad (2021) Black Adam (2022) Shazam! Fury of the Gods (2023) The Flash (2023) Blue Beetle (2023) Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) Man of Steel (2013) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) Suicide Squad (2016) accolades accolades Wonder Woman (2017) Justice League (2017) production Zack Snyder's Justice League production Zack Snyder's Justice League Aquaman (2018) Shazam! (2019) Birds of Prey (2020) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) The Suicide Squad (2021) Black Adam (2022) Shazam! Fury of the Gods (2023) The Flash (2023) Blue Beetle (2023) Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (2023) Batgirl (unreleased) TV series Peacemaker season 1 (2022) Peacemaker season 1 (2022) season 1 (2022) Music Soundtracks Man of Steel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Wonder Woman Justice League Aquaman Shazam! Birds of Prey Wonder Woman 1984 Zack Snyder's Justice League The Suicide Squad Black Adam Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Blue Beetle Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom Singles " Heathens " " Sucker for Pain " " Purple Lamborghini " " Gangsta " " To Be Human " " Diamonds " " Boss Bitch " Soundtracks Man of Steel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Wonder Woman Justice League Aquaman Shazam! Birds of Prey Wonder Woman 1984 Zack Snyder's Justice League The Suicide Squad Black Adam Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Blue Beetle Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom Man of Steel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Wonder Woman Justice League Aquaman Shazam! Birds of Prey Wonder Woman 1984 Zack Snyder's Justice League The Suicide Squad Black Adam Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Blue Beetle Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom Singles " Heathens " " Sucker for Pain " " Purple Lamborghini " " Gangsta " " To Be Human " " Diamonds " " Boss Bitch " " Heathens " " Sucker for Pain " " Purple Lamborghini " " Gangsta " " To Be Human " " Diamonds " " Boss Bitch " Cast and characters Barry Allen / The Flash Arthur Curry / Aquaman Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Diana Prince / Wonder Woman Harley Quinn Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Earth-89 Zod Barry Allen / The Flash Arthur Curry / Aquaman Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Diana Prince / Wonder Woman Harley Quinn Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Earth-89 Earth-89 Zod Other media Arrowverse " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Aquaman: King of Atlantis (2021) Arrowverse " Crisis on Infinite Earths " " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Aquaman: King of Atlantis (2021) Category Category v t e Batman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Other contributors Bob Kane Bill Finger Other contributors Characters Supporting characters Enemies In other media Supporting characters Enemies In other media In other media Locations in Gotham City Arkham Asylum Batcave Gotham City Police Department S.T.A.R. Labs Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Arkham Asylum Batcave Gotham City Police Department S.T.A.R. Labs Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Technology Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Transport Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit utility belt utility belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Transport Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Batman in other media In film In video games In amusement parks In children's books In film In video games In amusement parks In children's books Ongoing publications ( history ) Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Batgirl Batwoman Nightwing Harley Quinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Batgirl Batwoman Nightwing Harley Quinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Miscellaneous Detective Comics #27 Origin of Batman Batman and Robin Homosexuality in the Batman franchise The Bat Whispers Batkid Begins Detective Comics #27 Origin of Batman Batman and Robin Homosexuality in the Batman franchise The Bat Whispers Batkid Begins Category Category v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category Action film characters Alternative versions of Batman Batman (1989 film series) Batman in other media Batman live-action film characters Characters created by Tim Burton DC Comics superheroes DC Comics male superheroes DC Extended Universe characters Fictional aviators Fictional billionaires Fictional business executives Fictional hackers Fictional philanthropists Fictional socialites Fictional vigilantes Film characters introduced in 1989 Male characters in film Orphan characters in film Superheroes with alter egos Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from August 2021 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from August 2021 This page was last edited on 17 December 2025, at 19:22 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Wayne_(1989_film_series_character)#cite_note-17
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-305
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Present situation 3 Orthography 4 Phonology Toggle Phonology subsection 4.1 Vowels 4.1.1 Vowel harmony 4.2 Consonants 4.1 Vowels 4.1.1 Vowel harmony 4.1.1 Vowel harmony 4.2 Consonants 5 Grammar Toggle Grammar subsection 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Verbs 5.2.1 Negation 5.1 Nouns 5.2 Verbs 5.2.1 Negation 5.2.1 Negation 6 Language examples Toggle Language examples subsection 6.1 Written examples 6.2 Recorded videos 6.1 Written examples 6.2 Recorded videos 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Võro language Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ العربية Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Ikinyarwanda Kiswahili Коми Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Livvinkarjala Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Scots Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Võro 吴语 粵語 中文 Jaku Iban Kumoring Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikifunctions Wiktionary Wikidata item Võro võro kiilʼ Native to Estonia Region Southern Estonia Ethnicity Võros Native speakers 72,000 (2021) [ 1 ] Language family Uralic Finnic South Estonian Ugala Ugandi Võro-Seto Võro Finnic South Estonian Ugala Ugandi Võro-Seto Võro South Estonian Ugala Ugandi Võro-Seto Võro Ugala Ugandi Võro-Seto Võro Ugandi Võro-Seto Võro Võro-Seto Võro Võro Writing system Latin Official status Regulated by Võro Institute (semi-official) Language codes ISO 639-3 vro Glottolog voro1243 Võro language area— Võromaa (Võro county) in its historical boundaries between Tartu and Seto areas, Russia ( Vinnemaa ) and Latvia ( Lätimaa ) Võro is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA . Võro ( / ˈ v ɒ r oʊ / VORR -oh ; Võro: võro kiilʼ [ˈvɤro kʲiːlʲ] , Estonian : võru keel ) [ 2 ] [ 3 ] is a South Estonian language. [ 4 ] [ 1 ] It has its own literary standard [ 5 ] and efforts have been undertaken to seek official recognition as an indigenous regional language of Estonia . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Võro has roughly 75,000 [ 8 ] speakers ( Võros ), mostly in southeastern Estonia, in the eight parishes of the historical Võru County : Karula , Harglõ , Urvastõ , Rõugõ , Kanepi , Põlva , Räpinä and Vahtsõliina . These parishes are currently centred (due to redistricting) in Võru and Põlva counties, with parts extending into Valga and Tartu counties. Speakers can also be found in the cities of Tallinn , Tartu , and the rest of Estonia. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] History Võro is a descendant of the old South Estonian regional language and is the least influenced by Standard Estonian (which is based on Northern Estonian dialects). [ 12 ] Võro was once spoken further south and east of historical Võromaa in South Estonian-speaking enclaves Lutsi (Ludza) , Leivu and Kraasna in what is now Latvia and Russia . In addition to Võro, other contemporary South Estonian languages are Mulgi , Tartu and Seto . One of the earliest written evidences of South Estonian is a translation of the New Testament ( Wastne Testament ) published in 1686. Although the status of South Estonian began to diminish after the 1880s, the language began to undergo a revival in the late 1980s. [ 13 ] Present situation Today, Võro is used in the works of some of Estonia's best-known playwrights, poets, and authors ( Madis Kõiv , Ülle Kauksi , Jaan Kaplinski , Ain Kaalep , etc.). One newspaper is printed in Võro: the fortnightly Uma Leht (literally Our Own Newspaper ). Twenty-six public schools offer weekly special classes (mostly extracurricular ) in modern Võro. Estonia's contribution to the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 was the song " Tii ", which was performed by Neiokõsõ in Võro. The language is endangered, [ 14 ] and according to Kadri Koreinik this is due to the government's lack of legal commitment to protect the language. [ 6 ] Orthography Võro employs the Latin script , like Estonian and Finnish. А /ɑ/ B /p/ C /t͡s/ D /t/ E /e/ F /f/ G /k/ H /h/ I /i/ J /j/ K /k/ L /l/ M /m/ N /n/ O /o/ P /pp/ Q /ʔ/ R /r/ S /s/ Š /ʃ/ T /t/ U /u/ V /v/ W /v/ Õ /ɤ/ Ä /æ/ Ö /ø/ Ü /y/ X /ks/ Y /ɨ/ Z /s/ Ž /ʃ/ ʼ /◌ʲ/ Most letters (including ä , ö , ü , and õ ) denote the same sounds as in Estonian, with a few exceptions. The letter q stands for the glottal stop /ʔ/ and y denotes / ɨ / , a vowel very close to Russian ы (from 2005 written õ ). Palatalization of consonants is marked with an acute accent (´) or apostrophe (ʼ). In proper typography and in handwriting, the palatalization mark does not extend above the cap height (except uppercase letters Ń , Ŕ , Ś , V́ etc.), and it is written above the letter if the letter has no ascender ( ǵ , ḿ , ń , ṕ , ŕ , ś , v́ etc.) but written to the right of it otherwise ( bʼ , dʼ , fʼ , hʼ , kʼ , lʼ , tʼ ). In some sources, an apostrophe is placed after the letter in all cases. Phonology Vowels Front Back unrounded rounded unrounded rounded Close i y ɨ u Mid e ø ɤ o Open æ ɑ Vowel harmony Võro has preserved the system of vowel harmony that was present in Proto-Finnic . [ clarification needed ] This distinguishes it from Estonian and some other Finnic languages, which have lost it. The vowel harmony system distinguishes front, back and neutral vowels, much like the system found in Finnish. A word cannot contain both front and back vowels; suffixes automatically adapt the backness of the vowels depending on the type of vowels found in the word it is attached to. Neutral vowels can be combined with either type of vowel, although a word that contains only neutral vowels has front vowel harmony. The only neutral vowel is i , like in Votic but unlike Finnish and Karelian, where e is also neutral. Front Back Close rounded y u Close unrounded i ( ɨ *) Mid rounded ø o Mid unrounded e ɤ Open æ ɑ The vowel ɨ (in the Võro orthography written with õ or y , see Orthography section) is considered a back vowel for harmony purposes, but does not participate in harmony itself, as it does not occur in suffixes and endings. Some examples, with Estonian and Finnish included for comparison: Võro Estonian Finnish Meaning kül ä küla kyl ä village küs ü n ü q küsinud kys y n y t asked hõb õ h õ n õ hõbedane hopeinen silver (adj.) Consonants Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal plain pala. plain pala. plain pala. plain pala. Nasal m mʲ n nʲ ŋ ŋʲ Plosive p pʲ t tʲ k kʲ ʔ Affricate ts tsʲ Fricative voiceless f fʲ s sʲ h hʲ voiced v vʲ Approximant l lʲ j Trill r rʲ All Võro consonants (except /j/ and /ʔ/ ) can be palatalized. The glottal stop (q, IPA [ʔ] ) is a very common sound in Võro. Grammar Nouns Endings are shown only in the back vowel harmony variant. The e of the illative ending does not undergo vowel harmony, so it never changes to õ . Only the more common endings are shown. There are some unusual/irregular endings that are only found in a few words or word types. Case Singular ending Plural ending Meaning/use Nominative ( nimekäänüs ) -∅ -q Subject Accusative -∅ Telic /complete object Genitive ( umakäänüs ) -i, -(i)dõ Possession, relation Partitive ( osakäänüs ) -∅, -d, -t -i, -id, -it Atelic /partial object Illative ( sissekäänüs ) -∅, -he, -htõ -i, -(i)he, -dõhe Motion into Inessive ( seenkäänüs ) -(h)n -i(h)n, -(i)dõ(h)n Being in/inside Elative ( seestkäänüs ) -st -ist, -(i)dõst Motion out of Allative ( päälekäänüs ) -lõ -ilõ, -(i)dõlõ Motion onto, towards Adessive ( päälkäänüs ) -l -il, -(i)dõl Being at, on Ablative ( päältkäänüs ) -lt -ilt, -(i)dõlt Motion off, from Translative ( saajakäänüs ) -s -is, -(i)dõs Changing into Terminative ( piirikäänüs ) -niq -iniq, -(i)dõniq Until, up to, as far as Abessive ( ilmakäänüs ) -ldaq -ildaq, -(i)dõldaq Without, lacking Comitative ( ütenkäänüs ) -gaq -igaq, -(i)dõgaq With, in company of, by means of Notes: The accusative is not usually considered a separate case in Võro grammars, as it is always identical to either the nominative or the genitive. When an ending beginning with d is attached to a stem ending in an obstruent, it is devoiced to t automatically. Verbs This section needs expansion . You can help by expanding it . ( April 2015 ) The 3rd person singular of the indicative mood can be either without an ending or, alternatively, with an s -ending: Võro Estonian Finnish Meaning kirota s kirjuta b kirjoitta a writes and anna b anta a gives Among the Finnic languages, such double verb conjugation can be found only in the South Estonian and Karelian languages. Negation Võro has a negative particle that is appended to the end of the verb, whereas standard Estonian and Finnish have a negative verb , which precedes the verb. In Estonian and Finnish, the negative verb ei (Finnish en/et/ei/emme/ette/eivät ) is used in both present and past negation, whereas in Võro the same is expressed by different particles ending with -i(q) or -s : Võro Estonian Finnish Meaning saq anna- aiq sa ei anna sinä et anna You don't give maq tulõ- õiq ma ei tule minä en tule I don't come saq anna- as sa ei andnud sinä et antanut You didn't give maq tulõ- õs ma ei tulnud minä en tullut I didn't come Language examples Written examples Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Võro: As comparison the same sentence in Standard Estonian: In Finnish: In English : All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Recorded videos Egle speaking Võro Sulev speaking Võro Jaan speaking Võro Maarika speaking Võro Toomas speaking Võro See also Languages portal Estonia portal Finnic languages South Estonian language Uma Leht , newspaper in the Võro language Võro Institute References ^ a b Võro language at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Recent Events" . Iub.edu . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ "Päring LINGUAE andmebaasist. Keelte nimetused" . Eki.ee . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ "ISO 639 code sets" . Sil.org. 2009-01-16 . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ Sulev Iva. "Võru kirjakeele sõnamuutmissüsteem (Inflectional Morphology in the Võro Literary Language)" (PDF) . Tartu University : Dspace.utlib.ee. pp. (English summary pp 144–146). ^ a b Koreinik, Kadri (2012). "Maintenance of South Estonian Varieties: A Focus on Institutions" (PDF) . Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe . Retrieved 2015-12-09 . ^ Meiorg, Marianne (2012). "Legal and Institutional Framework Analysis: Seto and Võro languages" . Working Papers in European Language Diversity 19 . Retrieved 2015-12-09 . ^ "Eesti Emakeelega Püsielanikud Murdekeele Oskuse Ja Soo Järgi, 31. Detsember 2011" (in Estonian). Statistikaamet , Pub.stat.ee. Archived from the original on 2020-07-03 . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ "Võro Instituut » Welcome!" . Wi.ee. Archived from the original on 2014-08-26 . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ Saar, Evar. "Võro language" . Võru Instituut . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ "Võro language and alphabet" . Omniglot.com . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ Koreinik, Kadri (2013). "Võro kiil" . Studies in European Language Diversity 23.2. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04 . Retrieved 2015-12-09 . ^ Koreinik, Kadri (2013). "The Võro language in Estonia: ELDIA Case-Specific Report" . Studies in European Language Diversity 23. Archived from the original on 2022-08-08 . Retrieved 2015-12-09 . ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger" . Unesco.org . Retrieved 2014-08-23 . ^ "RL21446: POPULATION WITH ESTONIAN AS THEIR MOTHER TONGUE BY ABILITY TO SPEAK A DIALECT, AGE GROUP, SEX, AND PLACE OF RESIDENCE (ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT), 31 DECEMBER 2021" . PxWeb . Retrieved 2024-07-17 . Further reading Ehala, Martin; Niglas, Katrin (2007). "Empirical evaluation of a mathematical model of ethnolinguistic vitality: the case of Võro". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development . 28 (6): 427– 444. doi : 10.2167/jmmd537.0 . S2CID 52248021 . Eller, Kalle (1999). Võro-Seto Language . Võro Institute. ISBN 9985914953 . Iva, Sulev ; Pajusalu, Karl (2004): "The Võro Language: Historical Development and Present Situation". In: Language Policy and Sociolinguistics I: "Regional Languages in the New Europe" International Scientific Conference; Rēzeknes Augstskola, Latvija; 20–23 May 2004. Rezekne: Rezekne Augstskolas Izdevnieceba, 2004, 58 – 63. Iva, Sulev (2007): Võru kirjakeele sõnamuutmissüsteem (Inflectional Morphology in the Võro Literary Language). Dissertationes Philologiae Estonicae Universitatis Tartuensis 20, Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus (online: English summary pp 144–146) (PDF) Iva, Sulev (pen name Jüvä Sullõv), (2002): Võro-eesti synaraamat (Võro-Estonian dictionary). Publications of Võro Institute 12. Tarto-Võro. Keem, Hella (1997): Võru keel (Võro language). Võro Instituut ja Eesti teaduste akadeemia Emakeele selts. Tallinn. Koreinik, Kadri (2007). The Võro language in education in Estonia (PDF) (Report). Regional dossiers series. Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning. ISSN 1570-1239 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-05-01 . Retrieved 2008-11-07 . Koreinik, Kadri; Pajusalu, Karl (2007): "Language naming practices and linguistic identity in South-Eastern Estonia". Language and Identity in the Finno-Ugric World. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium at the University of Groningen, May 17–19, 2006. R. Blokland and C. Hasselblatt (eds). (Studia Fenno-Ugrica Groningana 4). Maastricht: Shaker. External links Võro language and alphabet at Omniglot Võro-Estonian dictionary (Võro Institute) (in Võro) Võro Institute (in Võro) Võro language newspaper "Uma Leht" (in Võro) Audio example of Võro language Võro synthetic voice (in Võro) Oahpa – an internet program for learners of Võro (in Võro) "Estonian dialects and layers" on Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: vro Homepage of computer programs in Võro Archived 2009-02-19 at the Wayback Machine (in Võro) English-Võro dictionary of computer terms Archived 2008-10-15 at the Wayback Machine (in Võro) Eurominority Uralic languages (Salminen 2003) Online games in Võro language (in Võro) Collection of cartoons in Võro Archived 2011-10-02 at the Wayback Machine (in Võro) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Languages of Estonia v t e Official language Estonian Estonian Regional languages South Estonian Seto Tartu Võro South Estonian Seto Tartu Võro Seto Tartu Võro Minority languages German Russian Swedish German Russian Swedish Sign languages Estonian Sign Language Russian Sign Language Estonian Sign Language Russian Sign Language Extinct languages Laiuse Romani Laiuse Romani v t e Uralic languages v t e List of Uralic languages Finnic Bjarmian Finnic Estonian Laiuse Romani Northeastern coastal South Estonian Seto Võro Mulgi Tartu Ludza Kraasna Leivu Finnish Fingelska Kven Meänkieli Torne Valley Siberian Finnish Ingrian Siberian Ingrian Finnish Karelian Karelian Proper Livvi Ludic Livonian Salaca Veps Votic Krevinian Kukkuzi Bjarmian Finnic Estonian Laiuse Romani Northeastern coastal Laiuse Romani Northeastern coastal South Estonian Seto Võro Mulgi Tartu Ludza Kraasna Leivu Seto Võro Mulgi Tartu Ludza Kraasna Leivu Finnish Fingelska Kven Meänkieli Torne Valley Siberian Finnish Fingelska Kven Meänkieli Torne Valley Torne Valley Siberian Finnish Ingrian Siberian Ingrian Finnish Siberian Ingrian Finnish Karelian Karelian Proper Livvi Ludic Karelian Proper Livvi Ludic Livonian Salaca Salaca Veps Votic Krevinian Kukkuzi Krevinian Kukkuzi Sámi Eastern Sámi Akkala Inari Kainuu Kemi Kildin Skolt Ter Western Sámi Lule Northern Pite Southern Ume Unclassified Bjarmian Sámi Eastern Sámi Akkala Inari Kainuu Kemi Kildin Skolt Ter Akkala Inari Kainuu Kemi Kildin Skolt Ter Western Sámi Lule Northern Pite Southern Ume Lule Northern Pite Southern Ume Unclassified Bjarmian Sámi Bjarmian Sámi Mordvinic Erzya Shoksha dialect [ de ; ru ] Moksha Erzya Shoksha dialect [ de ; ru ] Shoksha dialect [ de ; ru ] Moksha Mari Hill Mari Meadow Mari Northwestern Mari Hill Mari Meadow Mari Northwestern Mari Permic Komi Permyak Yazva Zyryan Udmurt Besermyan Komi Permyak Yazva Zyryan Permyak Yazva Zyryan Udmurt Besermyan Besermyan Ugric Eastern Ugric Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi Western Ugric Hungarian Eastern Ugric Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi Western Ugric Hungarian Hungarian Samoyedic Enets Kamas Koibal Mator Taygi [ ru ] Karagas [ ru ] Nenets Forest Nenets Tundra Nenets Nganasan Selkup Northern Yurats Enets Kamas Koibal Koibal Mator Taygi [ ru ] Karagas [ ru ] Taygi [ ru ] Karagas [ ru ] Nenets Forest Nenets Tundra Nenets Forest Nenets Tundra Nenets Nganasan Selkup Northern Northern Yurats Others Merya Meshcherian Muromian Merya Meshcherian Muromian Reconstructed Proto-Uralic homeland Proto-Finnic Proto-Karelian Proto-Sámi Proto-Samoyedic Proto-Uralic homeland Proto-Finnic Proto-Karelian Proto-Sámi Proto-Samoyedic homeland Proto-Finnic Proto-Karelian Proto-Karelian Proto-Sámi Proto-Samoyedic Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. Võro Definitely endangered languages Languages of Estonia Põlva County South Estonian language Võru County Vowel-harmony languages Language articles citing Ethnologue 25 CS1 Estonian-language sources (et) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue Articles containing Võro-language text Pages with plain IPA Articles containing Estonian-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2016 Articles to be expanded from April 2015 All articles to be expanded Articles containing Finnish-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Võro-language sources (vro) Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 6 November 2025, at 21:18 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5ro_language
|
Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Digital Libraries Title: Clustering of scientific citations in Wikipedia Abstract: The instances of templates in Wikipedia form an interesting data set of structured information. Here I focus on the cite journal template that is primarily used for citation to articles in scientific journals. These citations can be extracted and analyzed: Non-negative matrix factorization is performed on a (article x journal) matrix resulting in a soft clustering of Wikipedia articles and scientific journals, each cluster more or less representing a scientific topic. Comments: 7 pages; 2 figures, Wikimania 2008; Corrected typos Subjects: Digital Libraries (cs.DL) ; Neural and Evolutionary Computing (cs.NE) ACM classes: G.1.10; G.2.3; H.2.8 Cite as: arXiv:0805.1154 [cs.DL] (or arXiv:0805.1154v2 [cs.DL] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar DBLP - CS Bibliography BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/0805.1154
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Protectorate Treaties 1.1 Protectorate Treaties 2 Dervish war 3 British Somaliland 1920–1960 Toggle British Somaliland 1920–1960 subsection 3.1 Italian invasion 3.2 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion 3.3 Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland 3.1 Italian invasion 3.2 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion 3.3 Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland 4 Politics 5 Republic of Somaliland 6 Postage stamps 7 References British Somaliland العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Somaliland Protectorate Maxmiyadda Dhulka Soomaalida ( Somali ) Protectorate under United Kingdom sovereignty (1884–1920); Crown colony administration (1920–1960) Flag Top: 1903–1950 Bottom: 1952–1960 .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} Top: Badge (1903–1950) Bottom: Badge (1952–1960) Anthem: .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} God Save the Queen (1862–1901 & 1952–1960) God Save the King (1901–1940 & 1941–1952) God Save the Queen (1862–1901 & 1952–1960) God Save the King (1901–1940 & 1941–1952) British Somaliland in 1922 Status Protectorate under United Kingdom (1884–1920); Crown colony administration (1920–1960) [ 1 ] Capital Berbera (until 1941) Hargeisa (from 1941) Berbera (until 1941) Hargeisa (from 1941) Common languages Somali Arabic English Somali Arabic English Religion Islam Governor • 1884–1888 (first) Frederick Mercer Hunter • 1959–1960 (last) Douglas Hall History • Protection treaties with local sultanates Sultanatul Ciidagale 1888 • Dervish rebellion / Somaliland Campaign 1900–1920 • Italian invasion (WWII) 3 August 1940 • British recapture 8 April 1941 • Independence as State of Somaliland 26 June 1960 Area 1904 [ 2 ] 137,270 km 2 (53,000 sq mi) Population • 1904 [ 2 ] 153,018 Currency Rupee (1884–1941) East African shilling (1941–1960) Rupee (1884–1941) East African shilling (1941–1960) Preceded by Succeeded by Isaaq Sultanate Gadabuursi Ughazate Habr Yunis Sultanate Warsangali Sultanate Dervish Italian occupation State of Somaliland Somali Republic Preceded by Succeeded by Isaaq Sultanate Gadabuursi Ughazate Habr Yunis Sultanate Warsangali Sultanate Dervish Isaaq Sultanate Gadabuursi Ughazate Habr Yunis Sultanate Warsangali Sultanate Dervish Italian occupation State of Somaliland Somali Republic Italian occupation State of Somaliland Somali Republic Today part of .mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url(" 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px} Somalia ( de jure ) Khatumo State Somaliland ( de facto ) Somalia ( de jure ) Khatumo State Khatumo State Somaliland ( de facto ) Part of a series on the History of Somaliland Prehistory Caves in Somaliland Laas Gaal (10,000 BC) Dhambalin (5,000 BC) Dhaymoole (5,000~3,500 BC) Caves in Somaliland Laas Gaal (10,000 BC) Dhambalin (5,000 BC) Dhaymoole (5,000~3,500 BC) Ancient Land of Punt (2500~2000 BC) Macrobians (525 BC) Land of the Berbers Malao • Mosylon Land of Punt (2500~2000 BC) Macrobians (525 BC) Land of the Berbers Malao • Mosylon Middle Ages Kingdom of Adal (9th-12th c.) Ifat Sultanate (12th-15th c.) Isaaq migrations (12th-20th c.) Adal Sultanate (15th-16th c.) Ethiopian–Adal war Kingdom of Adal (9th-12th c.) Ifat Sultanate (12th-15th c.) Isaaq migrations (12th-20th c.) Adal Sultanate (15th-16th c.) Ethiopian–Adal war Early modern Ottoman Zeila 1559–1874 Isaaq Sultanate (17th-19th c.) Habr Yunis Sultanate (18th-19th c.) Zeila • Berbera • Bulhar Ottoman Zeila 1559–1874 Isaaq Sultanate (17th-19th c.) Habr Yunis Sultanate (18th-19th c.) Zeila • Berbera • Bulhar Colonial period (1884–1960) British Somaliland (1884-1960) Dervish movement (1884-1920) Somaliland campaign (1901-1910) Somaliland campaign (1920) Burao Tax Revolt (1922) Italian invasion (1941) Sheikh Bashir Rebellion (1945) British Somaliland (1884-1960) Dervish movement (1884-1920) Somaliland campaign (1901-1910) Somaliland campaign (1920) Burao Tax Revolt (1922) Italian invasion (1941) Sheikh Bashir Rebellion (1945) Modern Somaliland (since 1960) State of Somaliland (1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) 1961 revolt in Somalia Somali Democratic Republic (1969-1991) Somaliland War of Independence (1981-1991) Isaaq genocide (1982-1990) Peace process (1991) Declaration of Independence (1991) Somaliland (1991) Peace treaties of the Somaliland War of Independence (1991-1997) Constitutional referendum (2001) State of Somaliland (1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) 1961 revolt in Somalia Somali Democratic Republic (1969-1991) Somaliland War of Independence (1981-1991) Isaaq genocide (1982-1990) Peace process (1991) Declaration of Independence (1991) Somaliland (1991) Peace treaties of the Somaliland War of Independence (1991-1997) Constitutional referendum (2001) Somaliland portal .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e British Somaliland , officially the Somaliland Protectorate ( Somali : Maxmiyadda Dhulka Soomaalida ), was a protectorate of the United Kingdom in the territory of modern Somaliland . [ 3 ] It was bordered by Italian Somalia , French Somali Coast , and the Ethiopian Empire (later part of Italian East Africa from 1936 to 1941). From 1884 to 1920, the territory was a British protectorate consisting of self-ruling sultanates . Following the defeat of the Dervish movement by British forces in 1920 , the protectorate was formally established as a Crown colony . During World War II , British Somaliland was occupied by Italy from 3 August 1940 until 8 April 1941, when British forces recaptured the territory. [ 4 ] On 26 June 1960, British Somaliland gained independence as the State of Somaliland . Five days later, on 1 July 1960, it voluntarily united with the Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland ) to form the Somali Republic . [ 5 ] The government of Somaliland , an unrecognised state recognised internationally as an autonomous region of Somalia , regards itself as the successor state to British Somaliland. [ 6 ] As of 26 December 2025, Israel is the only United Nations member state that recognises the Republic of Somaliland as an independent sovereign state. [ 7 ] History Protectorate Treaties The British, the Isaaq Sultanate and the Isaaq clan in Somaliland had come into contact in 1825, when a British ship named the Mary Anne was attacked, sacked, and plundered by Isaaq forces in the port city of Berbera. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The attack led to a British attack of the city and subsequent negotiations with the Sultanate. Further incidents occurred in the 1850s, notably with the Attack on British exploring expeditions and the Blockade of Berbera (1855), which were key points of friction between the British and the Isaaq. [ 11 ] Not until 1888 could the British establish the British Somaliland Protectorate, after signing treaties, but tensions continued between the Isaaq and British authorities. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] In the late 19th century, the United Kingdom signed agreements with the Gadabuursi , Issa , Habr Awal , Garhajis , Arap , Habr Je'lo and Warsangeli clans establishing a protectorate. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Not until the late 19th century did the United Kingdom sign agreements with the Isaaq Sultanate establishing a protectorate. [ 15 ] [ 18 ] [ 17 ] Many of these clans had signed the protection treaties with the British in response to Ethiopian Emperor Menelik's Invasions . The agreements dictated the protection of Somali rights and the maintenance of independence. [ 19 ] The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it from their British India colony until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905 and afterwards by the Colonial Office . Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. [ 20 ] The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to "secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers." [ 21 ] The British principally viewed the protectorate as a source for supplies of meat for their British Indian outpost in Aden through the maintenance of order in the coastal areas and protection of the caravan routes from the interior. [ 22 ] Hence, the region's nickname of "Aden's butcher's shop". [ 23 ] Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, [ 24 ] and contrasted with the more interventionist colonial experience of Italian Somalia . [ 25 ] Dervish war Beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance mounted by the Dervish movement . [ 26 ] The movement was led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , a Somali religious leader who was pejoratively referred to by the British as the "Mad Mullah". [ 27 ] Repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before the First World War . Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman the 5th Sultan of the Habr Yunis Sultanate was one of the main leaders behind the Somali Dervish movement (1899–1920) along with another Isaaq leader Haji Sudi . [ 28 ] Nur Ahmed Aman was the principal agitator rallying the followers of the Kob Fardod Tariqa behind his anti-French Roman Catholic Mission campaign that would become the cause of the Dervish uprising. [ 29 ] He assisted in assembling men and arms and hosted the revolting tribesmen in his quarter at Burao in August 1899, declaring the Dervish rebellion . He fought and led the war throughout the early years of the conflict from 1899–1904. He and his brother Geleh Ahmed [ 30 ] (Kila Ahmed) were the main signatories of the Dervish peace treaty with the British, Ethiopians and Italian colonial powers on March 5, 1905, known as the Ilig Treaty or the Pestalozza agreement. [ 31 ] In 1908, the Dervishes again entered British Somaliland and began inflicting major losses to the British in the interior regions of the Horn of Africa . [ 32 ] From 1908 onwards until the end of the World War I the British retreated to the few remaining coastal regions after suffering heavy losses in the interior, where the dervish continued to operate independently and leaving the interior regions in the hands of the Dervishes. [ 33 ] On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Dul Madoba at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him. At Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel Richard Corfield . In 1914, the British created the Somaliland Camel Corps to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland. In 1920, the British launched their fifth and final expedition against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassan's twenty-year-long struggle. The British tricked Hassan into preparing for an official visit, then launched bombing raids in the city of Taleh where most of his troops were stationed, causing the mullah to retreat into the desert. [ 34 ] Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled to the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921. [ 35 ] British Somaliland 1920–1960 Following the defeat of the Dervish resistance, the two fundamental goals of British policy in British Somaliland were the preservation of stability and the economic self-sufficiency of the protectorate. [ 36 ] The second goal remained particularly elusive because of local resistance to taxation that might have been used to support the protectorate's administration. [ 37 ] By the 1930s, the British presence had extended to other parts of British Somaliland. Growth in commercial trade motivated some livestock herders to subsequently leave the pastoral economy and settle in urban areas. [ 38 ] Customs taxes also helped pay for British India's patrol of Somalia's Red Sea coast. [ 39 ] Among military units in British Somaliland during the interwar period was a battalion of the Indian Army 4th Bombay Grenadiers . [ 40 ] Italian invasion In August 1940, during the East African campaign in World War II , British Somaliland was invaded by Italy. The few British forces that were present attempted to defend the main road to Berbera, but were dislodged from their positions and retreated after losing the Battle of Tug Argan . During this period, the British rounded up soldiers and governmental officials to evacuate them from the territory through Berbera. In total, 7,000 people, including civilians, were evacuated. [ 41 ] The Somalis serving in the Somaliland Camel Corps were given the choice of evacuation or disbandment; the majority chose to remain and were allowed to retain their arms. [ 42 ] In March 1941, after a six-month Italian occupation, British forces recaptured the protectorate during Operation Appearance . The final remnants of the Italian guerrilla movement discontinued all resistance in British Somaliland by the autumn of 1943. 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was an uprising by tribesmen of the Habr Je'lo clan in the cities of Burao and Erigavo in the former British Somaliland protectorate against British authorities in July 1945 led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader belonging to the Yeesif sub-division. [ 43 ] On 2 July, Sheikh Hamza collected 25 of his followers in the town of Wadamago and transported them on a lorry to the vicinity of Burao , where he distributed arms to half of his followers. On the evening of 3 July, the group entered Burao and opened fire on the police guard of the central prison in the city, which was filled with prisoners arrested for previous demonstrations. The group also attacked the house of the district commissioner of Burao District , Major Chambers, resulting in the death of Major Chamber's police guard. Hamza's group escaped to Bur Dhab, a strategic mountain south-east of Burao, where Sheikh Bashir's small unit occupied a fort and took up a defensive position in anticipation of a British counterattack. [ 44 ] The British campaign against Sheikh Hamza's troops proved abortive after several defeats as his forces kept on the move. No sooner had the expedition left the area, than the news travelled fast among the Somali nomads across the plain. The war had exposed the British administration to humiliation. The government came to a conclusion that another expedition against Hamza would be useless; that they must build a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior. The latter course was decided upon and during the first months of 1945, the advance posts were withdrawn and the British administration confined to the coast town of Berbera . [ 45 ] Sheikh Bashir settled many disputes among the tribes in the vicinity, which kept them from raiding each other. He was generally thought to settle disputes through the use of Islamic Sharia and gathered around him a strong following. [ 46 ] Sheikh Bashir sent a message to the religious figures in the town of Erigavo , calling upon them to join the rebellion he led. The religious leaders, as well as the people of Erigavo, heeded his call. A substantial number of people armed themselves with rifles and spears to stage the revolt. The British authorities responded rapidly and severely, sending reinforcements to the town. In two "local actions", the British reinforcements fired openly against the armed mobs and arrested some minor religious leaders. [ 47 ] The British administration recruited Indian and South African troops to fight against Sheikh Bashir. Led by Police General James David, the British police force mobilized with intelligence plans to capture Bashir alive. Eventually, on 7 July, they found Sheikh Bashir with his unit in defensive positions behind their fortifications in the mountains of Bur Dhab. After the clashes, Sheikh Bashir was killed, along with his second-in-command, Alin Yusuf Ali, nicknamed Qaybdiid. A third rebel was wounded and captured along with two other rebels. The rest of Bashir's people fled the fortifications and dispersed. On the British side, Police General James David perished. A number of Indian and South African troops also lost their lives, and a policeman was injured. Despite the death of Sheikh Bashir and many of his followers, the resistance against British authorities continued in Somaliland, especially in Erigavo, where his death occurred. Further resistance arose in the town of Badhan leading to attacks on British colonial troops throughout the district and the seizing of arms from the rural constabulary. [ 48 ] Although most of the rebels had died, the British authorities were not finished with their counter-insurgency campaign. They quickly learned the identities of all the followers of Sheikh Bashir and tried to convince the locals to turn them in. When the locals refused, the authorities invoked the Collective Punishment Ordinance , under which the authorities seized and impounded a total of 6,000 camels owned by the Habr Je'lo , the clan that Sheikh Bashir belonged to. The British authorities made the return of the livestock dependent on the turning over and arrest of the escaped rebels. [ 49 ] The remaining rebels were subsequently found and arrested, and transported to the Saad-ud-Din archipelago , off the coast of Zeila in northwestern Somaliland. Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland In 1947, the entire budget for the administration of the British Somaliland protectorate was only £213,139. [ 39 ] In May 1960, the British Government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then Somaliland protectorate. The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence. The legislative councils of the territory agreed to this proposal. [ 51 ] In April 1960, leaders of the two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories. On 26 June 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate gained independence as the State of Somaliland . Five days later, on 1 July 1960, Somaliland officially merged with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to create the Somali Republic . [ 52 ] [ 15 ] On 1 July 1960 the legislature elected Haji Bashir , the old speaker of the Somaliland Assembly, as the first President of the new Republic of Somalia National Assembly, and also on that same day Aden Adde was elected as the President of the newly formed Somali Republic. Politics Until 1898, Somaliland was administered by the British resident at Aden as a dependency of the Government of India. From 1898 it was under the purview of the Foreign Office , and from 1905 onward (with the exception of a period of military administration until 1948 following the Italian invasion) it was administered by the Colonial Office . Until 1957, executive and legislative power were solely vested in the Governor, although he had a non-statutory council to advise him and in 1947, a Protectorate Advisory Council was established on a tribal basis, with representatives of other communities and official members as well. In 1957, a Legislative Council and an Executive Council were created. From 1959, there were elections to the Legislative Council. A new constitution was introduced in 1960, shortly before independence. Republic of Somaliland In 1991, after a bloody civil war for independence in the northern part of the Somali Democratic Republic , the area which formerly encompassed British Somaliland declared independence. In May 1991, the formation of the " Republic of Somaliland " was proclaimed, with the local government regarding it as the successor to the former British Somaliland as well as to the State of Somaliland . However, As of 26 December 2025, Israel is the only United Nations member state that recognises the Republic of Somaliland as an independent sovereign state. [ 53 ] Postage stamps References Somaliland portal ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Prunier, Gérard (2015). "British Somaliland: An Administrative History, 1920–1960 by Brock Millman: Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern History. London and New York: Routledge, 2014. 316 pp. £95.00/$160.00 cloth" . The Journal of the Middle East and Africa . 6 (2): 221– 225. ISSN 2152-0844 . ^ "Census of the British empire. 1901" . Openlibrary.org. 1906. p. 178 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . ^ United Kingdom. "Somaliland Protectorate, communicated by the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" . Archived from the original on 27 July 2021 . Retrieved 27 July 2021 . ^ "Operation Appearance" . Retrieved 21 August 2025 . ^ "Somalia" . World Statesmen . Retrieved 21 August 2025 . ^ "Somaliland Marks Independence After 73 Years of British Rule" . The New York Times . 26 June 1960. p. 6. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014 . Retrieved 20 June 2008 . ^ "Israel becomes first country to formally recognise Somaliland as independent state" . Reuters . 26 December 2025. ^ Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1999). The Search for the Source of the Nile: Correspondence Between Captain Richard Burton, Captain John Speke and Others, from Burton's Unpublished East African Letter Book . Roxburghe Club. pp. 29– 37. ^ "Plate section" . What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile . 19 May 2011. doi : 10.1017/cbo9781139034456.012 . ISBN 9781139034456 . ^ Walsh, Langton Prendergast (10 November 2018). Under the Flag: And Somali Coast Stories . FRANKLIN CLASSICS TRADE Press. ISBN 978-0-353-06687-8 . ^ Speke, John Hanning (1860). Captain J.H. Speke's Adventures in Somali Land: Experientia Docet. Parts 1, 2, 3 . p. 34. ^ Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1999). The Search for the Source of the Nile: Correspondence Between Captain Richard Burton, Captain John Speke and Others, from Burton's Unpublished East African Letter Book . Roxburghe Club. pp. 29– 37. ^ "Plate section" . What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile . 19 May 2011. doi : 10.1017/cbo9781139034456.012 . ISBN 9781139034456 . ^ Walsh, Langton Prendergast (10 November 2018). Under the Flag: And Somali Coast Stories . FRANKLIN CLASSICS TRADE Press. ISBN 978-0-353-06687-8 . ^ a b c Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Somaliland" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 378– 384. ^ Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience . Chicago: University of Chicago Press . p. 8. ISBN 978-0-226-46791-7 . ^ a b Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M. (1996). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy . London: Haan Associates. pp. 34– 35. ISBN 1-874209-91-X . ^ Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience . Chicago: University of Chicago Press . p. 8. ISBN 978-0-226-46791-7 . ^ Gorman, Robert F. (1981). Political Conflict on the Horn of Africa . Praeger. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-03-059471-7 . Facing the Ethiopian threat, many Somali clans accepted British protection. ^ Samatar, Abdi Ismail. The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884–1986 , Madison: 1989, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 31 ^ Samatar p. 31 ^ Samatar, p. 32 ^ Samatar, Unhappy Masses and the Challenge of Political Islam in the Horn of Africa , Somalia Online [1] Archived 3 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 10-03-27 ^ Samatar, The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia p. 42 ^ McConnell, Tristan (15 January 2009). "The Invisible Country" . Virginia Quarterly Review . Archived from the original on 13 June 2010 . Retrieved 27 March 2010 . ^ Mohamoud, Abdullah A. (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001) . Purdue University Press. ISBN 9781557534132 . Archived from the original on 3 August 2023 . Retrieved 25 October 2020 . ^ Jardine, Douglas James (15 October 2015). Mad Mullah of Somaliland . Naval & Military Press. ISBN 9781781519820 . ^ Sadler to Salisbury-Correspondence Respecting the Rising of the Mullah Muhammed Abdullah in Somaliland, and Consequent Military Operations, 1899-1901. (published 1901) 88pp. ^ Foreign Department-External-B, August 1899, N. 33-234, NAI, New Delhi, Inclosure 2, No. 1 And inclosure 3, No. 1. ^ British Somaliland / by Ralph E. Drake-Brockman. Drake-Brockman, Ralph E. (Ralph Evelyn), 1875-1952. p. 275 ^ Il Benadir, Vico Mantegazza. 1908. pp. 323–324 ^ Sabry, Fouad (17 October 2024). New Imperialism: The Global Dynamics of 21st Century Expansion . One Billion Knowledgeable. ^ Douglas Jardine O.B.E. The Mad Mullah Of Somaliland . ^ Ross, Sherwood. "How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians" . The Humanist. Archived from the original on 3 August 2023 . Retrieved 11 September 2014 . ^ Samatar, The state and rural transformation in Northern Somalia , p. 39 ^ Samatar, p. 45 ^ Samatar, p. 46 ^ Samatar, pp. 52–53 ^ a b Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, Thomas P. "Ethiopia in World War II" . A Country Study: Ethiopia . Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 29 October 2004 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ Sharma, Gautam (1990). Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army. Allied Publishers. ISBN 81-7023-140-X, 75. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 178 ^ Wavell, p. 2724 Archived 9 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Mohamed, Jama (1996). Constructing colonial hegemony in the Somaliland protectorate, 1941-1960 (Thesis thesis). Archived from the original on 2 June 2021 . Retrieved 2 June 2021 . ^ of Rodd, Lord Rennell (1948). British Military Administration in Africa 1941–1947 . HMSO. p. 481. ^ "Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf. W/Q: Prof Yaxye Sheekh Caamir | Laashin iyo Hal-abuur" . 11 January 2018. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021 . Retrieved 31 May 2021 . ^ Sheekh Caamir, Prof. Yaxye (11 January 2018). "Taariikhdii Halgamaa: Sheekh Bashiir Sh. Yuusuf". Laashin . ^ of Rodd, Lord Rennell (1948). British Military Administration in Africa 1941–1947 . HMSO. p. 482. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . Archived from the original on 19 November 2021 . Retrieved 2 June 2021 . ^ Annual Colonial Office Report on the Somaliland Protectorate, 1948 . p. 31. ^ "Agreements and Exchanges of Letters between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of Somaliland in connexion with the Attainment of Independence by Somaliland" (PDF) . London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 26 June 1960. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2020. ^ Somali Independence Week Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Somalia" . Archived from the original on 9 February 2006 . Retrieved 25 January 2011 . ^ "Israel becomes first country to formally recognise Somaliland as independent state" . Reuters . 26 December 2025. v t e Former British Empire and current British Overseas Territories v t e Legend Former territory Current territory *Current Commonwealth realm † Current member of the Commonwealth of Nations Europe Corsica 1794–1796 Gibraltar since 1713 Heligoland 1807–1890 Ionian Islands 1809–1864 Lordship of Ireland 1177–1542 Kingdom of Ireland 1542–1800 ( integrated into the UK ) Free State 1921–1931 † Malta Protectorate 1800–1813 Colony 1813–1964 Minorca 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802 Europe Corsica 1794–1796 Gibraltar since 1713 Heligoland 1807–1890 Ionian Islands 1809–1864 Lordship of Ireland 1177–1542 Kingdom of Ireland 1542–1800 ( integrated into the UK ) Free State 1921–1931 † Malta Protectorate 1800–1813 Colony 1813–1964 Minorca 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802 Corsica 1794–1796 Gibraltar since 1713 Heligoland 1807–1890 Ionian Islands 1809–1864 Lordship of Ireland 1177–1542 Kingdom of Ireland 1542–1800 ( integrated into the UK ) Free State 1921–1931 Free State 1921–1931 † Malta Protectorate 1800–1813 Colony 1813–1964 Protectorate 1800–1813 Colony 1813–1964 Minorca 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802 Africa Basutoland ( † Lesotho ) 1868–1966 Bechuanaland ( † Botswana ) 1884–1966 Cameroons 13 1919–1961 Cape Colony 1795–1803 Cape of Good Hope 1806–1910 Central Africa 1891–1907 East Africa 1895–1920 Egypt 1882–1922 † The Gambia 1816–1965 Gold Coast ( † Ghana ) 1874–1957 † Kenya 1920–1963 Lagos 1862–1906 Madeira 1807–1808 † Mauritius 1810–1968 Natal 1856–1910 Niger Coast 1884–1900 † Nigeria 1914–1960 Northern Nigeria 1900–1914 Northern Rhodesia 15 1924–1964 Nyasaland 1891–1964 Orange River 1900–1910 † Seychelles 1903–1976 † Sierra Leone 1792–1961 Somaliland 1884–1960 † South Africa 1910–1931 South-West Africa 12 1915–1931 Southern Rhodesia 14 1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Nigeria 1900–1914 † Swaziland 1893–1968 Sudan 1899–1956 Tanganyika 13 1922–1961 Transvaal 1900–1910 † Uganda 1890–1962 Zanzibar 1890–1963 Zululand 1887–1897 12 Now † Namibia 13 League of Nations mandate . British Cameroons is now part of † Cameroon and Nigeria , while Tanganyika is part of † Tanzania . 14 Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia ) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement . After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003. 15 Now † Zambia Africa Basutoland ( † Lesotho ) 1868–1966 Bechuanaland ( † Botswana ) 1884–1966 Cameroons 13 1919–1961 Cape Colony 1795–1803 Cape of Good Hope 1806–1910 Central Africa 1891–1907 East Africa 1895–1920 Egypt 1882–1922 † The Gambia 1816–1965 Gold Coast ( † Ghana ) 1874–1957 † Kenya 1920–1963 Lagos 1862–1906 Madeira 1807–1808 † Mauritius 1810–1968 Natal 1856–1910 Niger Coast 1884–1900 † Nigeria 1914–1960 Northern Nigeria 1900–1914 Northern Rhodesia 15 1924–1964 Nyasaland 1891–1964 Orange River 1900–1910 † Seychelles 1903–1976 † Sierra Leone 1792–1961 Somaliland 1884–1960 † South Africa 1910–1931 South-West Africa 12 1915–1931 Southern Rhodesia 14 1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Nigeria 1900–1914 † Swaziland 1893–1968 Sudan 1899–1956 Tanganyika 13 1922–1961 Transvaal 1900–1910 † Uganda 1890–1962 Zanzibar 1890–1963 Zululand 1887–1897 Basutoland ( † Lesotho ) 1868–1966 Bechuanaland ( † Botswana ) 1884–1966 Cameroons 13 1919–1961 Cape Colony 1795–1803 Cape of Good Hope 1806–1910 Central Africa 1891–1907 East Africa 1895–1920 Egypt 1882–1922 † The Gambia 1816–1965 Gold Coast ( † Ghana ) 1874–1957 † Kenya 1920–1963 Lagos 1862–1906 Madeira 1807–1808 † Mauritius 1810–1968 Natal 1856–1910 Niger Coast 1884–1900 † Nigeria 1914–1960 Northern Nigeria 1900–1914 Northern Rhodesia 15 1924–1964 Nyasaland 1891–1964 Orange River 1900–1910 † Seychelles 1903–1976 † Sierra Leone 1792–1961 Somaliland 1884–1960 † South Africa 1910–1931 South-West Africa 12 1915–1931 Southern Rhodesia 14 1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Nigeria 1900–1914 † Swaziland 1893–1968 Sudan 1899–1956 Tanganyika 13 1922–1961 Transvaal 1900–1910 † Uganda 1890–1962 Zanzibar 1890–1963 Zululand 1887–1897 12 Now † Namibia 13 League of Nations mandate . British Cameroons is now part of † Cameroon and Nigeria , while Tanganyika is part of † Tanzania . 14 Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia ) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement . After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003. 15 Now † Zambia 12 Now † Namibia 13 League of Nations mandate . British Cameroons is now part of † Cameroon and Nigeria , while Tanganyika is part of † Tanzania . 14 Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia ) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement . After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003. 15 Now † Zambia Asia Aden Colony 1839–1967 Afghanistan 1839–1842 Protectorate 1879–1919 Akrotiri and Dhekelia since 1960 (before as part of Cyprus ) Bencoolen 1685–1824 Banka and Billiton 1812–1824 Bengal 1757–1947 Bhutan (protectorate) 1907–1949 Borneo 1874–1963 British Indian Ocean Territory since 1965 (before as part of Mauritius and Seychelles ) 26 Burma 1824–1948 † Brunei 1888–1984 † Ceylon 1795–1948 † Cyprus 1878–1960 Hong Kong 1841–1997 † India 18 1858–1947 Java 1811–1816 Kuwait 1918–1961 Labuan 1848–1946 Malaya 1819–1826 Federated States 1895–1946 Unfederated States 1885–1946 Union 1946–1948 Federation 1948–1957 Malacca 1824–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 † Maldives 1796–1965 Manila and Cavite 1762–1764 Mesopotamia 19 1920–1932 Muscat and Oman 1891–1971 North Borneo 1882–1963 Crown Colony 1946–1963 Padang 1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Palestine 19 1923–1948 Penang 1786–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 Pulo Condore 1702–1705 Sarawak 1841–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1963 † Singapore 1946–1963 South Vietnam 1945–1946 Straits Settlements 1826–1946 Transjordan 1921–1946 Trucial States 1892–1971 Weihai 1898–1930 18 Now † India , † Pakistan and † Bangladesh 19 League of Nations mandate . Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 26 Legitimacy of territorial establishment disputed Asia Aden Colony 1839–1967 Afghanistan 1839–1842 Protectorate 1879–1919 Akrotiri and Dhekelia since 1960 (before as part of Cyprus ) Bencoolen 1685–1824 Banka and Billiton 1812–1824 Bengal 1757–1947 Bhutan (protectorate) 1907–1949 Borneo 1874–1963 British Indian Ocean Territory since 1965 (before as part of Mauritius and Seychelles ) 26 Burma 1824–1948 † Brunei 1888–1984 † Ceylon 1795–1948 † Cyprus 1878–1960 Hong Kong 1841–1997 † India 18 1858–1947 Java 1811–1816 Kuwait 1918–1961 Labuan 1848–1946 Malaya 1819–1826 Federated States 1895–1946 Unfederated States 1885–1946 Union 1946–1948 Federation 1948–1957 Malacca 1824–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 † Maldives 1796–1965 Manila and Cavite 1762–1764 Mesopotamia 19 1920–1932 Muscat and Oman 1891–1971 North Borneo 1882–1963 Crown Colony 1946–1963 Padang 1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Palestine 19 1923–1948 Penang 1786–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 Pulo Condore 1702–1705 Sarawak 1841–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1963 † Singapore 1946–1963 South Vietnam 1945–1946 Straits Settlements 1826–1946 Transjordan 1921–1946 Trucial States 1892–1971 Weihai 1898–1930 Aden Colony 1839–1967 Afghanistan 1839–1842 Protectorate 1879–1919 Protectorate 1879–1919 Akrotiri and Dhekelia since 1960 (before as part of Cyprus ) Bencoolen 1685–1824 Banka and Billiton 1812–1824 Bengal 1757–1947 Bhutan (protectorate) 1907–1949 Borneo 1874–1963 British Indian Ocean Territory since 1965 (before as part of Mauritius and Seychelles ) 26 Burma 1824–1948 † Brunei 1888–1984 † Ceylon 1795–1948 † Cyprus 1878–1960 Hong Kong 1841–1997 † India 18 1858–1947 Java 1811–1816 Kuwait 1918–1961 Labuan 1848–1946 Malaya 1819–1826 Federated States 1895–1946 Unfederated States 1885–1946 Union 1946–1948 Federation 1948–1957 Federated States 1895–1946 Unfederated States 1885–1946 Union 1946–1948 Federation 1948–1957 Malacca 1824–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 Crown Colony 1946–1957 † Maldives 1796–1965 Manila and Cavite 1762–1764 Mesopotamia 19 1920–1932 Muscat and Oman 1891–1971 North Borneo 1882–1963 Crown Colony 1946–1963 Crown Colony 1946–1963 Padang 1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Palestine 19 1923–1948 Penang 1786–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1957 Crown Colony 1946–1957 Pulo Condore 1702–1705 Sarawak 1841–1946 Crown Colony 1946–1963 Crown Colony 1946–1963 † Singapore 1946–1963 South Vietnam 1945–1946 Straits Settlements 1826–1946 Transjordan 1921–1946 Trucial States 1892–1971 Weihai 1898–1930 18 Now † India , † Pakistan and † Bangladesh 19 League of Nations mandate . Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 26 Legitimacy of territorial establishment disputed 18 Now † India , † Pakistan and † Bangladesh 19 League of Nations mandate . Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 26 Legitimacy of territorial establishment disputed North America Anguilla since 1650 * Antigua 1632–1860 * Antigua and Barbuda 1860–1981 † * Bahamas 1670–1973 † Barbados 1624–1966 Bay Islands 1643–1860 † * Belize 1871–1981 Bermuda since 1619 British Arctic Territories 16th c.–1880 British Columbia 1858–1866 1866–1871 Cape Breton Island 1754–1820 † Dominica 1763–1978 East Florida 1763–1783 † * Grenada 1762–1974 † * Canada Lower 1791–1841 Upper 1791–1841 Province 1841–1867 Dominion 1867–1931 Carolina 1663–1712 Cayman Islands since 1670 Columbia District / Oregon Country 1818–1846 Connecticut 1636–1776 Delaware 1701–1776 East Jersey 1674–1702 Georgia 1733–1776 † * Jamaica 1655–1962 Leeward Islands 1671–1816, 1833–1960 Massachusetts Bay 1629–1691 Province , 1691–1776 Maryland 1632–1776 Montserrat since 1632 Mosquito Coast 1655–1860 Nevis 1628–1983 New Albion 1579 New Brunswick 1784–1867 New England 1686–1689 New Hampshire 1680–1776 New Haven 1637–1662 New Jersey 1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New York 1664–1776 Newfoundland 1907–1949 Newfoundland and Labrador 1583–1907 North Carolina 1712–1776 North-Western Territory 1859–1870 Nova Scotia 1713–1867 Paulet affair 1843 Prince Edward Island 1763–1873 Pennsylvania 1681–1776 Plymouth 1620–1691 Quebec 1763–1791* Queen Charlotte Islands 1853–1863 Rhode Island 1636–1776 Rupert's Land 1670–1870 Saint Croix 1625–1650 Saint Kitts 1623–1983 † * Saint Kitts and Nevis 1882–1983 † * Saint Lucia 1605–1979 † * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1627–1979 Saybrook 1635–1644 South Carolina 1712–1776 Stickeen 1862–1863 † Trinidad and Tobago 1889–1962 Turks and Caicos Islands since 1799 Vancouver Island 1849–1866 Virgin Islands since 1666 Virginia 1607–1776 West Florida 1763–1783 West Indies Federation 1958–1962 Associated States 1967–1983 West Jersey 1674–1702 Windward Islands 1833–1960 North America Anguilla since 1650 * Antigua 1632–1860 * Antigua and Barbuda 1860–1981 † * Bahamas 1670–1973 † Barbados 1624–1966 Bay Islands 1643–1860 † * Belize 1871–1981 Bermuda since 1619 British Arctic Territories 16th c.–1880 British Columbia 1858–1866 1866–1871 Cape Breton Island 1754–1820 † Dominica 1763–1978 East Florida 1763–1783 † * Grenada 1762–1974 † * Canada Lower 1791–1841 Upper 1791–1841 Province 1841–1867 Dominion 1867–1931 Carolina 1663–1712 Cayman Islands since 1670 Columbia District / Oregon Country 1818–1846 Connecticut 1636–1776 Delaware 1701–1776 East Jersey 1674–1702 Georgia 1733–1776 † * Jamaica 1655–1962 Leeward Islands 1671–1816, 1833–1960 Massachusetts Bay 1629–1691 Province , 1691–1776 Maryland 1632–1776 Montserrat since 1632 Mosquito Coast 1655–1860 Nevis 1628–1983 New Albion 1579 New Brunswick 1784–1867 New England 1686–1689 New Hampshire 1680–1776 New Haven 1637–1662 New Jersey 1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New York 1664–1776 Newfoundland 1907–1949 Newfoundland and Labrador 1583–1907 North Carolina 1712–1776 North-Western Territory 1859–1870 Nova Scotia 1713–1867 Paulet affair 1843 Prince Edward Island 1763–1873 Pennsylvania 1681–1776 Plymouth 1620–1691 Quebec 1763–1791* Queen Charlotte Islands 1853–1863 Rhode Island 1636–1776 Rupert's Land 1670–1870 Saint Croix 1625–1650 Saint Kitts 1623–1983 † * Saint Kitts and Nevis 1882–1983 † * Saint Lucia 1605–1979 † * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1627–1979 Saybrook 1635–1644 South Carolina 1712–1776 Stickeen 1862–1863 † Trinidad and Tobago 1889–1962 Turks and Caicos Islands since 1799 Vancouver Island 1849–1866 Virgin Islands since 1666 Virginia 1607–1776 West Florida 1763–1783 West Indies Federation 1958–1962 Associated States 1967–1983 West Jersey 1674–1702 Windward Islands 1833–1960 Anguilla since 1650 * Antigua 1632–1860 * Antigua and Barbuda 1860–1981 † * Bahamas 1670–1973 † Barbados 1624–1966 Bay Islands 1643–1860 † * Belize 1871–1981 Bermuda since 1619 British Arctic Territories 16th c.–1880 British Columbia 1858–1866 1866–1871 1866–1871 Cape Breton Island 1754–1820 † Dominica 1763–1978 East Florida 1763–1783 † * Grenada 1762–1974 † * Canada Lower 1791–1841 Upper 1791–1841 Province 1841–1867 Dominion 1867–1931 Lower 1791–1841 Upper 1791–1841 Province 1841–1867 Dominion 1867–1931 Carolina 1663–1712 Cayman Islands since 1670 Columbia District / Oregon Country 1818–1846 Connecticut 1636–1776 Delaware 1701–1776 East Jersey 1674–1702 Georgia 1733–1776 † * Jamaica 1655–1962 Leeward Islands 1671–1816, 1833–1960 Massachusetts Bay 1629–1691 Province , 1691–1776 Province , 1691–1776 Maryland 1632–1776 Montserrat since 1632 Mosquito Coast 1655–1860 Nevis 1628–1983 New Albion 1579 New Brunswick 1784–1867 New England 1686–1689 New Hampshire 1680–1776 New Haven 1637–1662 New Jersey 1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New York 1664–1776 Newfoundland 1907–1949 Newfoundland and Labrador 1583–1907 North Carolina 1712–1776 North-Western Territory 1859–1870 Nova Scotia 1713–1867 Paulet affair 1843 Prince Edward Island 1763–1873 Pennsylvania 1681–1776 Plymouth 1620–1691 Quebec 1763–1791* Queen Charlotte Islands 1853–1863 Rhode Island 1636–1776 Rupert's Land 1670–1870 Saint Croix 1625–1650 Saint Kitts 1623–1983 † * Saint Kitts and Nevis 1882–1983 † * Saint Lucia 1605–1979 † * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1627–1979 Saybrook 1635–1644 South Carolina 1712–1776 Stickeen 1862–1863 † Trinidad and Tobago 1889–1962 Turks and Caicos Islands since 1799 Vancouver Island 1849–1866 Virgin Islands since 1666 Virginia 1607–1776 West Florida 1763–1783 West Indies Federation 1958–1962 Associated States 1967–1983 Associated States 1967–1983 West Jersey 1674–1702 Windward Islands 1833–1960 South America Providence Island 1631–1641 Willoughbyland 1651–1667 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands 4 1670–1688 † Guiana 1831–1966 4 Now a department of Colombia South America Providence Island 1631–1641 Willoughbyland 1651–1667 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands 4 1670–1688 † Guiana 1831–1966 Providence Island 1631–1641 Willoughbyland 1651–1667 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands 4 1670–1688 † Guiana 1831–1966 4 Now a department of Colombia 4 Now a department of Colombia Oceania New South Wales 1788–1901 Van Diemen's Land / Tasmania 1803–1901 Auckland Islands 20 1807–1863 New Hebrides 21 1824–1980 Queensland 1824–1901 Swan River / Western Australia 1829–1901 South Australia 1836–1901 Pitcairn Islands since 1838 New Zealand 1841–1907 North Australia 1846–1847 Victoria 1851–1901 † Fiji 1874–1970 Western Pacific Territories 1877–1976 British New Guinea 1884–1902 Rarotonga / Cook Islands 20 1888–1901 Union Islands 20 1889–1948 Gilbert and Ellice Islands 22 1892–1979 † * Solomon Islands 1893–1978 † Tonga 1900–1970 Niue 20 1900–1974 † * Australia 1901–1942 † * New Zealand 1907–1947 † Samoa 1914–1962 † Nauru 1919–1942 and 1945–1968 20 Now part of the † Realm of New Zealand 21 Now † Vanuatu 22 Now † Kiribati and † * Tuvalu Oceania New South Wales 1788–1901 Van Diemen's Land / Tasmania 1803–1901 Auckland Islands 20 1807–1863 New Hebrides 21 1824–1980 Queensland 1824–1901 Swan River / Western Australia 1829–1901 South Australia 1836–1901 Pitcairn Islands since 1838 New Zealand 1841–1907 North Australia 1846–1847 Victoria 1851–1901 † Fiji 1874–1970 Western Pacific Territories 1877–1976 British New Guinea 1884–1902 Rarotonga / Cook Islands 20 1888–1901 Union Islands 20 1889–1948 Gilbert and Ellice Islands 22 1892–1979 † * Solomon Islands 1893–1978 † Tonga 1900–1970 Niue 20 1900–1974 † * Australia 1901–1942 † * New Zealand 1907–1947 † Samoa 1914–1962 † Nauru 1919–1942 and 1945–1968 New South Wales 1788–1901 Van Diemen's Land / Tasmania 1803–1901 Auckland Islands 20 1807–1863 New Hebrides 21 1824–1980 Queensland 1824–1901 Swan River / Western Australia 1829–1901 South Australia 1836–1901 Pitcairn Islands since 1838 New Zealand 1841–1907 North Australia 1846–1847 Victoria 1851–1901 † Fiji 1874–1970 Western Pacific Territories 1877–1976 British New Guinea 1884–1902 Rarotonga / Cook Islands 20 1888–1901 Union Islands 20 1889–1948 Gilbert and Ellice Islands 22 1892–1979 † * Solomon Islands 1893–1978 † Tonga 1900–1970 Niue 20 1900–1974 † * Australia 1901–1942 † * New Zealand 1907–1947 † Samoa 1914–1962 † Nauru 1919–1942 and 1945–1968 20 Now part of the † Realm of New Zealand 21 Now † Vanuatu 22 Now † Kiribati and † * Tuvalu 20 Now part of the † Realm of New Zealand 21 Now † Vanuatu 22 Now † Kiribati and † * Tuvalu Antarctica and the South Atlantic Saint Helena 23 since 1658 Ascension Island 23 since 1815 Tristan da Cunha 23 since 1816 Falkland Islands 5 since 1833 † Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia ) 1841–1933 † Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand ) 1841–1947 British Antarctic Territory 24 since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 25 since 1908 5 Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982. 23 Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena. 24 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty . 25 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985 Antarctica and the South Atlantic Saint Helena 23 since 1658 Ascension Island 23 since 1815 Tristan da Cunha 23 since 1816 Falkland Islands 5 since 1833 † Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia ) 1841–1933 † Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand ) 1841–1947 British Antarctic Territory 24 since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 25 since 1908 Saint Helena 23 since 1658 Ascension Island 23 since 1815 Tristan da Cunha 23 since 1816 Falkland Islands 5 since 1833 † Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia ) 1841–1933 † Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand ) 1841–1947 British Antarctic Territory 24 since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 25 since 1908 5 Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982. 23 Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena. 24 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty . 25 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985 5 Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982. 23 Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena. 24 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty . 25 Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985 Historical flags of the British Empire Anglosphere culture Category Portal Historical flags of the British Empire Anglosphere culture Category Portal v t e Somaliland articles v t e History Chronology Laas Geel Dhambalin Land of Punt Malao Sultanate of Ifat Adal Sultanate Isaaq migrations Isaaq Sultanate Battle of Berbera Habr Yunis Sultanate British Somaliland Postage stamps and postal history of British Somaliland Somaliland campaign Somaliland campaign (1920) 1922 Burao Tax Revolt Italian invasion of British Somaliland Somaliland Camel Corps Somaliland Scouts 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion List of colonial governors of British Somaliland State of Somaliland War of Independence Isaaq genocide National Movement Declaration of Independence Border dispute 2022 Waheen Market fire Outline of Somaliland By topic Maritime Military Postal Chronology Laas Geel Dhambalin Land of Punt Malao Sultanate of Ifat Adal Sultanate Isaaq migrations Isaaq Sultanate Battle of Berbera Habr Yunis Sultanate British Somaliland Postage stamps and postal history of British Somaliland Somaliland campaign Somaliland campaign (1920) 1922 Burao Tax Revolt Italian invasion of British Somaliland Somaliland Camel Corps Somaliland Scouts 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion List of colonial governors of British Somaliland State of Somaliland War of Independence Isaaq genocide National Movement Declaration of Independence Border dispute 2022 Waheen Market fire Outline of Somaliland Laas Geel Dhambalin Land of Punt Malao Sultanate of Ifat Adal Sultanate Isaaq migrations Isaaq Sultanate Battle of Berbera Habr Yunis Sultanate British Somaliland Postage stamps and postal history of British Somaliland Somaliland campaign Somaliland campaign (1920) 1922 Burao Tax Revolt Italian invasion of British Somaliland Somaliland Camel Corps Somaliland Scouts 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion List of colonial governors of British Somaliland State of Somaliland War of Independence Isaaq genocide National Movement Declaration of Independence Border dispute 2022 Waheen Market fire Outline of Somaliland By topic Maritime Military Postal Maritime Military Postal Geography Cities Climate Geology Wildlife Greater Somalia Waterfalls Lamadaya Mountain ranges Golis Mountains Cal Madow Ogo Mountains Buur Dhaab Mountains Shimbiris Golis Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Dul Madoba Islands Sa'ad ad-Din Islands Caves Regions Awdal Maroodi Jeex Saaxil Sanaag Sool Togdheer Cities Climate Geology Wildlife Greater Somalia Waterfalls Lamadaya Mountain ranges Golis Mountains Cal Madow Ogo Mountains Buur Dhaab Mountains Shimbiris Golis Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Dul Madoba Islands Sa'ad ad-Din Islands Caves Regions Awdal Maroodi Jeex Saaxil Sanaag Sool Togdheer Cities Climate Geology Wildlife Greater Somalia Waterfalls Lamadaya Mountain ranges Golis Mountains Cal Madow Ogo Mountains Buur Dhaab Mountains Shimbiris Golis Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Dul Madoba Islands Sa'ad ad-Din Islands Caves Cities Climate Geology Wildlife Greater Somalia Waterfalls Lamadaya Lamadaya Mountain ranges Golis Mountains Cal Madow Ogo Mountains Buur Dhaab Golis Mountains Cal Madow Ogo Mountains Buur Dhaab Mountains Shimbiris Golis Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Dul Madoba Shimbiris Golis Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Dul Madoba Islands Sa'ad ad-Din Islands Sa'ad ad-Din Islands Caves Regions Awdal Maroodi Jeex Saaxil Sanaag Sool Togdheer Awdal Maroodi Jeex Saaxil Sanaag Sool Togdheer Politics Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Diplomatic missions Government Embassies Human rights LGBT Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Somaliland Police Parliament House of Elders House of Representatives Political parties President List Palace Vice-President List Ministers Mayors Visa policy Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Diplomatic missions Government Embassies Human rights LGBT Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Somaliland Police Parliament House of Elders House of Representatives Political parties President List Palace Vice-President List Ministers Mayors Visa policy Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Diplomatic missions Government Embassies Human rights LGBT Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Somaliland Police Parliament House of Elders House of Representatives Political parties President List Palace Vice-President List Ministers Mayors Visa policy Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Diplomatic missions Government Embassies Human rights LGBT LGBT Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Somaliland Police Somaliland Police Parliament House of Elders House of Representatives House of Elders House of Representatives Political parties President List Palace List Palace Vice-President List List Ministers Mayors Visa policy Economy Agriculture Central Bank Airports Companies EEZ Energy Ports Shilling (currency) Telecommunications Tourism Transport Agriculture Central Bank Airports Companies EEZ Energy Ports Shilling (currency) Telecommunications Tourism Transport Agriculture Central Bank Airports Companies EEZ Energy Ports Shilling (currency) Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Anthem National emblem Demographics Education Flag Library Public holidays Independence Day Calling code Supreme Court Culture Architecture Art Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Islam Christianity Sports Team Games Languages Anthem National emblem Demographics Education Flag Library Public holidays Independence Day Calling code Supreme Court Anthem National emblem Demographics Education Flag Library Public holidays Independence Day Calling code Supreme Court Culture Architecture Art Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Islam Christianity Sports Team Games Languages Architecture Art Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Islam Christianity Islam Christianity Sports Team Games Team Games Languages Category Portal Category Portal v t e Somalia articles v t e History Chronology Laas Geel Land of Punt Walashma dynasty Adal Sultanate Ajuran Empire Sultanate of the Geledi Isaaq Sultanate Majeerteen Sultanate Sultanate of Hobyo Warsangali Sultanate Dervish movement Italian Somaliland Colonial governors British Somaliland Colonial governors Trust Territory of Somaliland Ogaden War Somaliland War of Independence (1981–1991) Isaaq genocide Rebellion (1986–1992) Piracy Civil War Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009) (2009–present) By topic Maritime Military Postal Chronology Laas Geel Land of Punt Walashma dynasty Adal Sultanate Ajuran Empire Sultanate of the Geledi Isaaq Sultanate Majeerteen Sultanate Sultanate of Hobyo Warsangali Sultanate Dervish movement Italian Somaliland Colonial governors British Somaliland Colonial governors Trust Territory of Somaliland Ogaden War Somaliland War of Independence (1981–1991) Isaaq genocide Rebellion (1986–1992) Piracy Civil War Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009) (2009–present) Laas Geel Land of Punt Walashma dynasty Adal Sultanate Ajuran Empire Sultanate of the Geledi Isaaq Sultanate Majeerteen Sultanate Sultanate of Hobyo Warsangali Sultanate Dervish movement Italian Somaliland Colonial governors Colonial governors British Somaliland Colonial governors Colonial governors Trust Territory of Somaliland Ogaden War Somaliland War of Independence (1981–1991) Isaaq genocide Rebellion (1986–1992) Piracy Civil War Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009) (2009–present) Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009) (2009–present) By topic Maritime Military Postal Maritime Military Postal Geography Cities Climate Wildlife Greater Somalia Guardafui Channel Hafun Waterfalls Iskushuban Lamadaya Mountain ranges Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Mountains Bahaya Island Bajuni Islands Regions Awdal Bakool Banaadir Bari Bay Galguduud Gedo Sool Sanaag Hiran Middle Juba Lower Juba Mudug Nugal Middle Shebelle Lower Shebelle Togdheer Woqooyi Galbeed States Galmudug Khatumo Hirshabelle Jubaland Somaliland Puntland South West Somalia Cities Climate Wildlife Greater Somalia Guardafui Channel Hafun Waterfalls Iskushuban Lamadaya Mountain ranges Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Mountains Bahaya Island Bajuni Islands Regions Awdal Bakool Banaadir Bari Bay Galguduud Gedo Sool Sanaag Hiran Middle Juba Lower Juba Mudug Nugal Middle Shebelle Lower Shebelle Togdheer Woqooyi Galbeed States Galmudug Khatumo Hirshabelle Jubaland Somaliland Puntland South West Somalia Cities Climate Wildlife Greater Somalia Guardafui Channel Hafun Waterfalls Iskushuban Lamadaya Mountain ranges Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Mountains Bahaya Island Bajuni Islands Cities Climate Wildlife Greater Somalia Guardafui Channel Hafun Waterfalls Iskushuban Lamadaya Iskushuban Lamadaya Mountain ranges Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Cal Madow Buur Dhaab Mountains Bahaya Bahaya Island Bajuni Islands Bajuni Islands Regions Awdal Bakool Banaadir Bari Bay Galguduud Gedo Sool Sanaag Hiran Middle Juba Lower Juba Mudug Nugal Middle Shebelle Lower Shebelle Togdheer Woqooyi Galbeed Awdal Bakool Banaadir Bari Bay Galguduud Gedo Sool Sanaag Hiran Middle Juba Lower Juba Mudug Nugal Middle Shebelle Lower Shebelle Togdheer Woqooyi Galbeed States Galmudug Khatumo Hirshabelle Jubaland Somaliland Puntland South West Somalia Galmudug Khatumo Hirshabelle Jubaland Somaliland Puntland South West Somalia Politics Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT rights Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Chief of Defence Force Political history Parliament Political parties President List Prime Minister List Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT rights Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Chief of Defence Force Political history Parliament Political parties President List Prime Minister List Cabinet Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT rights LGBT rights Judiciary Law ( Xeer ) Military Chief of Defence Force Chief of Defence Force Political history Parliament Political parties President List List Prime Minister List List Economy Agriculture Central Bank Companies Economic history EEZ Mineral industry Oil industry Shilling (currency) Communications Tourism Transportation Agriculture Central Bank Companies Economic history EEZ Mineral industry Oil industry Shilling (currency) Communications Tourism Transportation Agriculture Central Bank Companies Economic history EEZ Mineral industry Oil industry Shilling (currency) Communications Tourism Transportation Society Anthem Child marriage Coat of arms Deafness Demographics Diaspora Education Health Abortion Mental health Flag Polygamy Public holidays Women Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Sports Languages Anthem Child marriage Coat of arms Deafness Demographics Diaspora Education Health Abortion Mental health Flag Polygamy Public holidays Women Anthem Child marriage Coat of arms Deafness Demographics Diaspora Education Health Abortion Mental health Abortion Mental health Flag Polygamy Public holidays Women Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Sports Languages Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Folklore Literature Media Music Religion Sports Languages Category Portal Category Portal Authority control databases International VIAF GND WorldCat VIAF GND WorldCat National United States Israel United States Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 09°33′38″N 44°03′17″E / 9.56056°N 44.05472°E / 9.56056; 44.05472 British Somaliland States and territories established in 1884 1884 establishments in Africa Former British protectorates 1884 establishments in the British Empire 1960 disestablishments in Somalia 1960 disestablishments in the British Empire Somaliland–United Kingdom relations Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa States and territories disestablished in 1960 Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Webarchive template wayback links Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from August 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from August 2014 Articles containing Somali-language text Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters Coordinates on Wikidata This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 23:04 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Somaliland
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and education 2 Career and research Toggle Career and research subsection 2.1 Awards and honours 2.1 Awards and honours 3 Later life and death Toggle Later life and death subsection 3.1 Publications 3.1 Publications 4 References Ian Witten العربية Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Ian Witten FRSNZ Witten having received an Honorary Doctorate from the Open University in 2017 [ 3 ] Born Ian Hugh Witten [ 2 ] ( 1947-03-04 ) 4 March 1947 Horsham , Sussex , England Died 5 May 2023 (2023-05-05) (aged 76) Matangi , New Zealand Alma mater University of Cambridge (MA) University of Calgary (MSc) University of Essex (PhD) Known for WEKA [ 4 ] Awards ACM Fellow (1996) Hector Medal (2005) Scientific career Fields Data mining Machine learning Digital libraries [ 1 ] Thesis Learning to control (1976) Notable students Craig Nevill-Manning [ 2 ] Saul Greenberg [ 2 ] Website www .cs .waikato .ac .nz /~ihw Ian Hugh Witten (4 March 1947 – 5 May 2023) was a computer scientist at the University of Waikato , New Zealand. [ 1 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] He was a Chartered Engineer with the Institute of Electrical Engineers . [ 7 ] Early life and education Witten was born in Horsham , Sussex , England, on 4 March 1947. [ 8 ] He graduated from the University of Cambridge with a BA and MA (First Class Honours) in mathematics in 1969 and a Master of Science degree in mathematics and computer science from the University of Calgary , where he was a Commonwealth Scholar , in 1970. [ 9 ] He received his PhD in 1976 from the University of Essex . [ 10 ] In 1971, Witten married Pamela Foden at the Chapel of Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge. The couple went on to have two daughters. [ 8 ] Career and research Witten discovered temporal-difference learning , inventing the tabular TD(0), [ 11 ] the first temporal-difference learning rule for reinforcement learning . Witten was a co-creator of the Sequitur algorithm [ 12 ] and conceived and obtained funding for the development of the original WEKA software package for data mining . [ 4 ] [ 13 ] Witten further made considerable contributions to the field of compression, creating novel algorithms for text and image compression with Alistair Moffat and Timothy C. Bell . He is also one of the major contributors to the digital libraries field, and founder of the Greenstone Digital Library Software . [ 14 ] His former doctoral students include Craig Nevill-Manning and Saul Greenberg . [ 2 ] Awards and honours Witten was elected a ACM Fellow in 1996 [ 15 ] and a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand (FRSNZ) in 1997. [ 16 ] In 2004 he received the International Federation for Information Processing Namur Award for "contributions to the awareness of social implications of information technology, and the need for an holistic approach in the use of information technology that takes account of social implications" [ 17 ] and in 2005 the Hector Medal for contributions to many areas of computer science. [ 18 ] Later life and death Witten retired from the University of Waikato in 2014, and was accorded the title of professor emeritus. [ 8 ] He was diagnosed with cancer in November 2022, and died on 5 May 2023. [ 8 ] Publications His publications [ 1 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] included: Data mining: practical machine learning tools and techniques with Java implementations [ 19 ] Communicating with Microcomputers [ 20 ] Principles of Computer Speech [ 21 ] Making Computers Talk: an Introduction to Speech Synthesis [ 22 ] Text Compression [ 23 ] The Reactive Keyboard [ 24 ] Managing Gigabytes: Compressing and Indexing Documents and Images [ 25 ] Web Dragons: Inside the Myths of Search Engine Technology [ 26 ] How to Build a Digital Library [ 27 ] Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques [ 28 ] References ^ a b c Ian Witten publications indexed by Google Scholar ^ a b c d Ian Witten at the Mathematics Genealogy Project ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Honorary graduate cumulative list" . Retrieved 15 February 2021 . ^ a b Mark Hall; Eibe Frank; Geoffrey Holmes; Bernhard Pfahringer; Peter Reutemann; Ian H. Witten (16 November 2009), The WEKA data mining software: an update , vol. 11, Association for Computing Machinery , pp. 10– 18, doi : 10.1145/1656274.1656278 , Wikidata Q105584187 ^ a b Ian Witten at DBLP Bibliography Server ^ a b Ian Witten publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database. (subscription required) ^ "If You've Got Data, Mine It Yourself: Ian Witten on Data Mining, Weka, and his MOOC" . 20 February 2014. ^ a b c d Swainson, Richard (3 June 2023). "Computing pioneer came to call New Zealand home" . The Post . Retrieved 27 August 2023 . ^ "Ian H. Witten: Resume" . Cs.waikato.ac.nz. Archived from the original on 22 January 2019 . Retrieved 14 March 2017 . ^ Witten, Ian H. (1976). Learning to control (PhD thesis). University of Essex. OCLC 42058261 . ProQuest 301351543 . ^ Witten, Ian H. (1977). "An Adaptive Optimal Controller for Discrete-Time Markov Environments" . Information and Control . 34 (4): 286– 295. doi : 10.1016/s0019-9958(77)90354-0 . ^ Craig G., Nevill-Manning ; Witten, Ian H. (1997). "Identifying Hierarchical Structure in Sequences: A linear-time algorithm". Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research . 7 : 67– 82. arXiv : cs/9709102 . Bibcode : 1997cs........9102N . doi : 10.1613/jair.374 . S2CID 2957960 . ^ Holmes, Geoffrey; Donkin, Andrew; Witten, Ian H. (1994). "WEKA: A machine learning workbench". Proceedings of ANZIIS '94 – Australian New Zealand Intelligent Information Systems Conference . Brisbane, Australia. pp. 357– 361. doi : 10.1109/ANZIIS.1994.396988 . hdl : 10289/1138 . ISBN 0-7803-2404-8 . S2CID 17629797 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Witten, Ian H.; McNab, R. J.; Boddie, S. J.; Bainbridge, D. (2000). "Greenstone: A comprehensive open-source digital library software system". Proc Digital Libraries 2000 . San Antonio, Texas: 113– 121. ^ "Recipients" . Retrieved 15 February 2021 . ^ "Current Fellows" . Royal Society of New Zealand. 20 June 2014 . Retrieved 14 March 2017 . ^ "IFIP-WG9.2 Namur Award" . Prof. Jacques Berleur Facultés Universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021 . Retrieved 30 September 2010 . ^ "Awards and Prizes" . Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato . Retrieved 14 March 2017 . ^ Ian H. Witten ; Eibe Frank (1 March 2002). "Data mining". ACM SIGMOD Record . 31 (1): 76. doi : 10.1145/507338.507355 . ISSN 0163-5808 . Wikidata Q58561631 . ^ Communicating with Microcomputers . London, England: Academic Press. December 1980. ISBN 978-0-12-760750-4 . ^ Principles of Computer Speech . London, England: Academic Press. December 1982. ISBN 978-0-12-760760-3 . ^ Making Computers Talk: an Introduction to Speech Synthesis . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. December 1986. ISBN 978-0-13-545690-3 . ^ Text Compression . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. December 1990. ISBN 978-0-13-911991-0 . ^ The Reactive Keyboard . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. December 1992. ISBN 978-0-52-140375-7 . ^ Managing Gigabytes: Compressing and Indexing Documents and Images . San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. December 1999. ISBN 978-1-55-860570-1 . ^ Web Dragons: Inside the Myths of Search Engine Technology . Morgan Kaufmann. November 2006. ISBN 978-0-12-370609-6 . ^ How to Build a Digital Library . San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. December 2009. ISBN 978-0-12-374857-7 . ^ Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques . Morgan Kaufmann . October 2016. ISBN 978-0-12-804357-8 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Recipients of the Hector Medal of the Royal Society of New Zealand v t e Leonard Cockayne (1912) Thomas Easterfield (1913) Elsdon Best (1914) Patrick Marshall (1915) Ernest Rutherford (1916) Charles Chilton (1917) Thomas Cheeseman (1918) Philip Robertson (1919) Percy Smith (1920) Robert Speight (1921) Coleridge Farr (1922) George Hudson (1923) Donald Petrie (1924) Bernard Aston (1925) Harry Skinner (1926) Charles Cotton (1927) Duncan Sommerville (1928) George Thomson (1929) John Holloway (1930) William Percival Evans (1931) Te Rangi Hiroa (Peter H. Buck) (1932) John Marwick , Noel Benson (1933) Charles Ernest Weatherburn (1934) William Benham (1935) Walter Oliver (1936) John Reader Hosking (1937) Herbert Williams (1938) Arthur Bartrum (1939) Donald Macleod (1940) Harold Finlay (1941) Harry Allan (1942) Bob Briggs (1943) Johannes C. Andersen (1944) John Henderson (1945) Henry Forder (1946) Baden Powell (1947) G. H. Cunningham (1948) Robert Anthony Robinson (1949) Ernest Beaglehole (1950) Francis John Turner (1951) Keith Bullen (1952) Lance Richdale (1953) Lucy Cranwell (1954) Brian Shorland (1955) Roger Duff (1956) Harold Wellman (1957) Alister McLellan (1958) Barry Fell (1959) Ted Chamberlain (1960) Harry Bloom (1961) Ralph Piddington (1962) Charles Fleming (1963) Derek Lawden (1964) Richard Dell (1965) Jack Holloway (1966) Con Cambie (1967) Gilbert Archey (1968) Doug Coombs (1969) Brian Wybourne (1970) Ira Cunningham (1971) Ted Bollard (1972) Michael Hartshorn (1973) Herbert Purves (1974) Robert Hayes (1975) Jack Dodd (1976) Cam Reid (1977) Richard Matthews (1978) Leon Phillips (1979) Graham Liggins (1980) Trevor Hatherton (1981) Roy Kerr (1982) Ray Forster (1983) Rod Bieleski (1984) Peter de la Mare (1985) Robin Carrell (1986) Jim Ellis (1987) Dan Walls (1988) Patricia Bergquist (1989) Peter Wardle (1990) Warren Roper (1991) Roger Green (1992) Dick Walcott (1993) Geoff Stedman (1994) Bob Jolly (1995) John C. Butcher (1996) Ted Baker (1997) Paul Callaghan , Jeff Tallon (1998) George Seber (1999) Peter Schwerdtfeger (2001) Ken MacKenzie (2003) Ian Witten (2005) Richard Furneaux (2006) Timothy Haskell (2007) Gaven Martin (2008) Peter Steel (2009) Grant Williams (2010) Rod Downey (2011) Margaret Brimble (2012) Richard Blaikie (2013) Marston Conder (2014) Ian Brown (2015) Stéphane Coen (2016) Sally Brooker (2017) Matt Visser (2018) Jadranka Travaš-Sejdić (2019) Eamonn O'Brien (2020) Eric Le Ru (2021) Murray Cox (2022) Niels Kjærgaard (2023) Charles Semple (2024) Christian Hartinger (2025) Leonard Cockayne (1912) Thomas Easterfield (1913) Elsdon Best (1914) Patrick Marshall (1915) Ernest Rutherford (1916) Charles Chilton (1917) Thomas Cheeseman (1918) Philip Robertson (1919) Percy Smith (1920) Robert Speight (1921) Coleridge Farr (1922) George Hudson (1923) Donald Petrie (1924) Bernard Aston (1925) Harry Skinner (1926) Charles Cotton (1927) Duncan Sommerville (1928) George Thomson (1929) John Holloway (1930) William Percival Evans (1931) Te Rangi Hiroa (Peter H. Buck) (1932) John Marwick , Noel Benson (1933) Charles Ernest Weatherburn (1934) William Benham (1935) Walter Oliver (1936) John Reader Hosking (1937) Herbert Williams (1938) Arthur Bartrum (1939) Donald Macleod (1940) Harold Finlay (1941) Harry Allan (1942) Bob Briggs (1943) Johannes C. Andersen (1944) John Henderson (1945) Henry Forder (1946) Baden Powell (1947) G. H. Cunningham (1948) Robert Anthony Robinson (1949) Ernest Beaglehole (1950) Francis John Turner (1951) Keith Bullen (1952) Lance Richdale (1953) Lucy Cranwell (1954) Brian Shorland (1955) Roger Duff (1956) Harold Wellman (1957) Alister McLellan (1958) Barry Fell (1959) Ted Chamberlain (1960) Harry Bloom (1961) Ralph Piddington (1962) Charles Fleming (1963) Derek Lawden (1964) Richard Dell (1965) Jack Holloway (1966) Con Cambie (1967) Gilbert Archey (1968) Doug Coombs (1969) Brian Wybourne (1970) Ira Cunningham (1971) Ted Bollard (1972) Michael Hartshorn (1973) Herbert Purves (1974) Robert Hayes (1975) Jack Dodd (1976) Cam Reid (1977) Richard Matthews (1978) Leon Phillips (1979) Graham Liggins (1980) Trevor Hatherton (1981) Roy Kerr (1982) Ray Forster (1983) Rod Bieleski (1984) Peter de la Mare (1985) Robin Carrell (1986) Jim Ellis (1987) Dan Walls (1988) Patricia Bergquist (1989) Peter Wardle (1990) Warren Roper (1991) Roger Green (1992) Dick Walcott (1993) Geoff Stedman (1994) Bob Jolly (1995) John C. Butcher (1996) Ted Baker (1997) Paul Callaghan , Jeff Tallon (1998) George Seber (1999) Peter Schwerdtfeger (2001) Ken MacKenzie (2003) Ian Witten (2005) Richard Furneaux (2006) Timothy Haskell (2007) Gaven Martin (2008) Peter Steel (2009) Grant Williams (2010) Rod Downey (2011) Margaret Brimble (2012) Richard Blaikie (2013) Marston Conder (2014) Ian Brown (2015) Stéphane Coen (2016) Sally Brooker (2017) Matt Visser (2018) Jadranka Travaš-Sejdić (2019) Eamonn O'Brien (2020) Eric Le Ru (2021) Murray Cox (2022) Niels Kjærgaard (2023) Charles Semple (2024) Christian Hartinger (2025) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Korea Poland Israel Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Korea Poland Israel Catalonia Belgium Academics CiNii ORCID Mathematics Genealogy Project Association for Computing Machinery 2 ResearcherID Scopus zbMATH Google Scholar DBLP MathSciNet CiNii ORCID Mathematics Genealogy Project Association for Computing Machinery 2 2 ResearcherID Scopus zbMATH Google Scholar DBLP MathSciNet People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 1947 births 2023 deaths People from Horsham English emigrants to New Zealand People from Hamilton, New Zealand New Zealand computer scientists Academic staff of the University of Calgary Academic staff of the University of Waikato 1996 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Fellows of the Royal Society of New Zealand Alumni of the University of Cambridge University of Calgary alumni Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2024 Use New Zealand English from July 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in New Zealand English Articles with hCards This page was last edited on 20 January 2025, at 09:49 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_H._Witten
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-470
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Name 2 History 3 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 3.1 Topography 3.2 Ecology 3.3 Climate 3.1 Topography 3.2 Ecology 3.3 Climate 4 Urban structure Toggle Urban structure subsection 4.1 Parks and nature reserves 4.2 Architecture 4.3 Housing 4.1 Parks and nature reserves 4.2 Architecture 4.3 Housing 5 Culture Toggle Culture subsection 5.1 Theatre and entertainment 5.2 Galleries and museums 5.3 Literature 5.4 Music 5.5 Events 5.6 Sport 5.7 Media 5.1 Theatre and entertainment 5.2 Galleries and museums 5.3 Literature 5.4 Music 5.5 Events 5.6 Sport 5.7 Media 6 Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection 6.1 Ancestry and immigration 6.2 Language 6.3 Religion 6.1 Ancestry and immigration 6.2 Language 6.3 Religion 7 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 7.1 Antarctic gateway 7.2 Tourism 7.3 TV and Film Productions shot in and around Hobart 7.3.1 Films 7.3.2 Television series 7.1 Antarctic gateway 7.2 Tourism 7.3 TV and Film Productions shot in and around Hobart 7.3.1 Films 7.3.2 Television series 7.3.1 Films 7.3.2 Television series 8 Government Toggle Government subsection 8.1 Local 8.2 State 8.1 Local 8.2 State 9 Transport Toggle Transport subsection 9.1 Bus 9.2 Road 9.3 Ferry 9.4 Air 9.5 Seaport 9.6 Rail 9.1 Bus 9.2 Road 9.3 Ferry 9.4 Air 9.5 Seaport 9.6 Rail 10 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 10.1 Education 10.2 Health 10.3 Utilities 10.1 Education 10.2 Health 10.3 Utilities 11 Notable people 12 Sister cities 13 See also 14 Explanatory notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Hobart Afrikaans አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Lombard Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Tok Pisin Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Lea faka-Tonga Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 吴语 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Hobart Nipaluna ( Southeast Tasmanian ) City .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} Hobart City Centre and Mount Wellington General Post Office Parliament House of Tasmania Salamanca Place Cascade Brewery Museum of Old and New Art .mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}} Hobart Interactive map of Hobart Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 42°52′50″S 147°19′30″E / 42.88056°S 147.32500°E / -42.88056; 147.32500 Country Australia State Tasmania LGAs .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Cities City of Hobart City of Glenorchy City of Clarence Other LGAs Kingborough Council [ N 1 ] Brighton Council Sorell Council Derwent Valley Council [ N 2 ] Huon Valley Council Cities City of Hobart City of Glenorchy City of Clarence Cities City of Hobart City of Glenorchy City of Clarence Other LGAs Kingborough Council [ N 1 ] Brighton Council Sorell Council Derwent Valley Council [ N 2 ] Huon Valley Council Other LGAs Kingborough Council [ N 1 ] Brighton Council Sorell Council Derwent Valley Council [ N 2 ] Huon Valley Council Location 134 km (83 mi) from Swansea 198 km (123 mi) from Launceston 248 km (154 mi) from Queenstown 284 km (176 mi) from Devonport 325 km (202 mi) from Burnie 134 km (83 mi) from Swansea 198 km (123 mi) from Launceston 248 km (154 mi) from Queenstown 284 km (176 mi) from Devonport 325 km (202 mi) from Burnie Established 20 February 1804 ( 1804-02-20 ) [ 1 ] Government • State electorates Clark Franklin Lyons Clark Franklin Lyons • Federal divisions Clark Franklin Lyons Clark Franklin Lyons Area • Total 1,758.8 km 2 (679.1 sq mi) Population • Totals 254,930 (2024) [ 3 ] ( 11th ) 197,451 (urban) (2021) [ 4 ] • Density 145.7/km 2 (377/sq mi)(2021) [ 5 ] Time zone UTC+10 ( AEST ) • Summer ( DST ) UTC+11 ( AEDT State: Tasmania.) Mean max temp 17.6 °C (63.7 °F) [ 6 ] Mean min temp 9.0 °C (48.2 °F) [ 6 ] Annual rainfall 565.3 mm (22.26 in) [ 6 ] Hobart ( / ˈ h oʊ b ɑːr t / ⓘ HOH -bart [ 7 ] ), or Nipaluna in Southeast Tasmanian , is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania , Australia. [ 8 ] Located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent , it is the southernmost capital city in Australia. Despite containing nearly half of Tasmania's population, Hobart is the least-populated Australian state capital city, and second-smallest by population and area after Darwin if territories are taken into account. [ 5 ] Its skyline is dominated by the 1,271-metre (4,170 ft) kunanyi / Mount Wellington , [ 9 ] and its harbour forms the second-deepest natural port in the world, [ 10 ] with much of the city's waterfront consisting of reclaimed land. [ 11 ] The metropolitan area is often referred to as Greater Hobart , to differentiate it from the City of Hobart , one of the seven local government areas that cover the city. [ 5 ] [ 12 ] It has a mild maritime climate . The city lies on country which was known by the local Muwinina people as Nipaluna , a name which includes surrounding features such as Kunanyi / Mount Wellington and Timtumili Minanya (River Derwent). [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Prior to British colonisation, the land had been occupied for possibly as long as 35,000 years [ 15 ] by Aboriginal Tasmanians , who generally refer to themselves as Palawa or Pakana. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Founded in 1804 as a British penal colony , [ 18 ] Hobart is Australia's second-oldest capital city after Sydney , New South Wales. Whaling quickly emerged as a major industry in the area, and for a time Hobart served as the Southern Ocean 's main whaling port. Penal transportation ended in the 1850s, after which the city experienced periods of growth and decline. The early 20th century saw an economic boom on the back of mining, agriculture and other primary industries, and the loss of men who served in the world wars was counteracted by an influx of immigration. [ 19 ] Despite the rise in migration from Asia and other non-English speaking regions, Hobart's population is predominantly ethnically Anglo-Celtic and has the highest percentage of Australian-born residents among Australia's capital cities. [ 20 ] Today, Hobart is the financial and administrative hub of Tasmania, serving as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations and acting as a tourist destination. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Well-known drawcards include its convict-era architecture, Salamanca Market and the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum. Name In 1804, the settlement was named Hobart Town or Hobarton by the first Lt-governor David Collins after then British Secretary of State for war and the colonies Lord Hobart (a variant of Hubert, his name was pronounced with emphasis on the second syllable) at Sullivans Cove (named after the under-secretary). Earlier in 1793, Risdon Cove was named after the second officer on the ship Duke of Clarence by the captain John Hayes , and the river after the River Derwent, Cumbria [ 23 ] (also briefly named by Bruni D'Entrecasteaux as La Rivière du Nord [ 24 ] ). The city was named the singular Hobart in 1881, and an inhabitant is known as a Hobartian . [ 25 ] Though the city is not officially dual-named , [ 26 ] the 'saltwater country' [ 27 ] of the western shore where the city is located has the Palawa kani name Nipaluna which was originally documented on 16 January 1831 by George Augustus Robinson (as nibberloonne , later niberlooner ) when he was told by Woureddy , a Nununi chief from Bruny Island who spoke five dialects. Though the island is offshore, the language is related and in the same family as the Southeastern Tasmanian language which the local Muwinina people spoke. Another recorded name was an Oyster Bay word lebralawaggena ( Bedford ). [ 28 ] A semi-permanent settlement at Little Sandy Bay was called kriwa beneath the hill of kriwalayti . The dividing line of the region is the timtumili minanya (river), which winds its way down from the centre of the island through the lands of the Big River (Lemerina) people. On the eastern shore, the name for the Clarence Plains was known as naniyilipata by the Mumirimina, a group of the Oyster Bay (Poredareme) people. Droughty Point was known as trumanyapayna (kangaroo point) as it was a hunting ground, and South Arm as mutatayna . Later names by the TAC include piyura kitina (little native hens ) at Risdon Cove and turikina truwala (mountain waterfall) on the Myrtle Gully Falls track. [ 29 ] History The first European settlement began in 1803 as a military camp at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the River Derwent , amid British concerns over the presence of French explorers . It was the site of the 1804 Risdon Cove massacre . Later that year, along with the military, settlers and convicts from the abandoned Port Phillip settlement, the camp at Risdon Cove was moved by Captain David Collins to a better location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivans Cove . The area's Indigenous inhabitants were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe. [ 30 ] Violent conflict with the European settlers, and the effects of diseases brought by them, dramatically reduced the Aboriginal population, which was rapidly replaced by free settlers and the convict population. In 1832, four years after martial law had been declared, 26 people, including Tongerlongeter (Tukalunginta) and Montpelliatta (Muntipiliyata) of the combined Big River and Oyster Bay nations, surrendered to G. A. Robinson 's "friendly mission" and were marched into Hobart to negotiate a truce with Governor George Arthur . They were forcibly exiled ten days later to Flinders Island . [ 31 ] Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town in February 1836 as part of the Beagle expedition. He compares it to Sydney and compliments the " noble forest ". [ 32 ] He writes of Hobart and the Derwent estuary in The Voyage of the Beagle : "...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant... I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505." "...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant... I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505." The River Derwent was one of Australia's finest deepwater ports and was the centre of South Seas whaling and sealing trades. The settlement rapidly grew into a major port, with allied industries such as shipbuilding. Hobart Town became a city on 21 August 1842, and was renamed Hobart from the beginning of 1881. [ 33 ] The post-transportation era saw the city shift between periods of economic uncertainty in the 1860s and 1890s: "...While brash Victorians talked of the future, Tasmanians nurtured memories of a more prosperous past. In the 'sixties Martineau found elderly ladies lamenting the gaiety of the old days and merchants the time when 'Hobart Town promised to be the emporium if not the metropolis of Australia'." [ 34 ] "...While brash Victorians talked of the future, Tasmanians nurtured memories of a more prosperous past. In the 'sixties Martineau found elderly ladies lamenting the gaiety of the old days and merchants the time when 'Hobart Town promised to be the emporium if not the metropolis of Australia'." [ 34 ] However, this was mixed in with evolving politics, a greater connection with mainland Australia, tourism in the 1880s and the establishment of important cultural and social institutions including The University of Tasmania . "When the Town Hall was opened in 1866 it symbolised the hope of future greatness for the city". [ 35 ] The Russian navy visited the port multiple times, which had become a leading reason for the Hobart coastal defences . [ 36 ] Mark Twain also visited in 1895 when he wrote "Hobart has a peculiarity—it is the neatest town that the sun shines on; and I incline to believe that it is also the cleanest." [ 37 ] On 7 September 1936, one of the last known surviving thylacines died at the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart. [ 38 ] During WW2 , the city performed drills and built shelters, with German mines found in the estuary and a Japanese scout plane flyover in 1942. [ 39 ] While Hobart was isolated, it also contained the not insignificant Electrolytic Zinc Company which was essential for ammunition production. [ 40 ] During the mid 20th century, the state and local governments invested in building Hobart's reputation as a tourist attraction—in 1956 the Lanherne Airport (now Hobart Airport ) was opened. Australia's first legal casino, Wrest Point Hotel Casino , opened in 1973. Despite these successes, Hobart faced significant challenges during the 20th century, including the 1967 Tasmanian fires , which claimed 64 lives in Hobart itself and destroyed over 1200 homes, [ 41 ] [ 42 ] and the 1975 Tasman Bridge disaster , when a bulk ore carrier collided with and destroyed the concrete span bridge that connected the city to its eastern suburbs. In the 21st century, Hobart benefited as Tasmania's economy recovered from the 1990s recession, and the city's long-stagnant population growth began to reverse. [ 43 ] A period of significant growth has followed, including the redevelopment of the former Macquarie Point railyards, Parliament Square , and new hotel developments throughout the city. [ 44 ] Geography Topography Hobart is located on the estuary of the River Derwent in the state's south-east. It is built predominantly on Jurassic dolerite around the foothills interspersed with smaller areas of Triassic siltstone and Permian mudstone , straddling the River Derwent . The Western Shore extends from the Derwent Valley in the northwest through the flatter areas around Glenorchy (which rests on older Triassic sediment) bounded by peaks averaging around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) (including Mount Wellington , Mount Hull, Mount Faulkner and Mount Dromedary ). The hilly inner areas rest on the younger Jurassic dolerite deposits, before stretching into the lower areas such as the beaches of Sandy Bay in the south, while the City and Kingston are separated by hills and Taroona 's Alum Cliffs . The Derwent estuary exits into Storm Bay wrapped by the South Arm Peninsula , Iron Pot and Betsey Island , with Turrakana / Tasman Peninsula and Bruny Island beyond. The Eastern Shore also extends from the Derwent in a southeasterly direction hugging the Meehan Range (which hovers around 400 metres (1,300 ft) with distinctive summits such as Mount Direction , Flagstaff Hill and Gunners Quoin towards the irregular valleys of Brighton ) before sprawling into flatter land in suburbs such as Bellerive. These flatter areas of the eastern shore rest on far younger Quaternary deposits. From there the city wraps around the estuary to peninsulas and extends across the hills in an easterly direction into the valley area of Rokeby , before reaching into the tidal flatland area of Lauderdale (between Ralphs Bay and Frederick Henry Bay ). Hobart has access to a number of beach areas including those in the Derwent estuary itself: Long Beach , Nutgrove Beach , Bellerive Beach , Cornelian Bay, Kingston, and Howrah Beaches, as well as many more in Frederick Henry Bay such as Seven Mile , Roaches, Cremorne, Clifton and Goats Beaches. Ecology Hobart is located on the edge of the Tasmanian South East and Tasmanian Southern Ranges IBRA bioregions as well as being surrounded by parts of the South-east Tasmania Important Bird Area (such as the Meehan and Wellington Ranges ) which provide important habitat for Tasmanian birds . The East Risdon State Reserve contains the wattles Derwent cascade and Acacia riceana , as well as the rare or endangered Risdon peppermint and Eucalyptus morrisbyi . Other local plant species like heartleaf silver gum and the abundant blue gum are also planted horticulturally, while many exotic species were planted as a result of aesthetic preferences from British colonisation. Black peppermint , silver peppermint , blue wattle , blackwood , drooping sheoak and cherry ballart are another common woodland combination. Threatened species of wildlife found in Hobart include the swift parrot , grey goshawk , Tasmanian masked owl , eastern barred bandicoot and eastern quoll . These amount to 11 species of fauna, 10 of flora and 4 vegetation communities. 5 of the threatened species are endemic to Hobart. [ 45 ] A common sight within the city are pademelons and wallabies . The Hobart Rivulet is home to urban platypuses . [ 46 ] [ 47 ] A local community group - Hobart Rivulet Platypus - is dedicated to the conservation and protection of Hobart's urban platypus population, vigorously campaigning on their behalf. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] As a result the health of the Hobart Rivulet has improved over recent years. Wildlife groups and road safety advocates have also highlighted the role of slower speeds in reducing urban roadkill and traffic injuries. [ 49 ] While parts of Mount Wellington have been cleared in the past (and species like celery top pine were allegedly present), stands of old-growth white gums accompanied by giant stringybarks (such as the Octopus tree ) [ 50 ] remain there. A rare patch of non- sclerophyll Tasmanian rainforest dominated by myrtle beech and blackheart sassafras is located near Collinsvale . A famous tree within the city of Hobart is the Anglesea Barracks blue gum which may have been a seedling before the colonial era . [ 51 ] Climate Hobart has a cool to mild oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ; Trewartha : Cflk ). [ 52 ] The highest temperature recorded was 41.8 °C (107.2 °F) on 4 January 2013 and the lowest was −2.8 °C (27.0 °F) on 25 June 1972 and 11 July 1981. [ 6 ] By global standards, Hobart has cool summers and mild winters for its latitude, being influenced by its seaside location. Nevertheless, the strong northerly winds from the Australian outback ensure that Hobart experiences temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) most years. [ 53 ] Annually, Hobart receives only 40.8 clear days. Compared to other major Australian cities, Hobart has the fewest daily average hours of sunshine, with only 5.9 hours per day. [ 54 ] However, during the summer it has the most hours of daylight of any Australian city, with 15.3 hours on the summer solstice. [ 55 ] Hobart has nonetheless exceptionally sunny winters by Tasmanian standards, where its sun hours in June and July exceed those of Wagga Wagga in New South Wales (especially when accounting for latitudinal day length). Strathgordon at the same latitude averages only 51 and 62 sun hours in June and July (compared with Hobart's 132 and 152 hours). This is due to the foehn effect created by the Central Highlands to the west. Light frost occurs most years, though air frosts are uncommon. [ 53 ] Although Hobart itself rarely receives snow due to the foehn effect, the adjacent kunanyi / Mount Wellington is frequently seen with a snowcap throughout the year. During the 20th century, the city itself has received snowfalls at sea level on average only once every 5 years; however, outer suburbs lying higher on the slopes of Mount Wellington receive snow more often, owing to the more exposed location coupled with their higher altitude. These snow-bearing winds often carry on through Tasmania and southern Victoria , to the Snowy Mountains in north-east Victoria and southern New South Wales (though to a much lesser degree outside of winter). Nevertheless, sleet can occur in Hobart from June to September. Average sea temperatures range from 12.5 °C (54.5 °F) in September to 16.5 °C (61.7 °F) in February. [ 56 ] .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Climate data for Hobart ( Battery Point ) 1991–2020 averages, 1882–present extremes v t e Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 41.8 (107.2) 40.1 (104.2) 39.1 (102.4) 32.3 (90.1) 25.7 (78.3) 20.6 (69.1) 22.1 (71.8) 24.5 (76.1) 31.0 (87.8) 34.6 (94.3) 36.8 (98.2) 40.8 (105.4) 41.8 (107.2) Mean maximum °C (°F) 35.2 (95.4) 33.3 (91.9) 30.8 (87.4) 25.5 (77.9) 21.3 (70.3) 17.5 (63.5) 16.7 (62.1) 19.6 (67.3) 22.8 (73.0) 27.2 (81.0) 30.3 (86.5) 32.1 (89.8) 36.9 (98.4) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 22.7 (72.9) 22.2 (72.0) 20.7 (69.3) 17.9 (64.2) 15.3 (59.5) 12.7 (54.9) 12.6 (54.7) 13.7 (56.7) 15.7 (60.3) 17.6 (63.7) 19.1 (66.4) 21.0 (69.8) 17.6 (63.7) Daily mean °C (°F) 17.9 (64.2) 17.5 (63.5) 16.2 (61.2) 13.7 (56.7) 11.5 (52.7) 9.1 (48.4) 8.9 (48.0) 9.7 (49.5) 11.3 (52.3) 13.0 (55.4) 14.6 (58.3) 16.3 (61.3) 13.3 (55.9) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 13.0 (55.4) 12.8 (55.0) 11.6 (52.9) 9.4 (48.9) 7.6 (45.7) 5.5 (41.9) 5.2 (41.4) 5.6 (42.1) 6.9 (44.4) 8.3 (46.9) 10.0 (50.0) 11.6 (52.9) 9.0 (48.2) Mean minimum °C (°F) 8.2 (46.8) 7.9 (46.2) 6.4 (43.5) 4.2 (39.6) 2.8 (37.0) 0.9 (33.6) 1.1 (34.0) 1.4 (34.5) 2.2 (36.0) 3.3 (37.9) 5.0 (41.0) 6.7 (44.1) 0.5 (32.9) Record low °C (°F) 3.3 (37.9) 3.4 (38.1) 1.8 (35.2) 0.7 (33.3) −1.6 (29.1) −2.8 (27.0) −2.8 (27.0) −1.8 (28.8) −0.8 (30.6) 0.0 (32.0) 0.3 (32.5) 3.3 (37.9) −2.8 (27.0) Average rainfall mm (inches) 43.7 (1.72) 37.8 (1.49) 37.0 (1.46) 42.6 (1.68) 39.2 (1.54) 46.0 (1.81) 44.5 (1.75) 63.0 (2.48) 55.6 (2.19) 52.8 (2.08) 50.7 (2.00) 53.0 (2.09) 565.9 (22.28) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm) 9.5 9.1 11.3 11.1 12.0 12.4 14.1 15.3 15.7 15.0 13.5 11.7 150.7 Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm) 5.5 5.2 6.7 7.2 6.5 7.2 8.4 9.9 9.7 9.2 8.1 7.4 91.0 Average afternoon relative humidity (%) 51 52 52 56 58 64 61 56 53 51 53 49 55 Mean monthly sunshine hours 257.3 226.0 210.8 177.0 148.8 132.0 151.9 179.8 195.0 232.5 234.0 248.0 2,393.1 Percentage possible sunshine 59 62 57 59 53 49 53 58 59 58 56 53 56 Source 1: Bureau of Meteorology (1991–2020 averages; [ 57 ] extremes 1882–present) [ 6 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Source 2: Bureau of Meteorology , Hobart Airport (sunshine hours) [ 60 ] Climate data for Hobart Airport ( Cambridge ) 1991–2020 averages, 1958–2022 extremes Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 41.4 (106.5) 39.8 (103.6) 38.1 (100.6) 31.8 (89.2) 25.6 (78.1) 19.6 (67.3) 20.4 (68.7) 23.7 (74.7) 31.1 (88.0) 33.4 (92.1) 38.5 (101.3) 40.8 (105.4) 41.4 (106.5) Mean maximum °C (°F) 35.2 (95.4) 33.3 (91.9) 31.2 (88.2) 25.5 (77.9) 21.5 (70.7) 17.6 (63.7) 16.8 (62.2) 19.4 (66.9) 22.4 (72.3) 27.0 (80.6) 30.2 (86.4) 32.2 (90.0) 36.9 (98.4) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 23.1 (73.6) 22.5 (72.5) 21.1 (70.0) 18.2 (64.8) 15.6 (60.1) 13.2 (55.8) 13.0 (55.4) 13.9 (57.0) 15.7 (60.3) 17.7 (63.9) 19.5 (67.1) 21.4 (70.5) 17.9 (64.2) Daily mean °C (°F) 17.9 (64.2) 17.5 (63.5) 16.1 (61.0) 13.5 (56.3) 11.3 (52.3) 9.1 (48.4) 8.7 (47.7) 9.5 (49.1) 11.1 (52.0) 12.8 (55.0) 14.6 (58.3) 16.3 (61.3) 13.2 (55.8) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 12.6 (54.7) 12.4 (54.3) 11.0 (51.8) 8.8 (47.8) 6.9 (44.4) 4.9 (40.8) 4.4 (39.9) 5.0 (41.0) 6.4 (43.5) 7.9 (46.2) 9.7 (49.5) 11.2 (52.2) 8.4 (47.1) Mean minimum °C (°F) 7.1 (44.8) 7.0 (44.6) 5.6 (42.1) 3.3 (37.9) 1.9 (35.4) 0.1 (32.2) 0.2 (32.4) 0.5 (32.9) 1.4 (34.5) 2.6 (36.7) 4.3 (39.7) 5.8 (42.4) −0.4 (31.3) Record low °C (°F) 3.7 (38.7) 3.4 (38.1) 2.2 (36.0) −0.6 (30.9) −2.2 (28.0) −3.9 (25.0) −3.2 (26.2) −2.0 (28.4) −2.3 (27.9) −1.0 (30.2) 1.7 (35.1) 2.7 (36.9) −3.9 (25.0) Average rainfall mm (inches) 40.7 (1.60) 35.2 (1.39) 34.1 (1.34) 35.6 (1.40) 30.4 (1.20) 38.9 (1.53) 33.8 (1.33) 46.0 (1.81) 39.8 (1.57) 40.2 (1.58) 42.2 (1.66) 46.6 (1.83) 463.5 (18.25) Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm) 9.0 8.8 10.3 10.1 10.3 11.4 13.0 13.6 13.9 13.3 12.4 11.3 137.4 Average afternoon relative humidity (%) 49 51 50 54 57 62 60 55 52 50 50 47 53 Source: Bureau of Meteorology [ 61 ] Climate data for Hobart Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average sea temperature °C (°F) 16.9 (62.4) 16.4 (61.5) 16.4 (61.5) 15.4 (59.7) 14.6 (58.3) 13.6 (56.5) 12.9 (55.2) 12.7 (54.9) 12.7 (54.9) 13.1 (55.6) 14.4 (57.9) 15.9 (60.6) 14.6 (58.3) Mean daily daylight hours 15.0 14.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 13.0 15.0 15.0 12.1 Average Ultraviolet index 11 9 6 4 2 1 1 2 4 6 8 10 5.3 Source: Weather Atlas, [ 62 ] seatemperature.org [ 63 ] Urban structure Parks and nature reserves Hobart has a diverse array of natural areas, parks and gardens. It is most notably defined by its large areas of native bushland owing to its location. The most prominent of these is Wellington Park which encompasses the plateau of Mount Wellington itself as well as much of the surrounding alpine woodland and dense forests. This is taken advantage of with a large number of trails for walking, hiking and mountain biking activities all across the Hobart metropolitan area, some of which follow watercourses like the Hobart Linear Park ( Cascade Gardens ), Lambert Park , New Town Rivulet ( Ancanthe Park ) and Tolosa Park , or ridgelines to viewing points in places like the Truganini Conservation Area and Bicentennial Park. [ 64 ] The former Fern Tree Bower of Dicksonia antarctica can be visited on the Pipeline Track. [ 65 ] The city also has many urban bushland areas, most prominent of which is the centrally located Queens Domain which contains the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens established in 1818 (which, though ringed by expressways , remain a highly popular destination with a variety of attractions), the Hobart Cenotaph (accessed via the Bridge of Remembrance [ 66 ] and Hobart Regatta grounds which link to the Intercity Cycleway ), the University Rose Gardens , a number of sporting facilities (like the Domain Athletic Centre and Doone Kennedy Hobart Aquatic Centre ), and formerly the Hobart Zoo (a role now taken up by Bonorong Wildlife Sanctuary in Brighton ). Areas along the eastern shore also provide recreation, including many coastal walks to areas like Kangaroo Bluff (one of many former Hobart coastal defences which are now parks) and the Kangaroo Bay Parkland [ 67 ] (near Charles Hand Park and the Rosny Parklands ) in Bellerive , Anzac Park and Simmons Park in Lindisfarne , Wentworth park at Howrah Beach , as well as hills within the urban area such as Gordons Hill , Natone Hill , Rokeby Hills , Waverly Flora Park and the panoramic lookout at Rosny Hill . In the city, many urban parks and gardens have sprung up over the years, like St David's Park , Franklin Square , the Parliament or Salamanca Gardens, Boat Park ( Princes Park ), [ 68 ] Fitzroy Gardens and St Andrews Park , [ 69 ] along with newer pocket parks like the Garden of Memories on Elizabeth Street . Inner suburban parks like Wellesley Park in South Hobart , the Train Park (Caldew Park) [ 70 ] in West Hobart , and the Cultural Skatepark and Soundy Park in North Hobart are also popular. Parks continue to extend along the complex coastline of the estuary, from the birdwatching area of Goulds Lagoon , Old Beach 's " little doors ", the Claremont Cenotaph by Windermere Beach, Moorilla Estate winery, Glenorchy Art and Sculpture Park (GASP) with the Montrose Boardwalk, Giblins Reserve and Cornelian Bay to the north, and the Battery Point Sculpture Trail, Errol Flynn Reserve, Long Beach Reserve by Nutgrove Beach and the Alexandra Battery, and Kingston Park to the south. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 1 Wrest Point Casino 2 MONA 3 Tasman Bridge 4 Bowen Bridge 5 Risdon Zinc Works 6 Queens Domain 7 Meehan Range 8 Knocklofty 9 Tolosa Park 10 Mount Nelson 11 Derwent River 12 Pitt Water 13 Risdon Cove 14 Hobart CBD 15 Glenorchy 1 Wrest Point Casino 2 MONA 3 Tasman Bridge 1 Wrest Point Casino 2 MONA 3 Tasman Bridge 4 Bowen Bridge 5 Risdon Zinc Works 6 Queens Domain 4 Bowen Bridge 5 Risdon Zinc Works 6 Queens Domain 7 Meehan Range 8 Knocklofty 9 Tolosa Park 7 Meehan Range 8 Knocklofty 9 Tolosa Park 10 Mount Nelson 11 Derwent River 12 Pitt Water 10 Mount Nelson 11 Derwent River 12 Pitt Water 13 Risdon Cove 14 Hobart CBD 15 Glenorchy 13 Risdon Cove 14 Hobart CBD 15 Glenorchy Architecture Hobart's architecture is stylistically eclectic and reflects various periods of Australian history. The city is known for its well-preserved Georgian and Victorian-era buildings, giving specific areas an " Old World " feel. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] For locals, this became a source of discomfiture about the city's convict past, but is now a draw card for tourists. [ 73 ] The city centre contains many of the city's oldest buildings, including the Hope and Anchor Tavern (1807) and Ingle Hall (1811–14). The Cascade Brewery (1824), Australia's longest operating brewery, was built using convict labour, as was the Cascades Female Factory (1828), now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other notable early buildings include: Hadley's Orient Hotel (1834), Australia's oldest continuously operating hotel; the Theatre Royal (1837), Australia's oldest continually operating theatre; the Greek revival Lady Franklin Gallery (1843), Australia's first private museum; and the Hobart Synagogue (1845), which is Australia's oldest synagogue and a rare example of an Egyptian revival synagogue. Salamanca Place contains many Georgian era buildings, as well as Kelly's Steps , which were built in 1839 to provide a short-cut to Battery Point , a largely residential suburb known for its weatherboard cottages and multi-storey terraces. Government architect John Lee Archer designed the Regency -style Customs House (1840), facing Sullivans Cove and now used as Parliament House. He also designed the Gothic revival Engineers Building (1847) later used as the Tasmanian Main Line Company headquarters. Nearby are more buildings in the same style, Australia's oldest tertiary institution was based in the former Hobart High School from 1848 (Domain House, now owned by UTAS), [ 74 ] and the Government House building was built in 1857 and is the third iteration . Henry Hunter was an architect known for churches such as St Mary's Cathedral (1898), but he also designed Hobart Town Hall (1866), located on the site of the old Government House. The TMAG building, built in 1902 as a new Second Empire style Customs House, is situated on Constitution Dock and incorporates the Bond (1824) and Commisariat Store buildings (1810), the latter of which contributed to Hobart's early street layout when the Hobart Rivulet passed beside it. Away from the mouth of the rivulet was Hunter Island and after 1820 was also used for extensive warehousing. Hobart is home to many historic churches. The Scots Church (formerly known as St Andrew's) was built in Bathurst Street from 1834 to 1836, and a small sandstone building within the churchyard was used as the city's first Presbyterian Church. St John's in New Town , featuring a clocktower and turrets, sat in the middle of the Queens Orphanage complex (now near the Hobart City High School ) from 1835. [ 75 ] The Greek revival St George's Anglican Church in Battery Point was completed in 1838, and a classical tower designed by James Blackburn (who also designed the Holy Trinity Church ) was added in 1847. St Joseph's was built in 1840 and the Davey Street Congregational Church in 1857. St David's Cathedral , Hobart's first, was consecrated in 1874. The grand Queen Anne style Mount Saint Canice (1893) sits above Sandy Bay. The Edwardian Baroque GPO was built in 1905, and the Hobart City Hall was built in 1915 in a Federation warehouse style on the former city marketplace. [ 76 ] The North Hobart Post Office (1913) of a John Smith Murdoch design is in a colourful Edwardian style . Hobart is also home to a number of Art Deco landmarks, including the T&G building (1938) on Murray Street , the Old Mercury Building on Macquarie Street (1938), the former Hydro Tasmania (1938) and the Colonial Mutual Life buildings (1936) on Elizabeth Street . The 1939 Streamline Moderne Riviera Hotel is joined by what remains the tallest building in Tasmania, the Wrest Point Casino (1973) designed by Roy Grounds in Moderne . Several of the tallest buildings in Hobart were built in this era, such as the International Style MLC building (1958–77), the Empress Towers (1967), the Brutalist NAB House (1968) and former Reserve Bank Building (1977), and the brown-coloured Modernist Marine Board Building (1972) and Jaffa Building (1978). Dorney House (1978) at the former Fort Nelson is an example of residential modernism. [ 77 ] The postmodern Hotel Grand Chancellor was built in 1987 in what was the Wapping neighbourhood, which now features many examples of contemporary architecture , such as the 2001 Federation Concert Hall and The Hedberg , designed in 2013 around Conceptualism . [ 78 ] The distinctive shapes of the 2020 K-Block redevelopment of the Royal Hobart Hospital was based on the street grid and convict-made Rajah Quilt . [ 79 ] Nearby is the Menzies Institute and UTAS Medical Science Precinct, which features two 2009 examples of avant-garde styles inspired by land-water interplay. [ 80 ] On Castray Esplanade, the Salamanca Wharf Hotel was built in 2013 and combines Antarctic colours with the surrounding former-ordnance warehouses. [ 81 ] The Myer Centre Icon Complex was completed in 2020 as a replacement for the 1908 Liverpool Street building which burnt down in 2007, while retaining the façade on Murray Street. Projects designed by local architects include the Mövenpick Hotel , built in 2021 by Jaws. [ 82 ] Housing Hobart as a city has delivered its housing by various means and forms. For its early history, housing was small-scale but clustered in very small areas (the highest concentration and diversity of Hobart's heritage remains around the constantly-evolving city centre). [ 83 ] With the development of streets and public transport , such as a railway in 1876 and Australia's first fully-electric tram network in 1893, further growth of the urban area was enabled. Inner suburbs from this era typically have orderly streets (around planned subdivisions of former agriculture grants, often inspired by the City Beautiful movement ) with shopfronts (the Hill Street Grocer franchise derives from the commercial legacy of a former tramway) and narrow lanes lined with timber and brick cottages, townhouses and small apartment buildings. Social housing was usually organised by private societies and entities as outreach to those in need until crises brought greater attention from government authorities, such as the Homes Act (1919) and Housing Agreement (1945). The Housing Department focused mainly on mixing these with broad-acre suburban estates, which were sometimes expensive to service with adequate infrastructure. [ 84 ] Architects such as Margaret Findlay were employed by the public works department. Bungalows were mass-produced in weatherboard and then fibro materials. [ 85 ] The 1944 Town and Country Planning Act was the instrument to transfer control of urban housing to municipalities, which automatically resulted in tightly restricted homebuilding in existing urban areas. [ 86 ] The advent of the automotive city and the 1965 Hobart Area Transportation Study (which ultimately resulted in cuts to public transport [ 87 ] [ 88 ] and parts of the inner city being converted into parking ) further made Hobart a sprawling city. Zoning now applies and specific area plans can also be prepared (with the land use near Hobart's northern suburbs transit corridor under particular focus), [ 89 ] though planning reform and new provisions schedules are being prepared. [ 90 ] While community and social housing projects do occur in expensive areas (such as 25 apartments on Goulburn Street in 2021), [ 91 ] it is still difficult to achieve approval. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] As of 2024, Hobart is the least dense Australian capital [ 94 ] with the highest costs per capita (alongside Sydney ) for housing [ 95 ] and car-ownership (19.7% cost-to-income in 2024). [ 96 ] This is credited with contributing to the broader Tasmanian demographic crisis and emigration. [ 97 ] The median house price of inner Hobart was A$1,026,500 in 2021, [ 98 ] which would be 12.8x the region's median household income per year. Of the 76,686 total dwellings in urban Greater Hobart in 2021 , only 10% were a flat or apartment and 7.2% semi-detached or terrace. [ 99 ] Greater Hobart builds on average 700 new dwellings per year, [ 100 ] which equates to between 3–3.5 per 1000 people (lower than the 6–9 of other states), [ 101 ] mostly concentrated in outer suburbs like Bridgewater [ 102 ] (which has the lowest life expectancy in Hobart at 67) [ 103 ] which studies show can cost 8x more than infill, [ 104 ] [ 105 ] meaning they require more infrastructure per dwelling to service [ 106 ] than areas closer to existing services (which are more often under-capacity [ 107 ] ). Rental vacancies have generally been on decline since about 2013 with the rate consistenly under 3% and listings 50.5% lower in southern Tasmania over 11 years. Renting is also typically less protected than other states. [ 108 ] Tenant-oriented housing models may become more common, with a few examples in Hobart such as 2020's all-electric The Commons Hobart where expensive parking mandates were waivered to enable an affordable green lifestyle . [ 109 ] Culture Since the 2000s, Hobart has gained a reputation as a "cool" and creative cultural capital [ 110 ] with increasing numbers of tourists drawn to its unconventional or quirky events and art projects, many spurred by the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA). The term "MONA effect" refers to the museum's significant impact on the local economy and Tasmanian tourism. [ 111 ] The city's nightlife is primarily concentrated in Salamanca Place , North Hobart, the waterfront area, Elizabeth Street (which includes the pedestrianised Elizabeth Street Mall ) and Sandy Bay. These areas are home to popular dining strips, pubs, bars and nightclubs. Theatre and entertainment The city centre is home to several theatres , including live theatre venues, picture palaces, and a multiplex operated by Village Cinemas . The Theatre Royal , established in 1837, is Australia's oldest continually operating theatre, designed by colonial architect John Lee Archer . [ 112 ] Another historic theatre is the Playhouse Theatre. Built in the 1860s, it was originally a chapel designed by Henry Bastow . Today, it is owned by the Hobart Repertory Theatre Society. Hobart's largest arthouse cinema, the State Cinema in North Hobart , was established as the North Hobart Picture Palace in 1913. It was acquired by the Reading Cinemas chain in 2019. [ 113 ] Located in New Town , the Rewind Cinema, formerly the Hidden Theatre, is housed in a 19th-century convict-built structure. [ 114 ] Another popular live entertainment location is the Hanging Garden precinct, which contains several venues [ 115 ] and hosts Dark Mofo and Hobart Festival of Comedy events. Galleries and museums Australia's first privately funded museum, the Lady Franklin Gallery , was established in Acanthe Park by Lady Jane Franklin in 1843 and is now run by The Art Society of Tasmania . [ 116 ] Three years later, the Royal Society of Tasmania (the oldest Royal Society outside England) founded the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery (TMAG). Its first permanent home opened in 1863 and the museum has gradually expanded to occupy several surrounding buildings, including the Commisariat Store , built in 1810. The TMAG-run Narryna was founded in 1955 as the Van Diemen's Land Memorial Folk Museum and is housed within an 1830s Georgian town house. Maritime Museum Tasmania is located near TMAG on the waterfront and has been in operation since 1974. The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) opened in 2011 to coincide with the third annual MONA FOMA festival. Located within the Moorilla winery on the Berriedale peninsula , the multi-storey MONA gallery houses the collection of David Walsh and is the Southern Hemisphere's largest privately owned museum. [ 117 ] Literature The first book of general Australian literature was published in Hobart. Titled The Last and Worst of the Bushrangers of Van Diemen's Land , it was printed by convict Andrew Bent and details the life and crimes of Michael Howe , the bushranger and outlaw. In 1824, Bent, as proprietor of the Hobart Town Gazette , established the first free press in Australia. The first Australian novel, Quintus Servinton , was written in 1831 by convict Henry Savery and published in Hobart. [ 118 ] Written during his imprisonment, it is a semi-autobiographical work about the life of a convict in Van Diemen's Land. Mary Leman Grimstone , whose book Woman's Love was written in Hobart between 1826 and 1829, holds the distinction of being the author of the first non-biographical Australian novel. It was printed in London in 1832. [ 119 ] The State Library of Tasmania is located in the city centre and comprises the Allport Library and Museum of Fine Arts , which houses an extensive collection of colonial works and artefacts. In 2023, Hobart became a UNESCO City of Literature . [ 120 ] Music The Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra is based at the Federation Concert Hall on the city's waterfront. The Federation Concert Hall also hosts the University of Tasmania's Australian International Symphony Orchestra Institute (AISOI) which fosters advanced young musicians from across Australia and internationally. Other live music venues in Hobart include Odeon Theatre , Avalon Theatre and Hobart City Hall . Major national and international music events are usually held at MyState Bank Arena , or the Tasman Room at Wrest Point Hotel Casino . The city's music scene has given rise to internationally acclaimed acts working in a variety of genres, including Striborg and Psycroptic (metal), The Paradise Motel (chamber pop), Sea Scouts (noise rock), and Monique Brumby (indie pop). Other Hobart musicians have co-founded successful mainland Australian bands, including singer-songwriters Sacha Lucashenko (of The Morning After Girls ) and Michael Noga (of The Drones ), and multi-instrumentalist Monika Fikerle (of Love of Diagrams ). Theremin player Miles Brown , blues guitarist Phil Manning (of blues-rock band Chain ), and TikTok artist Kim Dracula all originated in Hobart. In addition, founding member of Violent Femmes , Brian Ritchie , now calls Hobart home, and curated the annual international arts festival MONA FOMA . Chloe Alison Escott is from Hobart, and founded The Native Cats with Julian Teakle. [ 121 ] Events Hobart's recurring events consist of weekly markets, most notably Salamanca Market . The city also hosts festivals including Taste of Tasmania , which celebrates local produce, wine and music; Dark Mofo [ 122 ] which is the city's biggest winter festival leading into the solstice featuring the Winter Feast; and Tasmania's biennial international arts festival Ten Days On The Island . Other festivals, including the Southern Roots Festival and the Falls Festival in Marion Bay , also capitalise on Hobart's artistic communities. The Australian Wooden Boat Festival is a biennial event held in Hobart celebrating wooden boats. It is held concurrently with the Royal Hobart Regatta , which began in 1830 and is therefore Tasmania's oldest surviving sporting event. The Sandy Bay Regatta began in 1849. [ 123 ] In October is Hobart Show Day where agriculture is showcased at the Hobart Showground in Glenorchy . Sustainable Living Tasmania has hosted events in Hobart focused on environmental sustainability, such as their Sustainable Living Festivals, since the 1970s. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Sport Most professional Hobart-based sports teams represent Tasmania as a whole rather than exclusively the city. Cricket is a popular sport in Hobart. The Tasmanian Tigers cricket team plays its home games at Bellerive Oval on the Eastern Shore, and the Hobart Hurricanes compete in the Big Bash League . Australian rules football was introduced to Hobart in the 1860s and has long been the city's most popular spectator sport. Founded in 1879 and headquartered at Hobart, the Tasmanian Football League features four Hobart-based clubs: Clarence , Glenorchy , Lauderdale and North Hobart . Hobart-based teams also play in the Southern Football League . Hobart has hosted Australian Football League (AFL) matches since 1952, and in 2023, Tasmania was awarded a conditional license to field the league's 19th AFL team , nicknamed the Tasmanian Devils. The conditional license is contingent on a 23,000 seat roofed stadium being built at Hobart's Macquarie Point. It is anticipated that the men's team will join the AFL by 2028. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] Tasmania is not represented by teams in the National Rugby League (rugby league), nor the Super Rugby (rugby union), Super Netball (netball) and A-League (soccer) competitions. However, the Tasmania JackJumpers entered the National Basketball League in 2021. The Hobart Chargers also represent Hobart in the second-tier NBL1 South . The Tassie Tigers field men's and women's representative sides in Hockey One , which replaced the Australian Hockey League in 2019. They play their home matches at the Tasmanian Hockey Centre , which has also hosted international competition matches, such as the Men's FIH Pro League . The Hobart International is an annual tennis tournament held since 1994. The city is the finishing point of the Targa Tasmania rally car event, which has been held annually in April since 1991. Hobart is internationally famous among the yachting community as the finish of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race which starts in Sydney on Boxing Day. The arrival of the yachts is celebrated as part of the Hobart Summer Festival , a food and wine festival beginning just after Christmas and ending in mid-January. The city co-hosted the basketball FIBA Oceania Championship 1975 , where the Australian national basketball team won the gold medal. Hobart hosted the inaugural 1987 Australian Masters Games . Hobart hosted the Australian Swimming Championships in 1930, 1935, 1939, 1959, 1965, 1971, 1977, 1983, and 2001. Hobart hosted the Australasian Athletics Championships in 1908, and 1924. Hobart Hosted the Australian Hard Court Championships in 1940, 1960, 1961, 1979 , and 1980 . Hobart hosted the Australian Athletics Championships in 1907, 1923, 1935, 1950, 1958, 1959, 1964, 1966, and 1972. Hobart hosted the 2001 Men's Hockey Junior World Cup . Hobart hosted the 2000 Underwater Hockey World Championships . Hobart hosted the 2017 Junior Underwater Hockey World Championships . Hobart hosted the 2013 National Premier Leagues Grand Final . Hobart hosted the 2006/07 Sheffield Shield Final , 2010/11 Sheffield Shield Final , and the 2012/13 Sheffield Shield Final . Hobart hosted the 1978/79 One Day Cup Final , 1986/87 One Day Cup Final, and the 2007/08 One Day Cup Final . Hobart hosted the 2021/22 WNCL Final , 2022/23 WNCL Final , and the 2023/24 WNCL Final . Hobart hosted the BBL 14 Final . Hobart hosted the WBBL 11 Final . Hobart hosted the 1991 WNBL Grand Final . Hobart co-hosted the 2022 NBL Grand Final , and the 2024 NBL Grand Final . Hobart hosted the 2024 Men's Hockey One Finals Series . Hobart hosted the 2024 Women's Hockey One Finals Series . Hobart hosted the Real Tennis World Championship in 1994, 1995, and 2000 . Hobart hosted the Australian National Football Carnivals in 1924 , 1947 , and 1966 . In 2022 Tasmania made a bid to host the 2026 Commonwealth Games in Hobart, [ 128 ] but lost out to regional Victoria (which later ceded the hosting rights to Glasgow). [ 129 ] Club League Sport Venue Established Tasmania Football Club AFL / AFLW / VFL / VFLW Australian rules football Ninja Stadium / Macquarie Point Stadium / Kingston Twin Ovals 2023 Tasmania JackJumpers NBL Basketball MyState Bank Arena 2020 Hobart Hurricanes BBL Cricket Ninja Stadium 2011 Hobart Hurricanes Women WBBL Cricket Ninja Stadium 2015 Tasmania Men Sheffield Shield Cricket Ninja Stadium 1851 Tasmania Women WNCL Cricket Ninja Stadium 1906 Hobart Chargers NBL1 South Basketball The Hutchins School 1981 Tasmania Rugby Union Team Australian Rugby Shield Rugby Union Rugby Park 1949 Tasmania Rugby League Team Affiliated States Championship Rugby League North Hobart Oval 1953 Tasmania Wild Super Netball Reserves Netball Hobart Netball and Sports Centre/ Kingborough Sports Centre 2022 Tassie Tigers Hockey One Field hockey Tasmanian Hockey Centre 2019 Tasmania Devils Academy Talent League Boy / Talent League Girls Australian rules football Ninja Stadium / North Hobart Oval 2018 Tasmania Jewels WNBL Basketball MyState Bank Arena 2025 South Hobart FC Australian Championship Soccer D'Arcy Street 1910 Media Station Frequency Energy FM 87.8 FM Commercial Triple J 92.9 FM Government funded ABC Classic FM 93.9 FM Government funded Hobart FM 96.1 FM Community Edge Radio 99.3 FM Community hit100.9 Hobart 100.9 FM Commercial 7HO FM 101.7 FM Commercial SBS Radio 105.7 FM Government funded Ultra106five 106.5 FM Christian/narrowcast Triple M Hobart 107.3 FM Commercial ABC Radio National 585 AM Government funded ABC NewsRadio 747 AM Government funded 7RPH 864 AM Community 936 ABC Hobart 936 AM Government funded TOTE Sport Radio 1080 AM Racing/narrowcast Rete Italia 1611 AM Italian radio NTC Radio Australia 1620 AM Community Five free-to-air television stations service Hobart: ABC Tasmania ( ABT ) SBS Tasmania ( SBS ) Seven Tasmania ( TNT ) Nine Tasmania ( TVT ) – Nine Network affiliate Tasmanian Digital Television ( TDT ) – Network 10 affiliate Each station broadcasts a primary channel and several multichannels. Hobart is served by thirty–two digital free-to-air television channels: ABC ABC HD (ABC broadcast in HD ) ABC Family ABC Kids ABC Entertains ABC News SBS SBS HD (SBS broadcast in HD ) SBS Viceland SBS Viceland HD (SBS Viceland broadcast in HD ) SBS Food NITV SBS WorldWatch SBS World Movies 7 Tasmania (on relay from Melbourne) 7HD (Seven broadcast in HD) 7two 7mate 9HD (Nine broadcast in HD) 9Gem 9Go! 9Life TVSN Gold Sky News Australia 10 (on relay from Melbourne) 10 HD (TDT broadcast in HD) 10 Drama 10 Comedy Nickelodeon The majority of pay television services are provided by Foxtel via satellite, although other smaller pay television providers do service Hobart. Commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Hobart market include Triple M Hobart , hit100.9 Hobart and 7HO FM . Local community radio stations include Christian radio station Ultra106five , Edge Radio and Hobart FM which targets the wider community with specialist programs. The five ABC radio networks available on analogue radio broadcast to Hobart via 936 ABC Hobart , Radio National , Triple J , NewsRadio and ABC Classic FM . Hobart is also home to the video creation company Biteable . Hobart's major newspaper is The Mercury , which was founded by John Davies in 1854 and has been continually published ever since. The paper is owned and operated by Rupert Murdoch 's News Limited . Pulse Tasmania , formerly Pulse Hobart, started as a radio station in Hobart and focuses mainly on short-form news media on its website . Demographics At the 2021 census, there were 247,068 people in the Greater Hobart. [ 5 ] The City of Hobart local government area had a population of 55,077. As of 2021, the median weekly household income was $1,542, compared with $1,746 nationally. [ 130 ] 18.1% of households total weekly income is less than $650 week, while 18.9% of households weekly income exceeds $3,000. This compares to national rates of 16.5% and 24.3% respectively. 35.4% of renting households, and 10.3% of owned households with a mortgage experience housing stress , where rent or mortgage repayments exceed 30% of income. At the 2016 census, The most common occupation categories were professionals (22.6%), clerical and administrative workers (14.7%), technicians and trades workers (13.3%), community and personal service workers (12.8%), and managers (11.3%). Ancestry and immigration Birthplace [ N 3 ] Population Australia 189,218 England 8,155 Mainland China 5,544 Nepal 4,107 India 4,074 New Zealand 2,108 Philippines 1,165 4.5% of the population (11,216 people) are Indigenous Australians ( Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders ). [ N 4 ] [ 132 ] At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups include: English (42.5%) Australian (37.6%) [ N 5 ] Irish (10.7%) Scottish (9.4%) Aboriginal (4.1%) [ N 6 ] German (3.7%) Chinese (3.7%) Dutch (2%) Italian (1.9%) Nepalese (1.8%) [ 134 ] 23.4% of the population was born overseas at the 2021 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (3.3%), Mainland China (2.2%), Nepal (1.7%), India (1.6%) and New Zealand (0.9%). [ 135 ] Language At the 2021 census, 82.6% of the population spoke only English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Mandarin (2.6%), Nepali (1.8%), Punjabi (0.7%), Cantonese (0.5%) and Vietnamese (0.4%). [ 136 ] Religion In the 2021 census, 49.9% of Greater Hobart residents specified no religion . Christianity comprised the largest religious affiliation (37.1%), with the largest denominations being Anglicanism (14.1%) and Catholicism (14.1%). Hinduism (2.6%), Buddhism (1.3%), Islam (1.3%) and Sikhism (0.6%) constitute the remaining largest religious affiliations. [ 137 ] Hobart has a small community of 456 members [ 138 ] of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , with meetinghouses in Glenorchy , Rosny , and Glen Huon . [ 139 ] There is also a synagogue , with a Jewish community of 203 people. [ 140 ] [ 141 ] Hobart has a Baháʼí community, with a Baháʼí Centre of Learning, located within the city. [ 142 ] In 2013, Hillsong Church established a Hillsong Connect campus in Hobart. [ 143 ] Economy In 2021, Greater Hobart's main occupations were professionals and service workers, trades, administration and management and other labour professions working in industries such as healthcare, the public service, and supermarkets and small businesses. Incomes are higher than the rest of Tasmania, but lower than the Australian median. [ 145 ] These employment areas are reflected by the gross value added provided by industries, which is greatest among the "healthcare and social assistance (17%), public administration and safety (11%), and financial and insurance services (10%)." Healthcare is also the fastest-growing, while services and construction have the highest business count. The vast majority of this economic production is concentrated in the City of Hobart area, except manufacturing which is higher in Glenorchy City . [ 146 ] Major shopping areas include the Elizabeth Street Mall (the only fully pedestrianised block in the city), which is connected with the Cat and Fiddle Arcade, Centrepoint and Liverpool Street in the CBD, Mayfair Shopping Plaza on Sandy Bay Road , New Town Plaza, Moonah Central (near a foodmarket), Northgate Shopping Centre and Centro in Glenorchy, Claremont Plaza, Eastlands Shopping Centre (Tasmania's biggest) in Rosny Park, Lindisfarne village, Shoreline Plaza in Howrah, Glebe Hill Village Shopping Centre, Cambridge Homemaker Centre by the airport, Green Point Plaza and Covehill Fair Shopping Centre in Bridgewater, New Norfolk , and Channel Court and Kingston Town Shopping Centre in Kingston. Shipping is significant to the city's economy. The city is a popular cruise ship destination during the summer months, with 47 such ships docking during the course of the 2016–17 summer season, and $34.5 million in direct expenditure in 2017 (an average spend of $172 per passenger). Tourism is a significant part of the economy, with visitors coming to the city to explore its historic inner suburbs and nationally acclaimed restaurants and cafes, as well as its vibrant music and nightlife culture. The two major draw-cards are the weekly market in Salamanca Place , and the Museum of Old & New Art . The city is also used as a base from which to explore the rest of Tasmania. The city also supports many other industries. Major local employers include the Boyer Mill , Incat , Cadbury's , Cascade Brewery , Risdon Zinc Works and Wrest Point Casino . [ 147 ] The city also supports a host of light industry manufacturers, as well as a range of redevelopment projects, including the $689 million Royal Hobart Hospital Redevelopment – standing as the states largest ever Health Infrastructure project. [ 148 ] The last 15–20 years [ when? ] have seen Hobart's wine industry thrive as many vineyards have developed in countryside areas outside of the city in the Coal River Wine Region and D'Entrecasteaux Channel , including Moorilla Estate at Berriedale one of the most awarded vineyards in Australia. Antarctic gateway Hobart is an Antarctic gateway city , with geographical proximity to East Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. Infrastructure is provided by the port of Hobart for scientific research and cruise ships, and Hobart Airport supports an Antarctic Airlink to Wilkins Runway at Casey Station . Hobart is a logistics point for the Australian vessel Nuyina and French icebreaker L'Astrolabe . Hobart is the home port for the Australian and French Antarctic programs, and provides port services for other visiting Antarctic nations and Antarctic cruise ships. Antarctic and Southern Ocean expeditions are supported by a specialist cluster offering cold climate products, services and scientific expertise. The majority of these businesses and organisations are members of the Tasmanian polar network , supported in part by the Tasmanian State Government. Tasmania has a high concentration of Antarctic and Southern Ocean scientists. Hobart is home to the following Antarctic and Southern Ocean scientific institutions: Australian Antarctic Division Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) The University of Tasmania (UTAS) – expertise in Antarctic and Southern Ocean science and research [ 149 ] Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) (established by UTAS) Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS) Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (ACE-CRC) International Antarctic Institute (IAI) (hosted by UTAS) Southern Ocean Observing System (hosted by UTAS/ IMAS) CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Tourism Hobart serves as a focal point and mecca for tourism in the state of Tasmania. Hobart has been a significant tourist destination for many years, however tourism has evolved to a core industry in the last decade. [ when? ] This process has been termed the "MONA Effect" - referring to the significant influence of the Museum of New and Old Art (MONA), the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum, on the local tourist economy - compared to the effect of the Guggenheim on Bilbao . [ 150 ] Since opening in 2011, MONA had received 2.5 million visitors by 2022 and has helped establish a number of art and food venues and events, including MONA FOMA , and the winter festivals of Mid-Winter Fest and Dark Mofo . 27% of visitors to Tasmania visit the museum. [ 151 ] In 2016, Hobart received 1.8 million visitors, surpassing both Perth and Canberra, tying equally with Brisbane. [ 152 ] Visitor numbers reached a low of 744,200 in 2021, primarily as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic , with expectations that numbers would return to normal by 2023. [ 153 ] Many local tourist attractions focuses on the convict history of Hobart, the city's historic architecture, art experiences, and food and alcohol experiences. Hobart is home to a significant number of nationally known restaurants, boutique alcohol producers, including Sullivans Cove Whiskey, which won world's best single malt in 2014, [ 154 ] boutique hotels, and art experiences. Other significant tourist attractions include Australia's second oldest botanic gardens, the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens , which holds extensive significant plant collections, [ 155 ] a range of public and private museums including the Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery and Maritime Museum Tasmania , and Mount Wellington , one of the dominant features of Hobart's skyline. At 1,271 metres (4,170 ft), the mountain has its own ecosystems, is rich in biodiversity and plays a large part in determining the local weather. [ citation needed ] Hobart is used as a staging ground to visit many of the region's surrounding attractions, including the historic sights of Richmond (where a model of Old Hobart Town is located) and Oatlands , Seven Mile Beach and Turrakana / Tasman Peninsula , the Huon Valley , and the waterfalls of Mount Field National Park via the Derwent Valley . TV and Film Productions shot in and around Hobart Films Aya (1990) Arctic Blast (2010) Beaten to Death (2022) Beyond Gravity (2000) Blood Hunt (2017) Boys in the Island (1989) Dying Breed (2008) For the Term of His Natural Life (1927) - Filmed in Port Arthur. The Hunter (2011) - Filming locations included Mount Wellington and Hobart Airport. The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce (2008) - Filmed on Mount Wellington and other locations. Lion (2016) - Filmed in Hobart, on Mount Wellington, and Marion Bay. Manganinnie (1980) The Nightingale (2018) - Filmed in the Derwent Valley and Oatlands. Oscar and Lucinda (1997) Save the Lady (1982) The Sound of One Hand Clapping (1998) The Tale of Ruby Rose (1987) - Filmed in the Central Highlands. Testing Taklo (2004) They Found a Cave (1962) - Filmed in New Town, Richmond, and Glenorchy. Van Diemen's Land (2009) Television series Aussie Lobster Men (2019) Bay of Fires (2023) - While primarily filmed on Tasmania's West Coast, some scenes were shot in Hobart. Dark Place (2019) - The episode "Vale Light" was filmed in Clarendon Vale. Deadloch (2023) The Gloaming (2020) The Kettering Incident (2016) - Filmed in and around Kettering and Bruny Island. The Platypus Guardian (2023) [ 47 ] - This documentary was filmed in the Hobart Rivulet . Rosehaven (2016-2021) The Survivors (2024) The Tailings (2021) Government Local Greater Hobart as of the 2021 Census is divided into seven local government areas - three of which are designated as cities, City of Hobart , City of Glenorchy and City of Clarence . The remaining metropolitan area is within the Municipality of Kingborough , the Municipality of Brighton , the Municipality of Sorell and the Municipality of Derwent Valley . [ 5 ] Each local government area has an elected council which manages functions delegated by the Tasmanian state government such as roads, planning, animal control and parks. Mains water and sewerage processing are serviced by TasWater , which is a state-wide authority part owned by the state government and local government areas. State Hobart is the seat of the Parliament of Tasmania , located at Parliament House , Salamanca Place, and the location of the official residence of the Governor of Tasmania , Government House . The senior sitting of the Supreme Court of Tasmania , and only sitting of the Court's appeal division, as well as the Magistrates' Court and Tasmanian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (TASCAT), sit in Hobart. [ 156 ] The Risdon Prison Complex (which includes the Mary Hutchinson Women's Prison and Barwick Minimum Security Prison) and Hobart Reception Centre are in the region. Hobart was made the seat of government for the southern district of Tasmania (then called Van Diemen's Land ), Buckingham County in 1804, with the northern half of the state separately governed from Port Dalrymple , now George Town. At the time, Van Diemen's Land remained part of the Colony of New South Wales . In 1812, the northern lieutenant governorship ceased and Hobart become de facto seat of government for the entire island. Hobart officially became capital of an independent colony of Van Diemen's Land in 1825, and the seat of responsible self government in 1850 with the Australian Constitutions Act 1850 . Transport Bus The main public transportation within the city of Hobart is via a network of Metro Tasmania buses operated by the Tasmanian Government. The main hub is at the centrally located Hobart Bus Mall on Elizabeth Street. The GreenCard fare ticketing system is held by about 100 thousand customers. [ 157 ] There are also a small number of private bus services, departing from Murray Street and the Brooke Street Pier . These include the airport SkyBus , and charters and coaches by Tassielink Transit and Kinetic Tasmania . Tasmania spends the least per capita on public transport in Australia, [ 87 ] which is partly responsible for a weekday usage decline of 80.8% between 1964 and 2021. [ 88 ] However, the State Government has indicated a consolidation of routes into three main BRT spokes. Road Hobart's transport is centred around roads. The main arterial routes within the urban area are the Brooker Highway to Glenorchy and the northern suburbs, the Tasman Bridge and Bowen Bridge across the river to Rosny and the Eastern Shore. The East Derwent Highway to Lindisfarne, Geilston Bay, and Northwards to Brighton, the South Arm Highway leading to Howrah, Rokeby, Lauderdale and Opossum Bay and the Southern Outlet south to Kingston and the D'Entrecasteaux Channel . Leaving the city, motorists can travel the Lyell Highway to the west coast , Midland Highway to Launceston and the north, Tasman Highway to the east coast, or the Huon Highway to the far south. Many of these highways were built after Australia's first motor vehicle transportation study by US consultants in the 1960s, with an apparent urgency to cater to growing road traffic volumes. However, most of the targets were not achieved in the years after 1985 despite the scale of these projects, with the large amount of public funds required curbing feasibility. Another side-effect of this transition in investment away from public transport is that Hobart has limited mode redundancy compared to larger Australian capitals and a higher proportion of vehicle traffic, meaning that individual incidents can shut the entire network down. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Tasmania's largest transport project, the $786 million Bridgewater Bridge , was completed in 2025. [ 160 ] Ferry There is a ferry service by Derwent Ferries which operates a single line (F2) between Brooke Street Pier and Bellerive Quay that operates six days a week. [ 161 ] It was initiated as a trial in 2021 servicing the Hobart City Centre and Bellerive on the eastern shore, garnering 110 thousand passengers by the end of the year. [ 162 ] [ 163 ] The ferry provides a convenient alternative to crossing the Tasman Bridge choke point , with its purpose being to reduce congestion . It is seen as a first step in diversifying Hobart's transport options to reduce traffic problems by taking the number of cars off the road rather than inducing more traffic . More ferry terminal sites were revealed in 2023 to Regatta Point, Wrest Point, Wilkinsons Point , Howrah Point, Lindisfarne and Kingston Beach . [ 164 ] There are also private tourist ferries like the Spirit of Hobart, and two MONA Roma catamarans which take 25 minutes to the Museum of Old and New Art . [ 165 ] Ferry services from Hobart's Eastern Shore into the city were once a common form of public transportation, but with lack of government funding, as well as a lack of interest from the private sector, the commuter ferry service was closed for many decades – leaving Hobart's commuters relying solely on travel by automobiles and buses. There was however a water taxi service operating from the Eastern Shore into Hobart which provides an alternative to the Tasman Bridge ( ferries were temporarily loaned from Sydney following the Tasman Bridge disaster ). The MV Cartela was one of Australia's oldest still operating since 1912. Air Hobart is served by Hobart Airport with flights to/from Adelaide, Auckland, Brisbane, Canberra, Gold Coast, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney, and regional destinations including the Bass Strait islands. The smaller Cambridge Aerodrome mainly serves small charter airlines offering local tourist flights. In the past decade, Hobart International Airport received a huge upgrade, with the airport now being a first class airport facility. In 2009, it was announced that Hobart Airport would receive more upgrades, including a first floor, aerobridges (currently, passengers must walk on the tarmac) and shopping facilities. Possible new international flights to Asia and New Zealand, and possible new domestic flights to Darwin and Cairns have been proposed. A second runway, possibly to be constructed in the next 15 years, would assist with growing passenger numbers to Hobart. Hobart Control Tower may be renovated and fitted with new radar equipment, and the airport's carpark may be extended further. Also, new facilities will be built just outside the airport. A new service station, hotel and day care centre have already been built and the road leading to the airport has been maintained and re-sealed. In 2016, work began on a 500-metre extension of the existing runway in addition to a $100 million upgrade of the airport. The runway extension is expected to allow international flights to land and increase air-traffic with Antarctica . This upgrade was, in part, funded under a promise made during the 2013 federal election by the Abbott government. [ 166 ] Seaport Hobart's main port is managed by TasPorts and has a variety of uses. In Sullivans Cove , the two Princes Wharves are used for Antarctic restocking operations, while there are many piers and pontoons for berthing sailing boats, fishing vessels and yachts (at Victoria and Constitution Docks , especially following the Sydney to Hobart ) and a seaplane. [ 167 ] At Macquarie Point , the six Macquarie wharves are used for cruise ships (with a terminal onto Hunter Street by the port tower building) and defence vessels. [ 168 ] Previously, shipping and services to ferry people between Sydney and Hobart such as Tasmanian Steamers and the Australian National Line , and shipbuilding occurred nearby. [ 169 ] Rail While freight rail no longer operates within Hobart (since 2014), TasRail still operates the Brighton Transport Hub which connects to the main line to the north of Tasmania. Locomotives can be seen in Bridgewater as they make their way from the Boyer Mill near New Norfolk on the operational part of the Derwent Valley railway . Like many large Australian cities, Hobart once operated high-quality passenger rail services. This included a tram network which was closed in the early 1960s. The tracks are still visible in the older streets of Hobart. It was replaced by a short-lived trolleybus network consisting of six routes which operated until 1968. Suburban passenger trains, run by the Tasmanian Government Railways , were closed in 1974 and the intrastate passenger service, the Tasman Limited , ceased running in 1978. The Tasmanian Transport Museum in Glenorchy has a restored section of track for visitors. There has been a push from public transport advocates and the two local councils [ 170 ] [ 171 ] to establish a light rail network, intended to be fast, efficient, and eco-friendly, along existing tracks on the Northern Suburbs Transit Corridor to solve the frequent jamming of traffic in Hobart CBD. This has grown amidst the need for higher-capacity mass transit and an alternative State Government bus proposal. However the State Government haven't ruled out Light Rail but has raised concerns regarding cost. [ 172 ] [ 173 ] The earlier Riverline proposal, which reached a business case (at $100 million, demonstrating benefits for socioeconomically disadvantaged areas of the city), was scrapped in the 2014 Australian federal budget . Infrastructure Education The Greater Hobart area contains 122 primary, secondary and pretertiary (College) schools distributed throughout Clarence, Glenorchy and Hobart City Councils and Kingborough and Brighton Municipalities. These schools are made up of a mix of public, catholic, private and independent run, with the heaviest distribution lying in the more densely populated West around the Hobart city core. The Department for Education, Children and Young People is responsible for government schools and Libraries Tasmania , which operates literacy services and libraries across the region, including the State Library of Tasmania where it is headquartered. Hobart is home to the main campus of the University of Tasmania , a sandstone university located in Sandy Bay . On-site accommodation colleges include Christ College (founded in 1846, making it Australia's oldest tertiary institution), Jane Franklin Hall and St John Fisher College . UTAS also has many sites within the Hobart City Centre , where it hosts the Medical Science Precinct , the College of Arts, Law and Education 's Hunter Street campus (which also has a TasTAFE training facility), and the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) nearby the CSIRO Marine Laboratories , as well as the Hytten Hall and Hobart Apartments accommodation [ 174 ] in Midtown. It also operates the Canopus Hill Observatory in Mount Rumney and the Mount Pleasant Radio Observatory in Cambridge . TasTAFE operates a total of seven polytechnic campuses within the Greater Hobart area that provide vocational education and training. [ 175 ] These include the Campbell Street campus in the city, the Clarence campus in Warrane , and Drysdale (at Claremont College and on Collins Street ). [ 176 ] Health The Royal Hobart Hospital (RHH) is the pre-eminent public hospital in Tasmania, located in central Hobart with 501 beds for emergency presentations and elective surgeries. [ 177 ] It also serves as the Hobart Clinical School teaching hospital for the University of Tasmania . There are also nine ambulance stations in the Hobart region, [ 178 ] and the SES Southern Regional Headquarters is on Bathurst Street [ 179 ] (along with the Tasmania Fire Service Head Office on Melville/Argyle [ 180 ] and Tasmania Police Headquarters on Liverpool ). A private hospital, Hobart Private Hospital is located adjacent to the RHH and operated by Australian healthcare provider Healthscope . The company also owned another hospital in the city, the St Helen's Private Hospital , [ 181 ] which featured a mother-baby unit [ 182 ] but it was closed in 2023. [ 183 ] A new Tasman private hospital in New Town was proposed on a former WIN News site, but abandoned in 2023. [ 184 ] The Calvary Hospital is operated by Little Company of Mary Health Care at its main campus the Calvary-St John's Private Hospital in Lenah Valley , and has an older location in South Hobart (the former Homoeopathic Hospital). It has a Private Rehabilitation Unit. [ 185 ] The Hobart Clinic (formerly St Michael's Priory) is a not-for-profit operating a 27-bed psychiatric hospital in Rokeby and Mind Hub on Collins Street, with a focus on therapies. [ 186 ] Utilities Drinking water and sewerage in the city is managed by TasWater , but many organisations and levels of government are involved at different stages. The first dams in Tasmania were built along the Hobart Rivulet and now there are many reservoirs in the region to safeguard the supply of water [ 187 ] (as while Mount Wellington receives high rainfall, the city itself is dry), such as the Waterworks reservoirs [ 188 ] via the Sandy Bay Rivulet, the Tolosa dam (disused in 2018) [ 189 ] and Lime Kiln Gully dam in Glenorchy , and the Flagstaff Gully dam and Risdon Brook dam (which stores treated water from the New Norfolk Bryn Estyn plant) [ 190 ] in Clarence . TasNetworks is responsible for electricity and telecommunications provision. Notable people Ollie Atkins (1988-), rugby union player Regina Bird , reality television personality; two-time winner of Big Brother Australia (2003, 2022) and contestant on I'm A Celebrity, Get Me Out Of Here Caroline Brothers , novelist and foreign correspondent Alec Campbell (1899–2002), last Australian survivor of the Gallipoli campaign Queen Mary of Denmark (1972–) Errol Flynn (1909–1959), Hollywood film actor Jessie Isabel Henderson (1866–1951), social welfare worker Alex Peroni , Australian racing driver Nyadiew Puoch , WNBA forward for the Atlanta Dream Alanna Smith , WNBA power forward for the Minnesota Lynx Sister cities Yaizu , Shizuoka Prefecture , Japan (1977) [ 191 ] L'Aquila , Abruzzo , Italy (1980) [ 191 ] Valdivia , Los Ríos , Chile (1998) [ 192 ] Xi'an , Shaanxi , China (2015) [ 191 ] [ 193 ] Fuzhou , Fujian , China (2017) [ 191 ] Barile , Basilicata , Italy (2009) See also Australia portal Hobart City Centre 2018 Hobart floods Explanatory notes ^ Excluding Bruny Island ^ Only including New Norfolk ^ In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England , Scotland , Mainland China and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau are listed separately. ^ Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying as Aboriginal Australians or Torres Strait Islanders . Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry. ^ The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the Anglo-Celtic group. [ 133 ] ^ Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying as Aboriginal Australians or Torres Strait Islanders . Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Queen to Honour David Collins in Historic Unveiling" . The Mercury . Hobart, Tasmania. 19 February 1954. p. 8, Royal Visit Souvenir supplement. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019 . Retrieved 17 January 2012 . ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (28 June 2022). "Hobart (urban centre and locality)" . Australian Census 2021 . ^ "Regional Population - 2021" . abs.gov.au . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 March 2021 . Retrieved 24 April 2023 . ^ "Urban Centres and Localities 2021 Hobart" . ABS . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ a b c d e "Greater Hobart - 2021 Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022 . Retrieved 28 June 2022 . Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b c d e "Climate statistics: Hobart (Ellerslie Road)" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 30 June 2017 . ^ Macquarie ABC Dictionary . The Macquarie Library. 2003. p. 465. ISBN 1-876429-37-2 . ^ "Nipaluna" . Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre . Archived from the original on 15 February 2022 . Retrieved 15 February 2022 . ^ "kunanyi / Mount Wellington" . Hobart City Council . Archived from the original on 26 June 2017 . Retrieved 9 June 2015 . ^ "Antarctic Tasmania" . Government of Tasmania . 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ Mocatta, Gabi; Rawlings-Way, Charles; Worby, Meg (2008). Tasmania (5th ed.). Footscray, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-691-5 . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 1 November 2020 . ^ "Economic Profile" . City of Hobart . Archived from the original on 30 October 2014 . Retrieved 7 November 2014 . ^ "nipaluna is the name of the country in which the city of Hobart sits" . Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre . Hobart. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021 . Retrieved 5 May 2021 . The nomenclature of Tasmanian Aborigines is not the same as that of the colonisers in that geographical features, like rivers and mountains and so on, are all part of country, and while there may be specific names for those features, they are also a part of the surrounding country. The Nipaluna includes geographical features such as Kunanyi/Mt. Wellington and Timtumili Minanya (River Derwent). ^ Holmes, Adam (11 February 2025). "Tasmanian Aboriginal place names for major landmarks to change as part of 'evolution' of reconstructed palawa kani" . ABC News . Retrieved 9 March 2025 . ^ "History of Tasmania" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 6 July 2008 . Retrieved 17 July 2008 . ^ Horton, David, ed. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia . Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (See: Vol. 2, pp.1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further reading' section on pp.1245–72). ^ Hamacher, Duane; Nunn, Patrick; Gantevoort, Michelle; Taylor, Rebe; Lehman, Greg; Law, Ka Hei Andrew; Miles, Mel (2023). "The archaeology of orality: Dating Tasmanian Aboriginal oral traditions to the Late Pleistocene" . Journal of Archaeological Science . 159 105819. Elsevier BV. Bibcode : 2023JArSc.159j5819H . doi : 10.1016/j.jas.2023.105819 . ISSN 0305-4403 . ^ Bolt, Frank (2004). The Founding of Hobart . Kettering, Tasmania: Peregrine Press. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3 . ^ "Tasmanian Yearbook" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 13 September 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008 . Retrieved 17 July 2008 . ^ "Tasmanian Community Profile" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 17 July 2008 . ^ "Regional Overview" . Tourism Research Australia . Archived from the original on 11 March 2015 . Retrieved 7 November 2014 . ^ "Tasmanian Tourism Snapshot" (PDF) . Tourism Tasmania . Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2023 . Retrieved 2 August 2023 . ^ Raabus, Carol (25 March 2018). "What's in a name? A brief history of Tasmania's changing place names" . ABC News . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "History of the Derwent" . Derwent Estuary Program . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ Rigozzi, Leigh (2004). Tales of Hobartian Life . ^ Shine, Rhiannon (30 May 2018). "Hobart should adopt dual Aboriginal name Nipaluna passed on by leader Woureddy, community says" . ABC News . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "ngayapi niyakara (born to dream)" . Constance ARI . Retrieved 13 July 2024 . ^ Plomley, N.J.B. (1992). Tasmanian aboriginal place names (PDF) (Occasional paper no. 3 ed.). Launceston, Tas.: Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery. p. 98 . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "pulingina to lutruwita place names map" . Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "House of Assembly Standing Orders" . Parliament of Tasmania . Archived from the original on 30 September 2008. We acknowledge the traditional people of the land upon which we meet today, the Mouheneener people . ^ Reynolds, Henry; Clements, Nicholas (2021). Tongerlongeter . Sydney: NewSouth. ISBN 978-1-74223-777-0 . ^ "Charles Darwin in Hobart Town - February 1836" . UTAS . University of Tasmania . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "Advertising" . The Mercury . Hobart, Tasmania. 1 January 1881. p. 4 . Retrieved 6 June 2012 – via National Library of Australia. ^ Henry, Reynolds (1971). "Australian Nationalism: Tasmanian Patriotism" (PDF) . James Cook University of North Queensland : 18– 30 . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart" . the companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ Burgess, Georgie (16 October 2018). "Did Hobart's network of coastal defences ever see any action?" . ABC News . Retrieved 3 July 2024 . ^ "Hobart - 1895" . Twain's Geography . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ Crescent, Lawson. "National Museum of Australia - Extinction of thylacine" . www.nma.gov.au . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . ^ "Second World War" . Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies . UTAS . Retrieved 3 July 2024 . ^ Lehman, Ros (25 April 2023). "Hobart streets dug up for air raid shelters as WWII threat crept further south" . ABC News . Retrieved 3 July 2024 . ^ Beavis, Laura (7 February 2017). "Black Tuesday bushfires: Two more Tasmanians officially recognised as victims of 1967 blaze" . ABC News . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 23 November 2023 . ^ Wettenhall, Roger. "Bushfires 1967" . Companion to Tasmanian History . University of Tasmania. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 . Retrieved 20 February 2022 . ^ "History information Hobart by Lonely Planet Travel Guide" . Rydges Hotels & Resorts . 19 October 2006. Archived from the original on 19 October 2006 . Retrieved 20 February 2022 . ^ "From fledgling port to tourism hub, what could be in store for Hobart's waterfront?" . ABC News . 26 November 2018. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022 . Retrieved 20 February 2022 . ^ "Threatened species" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ "Help protect our platypuses" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ a b c "The Platypus Guardian" . Hobart Rivulet Platypus . ^ "The Platypus Guardian" . ABC iview . ^ "What can I do?" . Bonorong Wildlife Sanctuary . Retrieved 4 July 2024 . ^ "Octopus Tree" . List the Mountain . 29 June 2023 . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ Cutting, Lucie (9 July 2023). "In a quirky artefact of past practice, this Anglesea Barracks blue gum was filled with concrete" . ABC News . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ Tapper, Andrew; Tapper, Nigel (1996). Gray, Kathleen (ed.). The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand (1st ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. p. 300. ISBN 0-19-553393-3 . ^ a b "Climate Data Online - Map search" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 24 January 2024 . ^ "Australia's official weather forecasts & weather radar" . Bureau of Meteorology . Archived from the original on 12 September 2017 . Retrieved 1 March 2006 . ^ "Worldwide sunrise, sunset, moonrise and moonset times for 2018 & 2019" . sunrisesunsetmap.com . Archived from the original on 31 January 2020 . Retrieved 31 January 2020 . ^ "Hobart Water Temperatures" . World Sea Temperatures . Archived from the original on 5 July 2017 . Retrieved 1 June 2017 . ^ "Climate Statistics: Hobart (Ellerslie Road 1991–2020 normals)" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 30 June 2017 . ^ "Highest Temperature - 094029" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 22 November 2017 . ^ "Lowest Temperature - 094029" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 22 November 2017 . ^ "Climate statistics: Hobart Airport" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 21 October 2017 . ^ "Climate data online (Site number: 094008)" . Bureau of Meteorology . Retrieved 28 June 2025 . ^ "Hobart, Australia - Climate data" . Weather Atlas . Archived from the original on 28 April 2022 . Retrieved 23 January 2019 . ^ "Hobart average sea temperature" . seatemperature.org . Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 September 2020 . ^ "Explore the Greater Hobart area" . Greater Hobart Trails . Retrieved 24 June 2024 . ^ "Pipeline Track" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 24 June 2024 . ^ "BRIDGE OF REMEMBRANCE" . Australian Institute of Architects . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Kangaroo Bay Parkland" . PLAYSTREET . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Princes Park" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 27 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart: Parks and Gardens" . Our Tasmania . Retrieved 24 June 2024 . ^ "Caldew 'Train' Park" . MAMAMAG . 9 October 2022 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Content-Area Vocabulary Strategies for Language Arts . Walch Publishing. 2002. p. 39. ISBN 0-82514337-3 . ^ "History Section" . Hobart Architect Blog . 2017. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020 . Retrieved 21 October 2020 . ^ Clark, J. "This Southern Outpost, Hobart 1846–1914" pp. 1 ^ "Domain House" . UTAS . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Grant, Duncan (25 January 2021). "No. 864 - New Town - St John's Anglican Church and the 'Queen's Orphan School' " . Churches of Tasmania . Retrieved 27 June 2024 . ^ Ritchie, Geoff (7 April 2013). "City Hall, Hobart" . On the Convict Trail . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "Dorney House" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "The Hedberg" . Liminal Studio . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "Stage 1 K-Block" . RHH Redevelopment . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Menzies Research Institute and Medical Science" . Lyons . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ "SALAMANCA WHARF HOTEL OPENS IN HOBART" . Tasmanian Times. 21 January 2013 . Retrieved 27 June 2024 . ^ "Movenpick Hotel" . Jaws Architects . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Solomon, RJ (1967). "SPRENT'S HOBART, circa 1845" (PDF) . Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania . 101 (5): 20 . Retrieved 4 July 2024 . ^ "Housing (Public)" . the companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Shelter" . Companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Town Planning" . the companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ a b "Rockliffe & White must commit to end Tasmania's era of public transport neglect: McKell Institute" . The McKell Institute . 27 February 2024 . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ a b Sharp, Mathew (12 March 2024). "Public Transport Patronage in Greater Hobart" . Tasmanian Times . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Activating the Northern Suburbs Transit Corridor" . Hobart City Deal . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Tasmanian Planning Scheme" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "GOULBURN STREET HOUSING" . Cumulus Studio . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ Holmes, Adam (4 March 2023). "Social housing proposal receives 31 objections as neighbours say it does not fit in the area" . ABC News . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ Rojahn, Madeleine (10 May 2024). "Hobart mayor Anna Reynolds slams council's decision to reject St Vincent de Paul's apartment building for vulnerable women" . ABC News . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ Burgess, Georgie (12 June 2024). "Hobart's low apartment rate hurting housing affordability and urban livability, experts say" . ABC News . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ Ziffer, Daniel (20 March 2024). "Potential Airbnb ban, 'no deposit' home loans and rent subsidies: Radical policies show how housing might swing elections" . ABC News . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "TRANSPORT AFFORDABILITY INDEX MARCH QUARTER 2024" (PDF) . Australian Automobile Association . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ Blackwood, Fiona (28 February 2024). "Politicians must reckon with Tasmania's slowing economy and shrinking population, experts say" . ABC News . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ Ainsworth, Kate (28 October 2021). "Hobart becomes Tasmania's first million-dollar median house price city" . ABC News . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart 2021 Census All persons QuickStats" . ABS . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "30 Year Greater Hobart Plan" (PDF) . Greater Hobart Committee . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Building more homes where people want to live" . NSW Productivity Commission . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Small Area Dwelling Completions" . ABS . 14 October 2020 . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Suburbs with Highest and Lowest Life Expectancy Revealed" . Tasmanian Times. 1 March 2021 . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ Lindell, Jasper (20 September 2022). "Urban infill offers significantly cheaper way to create new dwellings: study" . The Canberra Times . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ McGowan, Michael (28 August 2023). "Sydney sprawl costs economy $75,000 more per new home: report" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Greater Hobart's 'most affordable' suburb is Primrose Sands, but many on the southern beaches are doing it tough" . ABC News. 23 January 2023 . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ Caroll, Lucy (7 May 2024). "Revealed: Sydney's most overcrowded primary and high schools" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ "Rental Affordability Snapshot Tasmania 2024" . Anglicare TAS . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Zero emissions" . The Commons . Retrieved 21 June 2024 . ^ Mocatta, Gabi (10 May 2013). "Hip Hobart" . BBC News . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ Salmon, Gregor (13 January 2016). "Capital gains: How MONA got Hobart humming" . ABC News . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ McIntyre, Paul (3 November 2009). "The Theatre Royal celebrates 175 years" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Archived from the original on 16 January 2015 . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . ^ Shannon, Lucy (20 November 2019). "Hobart's State Cinema, once saved by Gough Whitlam, enters new era after sale to Reading" . abc.net.au . Retrieved 26 April 2022 . ^ "About" . Rewind Cinema . Retrieved 20 February 2024 . ^ Aitken, Sarah (14 April 2024). " 'The seats are wonky, it's falling apart – but people love it': is Hobart's Odeon Australia's best music venue?" . The Guardian Australia . Retrieved 20 June 2024 . ^ "History of the Lady Franklin Gallery" . The Art Society of Tasmania . Archived from the original on 1 April 2022 . Retrieved 1 April 2022 . ^ "MONA MOFO program 2011" . MONA . Archived from the original on 18 December 2020 . Retrieved 20 December 2010 . ^ "Australia's First Novelist – The Book Show" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 29 November 2011. Archived from the original on 19 February 2018 . Retrieved 3 March 2018 . ^ "Defining Moments - 1831: Australia's first novelist, Henry Savery, publishes Quintus Servinton" . National Museum Australia . 28 September 2022. Archived from the original on 19 October 2022 . Retrieved 20 October 2022 . ^ "How Hobart achieved the title of UNESCO City of Literature, and what it means for Tasmanian writers" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 7 November 2023 . Retrieved 19 August 2024 . ^ Hennessey, Kate (4 August 2021). "A day out with The Native Cats in Hobart" . NME . Retrieved 9 September 2024 . ^ "Home" . Dark Mofo . Archived from the original on 16 November 2019 . Retrieved 31 October 2019 . ^ "ABOUT SANDY BAY REGATTA" . Sandy Bay Regatta . Retrieved 20 June 2024 . ^ "Our History" . Sustainable Living Tasmania . Retrieved 28 August 2025 . ^ "What's next for us?" . Sustainable Living Tasmania . Archived from the original on 27 October 2023 . Retrieved 28 August 2025 . ^ "Tasmania granted 19th AFL team licence with 2028 slated for men's start date" . The Guardian . Australian Associated Press. 3 May 2023. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 March 2024 . ^ "Celebration as new Tassie logo, jumper and colours revealed" . afl.com.au . 18 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 March 2024 . ^ "Tasmania to bid for 2026 Commonwealth Games" . ABC News . 10 February 2022 . Retrieved 5 August 2025 . ^ "Is Tasmania out of the running to host 2026 Commonwealth Games?" . ABC News . 16 February 2022 . Retrieved 6 August 2025 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ Jupp, James (1 January 1995). "Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 20 April 2016 . Retrieved 22 June 2019 . ^ "TableBuilder" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 19 November 2021. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census All persons QuickStats" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census Community Profile" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census Community Profile" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "Country information: Australia" . LDS Church News . 15 October 2009. Archived from the original on 1 December 2018 . Retrieved 18 July 2019 . ^ "Tasmania" . Jewish Virtual Library . Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 9 November 2015 . ^ "2021 Greater Hobart, Census Community Profile" . Australian Bureau of Statistics . Archived from the original on 30 September 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2022 . ^ "Welcome" . The Baha'i Centre of Learning for Tasmania . Archived from the original on 26 February 2010 . Retrieved 2 April 2010 . ^ "Hillsong Hobart" . Hillsong Church . Archived from the original on 4 March 2022 . Retrieved 4 March 2022 . ^ "Australia's first legal casino opens at Hobart's Wrest Point - 80 Days That Changed Our Lives - ABC Archives" . www.abc.net.au . 18 June 2012 . Retrieved 22 June 2024 . ^ "Greater Hobart 2021 Census All persons QuickStats" . ABS . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Background Paper 1: Greater Hobart Area Profile" (PDF) . Greater Hobart Committee . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Why do Business in Hobart?" . Hobart City Council . Archived from the original on 16 January 2015 . Retrieved 16 January 2015 . ^ "Royal Hobart Hospital" . Decon Corporation . Archived from the original on 3 May 2023 . Retrieved 5 October 2023 . ^ Excellence in Research Australia ERA 2010 national report (Report). Australian Research Council. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. ^ Salmon, Gregor (13 January 2016). "Capital gains: How MONA got Hobart humming" . ABC News . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2022 . ^ "MONA, Hobart's 'subversive adult Disneyland', turns 10" . ABC News . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 20 January 2021. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2022 . ^ "Perth loses tourists to Brisbane, Hobart and Canberra" . The West Australian . 15 February 2017. Archived from the original on 19 April 2017 . Retrieved 18 April 2017 . ^ "Less is more as fewer tourists stay longer and spend bigger in Tassie" . ABC News . ABC News. 13 June 2022. Archived from the original on 25 June 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2022 . ^ Lilit Marcus. "Why Hobart is Australia's new capital of cool" . CNN . Archived from the original on 26 June 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2022 . ^ "Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens" . Botanic Gardens Conservation International . Archived from the original on 1 December 2018 . Retrieved 11 December 2011 . ^ "Courts and tribunals" . Justice Tasmania . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "GreenCard" . Metro Tasmania . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Podwinski, Isabella (17 January 2023). "Avoiding another major Hobart traffic jam means building a new bridge, one expert says — but are we too car dependent?" . ABC News . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Stayner, Guy (22 May 2019). "Fixing Hobart's traffic woes may come down to driving cultural change" . ABC News . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ "New Bridgewater Bridge Project" . Bridgewater Bridge . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Welcome Aboard" . Derwent Ferries . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ "Derwent River ferry trial" . Transport Services, Dept. State Growth . Tasmanian Government. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Oong, Susan (9 August 2021). "All you need to know about Hobart's new passenger ferry service" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Balen, Clancy (14 November 2023). "Hobart ferry master plan reveals six proposed sites for new terminals — including Kingston, Sandy Bay and Lindisfarne" . ABC News . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Getting here" . MONA . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Clark, Nick (9 September 2016). "Airport works under way" . The Mercury . Archived from the original on 13 September 2016 . Retrieved 9 September 2017 . ^ "Flights" . Above and Beyond . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ "Three Australian warships dock in Hobart" . Pulse Tasmania. 13 May 2023 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ "Shipbuilding" . The Companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart mayor hints at light rail in exchange for Glenorchy council merger" . Pulse Tasmania. 18 November 2023 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart needs State Government investment in transport infrastructure" . City of Hobart. 6 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Balen, Clancy (29 April 2023). "Transport options thin on the ground around Hobart's proposed AFL stadium at Macquarie Point" . ABC News . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Abandoned Hobart rail corridor to get passenger trains again under Greens' plan" . Pulse Tasmania. 10 March 2024 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Hobart accommodation" . UTAS . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "About us" . TasTAFE . Archived from the original on 9 September 2017 . Retrieved 9 September 2017 . ^ "Campuses" . TasTAFE . 22 December 2021 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Royal Hobart Hospital" . Australian Institute of Health and Welfare . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Our locations" . Health Tasmania . 13 September 2022 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Southern Regional Headquarters" . SES Tasmania . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Contact Us" . Tasmania Fire Service . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Home" . St. Helen's Private Hospital . Archived from the original on 29 January 2020 . Retrieved 29 January 2020 . ^ "Royal Hobart Hospital bracing for mental health load as St Helen's takes holiday break" . ABC News . 15 December 2017. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020 . Retrieved 29 January 2020 . ^ Blackwood, Fiona (23 June 2023). "Psychiatric patients in Tasmania fear mental health crisis as St Helen's Private Hospital closes" . ABC News . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Tasman Private Hospital development in New Town, Hobart, won't proceed due to 'cost pressures' " . ABC News. 18 August 2023 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "About Calvary St John's Hospital" . Calvary Care . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "About The Hobart Clinic" . The Hobart Clinic . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ "Dams" . The Companion to Tasmanian History . UTAS . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ "Waterworks Reserve" . City of Hobart . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ "Tolosa Dam Conversion to Parkland" . Tasmanian Times. 6 May 2022 . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ "Risdon Brook Park" . TasWater . Retrieved 23 June 2024 . ^ a b c d "Hobart's International Relationships" . Hobart City Council . Archived from the original on 23 October 2020 . Retrieved 16 November 2020 . ^ South Pacific Continental Report Annual 1998 (Report). CSRIO/AGSO - Marine and Petroleum Division. p. 23. ^ "Hobart Lord Mayor signs sister city deal with China's Xian" . ABC Online . 30 March 2015. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015 . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Further reading Bolt, Frank (2004). The Founding of Hobart 1803–1804 . Kettering, Tasmania: Peregrine Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3 . Timms, Peter (2009). In Search of Hobart . Sydney, NSW: University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-1-921410-54-3 . External links Hobart City Council Hobart Rivulet Platypus v t e Hobart landmarks v t e Buildings and structures 5–7 Sandy Bay Road Cadbury's Chocolate Factory Calvary Hospital Cascade Brewery Canopus Hill Observatory Davey Street Congregational Church General Post Office Hobart Cenotaph Holy Trinity Church Hope and Anchor Tavern Hotel Grand Chancellor Hydro-Electric Commission Building Icon Complex Iron Pot Lighthouse Incat Ingle Hall Kelly's Steps Hobart Mosque Mount Pleasant Radio Observatory NAB House Nyrstar Hobart The Old Woolstore Apartment Hotel Hobart Private Hospital Princes Wharf Queen Alexandra Hospital Railway Roundabout Royal Hobart Hospital Taroona Shot Tower St David's Cathedral St John's Anglican Church St Mary's Cathedral Hobart Synagogue Trafalgar Building 5–7 Sandy Bay Road Cadbury's Chocolate Factory Calvary Hospital Cascade Brewery Canopus Hill Observatory Davey Street Congregational Church General Post Office Hobart Cenotaph Holy Trinity Church Hope and Anchor Tavern Hotel Grand Chancellor Hydro-Electric Commission Building Icon Complex Iron Pot Lighthouse Incat Ingle Hall Kelly's Steps Hobart Mosque Mount Pleasant Radio Observatory NAB House Nyrstar Hobart The Old Woolstore Apartment Hotel Hobart Private Hospital Princes Wharf Queen Alexandra Hospital Railway Roundabout Royal Hobart Hospital Taroona Shot Tower St David's Cathedral St John's Anglican Church St Mary's Cathedral Hobart Synagogue Trafalgar Building Institutions Anglesea Barracks Australian Antarctic Division College of Arts, Law and Education Derwent Barracks Government House The Hedberg Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies Menzies Institute for Medical Research Parliament House Parliament Square State Library Supreme Court Tasmanian Conservatorium of Music Town Hall Anglesea Barracks Australian Antarctic Division College of Arts, Law and Education Derwent Barracks Government House The Hedberg Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies Menzies Institute for Medical Research Parliament House Parliament Square State Library Supreme Court Tasmanian Conservatorium of Music Town Hall Entertainment Avalon Theatre City Hall Federation Concert Hall MyState Bank Arena Odeon Theatre Royal Hobart Showground State Cinema Theatre Royal Wrest Point Hotel Casino Avalon Theatre City Hall Federation Concert Hall MyState Bank Arena Odeon Theatre Royal Hobart Showground State Cinema Theatre Royal Wrest Point Hotel Casino Galleries and museums Campbell Street Gaol Cascades Female Factory Grote Reber Museum Lady Franklin Gallery Maritime Museum Tasmania Mawson's Huts Replica Museum Moonah Arts Centre Museum of Old & New Art Salamanca Arts Centre Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery Tasmanian Transport Museum Campbell Street Gaol Cascades Female Factory Grote Reber Museum Lady Franklin Gallery Maritime Museum Tasmania Mawson's Huts Replica Museum Moonah Arts Centre Museum of Old & New Art Salamanca Arts Centre Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery Tasmanian Transport Museum Sports Baskerville Raceway Bellerive Yacht Club Clarence Aquatic Centre Derwent Sailing Squadron Domain Athletic Centre Doone Kennedy Hobart Aquatic Centre Elwick Racecourse Empire Couriers Park MyState Bank Arena Macquarie Point Stadium Hobart International Tennis Centre KGV Oval KGV Park Kingborough Sports Centre Ninja Stadium North Hobart Oval Queenborough Oval Hobart Real Tennis Club Royal Yacht Club of Tasmania Tasmanian Hockey Centre TCA Ground Wentworth Park Baskerville Raceway Bellerive Yacht Club Clarence Aquatic Centre Derwent Sailing Squadron Domain Athletic Centre Doone Kennedy Hobart Aquatic Centre Elwick Racecourse Empire Couriers Park MyState Bank Arena Macquarie Point Stadium Hobart International Tennis Centre KGV Oval KGV Park Kingborough Sports Centre Ninja Stadium North Hobart Oval Queenborough Oval Hobart Real Tennis Club Royal Yacht Club of Tasmania Tasmanian Hockey Centre TCA Ground Wentworth Park Transport Hobart Airport Bowen Bridge Bridgewater Bridge Brooke Street Pier Cambridge Aerodrome Constitution Dock Hobart Bus Mall Jordan River Bridge McGees Bridge Sorell Causeway Tasman Bridge Victoria Dock Hobart Airport Bowen Bridge Bridgewater Bridge Brooke Street Pier Cambridge Aerodrome Constitution Dock Hobart Bus Mall Jordan River Bridge McGees Bridge Sorell Causeway Tasman Bridge Victoria Dock Nature and parks Alum Cliffs Ancanthe Park Bonorong Wildlife Sanctuary Botanical Gardens East Risdon Nature Reserve Flagstaff Hill Franklin Square Glenorchy Art and Sculpture Park Gunners Quoin Hobart Rivulet Hobart Zoo and Aquarium Kunanyi / Mount Wellington Moorilla Estate Mount Direction Mount Nelson Queens Domain St David's Park Alum Cliffs Ancanthe Park Bonorong Wildlife Sanctuary Botanical Gardens East Risdon Nature Reserve Flagstaff Hill Franklin Square Glenorchy Art and Sculpture Park Gunners Quoin Hobart Rivulet Hobart Zoo and Aquarium Kunanyi / Mount Wellington Moorilla Estate Mount Direction Mount Nelson Queens Domain St David's Park Precincts Cat and Fiddle Arcade Eastlands Shopping Centre Channel Court Elizabeth Street Mall Macquarie Point Northgate Shopping Centre Salamanca Sullivans Cove Cat and Fiddle Arcade Eastlands Shopping Centre Channel Court Elizabeth Street Mall Macquarie Point Northgate Shopping Centre Salamanca Sullivans Cove Beaches and islands Bellerive Beach Betsey Island Blackmans Bay Beach Bruny Island Clifton Beach Frederick Henry Bay Hinsby Beach Howrah Beach Iron Pot Kingston Beach Lords Beach Long Beach Nutgrove Beach Taroona Beach Bellerive Beach Betsey Island Blackmans Bay Beach Bruny Island Clifton Beach Frederick Henry Bay Hinsby Beach Howrah Beach Iron Pot Kingston Beach Lords Beach Long Beach Nutgrove Beach Taroona Beach v t e Suburbs of Hobart , Tasmania v t e City of Hobart Battery Point Cascades CBD Cornelian Bay Dynnyrne Fern Tree Glebe Lenah Valley Mount Nelson Mount Stuart New Town North Hobart Ridgeway Sandy Bay South Hobart Tolmans Hill West Hobart Battery Point Cascades CBD Cornelian Bay Dynnyrne Fern Tree Glebe Lenah Valley Mount Nelson Mount Stuart New Town North Hobart Ridgeway Sandy Bay South Hobart Tolmans Hill West Hobart City of Glenorchy Austins Ferry Berriedale Chigwell Claremont Collinsvale Derwent Park Dowsing Point Glenlusk Glenorchy Goodwood Granton Lutana Montrose Moonah Rosetta West Moonah Austins Ferry Berriedale Chigwell Claremont Collinsvale Derwent Park Dowsing Point Glenlusk Glenorchy Goodwood Granton Lutana Montrose Moonah Rosetta West Moonah City of Clarence Acton Park Bellerive Cambridge Clarendon Vale Clifton Beach Cremorne Flagstaff Gully Geilston Bay Howrah Lauderdale Lindisfarne Montagu Bay Mornington Mount Rumney Oakdowns Opossum Bay Otago Risdon Risdon Vale Roches Beach Rokeby Rose Bay Rosny Rosny Park Sandford Seven Mile Beach South Arm Tranmere Warrane Acton Park Bellerive Cambridge Clarendon Vale Clifton Beach Cremorne Flagstaff Gully Geilston Bay Howrah Lauderdale Lindisfarne Montagu Bay Mornington Mount Rumney Oakdowns Opossum Bay Otago Risdon Risdon Vale Roches Beach Rokeby Rose Bay Rosny Rosny Park Sandford Seven Mile Beach South Arm Tranmere Warrane Kingborough Council Barretta Blackmans Bay Bonnet Hill Coningham Electrona Howden Huntingfield Kingston Kingston Beach Lower Snug Maranoa Heights Margate Snug Taroona Tinderbox Barretta Blackmans Bay Bonnet Hill Coningham Electrona Howden Huntingfield Kingston Kingston Beach Lower Snug Maranoa Heights Margate Snug Taroona Tinderbox Brighton Council Bridgewater Brighton Gagebrook Green Point Old Beach Bridgewater Brighton Gagebrook Green Point Old Beach Sorell Council Dodges Ferry Midway Point Penna Sorell Dodges Ferry Midway Point Penna Sorell Derwent Valley Council New Norfolk New Norfolk v t e Capital cities of Australia v t e National and ACT Canberra NSW Sydney NT Darwin QLD Brisbane SA Adelaide TAS Hobart VIC Melbourne WA Perth National and ACT Canberra National and ACT Canberra NSW Sydney NSW Sydney NT Darwin NT Darwin QLD Brisbane QLD Brisbane SA Adelaide SA Adelaide TAS Hobart TAS Hobart VIC Melbourne VIC Melbourne WA Perth WA Perth List of cities in Australia v t e Cities of Australia v t e Australian Capital Territory Canberra (national capital) New South Wales Albury Armidale Bathurst Broken Hill Central Coast Cessnock Coffs Harbour Dubbo Goulburn Grafton Griffith Lake Macquarie Lismore Lithgow Maitland Newcastle Orange Port Macquarie Queanbeyan Sydney Tamworth Wagga Wagga Wollongong Albury Armidale Bathurst Broken Hill Central Coast Cessnock Coffs Harbour Dubbo Goulburn Grafton Griffith Lake Macquarie Lismore Lithgow Maitland Newcastle Orange Port Macquarie Queanbeyan Sydney Tamworth Wagga Wagga Wollongong Northern Territory Alice Springs Darwin Palmerston Alice Springs Darwin Palmerston Queensland Brisbane Bundaberg Cairns Caloundra Gladstone Gold Coast Gympie Hervey Bay Ipswich Mackay Maryborough Mount Isa Rockhampton Sunshine Coast Toowoomba Townsville Brisbane Bundaberg Cairns Caloundra Gladstone Gold Coast Gympie Hervey Bay Ipswich Mackay Maryborough Mount Isa Rockhampton Sunshine Coast Toowoomba Townsville South Australia Adelaide Mount Gambier Murray Bridge Port Augusta Port Lincoln Port Pirie Victor Harbor Whyalla Adelaide Mount Gambier Murray Bridge Port Augusta Port Lincoln Port Pirie Victor Harbor Whyalla Tasmania Burnie Devonport Hobart Launceston Burnie Devonport Hobart Launceston Victoria Ararat Bairnsdale Ballarat Benalla Bendigo Castlemaine Colac Geelong Hamilton Horsham Melbourne Mildura Moe Morwell Portland Sale Seymour Shepparton Stawell Swan Hill Traralgon Wangaratta Warragul Warrnambool Wodonga Ararat Bairnsdale Ballarat Benalla Bendigo Castlemaine Colac Geelong Hamilton Horsham Melbourne Mildura Moe Morwell Portland Sale Seymour Shepparton Stawell Swan Hill Traralgon Wangaratta Warragul Warrnambool Wodonga Western Australia Albany Bunbury Busselton Geraldton Kalgoorlie–Boulder Mandurah Perth Albany Bunbury Busselton Geraldton Kalgoorlie–Boulder Mandurah Perth v t e Southern region of Tasmania , Australia v t e Settlements Hobart List of Hobart suburbs Adventure Bay Alonnah Barnes Bay Castle Forbes Bay Cockle Creek Cygnet Dennes Point Dover Electrona Franklin Geeveston Glen Huon Grove Howden Huonville Kellevie Kettering Lunawanna Magra Margate Mountain River New Norfolk Oyster Cove Ranelagh Sandfly Snug Southport Westerway Woodbridge Hobart List of Hobart suburbs Adventure Bay Alonnah Barnes Bay Castle Forbes Bay Cockle Creek Cygnet Dennes Point Dover Electrona Franklin Geeveston Glen Huon Grove Howden Huonville Kellevie Kettering Lunawanna Magra Margate Mountain River New Norfolk Oyster Cove Ranelagh Sandfly Snug Southport Westerway Woodbridge Governance Clark (federal) Franklin (federal) Clark (state) Franklin (state) Huon Valley Council Kingborough Council Buckingham Elwick Huon Nelson Pembroke Rumney Clark (federal) Franklin (federal) Clark (state) Franklin (state) Huon Valley Council Kingborough Council Buckingham Elwick Huon Nelson Pembroke Rumney Mountains Arthur Range Federation Peak Hartz Meehan Flagstaff Hill Gunners Quoin Mount Direction Wellington kriwalayti / Mount Nelson kunanyi / Wellington Arthur Range Federation Peak Federation Peak Hartz Meehan Flagstaff Hill Gunners Quoin Mount Direction Flagstaff Hill Gunners Quoin Mount Direction Wellington kriwalayti / Mount Nelson kunanyi / Wellington kriwalayti / Mount Nelson kunanyi / Wellington Protected areas, parks and reserves East Risdon State Reserve Hartz Mountains National Park Hastings Caves State Reserve Port Cygnet Conservation Area South Bruny National Park South-east Tasmania Important Bird Area Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area East Risdon State Reserve Hartz Mountains National Park Hastings Caves State Reserve Port Cygnet Conservation Area South Bruny National Park South-east Tasmania Important Bird Area Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area Rivers Arve Derwent Garden Island Creek Huon Styx Arve Derwent Garden Island Creek Huon Styx Harbours, bays, inlets and estuaries Adventure Bay Barnes Bay Cloudy Bay D'Entrecasteaux Channel North-West Bay Pitt Water Recherche Bay Storm Bay Adventure Bay Barnes Bay Cloudy Bay D'Entrecasteaux Channel North-West Bay Pitt Water Recherche Bay Storm Bay Coastal features South Coast South East Cape South Coast South East Cape Transport Bruny Island Ferry Channel Highway Ida Bay Railway Sandfly Colliery Tramway South Line Westerway railway station Bruny Island Ferry Channel Highway Ida Bay Railway Sandfly Colliery Tramway South Line Westerway railway station Landmarks Natural Coal River Valley Derwent Valley Huon Valley Styx Valley Upper Florentine Valley Weld Valley Man-made Buckland Military Training Area Cape Bruny Lighthouse South Coast Track Tahune AirWalk Natural Coal River Valley Derwent Valley Huon Valley Styx Valley Upper Florentine Valley Weld Valley Coal River Valley Derwent Valley Huon Valley Styx Valley Upper Florentine Valley Weld Valley Man-made Buckland Military Training Area Cape Bruny Lighthouse South Coast Track Tahune AirWalk Buckland Military Training Area Cape Bruny Lighthouse South Coast Track Tahune AirWalk Islands Boomer Bruny Eddystone Egg Friars Garden Green Hope Images Nuggets Partridge Pedra Branca Picnic Satellite Boomer Bruny Eddystone Egg Friars Garden Green Hope Images Nuggets Partridge Pedra Branca Picnic Satellite Books and newspapers Tasmania's offshore islands The Mercury Tasmania's offshore islands The Mercury Flora, fauna, and fishlife Centurion Triarius Centurion Triarius Bioregions South East (bioregion) Southern Ranges (bioregion) South East (bioregion) Southern Ranges (bioregion) Indigenous heritage Bruny Island language Truganini Bruny Island language Truganini Other Cygnet Folk Festival Cygnet Folk Festival Category Category v t e Tasmania v t e General Ecology Economy Education Energy Flag Geography Geology Government History Local Government Parliament Police Politics Rail transport Sport Symbols List of Tasmanians Ecology Economy Education Energy Flag Geography Geology Government History Local Government Parliament Police Politics Rail transport Sport Symbols List of Tasmanians Regions Central Highlands East Coast Midlands North East North West South East South West West Coast Central Highlands East Coast Midlands North East North West South East South West West Coast Cities Burnie Devonport Hobart Launceston Burnie Devonport Hobart Launceston Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST WorldCat VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Latvia Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Latvia Israel Geographic MusicBrainz area MusicBrainz area Other IdRef NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX IdRef NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX Hobart 1803 establishments in Australia Australian capital cities Cities in Tasmania Coastal cities in Australia Populated places established in 1803 Populated places on the River Derwent Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments Pages using the Phonos extension Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use Australian English from April 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Use dmy dates from August 2020 Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Southeast Tasmanian-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Coordinates on Wikidata Pages including recorded pronunciations All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from October 2022 Vague or ambiguous time from April 2023 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2009 Commons link from Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 13:24 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-445
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} From top to bottom, left to right: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64. ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-3945-8530-7 ^ Ben-Horin 1943 , p. 169; Taylor 1979 , p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies , p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way . Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 978-0-7641-1973-6 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same " European Civil War " or " Second Thirty Years' War ": Canfora 2006 , p. 155; Prins 2002 , p. 11. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10. ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' " . Fresh Air . NPR. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War" . The International History Review . 9 (3): 368– 409. doi : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 . JSTOR 40105814 . Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4. ^ "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany" . usa.usembassy.de. 12 September 1990. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . ^ "Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty" . Asia Times . Reuters. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. ^ "Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol" . The New York Times . 20 October 1956. p. 2. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". "The state of war between the USSR and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...] ^ Mintz, Steven. "Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I" . The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Gerwarth, Robert (21 January 2019). "Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021 . ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76–78 . ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149. ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35. ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4. ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62. ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96; Record 2005 , p. 50. ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124. ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 298–299. ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104. ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458. ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28. ^ Coogan 1993 : "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131–132. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 289. ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231. ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 25. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146. ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547–551. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195–200. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9672-5 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ^ Dorn, Frank (1974). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 . Macmillan. ^ a b Wakabayashi, Bob (2007). The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture . Berghahn Books. p. 384. ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–224 ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–299. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221–230. ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566. ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150–152. ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651–687. ^ Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Paine, Sarah. The Wars for Asia . Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342. ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Neeno, Timothy. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War" . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121–122. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157. ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.). ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 461–462. ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 471. ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695– 722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . JSTOR 153322 . S2CID 144385167 . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608. ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)" . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis" . ww2db.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ "Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"!" . PolskieRadio.pl (in Polish) . Retrieved 18 March 2025 . ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1–2. ^ Zabecki, David T. (2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-1358-1242-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2019 . The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35. Cienciala 2010 , p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248–249; Roskill 1954 , p. 64. ^ "Battle of the Atlantic" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Archived from the original on 20 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80, 83. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law . 52 (1): 69– 84. doi : 10.2307/2195670 . JSTOR 2195670 . S2CID 146904066 . ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24. ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88–89. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39–40. ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.). ^ Deighton, Len (1979). Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk . Jonathan Cape. pp. 186– 187. ISBN 978-0-2240-1648-3 . Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place." ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24. ^ a b Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55–56. ^ Spring 1986 , pp. 207–226. ^ van Dyke, Carl (1997). The Soviet Invasion of Finland . Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7146-4753-1 . ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745, 975. ^ Haynes, Rebecca (2000). Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 205. ISBN 978-0-3122-3260-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 February 2022 . ^ Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327 ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367, 376, 379, 417. ^ Snyder 2010 , pp. 118ff. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSnyder2010 ( help ) ^ Koch 1983 , pp. 912–914, 917–920. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57–63. ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9. ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122–123. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59–60. ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152. ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66–67. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207. ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311. ^ Brown 2004 , p. 198. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ a b Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108–109. ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328–330. ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52. ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390. ^ a b "Major international events of 1940, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain" . US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations . Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745–746. ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986 , pp. 4–6 ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9–10. ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106. ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7–8. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263–276. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 174–175. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 184–187. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 208, 575, 604. ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80. ^ Morrisey, Will (2019). "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War". Winston Churchill . Routledge. pp. 119– 126. doi : 10.4324/9780429027642-6 . ISBN 978-0-4290-2764-2 . S2CID 189257503 . ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195. ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Förster 1998 , p. 26. ^ Förster 1998 , pp. 38–42. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 810–812. ^ a b Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 267–312 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Sella 1978 , p. 555. ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66–69. ^ Steinberg 1995 . ^ Hauner 1978 . ^ Roberts 1995 . ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. pp. 176– 180. ^ Wilt 1981 . ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114–137. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9. ^ Farrell 1993 . ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220. ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425. ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227. ^ Milward 1964 . ^ Rotundo 1986 . ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26. ^ Deighton, Len (1993). Blood, Tears and Folly . London: Pimlico. p. 479 . ISBN 978-0-7126-6226-0 . ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41–42; Evans 2008 , pp. 213–214, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941" . U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87– 97. 1983. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War . History Today. December 2000 ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289. ^ Frank 2020 , p. 161. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFrank2020 ( help ) ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224. ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33. ^ "Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 45– 66. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201. ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456. ^ Coox, Alvin (1985). Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1046– 1049. ISBN 978-0-8047-1835-6 . ^ a b "The decision for War" . US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 113– 127. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ a b "The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63– 96. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 399–414. ^ Kitano, Ryuichi (6 December 2021). "Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack" . The Asahi Shimbun . Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 8 June 2022 . ^ Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō . p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 417–420. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 418. ^ Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan . University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 29, 35. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5 . Archived from the original on 15 March 2024 . Retrieved 15 January 2024 . ^ Bix 2000 , p. 424. ^ The United States Replies Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack. ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure." ^ Wood 2007 , p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11–12. ^ a b Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341–343. ^ Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War . New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-0-3995-0434-1 ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157. According to May 1955 , p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front." ^ Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource. ^ Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. p. 310 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313–314. ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 904. ^ "The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97– 119. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266– 292. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18– 42. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126– 145. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247–267, 345. ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 (Table 11). ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71–74. ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158. ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145. ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111–112. ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186. ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28. ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19. ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot. p. 259 . ISBN 978-1-5922-8027-8 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2019 . Retrieved 26 June 2019 . ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111. ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31. ^ Read 2004 , p. 764. ^ Bellamy, Chris (2008). Absolute War . ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 (2008 ed.). ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239–265. ^ Black 2003 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383–391. ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142. ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224–228. ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91. ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380–381. ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178. ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129. ^ Neillands 2005 , p. 60. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277. ^ Smith 2002 . ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8. ^ a b c d Ross 1997 , p. 38. ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24. ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11. ^ "The Civilians" Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119–120. ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164. ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610. ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228. ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149–159. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32. ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35. ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90. ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50–55. ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362. ^ Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151. ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52. ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129. ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335–336. ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211, 235, 267–268. ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154. ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286. ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268–274. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660–661. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327–366. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367–414. ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122. ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169–184; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568–573. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500–502). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ), Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10–11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224. ^ a b Zeiler 2004 , p. 60. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555–560. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163. ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85. ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406–407: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war." ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695. ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562. ^ Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II." ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944" . Museum of the Slovak National Uprising . Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" . US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653. ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65–66. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 . Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 978-9-0411-0584-4 . ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 1085. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8. ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54. ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305. ^ Parker 2004 , pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330 ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709–722. ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 793–829. ^ Shepardson 1998 ^ Glass, Andrew (12 April 2016). "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945" . Politico . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244. ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737. ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24. ^ Selby, Scott A. (28 July 2021). The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It . Scott Andrew Selby. p. 8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7102-0718-0 . ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy" . Wired . Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57. ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" . U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . ^ Zuberi, Matin (August 2001). "Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Strategic Analysis . 25 (5): 623– 662. doi : 10.1080/09700160108458986 . S2CID 154800868 . ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90. ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201. ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203–204. ^ Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". International Security , Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179. ^ Glantz 2005 . ^ Pape 1993 "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.". ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 525–526. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 526–528. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776. ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96–100. ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41–66. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality" . Geographia Polonica . 88 (1): 77– 105. doi : 10.7163/GPol.0007 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 (PDF) . Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 978-1-5361-1035-7 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015. ^ a b Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) (PDF) . Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8-3615-9046-0 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background" . Geographia Polonica . 85 (1): 5– 21. doi : 10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794. ^ Kennedy-Pipe 1995 . ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20–21. ^ Senn 2007 , p. ?. ^ "Italy since 1945" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 October 2023 . ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39. ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2022 . ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here [1] Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ The UN Security Council . Archived from the original on 20 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2012 . ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6. ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33. ^ Applebaum 2012 . ^ Naimark 2010 . ^ Swain 1992 . ^ "Greek Civil War" . Encyclopedia Britannica . 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2023 . ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318. ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911. ^ Stueck 2010 , p. 71. ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12–13. ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589. ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441–443, 464–68. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34–55. ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207. ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263. ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208–209. ^ "The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944" . United States Department of State. 7 January 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 April 2022 . ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190–191 ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212. ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29–30, 32 ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20–21 ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23. ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117. ^ Schain 2001 . ^ Emadi-Coffin 2002 , p. 64. ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32. ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945 . Wiley. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-1188-9024-0 . ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-9631-8643-0 . ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 1. ^ Hastings 2011 , pp. 669–670. ^ Aubin, Bernard & Guillerat 2019 , p. 147. ^ Hanson 2017 , p. 470. ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 468. ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204. ^ Herf 2003 . ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology (2005). "Victims" . A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Archived from the original on 16 May 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ a b Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45–52. ^ Snyder, Timothy (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality" . The New York Review of Books . 56 (12). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others" . BBC . April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . ^ Hastings 2011 , p. 465. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158–160, 234–236. ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators" . Review of Croatian History . VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 117. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 October 2015 . ^ Massacre, Volhynia. "The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres" . Volhynia Massacre . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947" . dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 . Retrieved 10 March 2018 . ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . W.W. Norton & CO. p. 296. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . p. 381. ^ Hastings, Max (2012). Inferno . Vintage. p. 670. ^ Frank, Richard (2020). Tower of Skulls . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 576. ^ Dower, John (1999). Embracing Defeat . W.W. Norton and Company. ^ Mitter 2013 , pp. 5, 381. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMitter2013 ( help ) ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 163. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 367. ^ Hastings, Max (2007). Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–1945 . London. p. 13. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 472. ^ Hanson, Victor (2017). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won . Basic Books. p. 498. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . p. 296. ^ Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide . Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-3678-6706-5 . ^ Gold, Hal (1996). Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle. pp. 75– 77. ISBN 978-0-8048-3565-7 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320. ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74. ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69. ^ "Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence" . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011. ^ Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf, ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6 p. 391 ^ Women and War . ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. ISBN 978-1-8510-9770-8 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2023 . ^ Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs . 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914– 916. ^ Naimark, Norman (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 . Cambridge: Belknap. p. 70. ^ Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Kiel. 1999. ^ Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025 ^ Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-8454-5844-7 . ^ Dower, John (2007). "Lessons from Iwo Jima" . Perspectives . 45 (6): 54– 56. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568–569. ^ a b Marek, Michael (27 October 2005). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers" . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . ^ Pearson, Alexander (19 March 2018). "Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2023 . Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. ^ J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–1049 ^ Applebaum 2003 , pp. 389–396. ^ Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" . American Experience: the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online. Archived from the original on 27 July 2003 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2–3. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War" . Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" . Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on 30 October 2004 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148. ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232. ^ Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 "Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000" . ^ Cooke, Philip; Shepherd, Ben H. (31 January 2020). European Resistance in the Second World War . Pen and Sword. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4738-3162-9 . From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5. ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107. ^ a b Rahn 2001 , p. 266. ^ Leith, C. K. (July 1939). "The Struggle for Mineral Resources" . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 204, Democracy and the Americas: 42– 48. JSTOR 1021443 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...]. ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2. ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . Diane Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-5856-6069-8 . ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26. ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration . United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 978-9-2110-9147-2 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76. ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227. ^ Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247–251. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-8450-9079-1 . ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4027-3099-3 . ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25. ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14. ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16. ^ Burns, R. W. (September 1994). "Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943" . IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology . 141 (5): 343– 355. doi : 10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group . p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7106-0123-0 . ^ "The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War" . Imperial War Museums . Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Castaldi, Carolina; Fontana, Roberto; Nuvolari, Alessandro (1 August 2009). " 'Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945" . Journal of Evolutionary Economics . 19 (4): 545– 566. doi : 10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 . hdl : 10419/89322 . ISSN 1432-1386 . S2CID 36789517 . ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734. ^ a b Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF) . controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War I" . History Department at the University of San Diego. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times . London. p. 27. Gale IF0504159516 . ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ "The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II" . New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "World War – II" . Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation . Archived from the original on 11 July 2022 . Retrieved 17 September 2022 . ^ Gaynes, Robert (May 2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 23 (5): 849– 853. Bibcode : 2017EIDis..23..849G . doi : 10.3201/eid2305.161556 . PMC 5403050 . Sources Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (1992). The Making of the Second World War . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90716-3 . Anderson, Irvine H. Jr. (1975). "The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review . 44 (2): 201– 231. doi : 10.2307/3638003 . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9322-6 . ——— (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9868-9 . Aubin, Nicolas; Bernard, Vincent; Guillerat, Nicolas (2019). Lopez, Jean (ed.). World War II Infographics . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02292-4 . Bacon, Edwin (1992). " Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II". Soviet Studies . 44 (6): 1069– 1086. doi : 10.1080/09668139208412066 . JSTOR 152330 . Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-0-85045-921-0 . Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press . Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Ronald Grigor Suny (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia – The Twentieth Century . Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 217– 242. ISBN 978-0-521-81144-6 . Barker, A. J. (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York: Ballantine Books . ISBN 978-0-345-02462-6 . Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad . New York: Viking . ISBN 978-0-670-87095-0 . ——— (2012). The Second World War . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978-0-297-84497-6 . Belco, Victoria (2010). War, Massacre, and Recovery in Central Italy: 1943–1948 . Toronto: University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978-0-8020-9314-1 . Bellamy, Chris T. (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4 . Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History . New York: W. W. Norton. Berend, Ivan T. (1996). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-55066-6 . Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2 . Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . ISBN 978-0-7656-1821-4 . Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood . ISBN 978-0-275-96363-7 . Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York: HarperCollins . ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0 . Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-30534-1 . Blinkhorn, Martin (2006) [1984]. Mussolini and Fascist Italy (3rd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26206-4 . Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0870-7 . Borstelmann, Thomas (2005). "The United States, the Cold War, and the colour line". In Melvyn P. Leffler; David S. Painter (eds.). Origins of the Cold War: An International History (2nd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . pp. 317– 332. ISBN 978-0-415-34109-7 . Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313– 314. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Brayley, Martin J. (2002). The British Army 1939–45, Volume 3: The Far East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-238-8 . British Bombing Survey Unit (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945 . London & Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7146-4722-7 . Brody, J. Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7658-0622-2 . Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5461-4 . Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000 . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-0-631-22162-3 . Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce ; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-02546-1 . Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James L. (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress . Polity . ISBN 978-0-7456-1298-0 . Bullock, Alan (1990) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0 . Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). "Concepts in Submarine Design" . Journal of Applied Mechanics . 62 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press : 268. Bibcode : 1995JAM....62R.268B . doi : 10.1115/1.2895927 . ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3 . Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97733-7 . Canfora, Luciano (2006) [2004]. Democracy in Europe: A History . Oxford & Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-1-4051-1131-7 . Cantril, Hadley (1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". Public Opinion Quarterly . 4 (3): 387– 407. doi : 10.1086/265420 . JSTOR 2745078 . Chang, Iris (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . New York: Basic Books . ISBN 978-0-465-06835-7 . Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation . New York: Fordham University Press . ISBN 978-0-8232-2562-0 . Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras . London & New York: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-1350-5 . Ch'i, Hsi-Sheng (1992). "The Military Dimension, 1942–1945". In James C. Hsiung; Steven I. Levine (eds.). China's Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 157– 184. ISBN 978-1-56324-246-5 . Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review . 55 (1): 123– 143. doi : 10.2307/25779864 . JSTOR 25779864 . S2CID 159445902 . Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80872-9 . Coble, Parks M. (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-23268-6 . Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-539-6 . Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45 . Oxford: Heinemann . ISBN 978-0-435-32721-7 . Commager, Henry Steele (2004). The Story of the Second World War . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-741-9 . Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" . History Today . 43 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History . London: UCL Press . ISBN 978-1-85728-532-1 . Cowley, Robert ; Parker, Geoffrey , eds. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company . ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9 . Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-101022-9 . Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory . London: Macmillan . ix+544 pages . ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1 . OCLC 70401618 . Dear, I. C. B. ; Foot, M. R. D. , eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4 . DeLong, J. Bradford ; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 189– 230. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN 978-0-394-50030-0 . Drea, Edward J. (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978-0-8032-6638-4 . de Grazia, Victoria; Paggi, Leonardo (Autumn 1991). "Story of an Ordinary Massacre: Civitella della Chiana, 29 June, 1944". Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature . 3 (2): 153– 169. doi : 10.1525/lal.1991.3.2.02a00030 . JSTOR 743479 . Dunn, Dennis J. (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow . Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2023-2 . Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945". In John K. Fairbank; Denis Twitchett (eds.). The Cambridge History of China – Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2 . Vol. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-24338-4 . Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1151– 1172. doi : 10.1080/0966813022000017177 . JSTOR 826310 . S2CID 43510161 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Copy ———; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 46 (4): 671– 680. doi : 10.1080/09668139408412190 . JSTOR 152934 . PMID 12288331 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9 . Erickson, John (2001). "Moskalenko". In Shukman, Harold (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 137– 154. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . ——— (2003). The Road to Stalingrad . London: Cassell Military . ISBN 978-0-304-36541-8 . Evans, David C.; Peattie, Mark R. (2012) [1997]. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978-1-59114-244-7 . Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . Fairbank, John King ; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1994]. China: A New History (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-01828-0 . Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". Journal of Military History . 57 (4): 599– 625. doi : 10.2307/2944096 . JSTOR 2944096 . Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6 . Forrest, Glen; Evans, Anthony; Gibbons, David (2012). The Illustrated Timeline of Military History . New York: Rosen. ISBN 978-1-4488-4794-5 . Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Hitler's Decision in Favour of War". In Horst Boog; Jürgen Förster; Joachim Hoffmann; Ernst Klink; Rolf-Dieter Muller; Gerd R. Ueberschar (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Attack on the Soviet Union . Vol. IV. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 13– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-822886-8 . Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide" . In Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (eds.). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 53– 68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . Frank, Richard B. (2020). Tower of Skulls: A History of The Asia-Pacific War July 1937-May 1942 . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-324-00210-9 . Frei, Norbert (2002). Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11882-8 . Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K., eds. (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945 . London: Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978-0-85177-953-9 . Garver, John W. (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-505432-3 . Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9 . Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" . Combined Arms Research Library . CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ——— (1989). Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War . Abingdon & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3 . ——— (1998). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-0899-7 . ——— (2001). "The Soviet-German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. ——— (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1208-6 . ——— (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" . Combined Arms Research Library . Leavenworth Papers. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 78918907 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Goldstein, Margaret J. (2004). World War II: Europe . Minneapolis: Lerner Publications . ISBN 978-0-8225-0139-8 . Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched" . In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . pp. 127–144 . ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6 . Gordon, Robert S. C. (2012). The Holocaust in Italian Culture, 1944–2010 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-6346-2 . Grove, Eric J. (1995). "A Service Vindicated, 1939–1946". In J. R. Hill (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy . Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 348– 380. ISBN 978-0-19-211675-8 . Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-3756-2 . Hanhimäki, Jussi M. (1997). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press . ISBN 978-0-87338-558-9 . Harris, Sheldon H. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-93214-1 . Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World War II: an overview". In Mark Harrison (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 42. ISBN 978-0-521-62046-8 . Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-1-86227-073-2 . Hastings, Max (2011). All Hell Let Loose: the World at War 1939-1945 . London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780-00-733809-2 . Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (1): 15– 32. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300102 . JSTOR 260090 . S2CID 154865385 . Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns in the East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0 . Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4 . Hempel, Andrew (2005). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History . New York: Hippocrene Books . ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3 . Herbert, Ulrich (1994). "Labor as spoils of conquest, 1933–1945". In David F. Crew (ed.). Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 219–273 . ISBN 978-0-415-08239-6 . Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History . 4 (4): 913– 930. doi : 10.1353/kri.2003.0059 . S2CID 159958616 . Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5711-0 . Holland, James (2008). Italy's Sorrow: A Year of War 1944–45 . London: HarperPress . ISBN 978-0-00-717645-8 . Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union . Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5 . Howard, Joshua H. (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-4896-4 . Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210 . OCLC 12828898 . Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman ; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought . New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 76–78 . ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4 . Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-69580-1 . Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War . London & New York: Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 978-1-85285-417-1 . Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2339-4 . Jowett, Philip S. (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45, Volume 2: Africa 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-865-5 . ———; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-353-8 . Jukes, Geoffrey (2001). "Kuznetzov". In Harold Shukman (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 109– 116. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . Kantowicz, Edward R. (1999). The Rage of Nations . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4455-2 . ——— (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9 . Keeble, Curtis (1990). "The historical perspective". In Alex Pravda; Peter J. Duncan (eds.). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-37494-1 . Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-7348-8 . Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1 . Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 . Manchester: Manchester University Press . ISBN 978-0-7190-4201-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04994-7 . ——— (2007). Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5 . Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-913417-5 . Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues . 9 (1): 13– 361. JSTOR 40604127 . Kleinfeld, Gerald R. (1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs . 47 (3): 122– 128. doi : 10.2307/1988082 . JSTOR 1988082 . Koch, H. W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa' ". The Historical Journal . 26 (4): 891– 920. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00012747 . JSTOR 2639289 . S2CID 159671713 . Kolko, Gabriel (1990) [1968]. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945 . New York: Random House . ISBN 978-0-679-72757-6 . Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6 . Lee, En-han (2002). "The Nanking Massacre Reassessed: A Study of the Sino-Japanese Controversy over the Factual Number of Massacred Victims". In Robert Sabella; Fei Fei Li; David Liu (eds.). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 47– 74. ISBN 978-0-7656-0816-1 . Leffler, Melvyn P. ; Westad, Odd Arne , eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-83938-9 , in 3 volumes. Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6 . Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses" . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines . Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office . LCCN 53-63678 . Archived from the original on 8 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 October 2009 . Liberman, Peter (1996). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-02986-3 . Liddell Hart, Basil (1977). History of the Second World War (4th ed.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23770-3 . Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-22404-8 . Lindberg, Michael; Todd, Daniel (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-96486-3 . Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26681-9 . Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3 . Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-0437-3 . Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2241-4 . Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . Cambridge University Press . p. 96 . ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6 . Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-882-3 . Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese Relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987 . Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications . ISBN 978-0-87727-122-2 . May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review . 24 (2): 153– 174. doi : 10.2307/3634575 . JSTOR 3634575 . Mazower, Mark (2008). Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-1-59420-188-2 . Milner, Marc (1990). "The Battle of the Atlantic". In Gooch, John (ed.). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War . Abingdon: Frank Cass . pp. 45– 66. ISBN 978-0-7146-3369-5 . Milward, A. S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review . 16 (3): 499– 518. JSTOR 2592851 . ——— (1992) [1977]. War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 . Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1 . Minford, Patrick (1993). "Reconstruction and the UK Postwar Welfare State: False Start and New Beginning". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 115– 138. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-4346-4 . Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8 . Mitcham, Samuel W. (2007) [1982]. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3413-4 . Mitter, Rana (2014). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 . Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-544-33450-2 . Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84603-006-2 . Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933–1945 . Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama: Air University Press . ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ———; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-00680-5 . Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-10222-1 . Naimark, Norman (2010). "The Sovietization of Eastern Europe, 1944–1953". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 175– 197. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Neary, Ian (1992). "Japan". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 49– 70. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press . ISBN 978-0-253-34781-7 . Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe – Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939–1945 . Ramsbury, Marlborough, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press. ISBN 978-1-86126-799-3 . Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0 . Overy, Richard (1994). War and Economy in the Third Reich . New York: Clarendon Press . ISBN 978-0-19-820290-5 . ——— (1995). Why the Allies Won . London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7453-9 . ——— (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4 . ———; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7 . O'Reilly, Charles T. (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945 . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books . ISBN 978-0-7391-0195-7 . Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" . The Journal of American History . 99 (1): 24– 39. doi : 10.1093/jahist/jas073 . Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea: Submarine Conflict During World War II . New York: John Wiley . ISBN 978-0-471-24945-0 . Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security . 18 (2): 154– 201. doi : 10.2307/2539100 . JSTOR 2539100 . S2CID 153741180 . Parker, Danny S. (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945 (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press . ISBN 978-0-306-81391-7 . Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4 . Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1 . Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and Conquest: Allied Occupation Currencies in World War II . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-0530-1 . Polley, Martin (2000). An A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4 . Portelli, Alessandro (2003). The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome . Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-1-4039-8008-3 . Preston, P. W. (1998). Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978-0-631-20238-7 . Prins, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-36960-2 . Radtke, K. W. (1997). " 'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933–7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 100– 120. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6 . Rahn, Werner (2001). "The War in the Pacific". In Horst Boog; Werner Rahn; Reinhard Stumpf; Bernd Wegner (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Global War . Vol. VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 191– 298. ISBN 978-0-19-822888-2 . Ratcliff, R. A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra, and the End of Secure Ciphers . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85522-8 . Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04800-1 . Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (2002) [1992]. The Fall Of Berlin . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-0695-0 . Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF) . Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Rees, Laurence (2008). World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . London: BBC Books . ISBN 978-0-563-49335-8 . Regan, Geoffrey (2004). The Brassey's Book of Military Blunders . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-252-0 . Reinhardt, Klaus (1992). Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 . Oxford: Berg . ISBN 978-0-85496-695-0 . Reynolds, David (2006). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 . Rich, Norman (1992) [1973]. Hitler's War Aims, Volume I: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00802-9 . Ritchie, Ella (1992). "France". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 23– 48. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Roberts, Cynthia A. (1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies . 47 (8): 1293– 1326. doi : 10.1080/09668139508412322 . JSTOR 153299 . Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7 . Roberts, J. M. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3 . Ropp, Theodore (2000). War in the Modern World (Revised ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-6445-2 . Roskill, S. W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive . History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO . Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Ross, Steven T. (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-7146-4634-3 . Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0 . Rotundo, Louis (1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs . 50 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.2307/1988530 . JSTOR 1988530 . Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific . Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-049-5 . Schain, Martin A., ed. (2001). The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . London: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-0-333-92983-4 . Schmitz, David F. (2000). Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-8420-2632-1 . Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-05988-7 . Sella, Amnon (1978). " "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (3): 555– 583. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300308 . JSTOR 260209 . S2CID 220880174 . ——— (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History . 18 (4): 651– 687. JSTOR 260307 . Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above . Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi . ISBN 978-9-0420-2225-6 . Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II: Day by Day . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0939-1 . Shepardson, Donald E. (1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". Journal of Military History . 62 (1): 135– 154. doi : 10.2307/120398 . JSTOR 120398 . Shirer, William L. (1990) [1960]. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978-0-671-72868-7 . Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-518261-3 . Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory . London: Cassell. Smith, Alan (1993). Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-08924-1 . Smith, J. W. (1994). The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment . Institute for Economic Democracy. ISBN 978-0-9624423-2-2 . Smith, Peter C. (2002) [1970]. Pedestal: The Convoy That Saved Malta (5th ed.). Manchester: Goodall. ISBN 978-0-907579-19-9 . Smith, David J.; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-28580-3 . Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3 . Last Gasp. ISBN 978-0-86719-616-0 . Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . London: The Bodley Head . ISBN 978-0-224-08141-2 . Spring, D. W. (1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies . 38 (2): 207– 226. doi : 10.1080/09668138608411636 . JSTOR 151203 . S2CID 154270850 . Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The English Historical Review . 110 (437): 620– 651. doi : 10.1093/ehr/cx.437.620 . JSTOR 578338 . Steury, Donald P. (1987). "Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Campaign and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Study in the Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval Warfare". Journal of Contemporary History . 22 (2): 209– 233. doi : 10.1177/002200948702200202 . JSTOR 260931 . S2CID 159943895 . Stueck, William (2010). "The Korean War". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 266– 287. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-195-4 . Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45 . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978-1-86508-352-0 . Swain, Geoffrey (1992). "The Cominform: Tito's International?". The Historical Journal . 35 (3): 641– 663. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00026017 . S2CID 163152235 . Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4 . Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War . London: Hamish Hamilton . ——— (1979). How Wars Begin . London: Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978-0-241-10017-2 . Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 . Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom History European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Canon Media Internet Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary contemporary Philosophy Science Values Science Values Physical culture Sport Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Relativism Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Paradox Relativism Peritrope Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European European Religion Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Culture Western / Eastern Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Law Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Contemporary integration ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Islam Culture Sunni Shia Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Culture Eastern Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX World War II World wars Conflicts in 1939 Conflicts in 1940 Conflicts in 1941 Conflicts in 1942 Conflicts in 1943 Conflicts in 1944 Conflicts in 1945 Late modern Europe Nuclear warfare Wars involving Albania Wars involving Australia Wars involving Austria Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Brazil Wars involving British India Wars involving Bulgaria Wars involving Myanmar Wars involving Cambodia Wars involving Canada Wars involving Chile Wars involving Colombia Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Cuba Wars involving Czechoslovakia Wars involving Denmark Wars involving the Dominican Republic Wars involving Ecuador Wars involving Egypt Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Estonia Wars involving Ethiopia Wars involving Finland Wars involving France Wars involving Germany Wars involving Greece Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Haiti Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Hungary Wars involving Iceland Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Italy Wars involving Iran Wars involving Iraq Wars involving Japan Wars involving Kazakhstan Wars involving Laos Wars involving Latvia Wars involving Lebanon Wars involving Liberia Wars involving Lithuania Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving Mexico Wars involving Mongolia Wars involving Montenegro Wars involving Nepal Wars involving Norway Wars involving Nicaragua Wars involving Panama Wars involving Paraguay Wars involving Peru Wars involving Poland Wars involving Rhodesia Wars involving Romania Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving Serbia Wars involving Slovakia Wars involving Slovenia Wars involving South Africa Wars involving Sri Lanka Wars involving Syria Wars involving Thailand Wars involving the Netherlands Wars involving the Philippines Wars involving the Republic of China Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States Wars involving Uruguay Wars involving Venezuela Wars involving Vietnam Wars involving Yugoslavia Wars involving India Wars involving New Zealand CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia references cleanup from January 2026 All articles needing references cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from January 2026 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with duplicate citations Use British English from December 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2025 Articles containing Italian-language text Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#CITEREFSwain2001
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . Science studies Systems Systems theory Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with possible conflicts of interest from October 2020 Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Use dmy dates from September 2017 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from March 2023 Articles needing additional references from April 2024 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 5 November 2025, at 05:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system#Quantum_gravity
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . London: Muller. ^ "War Diary for Friday, 27 April 1945" . Stone & Stone Books . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . ^ MacDonogh, Giles (2007). After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation . New York: Basic Books. p. 93. ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 524 ^ Duncan, George R. "Massacres and Atrocities of World War II" . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "Central Europe Campaign – 522nd Field Artillery Battalion" . Archived from the original on March 20, 2016 . Retrieved January 12, 2015 . Jewish prisoners from the outer Dachau camps were marched to Dachau, and then 70 miles south. Many of the Jewish marchers weighed less than 80 pounds. Shivering in their tattered striped uniforms, the "skeletons" marched 10 to 15 hours a day, passing more than a dozen Bavarian towns. If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945#Events
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Flora and fauna 2.1 Flora and fauna 3 Demographics 4 Administrative divisions and politics 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 See also 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Samar Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кырык мары Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Location within the Philippines Geography Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°00′N 125°00′E / 12.000°N 125.000°E / 12.000; 125.000 Archipelago Visayas Adjacent to .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Area 13,428.8 km 2 (5,184.9 sq mi) [ 1 ] Area rank 63rd Coastline 800.6 km (497.47 mi) [ 2 ] Highest elevation 890 m (2920 ft) Highest point Mount Huraw Administration Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Provinces Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Largest settlement Calbayog (pop. 187,848) Demographics Population 1,924,651 (2024) [ 3 ] Pop. density 140/km 2 (360/sq mi) Ethnic groups Visayans ( Waray-Waray ) Samar ( / ˈ s ɑː m ɑːr / SAH -mar ) is the third largest island in the Philippines . It has a population of 1,924,651 as of the 2024 census. It is located in the Eastern Visayas region of the Visayas islands. Since 1965, the island is divided into three provinces : Western Samar , Northern Samar , and Eastern Samar . The capitals of these provinces are, respectively, Catarman , Catbalogan , and Borongan . In commemoration of the establishment of these provinces, June 19 is celebrated as an annual holiday. Its main language and ethnicity is Waray and its main religion is Roman Catholic . The island was first sighted by Ferdinand Magellan on March 16, 1521. Although he did not land, other expeditions were made. Many names, such as Samal , Ibabao , and Tandaya , were given to the island prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation , Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . In the Philippine–American War , Eugenio Daza led a successful attack against the United States Army, later called the Balangiga massacre . This attack led to the Pacification of Samar and deaths of 2,000 people. During the American colonization of the Philippines, two uprisings occurred, including the Pulajan movement which caused massacres in the country. The Battle off Samar was held off the island during World War II. During martial law under Ferdinand Marcos , the Sag-od massacre happened in 1981. The New People's Army rebellion is ongoing. Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas archipelago, lying to the northeast of Leyte and southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon . To the west is the Samar Sea , and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea . The island has the Samar Island Natural Park and numerous biological discoveries and forests. The island has major copra and fishery industries and also produces rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca . The island also has a major tourism industry. The island has numerous major highways and has a portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway . The island has four major ports and three airports servicing flights to Cebu City and Metro Manila . The island has six Department of Education divisions and numerous universities with satellite campuses. History Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) Samar was the first island of the Philippines as a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan revealed the island, originally transcribed Zamal in the journal of Antonio Pigafetta . He sighted it on March 16, 1521, traveling from the Mariana Islands . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Having found an archipelago , Pigafetta named the islands San Lazaro ( transl. Saint Lazarus ) due to their sightings on Lazarus Saturday . Eventually, Filipinas was the perceived name for the archipelago. Although Samar was the first island of the Philippines seen by Magellan, he did not land there. He traversed south and laid anchor at Suluan Island, then landed on Homonhon Island on March 17, 1521. [ 6 ] Later in the 1700s, Samar was recorded to have about 103 Spanish Filipino families and 3,042 native families. [ 7 ] Other Spaniards eventually landed in the island. William Henry Scott, a historian, recognized that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." He recounted a Samarnon saga, which was called siday , about Bingi of Lawan, a settlement in Samar. [ 8 ] Samar had names which are recorded in early Spanish sources, including Ibabao (or Cibabao ), Achan , Camlaya , and Taridola . The Spanish captain Miguel Lopez de Legaspi also called the island Tandaya , after mistaking the name of a lord with the name of the island. This was spelled by Miguel de Loarca as Candaya . [ 5 ] During the early years of the Spanish colonialization, the province was placed in the jurisdiction of Cebu but was eventually separated into its own province. A rebellion was sparked in 1649 which was centered in Palapag , causing an uprising in Visayas and parts of Mindanao . The uprising was not suppressed until the next year. This caused rebels to migrate to the mountains and create a new settlement. In 1735, the province and Leyte merged into a singular province; Carigara was declared as the capital. In 1768, Samar was separated from Leyte. In 1860, the government structure was reorganized and was maintained until the end of the regime. [ 4 ] Philippine–American War (1898–1902) On September 28, 1901, Eugenio Daza–Area Commander of Southeastern Samar–and Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, [ 9 ] attacked the U.S. Army Company 9th Infantry Regiment who were occupying Balangiga. This action, commonly known as the Balangiga massacre, was a rare Filipino win and a bad loss for American soldiers. [ 10 ] In 1989, "Balangiga Encounter Day" was made a provincial holiday in Eastern Samar in lieu of the victory. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In retaliation for the massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his men to "kill and burn", further stating that "the more you kill and burn, the better it will please me". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] This command led to the deaths of 2,000 Filipino insurgents and civilians while sparking outrage in the United States. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] In his historical account of the war, Brian McAllister Linn asserts "Samar cast a pall on the army's achievement and, for generations, has been associated in the public mind as typifying the Philippine War." [ 16 ] American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) After the war, the archipelago was peaceful except the island of Samar, which was a "dark and bloody" isle according to James Henderson Blount . [ 17 ] In 1904, the Pulajans in Samar caused powerful massacres to the extent of Governor-General Luke Edward Wright 's concern. [ 18 ] Numerous civilians joined the uprising due to the feeling of "unprotection". [ 19 ] The rebellion was discussed by many American politicians and military officers and caused court cases just before the 1904 United States presidential election . [ 20 ] Four days after the election, Wright visited Samar, where troops increased to 2,000 from 700. [ 21 ] After battles and negotiations, the uprising eventually ended in 1906. [ 22 ] When the rebellion ended, the island, according to Blount, started becoming "peaceful". [ 23 ] More revolts were made by religious associations in the 1920s to 1930s. [ 24 ] In World War II , the ocean east of the island hosted the Battle off Samar in October 1944 wherein an unarmored force of United States Navy escorts defended attacks from the main force of the Imperial Japanese Navy , including the Japanese battleship Yamato . [ 25 ] When Japan colonized the Philippines, the Pulajan uprising became active again. Japan left the Philippines in 1945. [ 26 ] Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) The beginning months of the 1970s [ 27 ] marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines as well as in Samar, as unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects during Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign led to the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and resulting inflation triggered the First Quarter Storm protests. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : "43" Three years later and with only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president, Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the Presidency for fourteen more years. [ 34 ] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. [ 37 ] Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre The Marcos era was a time of significant deforestation in Samar and throughout the Philippines, with the forest cover of the Philippines shrinking until only 8% remained. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] On the island of Samar, whose forest cover had been at 86% of the island in 1972, forest cover went down to 45% in 1978, and then a mere 10% by 1987. Twelve companies were given Timber License Agreements (TLAs) on the island, including Dolores Timber in the Province of Samar and San Jose Timber in the province of Northern Samar, which were both owned by Juan Ponce Enrile , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] the government official Ferdinand Marcos had put in place to approve Timber License Agreements during Martial Law. [ 40 ] One of the infamous incidents of the Marcos dictatorship era was the Sag-od massacre in Las Navas, Northern Samar , which took place on September 15, 1981. [ 42 ] Numerous security personnel of Juan Ponce Enrile 's San Jose Timber Corporation allied with a paramilitary group called "the Lost Command" and ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od out of their homes, then opened fire on them. Forty-five people were killed, leaving only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od alive. [ 42 ] Construction of the San Juanico Bridge This era also saw the construction of the San Juanico Bridge between Samar and Leyte, which began as one of the high-visibility foreign-loan funded projects of Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign , and finished four years later in time to be inaugurated on then- First Lady Imelda Marcos ' birthday on July 2, 1973. [ 43 ] The project was initially criticised as a white elephant by officials at the National Economic and Development Authority , noting that it was "useless and expensive to maintain", [ 44 ] because its average daily traffic was too low to justify the cost of its construction. [ 44 ] As a result, its construction has been associated with what has been called the Marcoses' " edifice complex " [ 45 ] [ 46 ] although economic activity in Samar and Leyte has since finally caught up with the bridge's intended function. [ 46 ] At the time, its name was used as a slang term for one of the torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship , in which a person is being beaten while the victim's head and feet lay on separate beds and the body is suspended as though to form a bridge. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The New People's Army conflict Although the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, was newly-formed and relatively still very small throughout Marcos' second term, the Marcos administration hyped up its formation, [ 49 ] : "43" supposedly because this would help build up political and monetary support from the US, [ 49 ] : "43" [ 50 ] which was caught up in red scare paranoia at the time. [ 51 ] When Marcos declared Martial Law, however, the CPP grew rapidly. [ 49 ] On the island of Samar, Marcos' military forces were assigned to protect the logging concessions, and there were frequent encounters between the military and the New People's Army. As a result the towns of Taft , Dolores , Can-avid , and Oras in Eastern Samar were declared by the Military as "no-man's-land" areas from 1978 to 1982. [ 41 ] Since then, the island had numerous human rights cases due to the New People's Army rebellion. [ 52 ] [ failed verification ] In May 2024, the Department of the Interior and Local Government announced that the three provinces on the island of Samar were "free of NPA influence" with no single village in three Samar provinces is under the influence of NPA [that] year. [ 53 ] Contemporary history (1986–present) In 2013, the provinces of Samar, Eastern Samar, and the City of Tacloban were among the localities most severely impacted by Typhoon Haiyan . [ 54 ] In 2020, Samar was also heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas , with the first case in the region reported on March 23, 2020. [ 55 ] Geography Samar is the third-largest island in the Philippines by area, after the islands of Luzon and Mindanao . [ 56 ] Mount Huraw is Samar's highest point, with an elevation of 2,920 ft (890 m). [ 57 ] Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas. It lies to the northeast of Leyte, separated from it by the San Juanico Strait . The island lies to the southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon , separated from it by the San Bernardino Strait . To the west is the Samar Sea, and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea. The island is hilly yet has lower altitude than the mountainous terrain in the rest of the Visayas. Lowlands are mostly found near the coast and along rivers; the rivers themselves are small and flow in a radial pattern. [ 56 ] The island, along with the region of Eastern Visayas, is rainy most of the year, ranging from seven to ten months of rain. [ 58 ] Numerous typhoons are formed in the area. Eastern Samar, specifically, has a Type II climate without a dry season with an increase in rainfall. [ 56 ] A portion of the Philippine Trench rests near Samar, capable of generating a magnitude 8.1 earthquake. [ 59 ] The island, particularly parts of Paranas , contains many volcanic rocks, including karst bauxite , common throughout the island. [ 60 ] Flora and fauna The Samar Island Natural Park is a 300,000-hectare (740,000-acre) forest on the island, encompassing all three provinces. It contains the largest tract of intact lowland forest in the Philippines. The park has a population of Dipterocarpaceae species, six of them are endangered, and contains the rare Philippine eagle . The park contains six ecological forest types and has numerous waterfalls. Species in the island itself include the Philippine sailfin lizard , the Draco mindanensis , the Philippine hawk-eagle , the Giant golden-crowned flying fox , the Red-vented cockatoo , and the Philippine crocodile . [ 61 ] The municipality of Basey contains Karst forests with a total of 67 vascular plant species. In these forests, Dipterocarpaceae is the most prominent plant family. [ 62 ] Out of 2,400 flower species throughout the Philippines, 40 are only found in the island. In 2018, three new species of Begonia were found in the isle. [ 63 ] The province of Northern Samar was described by Tiffany Neri of SunStar as one of the Philippines' "best-kept secrets" with numerous rock formations and wildlife sanctuaries. [ 64 ] On June 9, 2025, the Biri Rock Formations in Northern Samar were declared to be a National Geological Monument according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources . [ 65 ] Demographics Population of Samar Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 66 ] As of the 2024 census, the population of the island's three provinces was 1,924,651. [ 66 ] The main language in all three provinces of Samar Island is Waray . The second most popular language in Samar province is Bisaya, while the second most popular in Eastern Samar and Northern Samar is Cebuano . Samar province and Northern Samar both have a scale of 0.13 in the Linguistic diversity index while Eastern Samar has a scale of 0.02. [ 67 ] Many people in the island are part of the Waray people: in Eastern Samar, 97.78 percent of people were Waray while in Samar, 91.45 classified themselves as Waray. Other ethnic groups include Bisaya , Cebuano , and Tagalog . Males were more populated in both provinces than women. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As of the 2020 census, 1790014 people in the island are Roman Catholic, 1573 are Islam , and 14643 are part of the Iglesia ni Cristo church. In all three provinces, more than 90% of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Administrative divisions and politics The island originally used to be a single province. On June 19, 1965, a law passed splitting the province into three: Western Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar. [ 72 ] Since there are three provinces, there are three provincial governments each with a governor. [ 73 ] For the House of Representatives , Eastern Samar has one congressional district while Western and Northern Samar has two each, causing the island to have five districts. [ 74 ] The Philippines's 9th senatorial district encompassed Samar and Leyte which had two senators representing in the Senate of the Philippines with 24 representatives. The system was abolished in the early 1940s when the country was the Commonwealth of the Philippines . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Name Capital Area (ha) [ 77 ] (ha) [ 77 ] Population (2024) [ 66 ] (2024) [ 66 ] Western Samar Catbalogan 604,803 806,179 Eastern Samar Borongan 466,047 472,683 Northern Samar Catarman 369,293 645,789 Economy The island has a major copra industry: of the six provinces in Eastern Visayas, all three of the Samar provinces were placed in the top four based on copra production, just behind Leyte. [ 78 ] Western Samar's industry recorded a 6.1 percent increase from 2018 to 2023. The top three industries in the province are food service activities, transportation, and electricity, steam, water, and waste management. As of 2023, the gross domestic product of the province is PHP 61.35 billion. [ 79 ] The island has rice and root crops, including sweet potatoes and cassava . Abacá and dairy from native carabaos are found in the island. [ 56 ] [ 80 ] In Eastern Samar, two house bills were filed to establish two separate coconut oil refineries. [ 81 ] Palay and banana crops are also made in the province; agro-industries are actively promoted. Fishery is a major livelihood in Eastern Samar's coastal communities, but it is experiencing a decline. [ 82 ] Northern Samar, meanwhile, has rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca. Municipal fisheries and tuna operations are also present in the province. [ 83 ] A commercial complex owned by Metro Retail Stores Group was planned to be created in 2019 in Catbalogan from a contract and was opened on August 30, 2024. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Samar is separated from the main island shipping routes. Iron ore , made from the southeast portion of the isle, is shipped from General MacArthur . There are also coal , phosphate , and chromite industries. Since Samar has many forests, logging and sawmill operations are also done in the eastern coastal towns. Catbalogan is a major commercial center in the island, serving as an important coastal port with fishing centers. [ 56 ] Tourism In 2015, the Samar Tourism Council encouraged tourists to visit attractions in Catbalogan as Governor Sharee Ann Tan held meetings with agency partners and the private sector to further boost tourism in Western Samar. [ 86 ] A One Town One Product (OTOP) center from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) was launched in Calbayog on June 12, 2024. [ 87 ] During the "Benchmarking Tour" held by Eastern Samar officials in Cebu on February 9, 2023, the two provincial governments made a deal to organize a "tourism circuit" to increase tourism in the two provinces. [ 88 ] A DTI "Heritage Month Trade Fair" was held by the DTI provincial office of Northern Samar in Robinsons North Tacloban . [ 89 ] Infrastructure Transportation A segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway is present in Samar, stretching from Northern Samar to Leyte in the western coast of the isle. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] The N670 highway traverses through the northern and eastern coasts in the island, stretching through all three provinces, starting and ending from the Pan-Philippine Highway. Two other highways connect from the Pan-Philippine Highway to the N670 highway: the Catarman-Calbayog Road, which originates in Catarman and ends in Calbayog, and the Wright–Taft Road , stretching from Paranas to Taft . Another highway extends from the N670 highway to Guiuan . [ 91 ] Four major ports are in the island, namely the Port of Calbayog, the Port of Borongan, the Port of Guiuan, and the Port of San Isidro . [ 92 ] A flight route from Cebu to Catarman National Airport was launched on March 4, 2025, serviced by the Philippine Airlines . [ 93 ] Two weekly flight routes from Cebu to Borongan Airport were also launched in December 2022, also serviced by the Philippine Airlines. [ 94 ] Two airlines service at the Calbayog Airport , namely Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific ; the former flies to Manila three times a week while the latter flies to Cebu two times a week. [ 95 ] Power and telecommunication Eastern Samar's electric distribution utility is the Eastern Samar Electric Cooperative (ESAMELCO). [ 96 ] Two electric cooperatives serve Western Samar, namely: the Samar I and Samar II Electric Cooperative (SAMELCO). [ 97 ] Northern Samar's electric cooperative is the Northern Samar Electric Cooperative (NORSAMELCO). [ 98 ] The Philippines' first tidal plant is planned to be built in Catarman, Northern Samar by a private electricity firm, harnessing currents from the San Benardino Strait. [ 99 ] A Singaporean firm invested in a planned wind farm in the borders of the Western and Northern Samar provinces. [ 100 ] Solar power projects were planned in two towns in Western Samar. [ 101 ] In Taft, Eastern Samar, a hydropower plant is operated, with possibilities of it being a tourist site. [ 102 ] The main telecommunication companies serviced in the island are Smart Communications and Globe Telecom . New cell sites from both of the telecommunication operations were planned to be built in Northern Samar. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Over 100 cell sites were planned to be built in Northern Samar following a deal with Governor Edwin Ongchuan and PhilTower Consortium, an infrastructure provider. [ 105 ] Education Six Department of Education divisions are present in the island: three for each of the provinces, and one each for Borongan, Calbayog, and Catbalogan. [ 106 ] Major universities in Eastern Samar include the Eastern Samar State University and four other satellite campuses. In Northern Samar, the University of Eastern Philippines and two other satellite campuses are in the province. For Western Samar, two major universities are placed: the Samar State University with three satellite campuses, and the Northwest Samar State University with one satellite campus. Other local colleges are also in the three provinces. [ 107 ] For the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority , three provincial training centers and five schools are placed in the island. [ 108 ] Healthcare Eastern Samar has 18 hospitals, most significantly the Eastern Samar Provincial Hospital, a hospital with two levels and 100 beds. Northern Samar has 11 hospitals including their provincial hospital with 100 beds too. Western Samar has 11 hospitals also, with the Samar Provincial Hospital and the Catbalogan Doctors Hospital both with 100 beds. [ 109 ] A Senate bill created by Juan Miguel Zubiri was introduced in the 18th Congress of the Philippines , establishing a teritiary level hospital to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center due to the lack of teritiary level hospitals in the island, the nearest being the Eastern Visayas Medical Center . [ 110 ] The law was signed on April 19, 2022, and construction started in 2024. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] See also Negros Bohol References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "2010 Philippine Yearbook" (PDF) . Philippine Yearbook (23rd ed.). Manila, Philippines: National Statistics Office. ISSN 0116-1520 . Retrieved December 14, 2015 . ^ "Islands of Philippines" . Island Directory . United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from the original on April 28, 2019 . Retrieved September 18, 2015 . ^ Census of Population (2015). Highlights of the Philippine Population 2015 Census of Population . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved June 20, 2016 . ^ a b Villamor & Buencamino , pp. 246–247. ^ a b Ocampo 2012 . ^ Parr & Crowell , p. 431. ^ de Zúñiga, Joaquín Martínez. Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas (PDF) . Princeton University . p. 113. ^ Scott 1985 , p. 93. ^ Tucker 2005 , p. 349. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTucker2005 ( help ) ^ Borrinaga, Rolando. "The Balangiga Conflict: Its Causes, Impact and Meaning" . GeoCities . Archived from the original on October 22, 2009 . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ermita, Eduardo R. (September 26, 2008). "Proclamation No. 1629, s. 2008" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . ^ "Republic Act No. 6692" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . February 10, 1989. ^ a b Delmendo 2005 , p. 176. ^ Delmendo, Sharon (2005). The Star-entangled Banner: One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines . University of the Philippines Press . p. 176. ISBN 978-971-542-484-4 . ^ Clodfelter 2017 , p. 241. ^ Linn 2000 , p. 321. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 484. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 488. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 468. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 455. ^ Blount 1912 , pp. 503–504. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 504. ^ Blount 1912 , p. 526. ^ Borrinaga 2019 , p. 129. ^ "Battle of Leyte Gulf" . Encyclopædia Britannica ( Online ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISSN 1085-9721 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Borrinaga 2019 , p. 130. ^ "A History of the Philippine Political Protest" . Official Gazette of the Philippines . Archived from the original on July 3, 2017 . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ Balbosa, Joven Zamoras (1992). "IMF Stabilization Program and Economic Growth: The Case of the Philippines" (PDF) . Journal of Philippine Development . XIX (35). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2022 . ^ Balisacan, A. M.; Hill, Hal (2003). The Philippine Economy: Development, Policies, and Challenges . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515898-4 . Archived from the original on February 18, 2023 . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ Cororaton, Cesar B. "Exchange Rate Movements in the Philippines". DPIDS Discussion Paper Series 97-05 : 3, 19. ^ Celoza, Albert F. (1997). Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-94137-6 . ^ Schirmer, Daniel B. (1987). The Philippines reader: a history of colonialism, neocolonialism, dictatorship, and resistance (1st ed.). Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-276-8 . OCLC 14214735 . ^ Kessler, Richard J. (1989). Rebellion and repression in the Philippines . New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04406-2 . OCLC 19266663 . ^ Magno, Alexander R., ed. (1998). "Democracy at the Crossroads". Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9:A Nation Reborn . Hong Kong: Asia Publishing Company Limited. ^ "Alfred McCoy, Dark Legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime" . Ateneo de Manila University . September 20, 1999. Archived from the original on September 1, 2022 . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ Abinales, P.N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and society in the Philippines . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-1023-4 . OCLC 57452454 . ^ "Gone too soon: 7 youth leaders killed under Martial Law" . Rappler . Archived from the original on June 24, 2018 . Retrieved June 15, 2018 . ^ Homer-Dixon, Thomas F. (2010). Environment, Scarcity, and Violence . Princeton University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4008-2299-7 . Retrieved August 5, 2020 . ^ Inoue, M.; Isozaki, H. (2013). People and Forest — Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan . Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-017-2554-5 . Retrieved August 5, 2020 . ^ a b c "EP09 Kayo Ang Hihirap Kami Ang Yayaman" . National Historical Commission of the Philippines . September 20, 2017. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021 – via YouTube. ^ a b Aguilar, Mila D. (October 3, 2015). So Why Samar? . Philippine Commission on Human Rights, Swiss Embassy Manila . Retrieved June 18, 2018 . ^ a b Espina, Jess Immanuel (September 15, 2023). "The Sag-od Massacre and Historical Denialism" . Human Rights Violations Victims' Memorial Commission . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "San Juanico, Eastern Visayas' Iconic Bridge, to Be Lit up By End of 2018" . Philippine Information Agency . TIEZA. March 25, 2018. Archived from the original on March 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 26, 2018 . ^ a b Landingin, Roel R. (February 13, 2008). "7 in 10 ODA Projects Fail to Deliver Touted Benefits" . Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism . Archived from the original on October 12, 2009. ^ Afinidad-Bernardo, Deni Rose M. (2016). "Edifice Complex" . Philstar Global NewsLab . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017. ^ a b "Edifice Complex: Building on the Backs of the Filipino People" . Martial Law Museum . Archived from the original on May 1, 2018. ^ Pedroso, Kate (21 September 2014). " 'San Juanico Bridge,' other tortures detailed" . The Philippine Daily Inquirer . Archived from the original on 21 September 2014. ^ Hapal, Don Kevin (February 23, 2016). "Worse than death: Torture methods during martial law" . Rappler . Philippines . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ a b c Kessler, Richard John (1989). Rebellion and repression in the Philippines . New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04406-5 . OCLC 19266663 . ^ Robles, Raissa (2016). Marcos Martial Law: Never Again . Filipinos for A Better Philippines, Inc. ^ Sen, Rabindra (June 2005). "Philippines – U.S. Special Relationship: Cold War and Beyond". Jadavpur Journal of International Relations . 9 (1): 85– 92. doi : 10.1177/0973598405110005 . ISSN 0973-5984 . S2CID 157525312 . ^ Japzon, Maureen (June 24, 2005). "Samar Island in Agony" . Bulatlat . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Samar provinces now free from NPA influence" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved November 14, 2025 . ^ "Twelve Years After Yolanda: The Typhoon That Never Left" . Greenpeace Philippines . November 12, 2025 . Retrieved November 14, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (March 23, 2020). "DOH confirms first Covid-19 case in Eastern Visayas" . Philippine News Agency . Archived from the original on March 24, 2020 . Retrieved March 31, 2020 . ^ a b c d e f "Samar" . Encyclopædia Britannica ( Online ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISSN 1085-9721 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Samar Mountains" . PeakVisor . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Agricultural Profile" . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Philippine trenches may generate Magnitude 8 earthquakes, says PHIVOLCS" . GMA News Online . April 4, 2024 . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Arenque et al. 2025 , pp. 2–3. ^ "Samar Island Natural Park" . UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial . July 2, 2024 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Villanueva et al. 2021 , p. 149. ^ Palma, Ana Margarita (September 2, 2021). "Three new species of Begonia found in Samar Island, Philippines" . University of the Philippines . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Neri, Tiffany L. (April 27, 2025). "Where the sea whispers: Secrets of Northern Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (June 9, 2025). "Northern Samar's iconic Biri Rocks named as national geological monument" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ a b c Census of Population (2020). Table B - Population and Annual Growth Rates by Province, City, and Municipality - By Region . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved July 8, 2021 . ^ "The language landscape of the Philippines in 4 maps" . Thinking Machines . August 10, 2016 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Eastern Samar: Home of the Warays" . Philippine Statistics Authority . June 7, 2002. Archived from the original on November 16, 2013 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Samar: Population Getting Younger" . Philippine Statistics Authority . August 13, 2002. Archived from the original on November 15, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing)" . Philippine Statistics Authority . February 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Table A: Household Population by Religious Affiliation, Region, Province" . Philippine Statistics Authority . February 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ a b "Republic Act No. 4221" . Senate of the Philippines Legislative Reference Bureau . June 19, 1965 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 18, 2022). "3 Samar governors to draft island-wide peace, dev't plan" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Sioson, Mapa Claire Dennis. "TABLE 1: Population of Legislative Districts by Province and Selected Highly Urbanized/Component City: 2020" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ U.S. Government Printing Office 1918 , p. 38. ^ "History of the Senate" . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "PSGC Interactive - List of Provinces" . Philippine Statistics Authority . June 30, 2016. Archived from the original on September 12, 2016 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Gabieta, Joey (January 14, 2020). "Copra prices go up in Eastern Visayas" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Moraleta, Riza N. (November 28, 2024). "Samar's Economy Records 6.1 Percent Increase in 2023" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Native Carabaos Do Well in Niche Markets" . Agriculture Monthly . August 4, 2018. Archived from the original on June 3, 2023 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (September 23, 2024). "Solon eyes Eastern Samar coco oil refineries" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Eastern Samar" . Special Area for Agricultural Development . June 23, 2025 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Northern Samar" . Special Area for Agricultural Development . June 23, 2025 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Metro stores, Samar to develop commercial complex in Catbalogan" . SunStar Publishing Inc . February 18, 2019 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Metro Retail Opens Biggest Supermarket Store in Catbalogan" . Leyte Samar Daily News . August 28, 2024 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Catbalogan urges tourists to spend summer in Samar" . The Philippine Star . February 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Otop Hub in Calbayog City opens to showcase unique local offerings from Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . June 21, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu, Eastern Samar execs explore 'tourism circuit' " . SunStar Publishing Inc . February 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "DTI Northern Samar products takes center stage in trade fair" . SunStar Publishing Inc . May 30, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Gabieta, Joey (March 18, 2024). "Maharlika Highway in Eastern Visayas to get needed rehab" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ a b Road and Bridge Inventory (Map). Department of Public Works and Highways . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "List of Ports" (PDF) . Philippine Ports Authority . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu-Catarman flights seen to bring growth to Northern Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . March 10, 2025 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (September 13, 2024). "PAL launches 3rd Cebu-Borongan weekly flight" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 9, 2024). "Lapid to secure funds for Calbayog Airport's night rating" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ University of Illinois 2005 , p. 405. ^ Republic of the Philippines 1990 , p. 148. ^ "NORSAMELCO" . Department of Energy . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (February 18, 2024). "N. Samar unveils pioneer tidal power" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (November 8, 2024). "Singaporean firm bares P19-B expansion of energy investment in Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel (October 21, 2024). "Solar power projects up for 2 Samar towns" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel; Abella, Lizbeth Ann (April 27, 2023). "E. Samar hydropower plant eyed as tourist site" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (May 5, 2024). "Telco beefs up N. Samar network" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "TELECOM | Smart LTE expansion keeps Northern Samar island town connected" . TechSabado . August 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (January 25, 2024). "Over 100 cell sites to rise in Northern Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Schools Division Offices Directory | DepEd Region VIII" . Department of Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Higher Education Institutions" . Commission on Higher Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of TESDA Administered Schools and Training Centers in Region VIII - Eastern Samar" . TESDA Online Program . February 15, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Accredited Hospitals and Infirmaries for CY 2025 Updated as of October 31, 2025" (PDF) . PhilHealth . October 31, 2025 . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Zubiri, Juan Miguel F. (March 21, 2022). "An act establishing a tertiary hospital under the control, supervision, and management of the Department of Health in the City of Calbayog, Samar, to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes" (PDF) . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (April 19, 2022). "Duterte signs law establishing Samar Island Medical Center" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (March 17, 2024). "Samar tertiary hospital construction kicked off" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . Bibliography Villamor, Ignacio; Buencamino, Felipe (1920). Census of the Philippine Islands Taken Under the Direction of the Philippine Legislature in the Year 1918 . University of California, Berkeley . Ocampo, Ambeth (2012). Looking Back: Volume 1 . Anvil Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-971-27-3608-7 . Parr, Charles McKew; Crowell, Thomas Y. (1953). So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan . Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8 . Tucker, Spencer (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History . Bloomsbury Academic . ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1 . Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed . McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War 1899-1902 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-70061225-4 . Blount, James Henderson (1912). The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 . G. P. Putnam's Sons. Borrinaga, George Emmanuel R. (April 2019). "Solidarity and Crisis-Derived Identities in Samar and Leyte, Philippines, 1565 to Present" (PDF) . University of Hull . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Villanueva, Elaine Loreen C.; Fernandez, Desamarie Antoinette P.; Tolentino, Paul John S.; Obeña, Ren Divien R.; Buot, Inocencio E. Jr. (December 31, 2021). "Checklist of the Flora and Fauna of the Karst Forests in Basey, Samar, Philippines" (PDF) . The Thailand Natural History Museum Journal . 15 (2) – via National Research Council of Thailand . United States Congressional Serial Set . U.S. Government Printing Office. 1918. Platts International Directory of Electric Power Producers and Distributors . McGraw Hill Companies . 2005. Provincial Profile: Samar . Republic of the Philippines . 1990. Arenque, L. A.; Gabo-Ratio, J. A.; Payot, B. D.; Guzman, J. T.; Yonezu, K. (2025). "Mineralogy and geochemistry of the Paranas karst bauxite deposit of Samar Island, Philippines" . IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science . 1517 (1) 012040. Bibcode : 2025E&ES.1517a2040A . doi : 10.1088/1755-1315/1517/1/012040 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Samar Island at Wikimedia Commons Samar Island travel guide from Wikivoyage .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e The 40 largest islands of the Philippines v t e Alabat Balabac Basilan Biliran Bohol Bucas Grande Bugsuk Burias Busuanga Calayan Camiguin Camiguin de Babuyanes Cebu Catanduanes Culion Dinagat Dumaran Guimaras Jolo Leyte Lubang Luzon Masbate Marinduque Mindanao Mindoro Negros Olutanga Palawan Panaon Panay Polillo Samal Samar Siargao Sibuyan Siquijor Tablas Tawitawi Ticao Alabat Balabac Basilan Biliran Bohol Bucas Grande Bugsuk Burias Busuanga Calayan Camiguin Camiguin de Babuyanes Cebu Catanduanes Culion Dinagat Dumaran Guimaras Jolo Leyte Lubang Luzon Masbate Marinduque Mindanao Mindoro Negros Olutanga Palawan Panaon Panay Polillo Samal Samar Siargao Sibuyan Siquijor Tablas Tawitawi Ticao Islands portal Islands portal See also Geography of the Philippines Island groups of the Philippines List of islands Authority control databases International VIAF GND VIAF GND Geographic MusicBrainz area MusicBrainz area Other NARA NARA Samar Islands of Samar (province) Islands of Northern Samar Islands of Eastern Samar Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Use mdy dates from October 2025 Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from November 2025 CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 05:49 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samar#cite_ref-54
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to 2026 in science at Wikimedia Commons v t e 2020s articles v t e History Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Events COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Govt UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size Years Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Categories General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling Wrestling Portal:Current events v t e Overviews of the 2020s v t e History World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history United Kingdom World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history Political history United Kingdom Culture Film Music Latin Fashion Video games Film Music Latin Latin Fashion Video games Societal Society Economy Society Economy Science Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Related Year in topic List of timelines Year in topic List of timelines Science Technology Astronomy Outer space Current events 2026 in science 21st century in science 2020s in technology 2026-related lists Science timelines by year CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2025 Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 02:35 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_in_science#cite_note-8
|
Introduction Related Work Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. Skill-specific probes. Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. Skill-specific probes. Benchmark Motivation and Scope High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks Dataset Construction High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks Dataset Construction Experiments Experimental Setup Human Evaluation Main results Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Task sensitivity to modality. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Vision Encoders Linear Probing Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. Effect of freezing. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Experimental Setup Human Evaluation Human Evaluation Main results Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Task sensitivity to modality. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Task sensitivity to modality. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Vision Encoders Linear Probing Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. Effect of freezing. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Full vs. dotted diagrams. Effect of freezing. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Conclusion A Acknowledgments B Appendix A. Evaluation details and models performance Evaluation protocol. Detailed model evaluation Evaluation protocol. Detailed model evaluation C Appendix B. Visual Encoders Experimental Details Architecture and Implementation Training Configuration Complete Results Architecture and Implementation Training Configuration Complete Results D Appendix C. Human Evaluation Protocol NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Irina Abdullaeva 1,2 , Anton Vasiliuk 1 , Elizaveta Goncharova 1,3 , Temurbek Rahmatullaev 1,4 , Zagorulko Ivan 5 , Maxim Kurkin 1, 6 , Andrey Kuznetsov 1,2 Abstract We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models’ proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs’ ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. Code — Figure 1: Evaluation samples from NoReGeo benchmark. Each problem is shown in three formats – (a) text‑only, (b) text with dotted-image (points only), and (c) text with full-image (points plus connecting lines) – together with the golden answer (yellow) and the model’s prediction. Introduction Although modern LLMs excel at symbolic reasoning, they still treat even the simplest spatial relations as formal reasoning problems, producing multi-step chains of thought instead of relying on an intuitive sense of geometry. Ask whether two line segments intersect, and many models unfold a miniature proof rather than making a direct geometric judgment. This gap between symbolic reasoning and intuitive spatial understanding becomes especially limiting in time-critical settings — CAD engines updating thousands of vertices per frame, robots refining grasp trajectories in milliseconds, or geospatial systems performing rapid visibility checks. In such environments, approximate geometric intuition is far more valuable than multi-line chains of thought. Yet current models lack native geometric understanding and must simulate reasoning even for the simplest relations. Existing geometry benchmarks primarily emphasize complex proofs or multi-step algebraic reasoning (Lu et al. 2021 ; Kazemi et al. 2024 ) , conflating two skills: (i) identifying relevant spatial facts and (ii) executing symbolic derivations. To isolate the first skill, we introduce NoReGeo , a benchmark of 2,500 trivially solvable geometry problems across 25 categories. Each item can be answered directly from point locations, without auxiliary constructions, theorems, or lengthy CoT. Every problem appears in both text-only form and a paired diagram, enabling controlled comparisons between text-based LLMs and multimodal vision-language models (VLMs). We evaluate more than 45 frontier and open-source models under both modalities. Even the strongest open-source VLM achieves only ∼ 55 % \sim\!55\% accuracy (Phi3.5-Vision), and the best proprietary model reaches ∼ 65 % \sim\!65\% — well below human performance of ∼ 74.5 % \sim\!74.5\% on the same multiple-choice tasks. These results expose a substantial gap in basic spatial intuition. Further analysis shows that fine-tuning alone does not confer geometric competence, whereas a simple linear probe on a frozen vision encoder solves the tasks almost perfectly — suggesting that geometric features are present in embeddings but are not accessed by current LLM architectures or training regimes. Our contributions are as follows: 1. We motivate and formalize the concept of native geometric understanding as a core capability required for spatially intensive applications. 2. We introduce NoReGeo , the first benchmark explicitly designed to test this ability without chain-of-thought or algebraic computation, comprising 2 500 items across 25 categories in both text and image formats. 3. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of over 45 state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, showing that all fall short of human-level performance on elementary geometric tasks. 4. Through fine-tuning and linear-probing studies, we demonstrate that geometric knowledge exists latently in vision encoders but fails to naturally emerge in current LLM training paradigms. Overall, our findings point to an urgent open problem: bridging the gap between symbolic reasoning and true geometric cognition in future foundation models. Related Work Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Vision–language systems must ground textual concepts such as left of or bigger than in a spatial frame of reference. Synthetic VQA benchmarks like CLEVR isolate this ability by rendering scenes of coloured shapes and asking queries that combine Boolean logic with coarse spatial predicates (Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt 2024 ) . Subsequent datasets move toward natural imagery: SpatialSense adversarially mines object pairs (e.g. person–bench ) to evaluate relative positioning (Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng 2019 ) , while 3DSRBench embeds similar relations in RGB-D scans of indoor environments (Ma et al. 2025 ) . Interactive navigation tasks extend spatial grounding to embodied settings: BabyAI and ALFRED require locating, manipulating, and placing objects in simulated rooms (Chevalier-Boisvert et al. 2019 ; Shridhar et al. 2020 ) , and Room-to-Room (R2R) tests natural-language navigation in realistic 3-D reconstructions (Hong et al. 2025 ) . Together, these datasets show that VLMs handle qualitative spatial relations reasonably well, yet they provide little evidence that models encode the fine-grained geometric attributes — distances, angles, midpoints, coordinate relations — needed for the intuitive geometric understanding. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. A parallel line of work examines whether models can solve textbook geometry questions that pair a diagram with natural language. Benchmarks such as Geometry3K (Lu et al. 2021 ) , PGPS-9K (Zhang, Yin, and Liu 2023 ) , MathVista (Lu et al. 2024 ) , MathVerse (Zhang et al. 2024b ) , and GeomVerse (Kazemi et al. 2024 ) collect thousands of K–12 geometry problems, while GeoEval adds a calibrated difficulty ladder and reports that even math-tuned LLMs plateau at ≈ 55 % \approx 55\% accuracy on “regular” items and < 10 % <10\% on Olympiad-level ones (Zhang et al. 2024a ) . Solving these tasks typically requires multi-step reasoning : interpreting diagrams, identifying theorems, and chaining symbolic deductions. As a result, existing evaluations emphasize algebraic manipulation and proof-style solution pipelines — often supported by chain-of-thought prompting, external tools, or full symbolic proof synthesis (e.g. AlphaGeometry (Trinh et al. 2024 ) ) — making it difficult to determine whether models possess any native geometric perception independent of reasoning. Skill-specific probes. To obtain a more targeted diagnostic signal, several recent efforts isolate individual geometric skills. PlanQA presents floor-plan layouts as JSON and asks questions about visibility or shortest paths (Rodionov et al. 2025 ) . GeomRel focuses on detecting equal segments and angles before any numeric computation (Wang et al. 2025 ) , and GeoGramBench converts Asymptote-style code into natural-language questions of varying abstraction (Luo et al. 2025b ) . These benchmarks remove some confounds but still require models to parse code-like input formats or engage in subtle inference — leaving open the question of whether models can make direct, perception-level geometric judgments. The proposed cross-modal NoReGeo benchmark targets single-step, school-level geometry questions (midpoints, area comparisons, collinearity, symmetry tests, and similar micro-skills) that can be answered instantaneously by anyone with basic geometric intuition with no auxiliary constructions, theorem recall, or multi-hop reasoning. By providing both text-only and vision‑augmented variants under a shared output format, NoReGeo enables controlled comparisons between LLMs and VLMs and reveals whether either modality supplies genuine geometric understanding. Because the tasks are synthetic yet curriculum‑aligned , they are unlikely to appear verbatim in pre-training corpora, ensuring that NoReGeo is a genuine test of latent geometric understanding rather than memorization. Thus, our benchmark complements prior work by stripping away reasoning scaffolds and focusing on the bedrock geometric knowledge that more complex systems implicitly assume. Benchmark Motivation and Scope The NoReGeo is designed as a cross-modal geometry-based benchmark oriented to probe the foundational geometric competence of modern LLMs and VLMs. The benchmark consists of short prompt–answer pairs in elementary geometry. Each problem is posed as a one‑shot query: the model receives a single prompt and must return an answer immediately, without any chain‑of‑thought or intermediate steps. The benchmark provides two prompt modalities — text‑only questions and their corresponding image‑based versions (where the images are presented in the so-called dotted and full versions). The example of samples from the NoReGeo can be found in Figure 1 . Each problem has a ground-truth answer that is either a numeric value (for quantitative questions, typically an integer or simple fraction; e.g. 90) or a categorical label (for qualitative classification questions; e.g. ”acute” to describe an angle type). There are no elaborate proofs or explanations required – the output is a single final answer. The evaluation metric is straightforward accuracy for multiple-choice questions and soft accuracy (within the [-0.5, 0.5] interval) for numeric ones. High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks During benchmark creation, we followed the typical secondary school geometry curriculum, our benchmark effectively covers content taught from roughly higher school (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010 ; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2000 ) . We have included some foundational topics that are introduced in middle school (for example, basic angle facts or simple constructions from early secondary years) as well as the full suite of high-school geometry topics (Euclidean proofs, circle theorems, introductory trigonometry, etc.) The detailed taxonomy of NoReGeo is given in Table 1 . The benchmark tasks are categorized into three types: Classification , Numeric , and Unstable . Classification tasks (C‑) involve multiple-choice questions, such as identifying polygon areas or symmetry. Numeric tasks (N‑) require numeric values like coordinates or lengths, while Unstable tasks (U‑) involve binary decisions that can change with minimal input variation. Dataset Construction Building on the taxonomy described above, we developed a concise pipeline for synthetic data generation. Each benchmark item is provided either in text-only form or as a multimodal (vision–text) variant combining text with an image. All items in the dataset follow these design rules: • Every vertex uses integer coordinates in the range [ − 20 , 20 ] [-20,20] . When an image is present, the points lie on a Cartesian grid. • In text-only prompts, points are denoted by uppercase letters with their coordinates, e.g. A = ( 2 , 1 ) A=(2,1) . The multimodal format has two variants: (i) an image showing only labeled points (without coordinates labels), with edges implied by the text; or (ii) an image of the complete figure, where the text provides only the question (and any answer options) without listing coordinates. The sample questions are give below. Text-only. Lines A = ( 2 , 1 ) → B = ( 3 , 0 ) A=(2,1)\!\rightarrow\!B=(3,0) and C = ( − 8 , − 1 ) → D = ( 9 , 0 ) C=(-8,-1)\!\rightarrow\!D=(9,0) intersect at what point? Multimodal. Refer to the input image. Where do lines A B AB and C D CD intersect? We split the questions into vision-only and text-only tasks to minimize the influence of the textual prompt on the vision-based tasks, ensuring that coordinates must be read solely from the image that is a significant challenge in modern multimodal benchmarks (Chen et al. 2024 ) . Type Category Task ID Type Sample Question Class. Area comparison parallelogram_size C-ACM-PST MC Parallelograms ABCD and EFGH (vertices given). Which has larger area? triangle_size C-ACM-TST MC Triangles ABC and DEF. Which has larger area? Basic coordinate tasks collinearity C-BCT-CT MC Are points A, B, and C collinear? Symmetry shape_symmetry C-SYM-SST MC Polygon (vertices given): symmetric about Y-axis? Numeric Basic coordinate tasks midpoint N-BCT-MT Coord Find midpoint of segment AB. parallelogram_area N-BCT-PAT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find area. parallelogram_perim N-BCT-PPT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find perimeter. triangle_area N-BCT-TAT Num Triangle ABC: find area. triangle_perim N-BCT-TPT Num Triangle ABC: find perimeter. Elementary calc. intersection N-ECL-IT Coord Lines AB and CD: find intersection point. segment_length N-ECL-SLT Num Segment AB: find length. Geometric transform. reflection N-GTR-RT Coord Reflect point P across X-axis. Find coordinates. rotation_point N-GTR-RPT Coord Rotate point P 90° about origin. Remarkable triangle lines bisector N-RLT-BT Coord Triangle ABC: find B-angle bisector intersection. Simple circle properties inner_circle_center N-SCP-ICCT Coord Triangle ABC: find incircle center. inner_circle_radius N-SCP-ICRT Num Triangle ABC: find incircle radius. outer_circle_center N-SCP-OCCT Coord Triangle ABC: find circumcenter. triangle_type N-SCP-TTT Num Triangle ABC: find triangle type. Unstable Circle properties circle_diameter U-CPR-CDT MC Circle with center O, radius = 3; is AB a diameter? Parallelism parallel_lines U-PAP-PLT MC Are lines AB and CD parallel? and Perpendicularity perpendicular U-PAP-PT MC Are segments AB and CD perpendicular? right_angle U-PAP-RAT MC Is angle ABC a right angle? Remarkable triangle lines special_lines U-RLT-SLT MC Triangle ABC with segment from B to D. Identify the segment. Simple circle properties semicircle_triangle U-SCP-STT MC Is triangle ABC inscribed in a semicircle? Symmetry symmetry U-SYM-ST MC Are points P and Q symmetric about line y=x? Table 1: Overview of the NoReGeo benchmark tasks, organized by question type, geometric category, and specific task. Each task is identified by a structured ID code consisting of: (i) a single-letter type prefix (C: Classification, N: Numeric, U: Unstable), (ii) a three-letter category code, and (iii) a short task name. The benchmark covers a broad range of geometric reasoning tasks including area and perimeter comparison, coordinate calculations, symmetry, triangle centers, and more. As shown in Table 1 , the benchmark maintains a slight emphasis on basic coordinate geometry over symmetry tasks. Notably, there is a significant majority of classification tasks compared to numerical tasks. This design choice prioritizes the evaluation of a model’s ability to recognize geometric properties and apply definitions over pure computation. All problems are solvable through the direct application of fundamental formulas and definitions, making the benchmark a robust tool for assessing core geometric understanding in AI models across both text and vision modalities. Experiments In this section, we evaluate whether LLMs and VLMs can natively perceive geometric structures and relationships across varying text-to-visual information ratios using our NoReGeo benchmark. Classification Numeric Unstable ACM BCT SYM BCT ECL GTR RLT SCP CPR PAP RLT SCP SYM Text Qwen2.5-3B-In. 69.2 44.0 54.0 3.9 32.3 0.0 98.5 32.2 53.0 47.8 34.5 0.0 46.5 Qwen2.5-7B-In. 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 Qwen3-4B 56.5 61.0 52.0 5.0 17.0 0.0 40.0 36.2 52.0 52.7 31.0 49.0 89.0 Qwen3-8B 58.0 73.0 67.0 6.8 10.7 0.0 4.0 25.8 52.0 53.0 47.0 64.0 91.0 Mistral-Small-In. 57.5 56.0 59.0 3.8 12.0 0.0 3.0 14.5 52.0 45.3 32.0 50.0 79.0 LLaMa-3.1 8B-In. 64.5 51.0 96.0 1.6 9.3 0.0 18.0 15.2 53.0 52.0 40.0 67.0 68.0 LLaMa-3.1 70B-In. 67.0 78.0 97.0 6.4 16.7 0.0 0.0 17.2 97.0 53.7 43.0 52.0 84.0 Text with dotted images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 38.5 54.0 52.0 9.4 35.7 50.5 50.0 57.2 52.0 50.0 76.0 49.0 49.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 40.5 51.0 47.0 3.4 12.3 0.0 1.0 31.5 52.0 48.3 92.0 43.0 50.0 InternVL2.5-8B 34.0 59.0 52.0 18.6 60.7 8.5 28.0 63.0 52.0 43.7 37.0 58.0 46.0 InternVL3-8B 41.0 53.0 52.0 2.8 5.3 0.0 17.0 39.2 52.0 55.7 99.0 51.0 54.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 20.5 62.0 59.0 20.8 56.7 75.0 90.0 43.5 53.0 47.0 29.0 52.0 39.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 40.0 44.0 54.0 7.8 17.0 0.0 2.0 48.5 44.0 50.0 42.0 49.0 53.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 41.5 73.0 52.0 15.4 32.3 1.0 35.0 46.5 52.0 49.3 93.0 55.0 50.0 Human eval 81.5 70.0 72.0 63.0 0.0 5.0 50.0 78.5 88.0 92.0 89.0 81.0 94.0 Text with full images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 66.0 88.0 90.0 81.8 40.0 50.0 16.0 36.0 100.0 55.7 71.0 99.0 86.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 66.5 100.0 99.0 79.0 33.7 0.0 0.0 26.8 100.0 63.0 98.0 99.0 62.0 InternVL2.5-8B 53.5 96.0 67.0 75.6 32.7 1.5 10.0 44.0 73.0 50.7 41.0 88.0 60.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 52.5 88.0 86.0 77.0 31.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 97.0 64.0 63.0 96.0 57.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 50.0 99.0 100.0 57.6 39.3 0.0 13.0 41.8 65.0 52.3 94.0 100.0 62.0 Table 2: Accuracy (%) of selected models on each benchmark task category across three setups: text-only, text with dotted and full images. Bold indicates best per setup, italic – second-best, and underlined shows overall best across all setups. Task category Text-only Text with dot images Text with full images Area comparison (ACM) 55.1 ± 19.1 33.6 ± 10.2 50.6 ± 23.5 Basic coordinate tasks (BCT) 32.4 ± 39.5 19.2 ± 25.9 53.4 ± 42.8 Circle properties (CPR) 59.4 ± 22.3 51.5 ± 4.6 71.0 ± 32.3 Elementary calculations (ECL) 26.1 ± 36.6 38.3 ± 35.9 33.7 ± 37.9 Geometric transformations (GTR) 12.1 ± 31.2 27.9 ± 36.6 18.6 ± 34.6 Parallelism and Perpendicularity (PAR) 51.6 ± 15.6 48.8 ± 9.1 49.7 ± 20.1 Remarkable lines of a triangle (RLT) 32.8 ± 30.9 57.3 ± 31.4 42.8 ± 37.0 Simple circle properties (SCP) 35.2 ± 34.4 47.6 ± 28.2 39.4 ± 30.9 Symmetry (SYM) 65.4 ± 19.6 50.0 ± 8.3 68.9 ± 27.5 Table 3: Average accuracy (%) and standard deviation across models for each task category under different evaluation setups. Experimental Setup Models and Implementation. We selected a broad range of state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, including both proprietary and open-source models, to capture representative examples of current capabilities. Our model selection also allows us to analyze trends across model generations and explore the effect of model scale on geometric and multimodal reasoning. In total, we evaluated over 45 models. Proprietary API-based models include GPT-4.1, GPT-4.1-Mini, and GPT-4.1-Nano. Open-source models span the Qwen series (Qwen2, Qwen2.5 (Team 2024 ) and Qwen3 (Yang et al. 2025 ) , along with multimodal variants Qwen2-VL (Wang et al. 2024 ) and Qwen2.5-VL (Bai et al. 2025 ) ), the LLaMA-3.1 series (Grattafiori et al. 2024 ) , and Mistral models (Jiang et al. 2023 ) (including versions with math-specific pretraining), among others. Additionally, we evaluated math-specific VLMs, including the G-LLaVA (Gao et al. 2023 ) , URSA (Luo et al. 2025a ) , Math-LLaVA (Shi et al. 2024 ) , and Multimath-7B-LLaVA-v1.5 (Peng et al. 2024 ) , to contrast general-purpose and specialized models. To ensure consistency across models, we standardized generation settings: fixed random seed, temperature set to 0.6, and a maximum output length of 2048 tokens. For instruction-tuned models, we used their native chat templates and applied a unified system prompt. Evaluation Scheme. We focus on each model’s direct-answer capability - its ability to solve tasks without producing intermediate reasoning steps. To enforce structured output and prevent unsolicited reasoning, we applied a structured generation approach. Each task specifies a JSON-formatted response template based on the expected answer type (e.g., multiple choice, numeric value, or coordinate point). This structure is communicated to the model through a structure prompt appended to each question. We implemented this setup using the Outlines (Willard and Louf 2023 ) and xgrammar (Dong et al. 2024 ) libraries, which convert expected JSON structures into regular expressions. These are compiled into finite state machines that bias model generation by modifying logits. For efficient model serving, we used the VLLM library (Kwon et al. 2023 ) . Evaluation Metrics & Policy. We evaluated the capabilities of LLMs and VLMs by comparing generated and reference answers using the accuracy metric. For multiple-choice tasks, answers were considered to match if they were an exact match for one of the generated answer options. For numerical and coordinate answers, we defined a tolerable error interval of 0.5, identical to the grid step in visualizations of geometric problems. Numerical answers and point coordinates were considered correct if they met the following criteria: a) they were valid numbers; b) they fell within the interval [reference answer - 0.5, reference answer + 0.5]. Regarding point coordinates, both coordinates of the answer point also had to be correct according to the numerical answer criteria mentioned above. To gain a more detailed understanding of error magnitude in cases involving numerical answers, we calculated regression metrics (mean squared error, MSE) for tasks where the answer was either a number or a point. If the answer did not match the required format — if it was not valid JSON, included an additional reasoning trail, or lacked the correct answer fields in JSON — we marked it as incorrect and awarded no credit, even if the answer was mathematically correct. This strict policy isolates a model’s geometric competence from its propensity to reveal private reasoning. Human Evaluation For the dotted image format, we also conducted a human evaluation to assess how accurately humans can solve these tasks. The human baseline was obtained using the Toloka platform. Annotators completed training, examination, and control tasks, with 10 tasks per page and 10 minutes allowed per page. Each task was answered by three crowd workers, and majority voting was used to aggregate responses. Participants were instructed not to use external resources; the only aid was the task’s dotted-format overlay. The average annotator age was 39 years, with compensation of approximately $1 per page. Main results General performance. There is a significant disparity in the extent to which different models comprehend geometry and leverage cross-modal relations. Table 2 shows the average quality of a few representative LLMs and VLMs across task categories. Table 3 shows the average quality of problem solving across all evaluated models within task categories, taking into account the standard deviation. Based on these results, we draw several key conclusions. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Models evaluated with text and full images consistently outperform both text-only and text with dotted images settings across nearly all task types and categories. For example, Qwen2.5-VL-7B-Instruct reaches 100% accuracy on several classification and unstable tasks (basic coordinate tasks, symmetry, circle properties) when provided with full image input, compared to much lower scores in the dotted-image setup. It also shows markedly improved performance on numerically intensive tasks such as basic coordinate tasks (79.0%) and elementary calculations (33.7%), which are typically challenging across the board. This strong overall trend is visualized in Figure 2 , where most task categories exhibit substantial positive accuracy gaps favoring full images. The largest average gains occur in tasks involving curved shapes and global geometry, such as Area comparison (ACM), Basic Coordinates Tasks (BCT) and Circle Properties (CPR). By contrast, linear or axis-aligned tasks, such as Parallelism, Perpendicularity, or Geometric Transformations (GTR), show minimal or no improvement between dotted and full visual input. This suggests that dots-only representations already encode sufficient information for solving simpler spatial alignment problems. A closer task-level breakdown further reinforces this distinction: while some tasks yield dramatic gains of +40–100% when full images are provided, others exhibit near-zero or even negative improvements. These findings demonstrate that high-fidelity visual input is essential for activating geometric reasoning in current VLMs. While sparse or dotted stimuli may suffice for simple linear tasks, they fall short for complex shape recognition and spatial inference , underscoring the need for more expressive and grounded visual processing in geometric reasoning benchmarks. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Figure 2 shows the gain from dots to full images. InternVL‑2.5‑1B and Qwen2‑VL‑Instruct improve consistently, whereas InternVL‑3, G‑LLaVA‑13, and URSA gain little or regress, signaling weak visual grounding or instruction‑following most pronounced on numeric items. This phenomenon may correlate with several factors: poor handling of large or complex images, degraded adherence to structured prompts in multimodal settings, or overfitting to irrelevant visual patterns that misalign with the task objective. These cases highlight a critical limitation – larger image context can confuse undertrained or improperly aligned VLMs, leading to performance drops. The takeaway message here is that merely accessing visual data is not enough; it’s essential to effectively ground and integrate image features to fully capitalize on the advantages offered by complete image input . Task sensitivity to modality. Some tasks (e.g., remarkable triangle lines, simple circle properties) show dramatic performance gains when moving from text-only to full visual input (e.g., Qwen2.5: from 0.0% on text-only task to 99.0% on full image task on unstable simple circle properties with VL model version). Others (e.g., symmetry) remain relatively stable, indicating that some tasks are more sensitive to modality than others. This uncovers another pattern: benchmarking across modality types reveals where geometry is textually recoverable versus inherently visual. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Math‑specialized text-only models (e.g., Qwen2.5‑Math‑7B‑Instruct) often ignore structured prompts and misformat outputs, performing worse on classification and unstable tasks than general instruction‑tuned peers. This suggests that domain‑specific fine‑tuning can erode broad instruction adherence by overfitting to rigid mathematical formats. Additionally, we note the high standard deviations across task categories (see Table 3 ), which likely reflect the varying difficulty of tasks within each category. Some tasks are straightforward, while others require an understanding of complex geometry and precise calculation of answers, resulting in uneven performance across models. Differences in model capabilities and training objectives also contribute to this variability. Humans breeze through dotted‑image multiple‑choice items, yet struggle with numeric perimeter/area estimates – sometimes scoring below InternVL, Phi‑3.5, and LLaVA‑Mini on ECL tasks. Figure 2: Distribution of model-level performance gaps per task category, comparing ‘text with full image‘ to ‘text with dotted image‘ setups. All F All D C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT D U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT D U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT D U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT D C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST D U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST D Tran DS Config All UF 97.4 58.6 98.0 50.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 48.0 94.0 77.0 93.0 61.0 100.0 68.0 100.0 67.0 94.0 46.0 FF 92.6 61.4 98.0 57.0 100.0 54.0 96.0 54.0 85.0 80.0 68.0 66.0 100.0 78.0 100.0 49.0 94.0 53.0 UD 56.6 83.9 47.0 93.0 79.0 91.0 41.0 61.0 68.0 91.0 56.0 73.0 67.0 93.0 38.0 96.0 57.0 73.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 92.0 51.0 66.0 48.0 59.0 59.0 84.0 43.0 61.0 49.0 84.0 38.0 74.0 59.0 63.0 Separate UF 97.4 58.6 100.0 63.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 49.0 93.0 87.0 95.0 46.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 94.0 51.0 FF 92.6 61.4 99.0 48.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 51.0 88.0 83.0 70.0 58.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 91.0 49.0 UD 56.6 83.9 49.0 95.0 50.0 97.0 51.0 70.0 81.0 93.0 69.0 75.0 68.0 93.0 60.0 99.0 52.0 67.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 82.0 47.0 67.0 49.0 61.0 71.0 87.0 58.0 68.0 77.0 90.0 41.0 89.0 60.0 65.0 Table 4: Linear‑probe accuracy (binary) for models trained jointly (top 4 rows) or per task (bottom 4). Configs: UF/FF = unfrozen/frozen encoder on full images; UD/FD = unfrozen/frozen on dot images. Evaluation tags: BC = basic‑coordinate, CP = circle‑properties, PP = parallelism‑perpendicularity, Sym = symmetry; subscript F/D marks full vs. dot test images. Vision Encoders Linear Probing To measure how much of each geometry task is already linearly separable in contemporary vision embeddings (Alain and Bengio 2017 ) , we carry out 2 stages of linear probing. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. We extract image embeddings with the OpenAI CLIP‑ViT-B/32 encoder (Radford et al. 2021 ) and train a linear classifier on them. For every one of eight binary geometry tasks – collinearity, diameter, semicircle‑triangle, parallelism, perpendicular lines, right angles, shape symmetry, and symmetry points – we generate 10K training and 10K test images. In the multi‑task regime this amounts to 80K training samples. We probe each VLM’s vision backbone and CLIP to assess (i) tasks’ linear separability and (ii) geometric improvements from vision-language pre-training. Four setups are tested: frozen/fine-tuned encoders with full/dot-only images, using linear heads pooling all patch tokens. Training includes task-specific probes (10K samples each), multi-task probes (80K images), and cross-task transfer tests. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. A fine-tuned ViT-B/32 linear probe achieves 97% accuracy on full images but drops to 58% on dot-only tests, showing CLIP’s reliance on global shape cues. Retraining on dots reverses this pattern: 85% on dots, 57% on full images. Effect of freezing. Freezing the backbone costs roughly five points on full images (FF = 92%) and yields the weakest dot performance (FD ∼ \sim 73%), indicating that a small amount of adaptation is important for geometry. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Parallel‑line probes push right‑angle accuracy to 86%, and symmetry probes lift circle‑symmetry to 81%, confirming family‑level transfer. Still, VLMs lag on NoReGeo, implying language training overlooks these geometric cues. Train Dataset Eval Dataset Configs with Accuracy U-SYM-ST C-SYM-SST UD (81.0) U-SYM-ST U-CPR-CDT UD (74.0) C-SYM-SST U-CPR-CDT FF (79.0) C-SYM-SST C-BCT-CT FD (86.0) U-PAP-PLT U-PAP-PT UD (75.0), UD (74.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PLT C-BCT-CT FD( 90.0), FF (78.0) U-PAP-PT C-SYM-SST FF (72.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-PLT UD (90.0), UD (86.0), FD (85.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-RAT UD (80.0), FD (78.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PT U-CPR-CDT UD (83.0), FF (76.0), UF (75.0) U-SCP-STT C-SYM-SST FF (90.0) U-CPR-CDT U-SCP-STT UF (80.0), FF (77.0) C-BCT-CT U-SCP-STT UF (95.0) C-BCT-CT U-CPR-CDT UF (100.0), FF (73.0) Table 5: Linear‐probing training transfer. Conclusion We introduced NoReGeo, a cross-modal benchmark of elementary geometry problems designed to assess whether LLMs and VLMs can answer spatial questions without relying on explicit reasoning. Across more than 45 state-of-the-art models, we find that most struggle with tasks that humans solve through immediate geometric intuition, often producing unnecessary chain-of-thought explanations even when instructed otherwise. In contrast, a frozen vision encoder paired with a simple linear probe performs almost perfectly, indicating that the essential geometric cues are already embedded in visual representations. These findings position NoReGeo as a practical tool for probing latent geometric competence in modern foundation models and for selecting models when fast, geometry-aware inference is required. Looking ahead, we plan to explore how fine-tuning and representation alignment influence generalization across geometric concepts and whether models can be encouraged to develop more robust, human-like geometric intuition. Appendix A Acknowledgments Innopolis University authors were supported by the Research Center of the Artificial Intelligence Institute at Innopolis University. Financial support was provided by the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation (No. 25-139-66879-1-0003). References Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt (2024) Abraham, S. S.; Alirezaie, M.; and Raedt, L. D. 2024. CLEVR-POC: Reasoning-Intensive Visual Question Answering in Partially Observable Environments. arXiv:2403.03203. Alain and Bengio (2017) Alain, G.; and Bengio, Y. 2017. Understanding intermediate layers using linear classifier probes. Bai et al. (2025) Bai, S.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; Song, S.; Dang, K.; Wang, P.; Wang, S.; Tang, J.; et al. 2025. Qwen2. 5-vl technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.13923 . Chen et al. (2024) Chen, L.; Li, J.; Dong, X.; Zhang, P.; Zang, Y.; Chen, Z.; Duan, H.; Wang, J.; Qiao, Y.; Lin, D.; and Zhao, F. 2024. Are We on the Right Way for Evaluating Large Vision-Language Models? arXiv:2403.20330. Chevalier-Boisvert et al. (2019) Chevalier-Boisvert, M.; Bahdanau, D.; Lahlou, S.; Willems, L.; Saharia, C.; Nguyen, T. H.; and Bengio, Y. 2019. BabyAI: A Platform to Study the Sample Efficiency of Grounded Language Learning. arXiv:1810.08272. Dong et al. (2024) Dong, Y.; Ruan, C. F.; Cai, Y.; Lai, R.; Xu, Z.; Zhao, Y.; and Chen, T. 2024. Xgrammar: Flexible and efficient structured generation engine for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.15100 . Gao et al. (2023) Gao, J.; Pi, R.; Zhang, J.; Ye, J.; Zhong, W.; Wang, Y.; Hong, L.; Han, J.; Xu, H.; Li, Z.; et al. 2023. G-llava: Solving geometric problem with multi-modal large language model. arXiv preprint arXiv:2312.11370 . Grattafiori et al. (2024) Grattafiori, A.; Dubey, A.; Jauhri, A.; Pandey, A.; Kadian, A.; Al-Dahle, A.; Letman, A.; Mathur, A.; Schelten, A.; Vaughan, A.; et al. 2024. The llama 3 herd of models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.21783 . Hong et al. (2025) Hong, H.; Qiao, Y.; Wang, S.; Liu, J.; and Wu, Q. 2025. General Scene Adaptation for Vision-and-Language Navigation. arXiv:2501.17403. Jiang et al. (2023) Jiang, A. Q.; Sablayrolles, A.; Mensch, A.; Bamford, C.; Chaplot, D. S.; de las Casas, D.; Bressand, F.; Lengyel, G.; Lample, G.; Saulnier, L.; Lavaud, L. R.; Lachaux, M.-A.; Stock, P.; Scao, T. L.; Lavril, T.; Wang, T.; Lacroix, T.; and Sayed, W. E. 2023. Mistral 7B. arXiv:2310.06825. Kazemi et al. (2024) Kazemi, M.; Alvari, H.; Anand, A.; Wu, J.; Chen, X.; and Soricut, R. 2024. GeomVerse: A Systematic Evaluation of Large Models for Geometric Reasoning. In AI for Math Workshop @ ICML 2024 . Kwon et al. (2023) Kwon, W.; Li, Z.; Zhuang, S.; Sheng, Y.; Zheng, L.; Yu, C. H.; Gonzalez, J. E.; Zhang, H.; and Stoica, I. 2023. Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttention. arXiv:2309.06180. Lu et al. (2024) Lu, P.; Bansal, H.; Xia, T.; Liu, J.; Li, C.; Hajishirzi, H.; Cheng, H.; Chang, K.-W.; Galley, M.; and Gao, J. 2024. MathVista: Evaluating Mathematical Reasoning of Foundation Models in Visual Contexts. arXiv:2310.02255. Lu et al. (2021) Lu, P.; Gong, R.; Jiang, S.; Qiu, L.; Huang, S.; Liang, X.; and Zhu, S.-C. 2021. Inter-GPS: Interpretable Geometry Problem Solving with Formal Language and Symbolic Reasoning. In The 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) . Luo et al. (2025a) Luo, R.; Zheng, Z.; Wang, Y.; Ni, X.; Lin, Z.; Jiang, S.; Yu, Y.; Shi, C.; Chu, R.; Zeng, J.; et al. 2025a. Ursa: Understanding and verifying chain-of-thought reasoning in multimodal mathematics. arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.04686 . Luo et al. (2025b) Luo, S.; Zhu, Z.; Yuan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Shan, L.; and Wu, Y. 2025b. GeoGramBench: Benchmarking the Geometric Program Reasoning in Modern LLMs. arXiv:2505.17653. Ma et al. (2025) Ma, W.; Chen, H.; Zhang, G.; Chou, Y.-C.; de Melo, C. M.; and Yuille, A. 2025. 3DSRBench: A Comprehensive 3D Spatial Reasoning Benchmark. arXiv:2412.07825. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2000. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics . Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ISBN 0-87353-480-8. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers (2010) National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. 2010. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. Accessed: 2025. Peng et al. (2024) Peng, S.; Fu, D.; Gao, L.; Zhong, X.; Fu, H.; and Tang, Z. 2024. Multimath: Bridging visual and mathematical reasoning for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.00147 . Radford et al. (2021) Radford, A.; Kim, J. W.; Hallacy, C.; Ramesh, A.; Goh, G.; Agarwal, S.; Sastry, G.; Askell, A.; Mishkin, P.; Clark, J.; Krueger, G.; and Sutskever, I. 2021. Learning Transferable Visual Models From Natural Language Supervision. arXiv:2103.00020. Rodionov et al. (2025) Rodionov, F.; Eldesokey, A.; Birsak, M.; Femiani, J.; Ghanem, B.; and Wonka, P. 2025. PlanQA: A Benchmark for Spatial Reasoning in LLMs using Structured Representations. arXiv:2507.07644. Shi et al. (2024) Shi, W.; Hu, Z.; Bin, Y.; Liu, J.; Yang, Y.; Ng, S.-K.; Bing, L.; and Lee, R. K.-W. 2024. Math-llava: Bootstrapping mathematical reasoning for multimodal large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.17294 . Shridhar et al. (2020) Shridhar, M.; Thomason, J.; Gordon, D.; Bisk, Y.; Han, W.; Mottaghi, R.; Zettlemoyer, L.; and Fox, D. 2020. ALFRED: A Benchmark for Interpreting Grounded Instructions for Everyday Tasks. arXiv:1912.01734. Team (2024) Team, Q. 2024. Qwen2 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.10671 . Trinh et al. (2024) Trinh, T. H.; Wu, Y.; Le, Q. V.; He, H.; and Luong, T. 2024. Solving olympiad geometry without human demonstrations. Nature , 625(7995): 476–482. Wang et al. (2024) Wang, P.; Bai, S.; Tan, S.; Wang, S.; Fan, Z.; Bai, J.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; et al. 2024. Qwen2-vl: Enhancing vision-language model’s perception of the world at any resolution. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.12191 . Wang et al. (2025) Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhu, W.; and Wang, R. 2025. Do Large Language Models Truly Understand Geometric Structures? In The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations . Willard and Louf (2023) Willard, B. T.; and Louf, R. 2023. Efficient Guided Generation for LLMs. arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.09702 . Yang et al. (2025) Yang, A.; Li, A.; Yang, B.; Zhang, B.; Hui, B.; Zheng, B.; Yu, B.; Gao, C.; Huang, C.; Lv, C.; et al. 2025. Qwen3 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.09388 . Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng (2019) Yang, K.; Russakovsky, O.; and Deng, J. 2019. SpatialSense: An Adversarially Crowdsourced Benchmark for Spatial Relation Recognition. arXiv:1908.02660. Zhang et al. (2024a) Zhang, J.; Li, Z.-Z.; Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; Liu, C.-L.; and Moshfeghi, Y. 2024a. GeoEval: Benchmark for Evaluating LLMs and Multi-Modal Models on Geometry Problem-Solving. In Ku, L.-W.; Martins, A.; and Srikumar, V., eds., Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2024 , 1258–1276. Bangkok, Thailand: Association for Computational Linguistics. Zhang, Yin, and Liu (2023) Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; and Liu, C.-L. 2023. A multi-modal neural geometric solver with textual clauses parsed from diagram. In Proceedings of the Thirty-Second International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence , IJCAI ’23. ISBN 978-1-956792-03-4. Zhang et al. (2024b) Zhang, R.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Lin, H.; Guo, Z.; Qiu, P.; Zhou, A.; Lu, P.; Chang, K.-W.; Gao, P.; and Li, H. 2024b. MathVerse: Does Your Multi-modal LLM Truly See the Diagrams in Visual Math Problems? arXiv:2403.14624. Appendix B Appendix A. Evaluation details and models performance Evaluation protocol. Table 6 lists the system prompts used for every task. All inferences were run at temperature 0 (no sampling) to ensure consistent results. System Prompt You are a highly capable AI assistant with expertise in geometry. You can accurately analyze geometric figures, solve problems. Structuring Prompt Variations [Point answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON with keys: ’x’ and ’y’ for point coordinates. Return only that object. [Number answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is a floating point or integer number. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABC, DEF, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABCD, EFGH, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: median, altitude, bisector. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: yes, no. Return only that object. Table 6: System and answer-structuring prompts used during inference. Detailed model evaluation (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with text-only input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the text-only NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 3: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using only text inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. In this section, we present detailed heatmaps of model performance across all NoReGeo task categories, types and evaluation setups. In addition to the accuracy-based evaluations shown in Figure 3 (a), Figure 4 (a), Figure 5 (a), we include regression-based heatmaps using Mean Squared Error (MSE) to assess the numerical precision of model outputs in tasks requiring quantitative responses: Figure 3 (b), Figure 4 (b) and Figure 5 (b). These plots reveal complementary insights by highlighting cases where models may produce approximately correct values despite low classification accuracy, or vice versa. The MSE metric is particularly informative for tasks with numerical and coordinates answer types, where small deviations from the correct answer carry semantic significance. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + dotted images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + dotted images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 4: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + dotted images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + full images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + full images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 5: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + full images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. Figure 6: Performance gap between full-image and dot-image setups for VLMs. This heatmap shows the difference in Accuracy rate (%) for each task when evaluated with full images vs. dot images, computed as: Accuracy(full) − Accuracy(dot). Blue cells indicate improved performance with full images, red cells indicate a drop. The final row shows the average difference between setups across tasks for each model. As discussed in Main results section, models evaluated with text + full images generally outperform those using text + dotted images across most task types and categories. However, a more detailed analysis is crucial, as the performance gap varies significantly across conceptually different tasks. To capture this variation, we provide a task-level summary of performance differences between the two visual setups in Figure 7 , along with a fine-grained heatmap of model-by-task performance gaps in Figure 6 . Figure 7: Task-level performance difference between the ‘text + full image‘ and ‘text + dot image‘ evaluation setups for VLMs. Appendix C Appendix B. Visual Encoders Experimental Details Architecture and Implementation Our experimental framework employs the OpenAI CLIP-ViT-base-patch32 model as the foundation visual encoder, utilizing its pre-trained representations learned from large-scale image-text pairs. The architecture processes input images at 224×224 resolution with 32×32 patch decomposition, resulting in a sequence of 49 patch tokens plus one classification token. For feature extraction, we implement a linear pooling strategy that aggregates information across all spatial locations. Given the transformer’s output embeddings of dimensionality [ batch_size , 50 , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},50,768] , we apply global flattening to obtain [ batch_size , 38400 ] [\text{batch\_size},38400] and subsequently project through a learnable linear transformation to the original embedding dimension [ batch_size , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},768] . This approach allows the model to learn optimal spatial attention weights rather than relying on fixed pooling strategies. The classification head consists of a single linear layer mapping from the 768-dimensional pooled representation to binary output logits. We systematically evaluate two training regimes: frozen backbone configuration where only the linear layers are optimized, and fine-tuned configuration allowing end-to-end parameter updates throughout the visual encoder. Our implementation leverages PyTorch framework with Hugging Face Transformers library for model instantiation and management. Training is conducted on single GPU with automatic mixed precision to optimize memory utilization and computational efficiency. We employ comprehensive logging through TensorBoard to monitor training dynamics, convergence behavior, and per-task performance metrics throughout the optimization process. Training Configuration All experiments follow a consistent training protocol designed for rapid convergence on geometric perception tasks. We utilize the AdamW optimizer with a conservative learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} and L2 regularization coefficient of 0.01 to prevent overfitting. The training spans 2 epochs with batch size 32, sufficient for convergence given the relatively simple linear classification objective. All experiments were conducted on single A100 (80GB) GPU. Early stopping mechanism monitors validation F1-score, prioritizing model generalization over training loss minimization. Cross-entropy loss serves as the optimization objective for all binary classification tasks. Complete hyperparameter settings are summarized in Table 7 . The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Parameter Value Batch size 32 Epochs 2 Learning rate 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} Weight decay 0.01 Optimizer AdamW Loss function Cross-entropy Early stopping metric Validation F1-score Mixed precision Enabled Table 7: Training hyperparameters for visual encoder probing experiments Complete Results The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Figure 8: Appendix B Table of results for all experiments on ViT model. Appendix D Appendix C. Human Evaluation Protocol Tasks from the NoReGeo benchmark were preprocessed for the Toloka platform. We used the dotted version of the benchmark split; ground truth answers were excluded and stored separately. Training, examination, and control tasks were created for the annotators. The tasks’ creation protocol is given below. • Each page contained 10 tasks, and annotators had 10 minutes to complete a page. • We applied majority voting with an overlap of 10: for each task, votes for all options were tallied. • We computed the same evaluation metrics on the aggregated annotation table as those used for model evaluation. • The average annotator age was 39 years, and the compensation averaged $1 per task page. NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Abstract We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models’ proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs’ ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. Code — Introduction Although modern LLMs excel at symbolic reasoning, they still treat even the simplest spatial relations as formal reasoning problems, producing multi-step chains of thought instead of relying on an intuitive sense of geometry. Ask whether two line segments intersect, and many models unfold a miniature proof rather than making a direct geometric judgment. This gap between symbolic reasoning and intuitive spatial understanding becomes especially limiting in time-critical settings — CAD engines updating thousands of vertices per frame, robots refining grasp trajectories in milliseconds, or geospatial systems performing rapid visibility checks. In such environments, approximate geometric intuition is far more valuable than multi-line chains of thought. Yet current models lack native geometric understanding and must simulate reasoning even for the simplest relations. Existing geometry benchmarks primarily emphasize complex proofs or multi-step algebraic reasoning (Lu et al. 2021 ; Kazemi et al. 2024 ) , conflating two skills: (i) identifying relevant spatial facts and (ii) executing symbolic derivations. To isolate the first skill, we introduce NoReGeo , a benchmark of 2,500 trivially solvable geometry problems across 25 categories. Each item can be answered directly from point locations, without auxiliary constructions, theorems, or lengthy CoT. Every problem appears in both text-only form and a paired diagram, enabling controlled comparisons between text-based LLMs and multimodal vision-language models (VLMs). We evaluate more than 45 frontier and open-source models under both modalities. Even the strongest open-source VLM achieves only ∼ 55 % \sim\!55\% accuracy (Phi3.5-Vision), and the best proprietary model reaches ∼ 65 % \sim\!65\% — well below human performance of ∼ 74.5 % \sim\!74.5\% on the same multiple-choice tasks. These results expose a substantial gap in basic spatial intuition. Further analysis shows that fine-tuning alone does not confer geometric competence, whereas a simple linear probe on a frozen vision encoder solves the tasks almost perfectly — suggesting that geometric features are present in embeddings but are not accessed by current LLM architectures or training regimes. Our contributions are as follows: 1. We motivate and formalize the concept of native geometric understanding as a core capability required for spatially intensive applications. 2. We introduce NoReGeo , the first benchmark explicitly designed to test this ability without chain-of-thought or algebraic computation, comprising 2 500 items across 25 categories in both text and image formats. 3. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of over 45 state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, showing that all fall short of human-level performance on elementary geometric tasks. 4. Through fine-tuning and linear-probing studies, we demonstrate that geometric knowledge exists latently in vision encoders but fails to naturally emerge in current LLM training paradigms. Overall, our findings point to an urgent open problem: bridging the gap between symbolic reasoning and true geometric cognition in future foundation models. Introduction Although modern LLMs excel at symbolic reasoning, they still treat even the simplest spatial relations as formal reasoning problems, producing multi-step chains of thought instead of relying on an intuitive sense of geometry. Ask whether two line segments intersect, and many models unfold a miniature proof rather than making a direct geometric judgment. This gap between symbolic reasoning and intuitive spatial understanding becomes especially limiting in time-critical settings — CAD engines updating thousands of vertices per frame, robots refining grasp trajectories in milliseconds, or geospatial systems performing rapid visibility checks. In such environments, approximate geometric intuition is far more valuable than multi-line chains of thought. Yet current models lack native geometric understanding and must simulate reasoning even for the simplest relations. Existing geometry benchmarks primarily emphasize complex proofs or multi-step algebraic reasoning (Lu et al. 2021 ; Kazemi et al. 2024 ) , conflating two skills: (i) identifying relevant spatial facts and (ii) executing symbolic derivations. To isolate the first skill, we introduce NoReGeo , a benchmark of 2,500 trivially solvable geometry problems across 25 categories. Each item can be answered directly from point locations, without auxiliary constructions, theorems, or lengthy CoT. Every problem appears in both text-only form and a paired diagram, enabling controlled comparisons between text-based LLMs and multimodal vision-language models (VLMs). We evaluate more than 45 frontier and open-source models under both modalities. Even the strongest open-source VLM achieves only ∼ 55 % \sim\!55\% accuracy (Phi3.5-Vision), and the best proprietary model reaches ∼ 65 % \sim\!65\% — well below human performance of ∼ 74.5 % \sim\!74.5\% on the same multiple-choice tasks. These results expose a substantial gap in basic spatial intuition. Further analysis shows that fine-tuning alone does not confer geometric competence, whereas a simple linear probe on a frozen vision encoder solves the tasks almost perfectly — suggesting that geometric features are present in embeddings but are not accessed by current LLM architectures or training regimes. Our contributions are as follows: 1. We motivate and formalize the concept of native geometric understanding as a core capability required for spatially intensive applications. We motivate and formalize the concept of native geometric understanding as a core capability required for spatially intensive applications. 2. We introduce NoReGeo , the first benchmark explicitly designed to test this ability without chain-of-thought or algebraic computation, comprising 2 500 items across 25 categories in both text and image formats. We introduce NoReGeo , the first benchmark explicitly designed to test this ability without chain-of-thought or algebraic computation, comprising 2 500 items across 25 categories in both text and image formats. 3. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of over 45 state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, showing that all fall short of human-level performance on elementary geometric tasks. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of over 45 state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, showing that all fall short of human-level performance on elementary geometric tasks. 4. Through fine-tuning and linear-probing studies, we demonstrate that geometric knowledge exists latently in vision encoders but fails to naturally emerge in current LLM training paradigms. Through fine-tuning and linear-probing studies, we demonstrate that geometric knowledge exists latently in vision encoders but fails to naturally emerge in current LLM training paradigms. Overall, our findings point to an urgent open problem: bridging the gap between symbolic reasoning and true geometric cognition in future foundation models. Related Work Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Vision–language systems must ground textual concepts such as left of or bigger than in a spatial frame of reference. Synthetic VQA benchmarks like CLEVR isolate this ability by rendering scenes of coloured shapes and asking queries that combine Boolean logic with coarse spatial predicates (Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt 2024 ) . Subsequent datasets move toward natural imagery: SpatialSense adversarially mines object pairs (e.g. person–bench ) to evaluate relative positioning (Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng 2019 ) , while 3DSRBench embeds similar relations in RGB-D scans of indoor environments (Ma et al. 2025 ) . Interactive navigation tasks extend spatial grounding to embodied settings: BabyAI and ALFRED require locating, manipulating, and placing objects in simulated rooms (Chevalier-Boisvert et al. 2019 ; Shridhar et al. 2020 ) , and Room-to-Room (R2R) tests natural-language navigation in realistic 3-D reconstructions (Hong et al. 2025 ) . Together, these datasets show that VLMs handle qualitative spatial relations reasonably well, yet they provide little evidence that models encode the fine-grained geometric attributes — distances, angles, midpoints, coordinate relations — needed for the intuitive geometric understanding. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. A parallel line of work examines whether models can solve textbook geometry questions that pair a diagram with natural language. Benchmarks such as Geometry3K (Lu et al. 2021 ) , PGPS-9K (Zhang, Yin, and Liu 2023 ) , MathVista (Lu et al. 2024 ) , MathVerse (Zhang et al. 2024b ) , and GeomVerse (Kazemi et al. 2024 ) collect thousands of K–12 geometry problems, while GeoEval adds a calibrated difficulty ladder and reports that even math-tuned LLMs plateau at ≈ 55 % \approx 55\% accuracy on “regular” items and < 10 % <10\% on Olympiad-level ones (Zhang et al. 2024a ) . Solving these tasks typically requires multi-step reasoning : interpreting diagrams, identifying theorems, and chaining symbolic deductions. As a result, existing evaluations emphasize algebraic manipulation and proof-style solution pipelines — often supported by chain-of-thought prompting, external tools, or full symbolic proof synthesis (e.g. AlphaGeometry (Trinh et al. 2024 ) ) — making it difficult to determine whether models possess any native geometric perception independent of reasoning. Skill-specific probes. To obtain a more targeted diagnostic signal, several recent efforts isolate individual geometric skills. PlanQA presents floor-plan layouts as JSON and asks questions about visibility or shortest paths (Rodionov et al. 2025 ) . GeomRel focuses on detecting equal segments and angles before any numeric computation (Wang et al. 2025 ) , and GeoGramBench converts Asymptote-style code into natural-language questions of varying abstraction (Luo et al. 2025b ) . These benchmarks remove some confounds but still require models to parse code-like input formats or engage in subtle inference — leaving open the question of whether models can make direct, perception-level geometric judgments. The proposed cross-modal NoReGeo benchmark targets single-step, school-level geometry questions (midpoints, area comparisons, collinearity, symmetry tests, and similar micro-skills) that can be answered instantaneously by anyone with basic geometric intuition with no auxiliary constructions, theorem recall, or multi-hop reasoning. By providing both text-only and vision‑augmented variants under a shared output format, NoReGeo enables controlled comparisons between LLMs and VLMs and reveals whether either modality supplies genuine geometric understanding. Because the tasks are synthetic yet curriculum‑aligned , they are unlikely to appear verbatim in pre-training corpora, ensuring that NoReGeo is a genuine test of latent geometric understanding rather than memorization. Thus, our benchmark complements prior work by stripping away reasoning scaffolds and focusing on the bedrock geometric knowledge that more complex systems implicitly assume. Related Work Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Vision–language systems must ground textual concepts such as left of or bigger than in a spatial frame of reference. Synthetic VQA benchmarks like CLEVR isolate this ability by rendering scenes of coloured shapes and asking queries that combine Boolean logic with coarse spatial predicates (Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt 2024 ) . Subsequent datasets move toward natural imagery: SpatialSense adversarially mines object pairs (e.g. person–bench ) to evaluate relative positioning (Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng 2019 ) , while 3DSRBench embeds similar relations in RGB-D scans of indoor environments (Ma et al. 2025 ) . Interactive navigation tasks extend spatial grounding to embodied settings: BabyAI and ALFRED require locating, manipulating, and placing objects in simulated rooms (Chevalier-Boisvert et al. 2019 ; Shridhar et al. 2020 ) , and Room-to-Room (R2R) tests natural-language navigation in realistic 3-D reconstructions (Hong et al. 2025 ) . Together, these datasets show that VLMs handle qualitative spatial relations reasonably well, yet they provide little evidence that models encode the fine-grained geometric attributes — distances, angles, midpoints, coordinate relations — needed for the intuitive geometric understanding. Spatial reasoning in vision–language models. Vision–language systems must ground textual concepts such as left of or bigger than in a spatial frame of reference. Synthetic VQA benchmarks like CLEVR isolate this ability by rendering scenes of coloured shapes and asking queries that combine Boolean logic with coarse spatial predicates (Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt 2024 ) . Subsequent datasets move toward natural imagery: SpatialSense adversarially mines object pairs (e.g. person–bench ) to evaluate relative positioning (Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng 2019 ) , while 3DSRBench embeds similar relations in RGB-D scans of indoor environments (Ma et al. 2025 ) . Interactive navigation tasks extend spatial grounding to embodied settings: BabyAI and ALFRED require locating, manipulating, and placing objects in simulated rooms (Chevalier-Boisvert et al. 2019 ; Shridhar et al. 2020 ) , and Room-to-Room (R2R) tests natural-language navigation in realistic 3-D reconstructions (Hong et al. 2025 ) . Together, these datasets show that VLMs handle qualitative spatial relations reasonably well, yet they provide little evidence that models encode the fine-grained geometric attributes — distances, angles, midpoints, coordinate relations — needed for the intuitive geometric understanding. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. A parallel line of work examines whether models can solve textbook geometry questions that pair a diagram with natural language. Benchmarks such as Geometry3K (Lu et al. 2021 ) , PGPS-9K (Zhang, Yin, and Liu 2023 ) , MathVista (Lu et al. 2024 ) , MathVerse (Zhang et al. 2024b ) , and GeomVerse (Kazemi et al. 2024 ) collect thousands of K–12 geometry problems, while GeoEval adds a calibrated difficulty ladder and reports that even math-tuned LLMs plateau at ≈ 55 % \approx 55\% accuracy on “regular” items and < 10 % <10\% on Olympiad-level ones (Zhang et al. 2024a ) . Solving these tasks typically requires multi-step reasoning : interpreting diagrams, identifying theorems, and chaining symbolic deductions. As a result, existing evaluations emphasize algebraic manipulation and proof-style solution pipelines — often supported by chain-of-thought prompting, external tools, or full symbolic proof synthesis (e.g. AlphaGeometry (Trinh et al. 2024 ) ) — making it difficult to determine whether models possess any native geometric perception independent of reasoning. Geometry word-problem benchmarks. A parallel line of work examines whether models can solve textbook geometry questions that pair a diagram with natural language. Benchmarks such as Geometry3K (Lu et al. 2021 ) , PGPS-9K (Zhang, Yin, and Liu 2023 ) , MathVista (Lu et al. 2024 ) , MathVerse (Zhang et al. 2024b ) , and GeomVerse (Kazemi et al. 2024 ) collect thousands of K–12 geometry problems, while GeoEval adds a calibrated difficulty ladder and reports that even math-tuned LLMs plateau at ≈ 55 % \approx 55\% accuracy on “regular” items and < 10 % <10\% on Olympiad-level ones (Zhang et al. 2024a ) . Solving these tasks typically requires multi-step reasoning : interpreting diagrams, identifying theorems, and chaining symbolic deductions. As a result, existing evaluations emphasize algebraic manipulation and proof-style solution pipelines — often supported by chain-of-thought prompting, external tools, or full symbolic proof synthesis (e.g. AlphaGeometry (Trinh et al. 2024 ) ) — making it difficult to determine whether models possess any native geometric perception independent of reasoning. Skill-specific probes. To obtain a more targeted diagnostic signal, several recent efforts isolate individual geometric skills. PlanQA presents floor-plan layouts as JSON and asks questions about visibility or shortest paths (Rodionov et al. 2025 ) . GeomRel focuses on detecting equal segments and angles before any numeric computation (Wang et al. 2025 ) , and GeoGramBench converts Asymptote-style code into natural-language questions of varying abstraction (Luo et al. 2025b ) . These benchmarks remove some confounds but still require models to parse code-like input formats or engage in subtle inference — leaving open the question of whether models can make direct, perception-level geometric judgments. The proposed cross-modal NoReGeo benchmark targets single-step, school-level geometry questions (midpoints, area comparisons, collinearity, symmetry tests, and similar micro-skills) that can be answered instantaneously by anyone with basic geometric intuition with no auxiliary constructions, theorem recall, or multi-hop reasoning. By providing both text-only and vision‑augmented variants under a shared output format, NoReGeo enables controlled comparisons between LLMs and VLMs and reveals whether either modality supplies genuine geometric understanding. Because the tasks are synthetic yet curriculum‑aligned , they are unlikely to appear verbatim in pre-training corpora, ensuring that NoReGeo is a genuine test of latent geometric understanding rather than memorization. Thus, our benchmark complements prior work by stripping away reasoning scaffolds and focusing on the bedrock geometric knowledge that more complex systems implicitly assume. Skill-specific probes. To obtain a more targeted diagnostic signal, several recent efforts isolate individual geometric skills. PlanQA presents floor-plan layouts as JSON and asks questions about visibility or shortest paths (Rodionov et al. 2025 ) . GeomRel focuses on detecting equal segments and angles before any numeric computation (Wang et al. 2025 ) , and GeoGramBench converts Asymptote-style code into natural-language questions of varying abstraction (Luo et al. 2025b ) . These benchmarks remove some confounds but still require models to parse code-like input formats or engage in subtle inference — leaving open the question of whether models can make direct, perception-level geometric judgments. The proposed cross-modal NoReGeo benchmark targets single-step, school-level geometry questions (midpoints, area comparisons, collinearity, symmetry tests, and similar micro-skills) that can be answered instantaneously by anyone with basic geometric intuition with no auxiliary constructions, theorem recall, or multi-hop reasoning. By providing both text-only and vision‑augmented variants under a shared output format, NoReGeo enables controlled comparisons between LLMs and VLMs and reveals whether either modality supplies genuine geometric understanding. Because the tasks are synthetic yet curriculum‑aligned , they are unlikely to appear verbatim in pre-training corpora, ensuring that NoReGeo is a genuine test of latent geometric understanding rather than memorization. Thus, our benchmark complements prior work by stripping away reasoning scaffolds and focusing on the bedrock geometric knowledge that more complex systems implicitly assume. Benchmark Motivation and Scope The NoReGeo is designed as a cross-modal geometry-based benchmark oriented to probe the foundational geometric competence of modern LLMs and VLMs. The benchmark consists of short prompt–answer pairs in elementary geometry. Each problem is posed as a one‑shot query: the model receives a single prompt and must return an answer immediately, without any chain‑of‑thought or intermediate steps. The benchmark provides two prompt modalities — text‑only questions and their corresponding image‑based versions (where the images are presented in the so-called dotted and full versions). The example of samples from the NoReGeo can be found in Figure 1 . Each problem has a ground-truth answer that is either a numeric value (for quantitative questions, typically an integer or simple fraction; e.g. 90) or a categorical label (for qualitative classification questions; e.g. ”acute” to describe an angle type). There are no elaborate proofs or explanations required – the output is a single final answer. The evaluation metric is straightforward accuracy for multiple-choice questions and soft accuracy (within the [-0.5, 0.5] interval) for numeric ones. High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks During benchmark creation, we followed the typical secondary school geometry curriculum, our benchmark effectively covers content taught from roughly higher school (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010 ; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2000 ) . We have included some foundational topics that are introduced in middle school (for example, basic angle facts or simple constructions from early secondary years) as well as the full suite of high-school geometry topics (Euclidean proofs, circle theorems, introductory trigonometry, etc.) The detailed taxonomy of NoReGeo is given in Table 1 . The benchmark tasks are categorized into three types: Classification , Numeric , and Unstable . Classification tasks (C‑) involve multiple-choice questions, such as identifying polygon areas or symmetry. Numeric tasks (N‑) require numeric values like coordinates or lengths, while Unstable tasks (U‑) involve binary decisions that can change with minimal input variation. Dataset Construction Building on the taxonomy described above, we developed a concise pipeline for synthetic data generation. Each benchmark item is provided either in text-only form or as a multimodal (vision–text) variant combining text with an image. All items in the dataset follow these design rules: • Every vertex uses integer coordinates in the range [ − 20 , 20 ] [-20,20] . When an image is present, the points lie on a Cartesian grid. • In text-only prompts, points are denoted by uppercase letters with their coordinates, e.g. A = ( 2 , 1 ) A=(2,1) . The multimodal format has two variants: (i) an image showing only labeled points (without coordinates labels), with edges implied by the text; or (ii) an image of the complete figure, where the text provides only the question (and any answer options) without listing coordinates. The sample questions are give below. Text-only. Lines A = ( 2 , 1 ) → B = ( 3 , 0 ) A=(2,1)\!\rightarrow\!B=(3,0) and C = ( − 8 , − 1 ) → D = ( 9 , 0 ) C=(-8,-1)\!\rightarrow\!D=(9,0) intersect at what point? Multimodal. Refer to the input image. Where do lines A B AB and C D CD intersect? We split the questions into vision-only and text-only tasks to minimize the influence of the textual prompt on the vision-based tasks, ensuring that coordinates must be read solely from the image that is a significant challenge in modern multimodal benchmarks (Chen et al. 2024 ) . Type Category Task ID Type Sample Question Class. Area comparison parallelogram_size C-ACM-PST MC Parallelograms ABCD and EFGH (vertices given). Which has larger area? triangle_size C-ACM-TST MC Triangles ABC and DEF. Which has larger area? Basic coordinate tasks collinearity C-BCT-CT MC Are points A, B, and C collinear? Symmetry shape_symmetry C-SYM-SST MC Polygon (vertices given): symmetric about Y-axis? Numeric Basic coordinate tasks midpoint N-BCT-MT Coord Find midpoint of segment AB. parallelogram_area N-BCT-PAT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find area. parallelogram_perim N-BCT-PPT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find perimeter. triangle_area N-BCT-TAT Num Triangle ABC: find area. triangle_perim N-BCT-TPT Num Triangle ABC: find perimeter. Elementary calc. intersection N-ECL-IT Coord Lines AB and CD: find intersection point. segment_length N-ECL-SLT Num Segment AB: find length. Geometric transform. reflection N-GTR-RT Coord Reflect point P across X-axis. Find coordinates. rotation_point N-GTR-RPT Coord Rotate point P 90° about origin. Remarkable triangle lines bisector N-RLT-BT Coord Triangle ABC: find B-angle bisector intersection. Simple circle properties inner_circle_center N-SCP-ICCT Coord Triangle ABC: find incircle center. inner_circle_radius N-SCP-ICRT Num Triangle ABC: find incircle radius. outer_circle_center N-SCP-OCCT Coord Triangle ABC: find circumcenter. triangle_type N-SCP-TTT Num Triangle ABC: find triangle type. Unstable Circle properties circle_diameter U-CPR-CDT MC Circle with center O, radius = 3; is AB a diameter? Parallelism parallel_lines U-PAP-PLT MC Are lines AB and CD parallel? and Perpendicularity perpendicular U-PAP-PT MC Are segments AB and CD perpendicular? right_angle U-PAP-RAT MC Is angle ABC a right angle? Remarkable triangle lines special_lines U-RLT-SLT MC Triangle ABC with segment from B to D. Identify the segment. Simple circle properties semicircle_triangle U-SCP-STT MC Is triangle ABC inscribed in a semicircle? Symmetry symmetry U-SYM-ST MC Are points P and Q symmetric about line y=x? Table 1: Overview of the NoReGeo benchmark tasks, organized by question type, geometric category, and specific task. Each task is identified by a structured ID code consisting of: (i) a single-letter type prefix (C: Classification, N: Numeric, U: Unstable), (ii) a three-letter category code, and (iii) a short task name. The benchmark covers a broad range of geometric reasoning tasks including area and perimeter comparison, coordinate calculations, symmetry, triangle centers, and more. As shown in Table 1 , the benchmark maintains a slight emphasis on basic coordinate geometry over symmetry tasks. Notably, there is a significant majority of classification tasks compared to numerical tasks. This design choice prioritizes the evaluation of a model’s ability to recognize geometric properties and apply definitions over pure computation. All problems are solvable through the direct application of fundamental formulas and definitions, making the benchmark a robust tool for assessing core geometric understanding in AI models across both text and vision modalities. Benchmark Motivation and Scope The NoReGeo is designed as a cross-modal geometry-based benchmark oriented to probe the foundational geometric competence of modern LLMs and VLMs. The benchmark consists of short prompt–answer pairs in elementary geometry. Each problem is posed as a one‑shot query: the model receives a single prompt and must return an answer immediately, without any chain‑of‑thought or intermediate steps. The benchmark provides two prompt modalities — text‑only questions and their corresponding image‑based versions (where the images are presented in the so-called dotted and full versions). The example of samples from the NoReGeo can be found in Figure 1 . Each problem has a ground-truth answer that is either a numeric value (for quantitative questions, typically an integer or simple fraction; e.g. 90) or a categorical label (for qualitative classification questions; e.g. ”acute” to describe an angle type). There are no elaborate proofs or explanations required – the output is a single final answer. The evaluation metric is straightforward accuracy for multiple-choice questions and soft accuracy (within the [-0.5, 0.5] interval) for numeric ones. High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks During benchmark creation, we followed the typical secondary school geometry curriculum, our benchmark effectively covers content taught from roughly higher school (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010 ; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2000 ) . We have included some foundational topics that are introduced in middle school (for example, basic angle facts or simple constructions from early secondary years) as well as the full suite of high-school geometry topics (Euclidean proofs, circle theorems, introductory trigonometry, etc.) The detailed taxonomy of NoReGeo is given in Table 1 . The benchmark tasks are categorized into three types: Classification , Numeric , and Unstable . Classification tasks (C‑) involve multiple-choice questions, such as identifying polygon areas or symmetry. Numeric tasks (N‑) require numeric values like coordinates or lengths, while Unstable tasks (U‑) involve binary decisions that can change with minimal input variation. High‑Level Taxonomy of Tasks During benchmark creation, we followed the typical secondary school geometry curriculum, our benchmark effectively covers content taught from roughly higher school (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010 ; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2000 ) . We have included some foundational topics that are introduced in middle school (for example, basic angle facts or simple constructions from early secondary years) as well as the full suite of high-school geometry topics (Euclidean proofs, circle theorems, introductory trigonometry, etc.) The detailed taxonomy of NoReGeo is given in Table 1 . The benchmark tasks are categorized into three types: Classification , Numeric , and Unstable . Classification tasks (C‑) involve multiple-choice questions, such as identifying polygon areas or symmetry. Numeric tasks (N‑) require numeric values like coordinates or lengths, while Unstable tasks (U‑) involve binary decisions that can change with minimal input variation. Dataset Construction Building on the taxonomy described above, we developed a concise pipeline for synthetic data generation. Each benchmark item is provided either in text-only form or as a multimodal (vision–text) variant combining text with an image. All items in the dataset follow these design rules: • Every vertex uses integer coordinates in the range [ − 20 , 20 ] [-20,20] . When an image is present, the points lie on a Cartesian grid. • In text-only prompts, points are denoted by uppercase letters with their coordinates, e.g. A = ( 2 , 1 ) A=(2,1) . The multimodal format has two variants: (i) an image showing only labeled points (without coordinates labels), with edges implied by the text; or (ii) an image of the complete figure, where the text provides only the question (and any answer options) without listing coordinates. The sample questions are give below. Text-only. Lines A = ( 2 , 1 ) → B = ( 3 , 0 ) A=(2,1)\!\rightarrow\!B=(3,0) and C = ( − 8 , − 1 ) → D = ( 9 , 0 ) C=(-8,-1)\!\rightarrow\!D=(9,0) intersect at what point? Multimodal. Refer to the input image. Where do lines A B AB and C D CD intersect? We split the questions into vision-only and text-only tasks to minimize the influence of the textual prompt on the vision-based tasks, ensuring that coordinates must be read solely from the image that is a significant challenge in modern multimodal benchmarks (Chen et al. 2024 ) . Type Category Task ID Type Sample Question Class. Area comparison parallelogram_size C-ACM-PST MC Parallelograms ABCD and EFGH (vertices given). Which has larger area? triangle_size C-ACM-TST MC Triangles ABC and DEF. Which has larger area? Basic coordinate tasks collinearity C-BCT-CT MC Are points A, B, and C collinear? Symmetry shape_symmetry C-SYM-SST MC Polygon (vertices given): symmetric about Y-axis? Numeric Basic coordinate tasks midpoint N-BCT-MT Coord Find midpoint of segment AB. parallelogram_area N-BCT-PAT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find area. parallelogram_perim N-BCT-PPT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find perimeter. triangle_area N-BCT-TAT Num Triangle ABC: find area. triangle_perim N-BCT-TPT Num Triangle ABC: find perimeter. Elementary calc. intersection N-ECL-IT Coord Lines AB and CD: find intersection point. segment_length N-ECL-SLT Num Segment AB: find length. Geometric transform. reflection N-GTR-RT Coord Reflect point P across X-axis. Find coordinates. rotation_point N-GTR-RPT Coord Rotate point P 90° about origin. Remarkable triangle lines bisector N-RLT-BT Coord Triangle ABC: find B-angle bisector intersection. Simple circle properties inner_circle_center N-SCP-ICCT Coord Triangle ABC: find incircle center. inner_circle_radius N-SCP-ICRT Num Triangle ABC: find incircle radius. outer_circle_center N-SCP-OCCT Coord Triangle ABC: find circumcenter. triangle_type N-SCP-TTT Num Triangle ABC: find triangle type. Unstable Circle properties circle_diameter U-CPR-CDT MC Circle with center O, radius = 3; is AB a diameter? Parallelism parallel_lines U-PAP-PLT MC Are lines AB and CD parallel? and Perpendicularity perpendicular U-PAP-PT MC Are segments AB and CD perpendicular? right_angle U-PAP-RAT MC Is angle ABC a right angle? Remarkable triangle lines special_lines U-RLT-SLT MC Triangle ABC with segment from B to D. Identify the segment. Simple circle properties semicircle_triangle U-SCP-STT MC Is triangle ABC inscribed in a semicircle? Symmetry symmetry U-SYM-ST MC Are points P and Q symmetric about line y=x? Table 1: Overview of the NoReGeo benchmark tasks, organized by question type, geometric category, and specific task. Each task is identified by a structured ID code consisting of: (i) a single-letter type prefix (C: Classification, N: Numeric, U: Unstable), (ii) a three-letter category code, and (iii) a short task name. The benchmark covers a broad range of geometric reasoning tasks including area and perimeter comparison, coordinate calculations, symmetry, triangle centers, and more. As shown in Table 1 , the benchmark maintains a slight emphasis on basic coordinate geometry over symmetry tasks. Notably, there is a significant majority of classification tasks compared to numerical tasks. This design choice prioritizes the evaluation of a model’s ability to recognize geometric properties and apply definitions over pure computation. All problems are solvable through the direct application of fundamental formulas and definitions, making the benchmark a robust tool for assessing core geometric understanding in AI models across both text and vision modalities. Dataset Construction Building on the taxonomy described above, we developed a concise pipeline for synthetic data generation. Each benchmark item is provided either in text-only form or as a multimodal (vision–text) variant combining text with an image. All items in the dataset follow these design rules: • Every vertex uses integer coordinates in the range [ − 20 , 20 ] [-20,20] . When an image is present, the points lie on a Cartesian grid. Every vertex uses integer coordinates in the range [ − 20 , 20 ] [-20,20] . When an image is present, the points lie on a Cartesian grid. • In text-only prompts, points are denoted by uppercase letters with their coordinates, e.g. A = ( 2 , 1 ) A=(2,1) . In text-only prompts, points are denoted by uppercase letters with their coordinates, e.g. A = ( 2 , 1 ) A=(2,1) . The multimodal format has two variants: (i) an image showing only labeled points (without coordinates labels), with edges implied by the text; or (ii) an image of the complete figure, where the text provides only the question (and any answer options) without listing coordinates. The sample questions are give below. Text-only. Lines A = ( 2 , 1 ) → B = ( 3 , 0 ) A=(2,1)\!\rightarrow\!B=(3,0) and C = ( − 8 , − 1 ) → D = ( 9 , 0 ) C=(-8,-1)\!\rightarrow\!D=(9,0) intersect at what point? Multimodal. Refer to the input image. Where do lines A B AB and C D CD intersect? We split the questions into vision-only and text-only tasks to minimize the influence of the textual prompt on the vision-based tasks, ensuring that coordinates must be read solely from the image that is a significant challenge in modern multimodal benchmarks (Chen et al. 2024 ) . Type Category Task ID Type Sample Question Class. Area comparison parallelogram_size C-ACM-PST MC Parallelograms ABCD and EFGH (vertices given). Which has larger area? triangle_size C-ACM-TST MC Triangles ABC and DEF. Which has larger area? Basic coordinate tasks collinearity C-BCT-CT MC Are points A, B, and C collinear? Symmetry shape_symmetry C-SYM-SST MC Polygon (vertices given): symmetric about Y-axis? Numeric Basic coordinate tasks midpoint N-BCT-MT Coord Find midpoint of segment AB. parallelogram_area N-BCT-PAT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find area. parallelogram_perim N-BCT-PPT Num Parallelogram ABCD: find perimeter. triangle_area N-BCT-TAT Num Triangle ABC: find area. triangle_perim N-BCT-TPT Num Triangle ABC: find perimeter. Elementary calc. intersection N-ECL-IT Coord Lines AB and CD: find intersection point. segment_length N-ECL-SLT Num Segment AB: find length. Geometric transform. reflection N-GTR-RT Coord Reflect point P across X-axis. Find coordinates. rotation_point N-GTR-RPT Coord Rotate point P 90° about origin. Remarkable triangle lines bisector N-RLT-BT Coord Triangle ABC: find B-angle bisector intersection. Simple circle properties inner_circle_center N-SCP-ICCT Coord Triangle ABC: find incircle center. inner_circle_radius N-SCP-ICRT Num Triangle ABC: find incircle radius. outer_circle_center N-SCP-OCCT Coord Triangle ABC: find circumcenter. triangle_type N-SCP-TTT Num Triangle ABC: find triangle type. Unstable Circle properties circle_diameter U-CPR-CDT MC Circle with center O, radius = 3; is AB a diameter? Parallelism parallel_lines U-PAP-PLT MC Are lines AB and CD parallel? and Perpendicularity perpendicular U-PAP-PT MC Are segments AB and CD perpendicular? right_angle U-PAP-RAT MC Is angle ABC a right angle? Remarkable triangle lines special_lines U-RLT-SLT MC Triangle ABC with segment from B to D. Identify the segment. Simple circle properties semicircle_triangle U-SCP-STT MC Is triangle ABC inscribed in a semicircle? Symmetry symmetry U-SYM-ST MC Are points P and Q symmetric about line y=x? As shown in Table 1 , the benchmark maintains a slight emphasis on basic coordinate geometry over symmetry tasks. Notably, there is a significant majority of classification tasks compared to numerical tasks. This design choice prioritizes the evaluation of a model’s ability to recognize geometric properties and apply definitions over pure computation. All problems are solvable through the direct application of fundamental formulas and definitions, making the benchmark a robust tool for assessing core geometric understanding in AI models across both text and vision modalities. Experiments In this section, we evaluate whether LLMs and VLMs can natively perceive geometric structures and relationships across varying text-to-visual information ratios using our NoReGeo benchmark. Classification Numeric Unstable ACM BCT SYM BCT ECL GTR RLT SCP CPR PAP RLT SCP SYM Text Qwen2.5-3B-In. 69.2 44.0 54.0 3.9 32.3 0.0 98.5 32.2 53.0 47.8 34.5 0.0 46.5 Qwen2.5-7B-In. 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 Qwen3-4B 56.5 61.0 52.0 5.0 17.0 0.0 40.0 36.2 52.0 52.7 31.0 49.0 89.0 Qwen3-8B 58.0 73.0 67.0 6.8 10.7 0.0 4.0 25.8 52.0 53.0 47.0 64.0 91.0 Mistral-Small-In. 57.5 56.0 59.0 3.8 12.0 0.0 3.0 14.5 52.0 45.3 32.0 50.0 79.0 LLaMa-3.1 8B-In. 64.5 51.0 96.0 1.6 9.3 0.0 18.0 15.2 53.0 52.0 40.0 67.0 68.0 LLaMa-3.1 70B-In. 67.0 78.0 97.0 6.4 16.7 0.0 0.0 17.2 97.0 53.7 43.0 52.0 84.0 Text with dotted images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 38.5 54.0 52.0 9.4 35.7 50.5 50.0 57.2 52.0 50.0 76.0 49.0 49.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 40.5 51.0 47.0 3.4 12.3 0.0 1.0 31.5 52.0 48.3 92.0 43.0 50.0 InternVL2.5-8B 34.0 59.0 52.0 18.6 60.7 8.5 28.0 63.0 52.0 43.7 37.0 58.0 46.0 InternVL3-8B 41.0 53.0 52.0 2.8 5.3 0.0 17.0 39.2 52.0 55.7 99.0 51.0 54.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 20.5 62.0 59.0 20.8 56.7 75.0 90.0 43.5 53.0 47.0 29.0 52.0 39.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 40.0 44.0 54.0 7.8 17.0 0.0 2.0 48.5 44.0 50.0 42.0 49.0 53.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 41.5 73.0 52.0 15.4 32.3 1.0 35.0 46.5 52.0 49.3 93.0 55.0 50.0 Human eval 81.5 70.0 72.0 63.0 0.0 5.0 50.0 78.5 88.0 92.0 89.0 81.0 94.0 Text with full images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 66.0 88.0 90.0 81.8 40.0 50.0 16.0 36.0 100.0 55.7 71.0 99.0 86.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 66.5 100.0 99.0 79.0 33.7 0.0 0.0 26.8 100.0 63.0 98.0 99.0 62.0 InternVL2.5-8B 53.5 96.0 67.0 75.6 32.7 1.5 10.0 44.0 73.0 50.7 41.0 88.0 60.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 52.5 88.0 86.0 77.0 31.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 97.0 64.0 63.0 96.0 57.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 50.0 99.0 100.0 57.6 39.3 0.0 13.0 41.8 65.0 52.3 94.0 100.0 62.0 Table 2: Accuracy (%) of selected models on each benchmark task category across three setups: text-only, text with dotted and full images. Bold indicates best per setup, italic – second-best, and underlined shows overall best across all setups. Task category Text-only Text with dot images Text with full images Area comparison (ACM) 55.1 ± 19.1 33.6 ± 10.2 50.6 ± 23.5 Basic coordinate tasks (BCT) 32.4 ± 39.5 19.2 ± 25.9 53.4 ± 42.8 Circle properties (CPR) 59.4 ± 22.3 51.5 ± 4.6 71.0 ± 32.3 Elementary calculations (ECL) 26.1 ± 36.6 38.3 ± 35.9 33.7 ± 37.9 Geometric transformations (GTR) 12.1 ± 31.2 27.9 ± 36.6 18.6 ± 34.6 Parallelism and Perpendicularity (PAR) 51.6 ± 15.6 48.8 ± 9.1 49.7 ± 20.1 Remarkable lines of a triangle (RLT) 32.8 ± 30.9 57.3 ± 31.4 42.8 ± 37.0 Simple circle properties (SCP) 35.2 ± 34.4 47.6 ± 28.2 39.4 ± 30.9 Symmetry (SYM) 65.4 ± 19.6 50.0 ± 8.3 68.9 ± 27.5 Table 3: Average accuracy (%) and standard deviation across models for each task category under different evaluation setups. Experimental Setup Models and Implementation. We selected a broad range of state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, including both proprietary and open-source models, to capture representative examples of current capabilities. Our model selection also allows us to analyze trends across model generations and explore the effect of model scale on geometric and multimodal reasoning. In total, we evaluated over 45 models. Proprietary API-based models include GPT-4.1, GPT-4.1-Mini, and GPT-4.1-Nano. Open-source models span the Qwen series (Qwen2, Qwen2.5 (Team 2024 ) and Qwen3 (Yang et al. 2025 ) , along with multimodal variants Qwen2-VL (Wang et al. 2024 ) and Qwen2.5-VL (Bai et al. 2025 ) ), the LLaMA-3.1 series (Grattafiori et al. 2024 ) , and Mistral models (Jiang et al. 2023 ) (including versions with math-specific pretraining), among others. Additionally, we evaluated math-specific VLMs, including the G-LLaVA (Gao et al. 2023 ) , URSA (Luo et al. 2025a ) , Math-LLaVA (Shi et al. 2024 ) , and Multimath-7B-LLaVA-v1.5 (Peng et al. 2024 ) , to contrast general-purpose and specialized models. To ensure consistency across models, we standardized generation settings: fixed random seed, temperature set to 0.6, and a maximum output length of 2048 tokens. For instruction-tuned models, we used their native chat templates and applied a unified system prompt. Evaluation Scheme. We focus on each model’s direct-answer capability - its ability to solve tasks without producing intermediate reasoning steps. To enforce structured output and prevent unsolicited reasoning, we applied a structured generation approach. Each task specifies a JSON-formatted response template based on the expected answer type (e.g., multiple choice, numeric value, or coordinate point). This structure is communicated to the model through a structure prompt appended to each question. We implemented this setup using the Outlines (Willard and Louf 2023 ) and xgrammar (Dong et al. 2024 ) libraries, which convert expected JSON structures into regular expressions. These are compiled into finite state machines that bias model generation by modifying logits. For efficient model serving, we used the VLLM library (Kwon et al. 2023 ) . Evaluation Metrics & Policy. We evaluated the capabilities of LLMs and VLMs by comparing generated and reference answers using the accuracy metric. For multiple-choice tasks, answers were considered to match if they were an exact match for one of the generated answer options. For numerical and coordinate answers, we defined a tolerable error interval of 0.5, identical to the grid step in visualizations of geometric problems. Numerical answers and point coordinates were considered correct if they met the following criteria: a) they were valid numbers; b) they fell within the interval [reference answer - 0.5, reference answer + 0.5]. Regarding point coordinates, both coordinates of the answer point also had to be correct according to the numerical answer criteria mentioned above. To gain a more detailed understanding of error magnitude in cases involving numerical answers, we calculated regression metrics (mean squared error, MSE) for tasks where the answer was either a number or a point. If the answer did not match the required format — if it was not valid JSON, included an additional reasoning trail, or lacked the correct answer fields in JSON — we marked it as incorrect and awarded no credit, even if the answer was mathematically correct. This strict policy isolates a model’s geometric competence from its propensity to reveal private reasoning. Human Evaluation For the dotted image format, we also conducted a human evaluation to assess how accurately humans can solve these tasks. The human baseline was obtained using the Toloka platform. Annotators completed training, examination, and control tasks, with 10 tasks per page and 10 minutes allowed per page. Each task was answered by three crowd workers, and majority voting was used to aggregate responses. Participants were instructed not to use external resources; the only aid was the task’s dotted-format overlay. The average annotator age was 39 years, with compensation of approximately $1 per page. Main results General performance. There is a significant disparity in the extent to which different models comprehend geometry and leverage cross-modal relations. Table 2 shows the average quality of a few representative LLMs and VLMs across task categories. Table 3 shows the average quality of problem solving across all evaluated models within task categories, taking into account the standard deviation. Based on these results, we draw several key conclusions. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Models evaluated with text and full images consistently outperform both text-only and text with dotted images settings across nearly all task types and categories. For example, Qwen2.5-VL-7B-Instruct reaches 100% accuracy on several classification and unstable tasks (basic coordinate tasks, symmetry, circle properties) when provided with full image input, compared to much lower scores in the dotted-image setup. It also shows markedly improved performance on numerically intensive tasks such as basic coordinate tasks (79.0%) and elementary calculations (33.7%), which are typically challenging across the board. This strong overall trend is visualized in Figure 2 , where most task categories exhibit substantial positive accuracy gaps favoring full images. The largest average gains occur in tasks involving curved shapes and global geometry, such as Area comparison (ACM), Basic Coordinates Tasks (BCT) and Circle Properties (CPR). By contrast, linear or axis-aligned tasks, such as Parallelism, Perpendicularity, or Geometric Transformations (GTR), show minimal or no improvement between dotted and full visual input. This suggests that dots-only representations already encode sufficient information for solving simpler spatial alignment problems. A closer task-level breakdown further reinforces this distinction: while some tasks yield dramatic gains of +40–100% when full images are provided, others exhibit near-zero or even negative improvements. These findings demonstrate that high-fidelity visual input is essential for activating geometric reasoning in current VLMs. While sparse or dotted stimuli may suffice for simple linear tasks, they fall short for complex shape recognition and spatial inference , underscoring the need for more expressive and grounded visual processing in geometric reasoning benchmarks. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Figure 2 shows the gain from dots to full images. InternVL‑2.5‑1B and Qwen2‑VL‑Instruct improve consistently, whereas InternVL‑3, G‑LLaVA‑13, and URSA gain little or regress, signaling weak visual grounding or instruction‑following most pronounced on numeric items. This phenomenon may correlate with several factors: poor handling of large or complex images, degraded adherence to structured prompts in multimodal settings, or overfitting to irrelevant visual patterns that misalign with the task objective. These cases highlight a critical limitation – larger image context can confuse undertrained or improperly aligned VLMs, leading to performance drops. The takeaway message here is that merely accessing visual data is not enough; it’s essential to effectively ground and integrate image features to fully capitalize on the advantages offered by complete image input . Task sensitivity to modality. Some tasks (e.g., remarkable triangle lines, simple circle properties) show dramatic performance gains when moving from text-only to full visual input (e.g., Qwen2.5: from 0.0% on text-only task to 99.0% on full image task on unstable simple circle properties with VL model version). Others (e.g., symmetry) remain relatively stable, indicating that some tasks are more sensitive to modality than others. This uncovers another pattern: benchmarking across modality types reveals where geometry is textually recoverable versus inherently visual. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Math‑specialized text-only models (e.g., Qwen2.5‑Math‑7B‑Instruct) often ignore structured prompts and misformat outputs, performing worse on classification and unstable tasks than general instruction‑tuned peers. This suggests that domain‑specific fine‑tuning can erode broad instruction adherence by overfitting to rigid mathematical formats. Additionally, we note the high standard deviations across task categories (see Table 3 ), which likely reflect the varying difficulty of tasks within each category. Some tasks are straightforward, while others require an understanding of complex geometry and precise calculation of answers, resulting in uneven performance across models. Differences in model capabilities and training objectives also contribute to this variability. Humans breeze through dotted‑image multiple‑choice items, yet struggle with numeric perimeter/area estimates – sometimes scoring below InternVL, Phi‑3.5, and LLaVA‑Mini on ECL tasks. Figure 2: Distribution of model-level performance gaps per task category, comparing ‘text with full image‘ to ‘text with dotted image‘ setups. All F All D C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT D U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT D U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT D U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT D C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST D U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST D Tran DS Config All UF 97.4 58.6 98.0 50.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 48.0 94.0 77.0 93.0 61.0 100.0 68.0 100.0 67.0 94.0 46.0 FF 92.6 61.4 98.0 57.0 100.0 54.0 96.0 54.0 85.0 80.0 68.0 66.0 100.0 78.0 100.0 49.0 94.0 53.0 UD 56.6 83.9 47.0 93.0 79.0 91.0 41.0 61.0 68.0 91.0 56.0 73.0 67.0 93.0 38.0 96.0 57.0 73.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 92.0 51.0 66.0 48.0 59.0 59.0 84.0 43.0 61.0 49.0 84.0 38.0 74.0 59.0 63.0 Separate UF 97.4 58.6 100.0 63.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 49.0 93.0 87.0 95.0 46.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 94.0 51.0 FF 92.6 61.4 99.0 48.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 51.0 88.0 83.0 70.0 58.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 91.0 49.0 UD 56.6 83.9 49.0 95.0 50.0 97.0 51.0 70.0 81.0 93.0 69.0 75.0 68.0 93.0 60.0 99.0 52.0 67.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 82.0 47.0 67.0 49.0 61.0 71.0 87.0 58.0 68.0 77.0 90.0 41.0 89.0 60.0 65.0 Table 4: Linear‑probe accuracy (binary) for models trained jointly (top 4 rows) or per task (bottom 4). Configs: UF/FF = unfrozen/frozen encoder on full images; UD/FD = unfrozen/frozen on dot images. Evaluation tags: BC = basic‑coordinate, CP = circle‑properties, PP = parallelism‑perpendicularity, Sym = symmetry; subscript F/D marks full vs. dot test images. Vision Encoders Linear Probing To measure how much of each geometry task is already linearly separable in contemporary vision embeddings (Alain and Bengio 2017 ) , we carry out 2 stages of linear probing. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. We extract image embeddings with the OpenAI CLIP‑ViT-B/32 encoder (Radford et al. 2021 ) and train a linear classifier on them. For every one of eight binary geometry tasks – collinearity, diameter, semicircle‑triangle, parallelism, perpendicular lines, right angles, shape symmetry, and symmetry points – we generate 10K training and 10K test images. In the multi‑task regime this amounts to 80K training samples. We probe each VLM’s vision backbone and CLIP to assess (i) tasks’ linear separability and (ii) geometric improvements from vision-language pre-training. Four setups are tested: frozen/fine-tuned encoders with full/dot-only images, using linear heads pooling all patch tokens. Training includes task-specific probes (10K samples each), multi-task probes (80K images), and cross-task transfer tests. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. A fine-tuned ViT-B/32 linear probe achieves 97% accuracy on full images but drops to 58% on dot-only tests, showing CLIP’s reliance on global shape cues. Retraining on dots reverses this pattern: 85% on dots, 57% on full images. Effect of freezing. Freezing the backbone costs roughly five points on full images (FF = 92%) and yields the weakest dot performance (FD ∼ \sim 73%), indicating that a small amount of adaptation is important for geometry. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Parallel‑line probes push right‑angle accuracy to 86%, and symmetry probes lift circle‑symmetry to 81%, confirming family‑level transfer. Still, VLMs lag on NoReGeo, implying language training overlooks these geometric cues. Train Dataset Eval Dataset Configs with Accuracy U-SYM-ST C-SYM-SST UD (81.0) U-SYM-ST U-CPR-CDT UD (74.0) C-SYM-SST U-CPR-CDT FF (79.0) C-SYM-SST C-BCT-CT FD (86.0) U-PAP-PLT U-PAP-PT UD (75.0), UD (74.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PLT C-BCT-CT FD( 90.0), FF (78.0) U-PAP-PT C-SYM-SST FF (72.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-PLT UD (90.0), UD (86.0), FD (85.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-RAT UD (80.0), FD (78.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PT U-CPR-CDT UD (83.0), FF (76.0), UF (75.0) U-SCP-STT C-SYM-SST FF (90.0) U-CPR-CDT U-SCP-STT UF (80.0), FF (77.0) C-BCT-CT U-SCP-STT UF (95.0) C-BCT-CT U-CPR-CDT UF (100.0), FF (73.0) Table 5: Linear‐probing training transfer. Experiments In this section, we evaluate whether LLMs and VLMs can natively perceive geometric structures and relationships across varying text-to-visual information ratios using our NoReGeo benchmark. Classification Numeric Unstable ACM BCT SYM BCT ECL GTR RLT SCP CPR PAP RLT SCP SYM Text Qwen2.5-3B-In. 69.2 44.0 54.0 3.9 32.3 0.0 98.5 32.2 53.0 47.8 34.5 0.0 46.5 Qwen2.5-7B-In. 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 Qwen3-4B 56.5 61.0 52.0 5.0 17.0 0.0 40.0 36.2 52.0 52.7 31.0 49.0 89.0 Qwen3-8B 58.0 73.0 67.0 6.8 10.7 0.0 4.0 25.8 52.0 53.0 47.0 64.0 91.0 Mistral-Small-In. Mistral-Small-In. 57.5 56.0 59.0 3.8 12.0 0.0 3.0 14.5 52.0 45.3 32.0 50.0 79.0 LLaMa-3.1 8B-In. LLaMa-3.1 8B-In. 64.5 51.0 96.0 1.6 9.3 0.0 18.0 15.2 53.0 52.0 40.0 67.0 68.0 LLaMa-3.1 70B-In. LLaMa-3.1 70B-In. 67.0 78.0 97.0 6.4 16.7 0.0 0.0 17.2 97.0 53.7 43.0 52.0 84.0 Text with dotted images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 38.5 54.0 52.0 9.4 35.7 50.5 50.0 57.2 52.0 50.0 76.0 49.0 49.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 40.5 51.0 47.0 3.4 12.3 0.0 1.0 31.5 52.0 48.3 92.0 43.0 50.0 InternVL2.5-8B 34.0 59.0 52.0 18.6 60.7 8.5 28.0 63.0 52.0 43.7 37.0 58.0 46.0 InternVL3-8B 41.0 53.0 52.0 2.8 5.3 0.0 17.0 39.2 52.0 55.7 99.0 51.0 54.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 20.5 62.0 59.0 20.8 56.7 75.0 90.0 43.5 53.0 47.0 29.0 52.0 39.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 40.0 44.0 54.0 7.8 17.0 0.0 2.0 48.5 44.0 50.0 42.0 49.0 53.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 41.5 73.0 52.0 15.4 32.3 1.0 35.0 46.5 52.0 49.3 93.0 55.0 50.0 Human eval 81.5 70.0 72.0 63.0 0.0 5.0 50.0 78.5 88.0 92.0 89.0 81.0 94.0 Text with full images Qwen2-VL-7B-In. 66.0 88.0 90.0 81.8 40.0 50.0 16.0 36.0 100.0 55.7 71.0 99.0 86.0 Qwen2.5-VL-7B-In. 66.5 100.0 99.0 79.0 33.7 0.0 0.0 26.8 100.0 63.0 98.0 99.0 62.0 InternVL2.5-8B 53.5 96.0 67.0 75.6 32.7 1.5 10.0 44.0 73.0 50.7 41.0 88.0 60.0 LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) LLaVA-Mini (LLaMA-8B) 24.5 52.0 57.0 5.6 12.7 92.0 99.0 21.2 6.0 21.3 22.0 7.0 47.0 MiniCPM-o-2.6 52.5 88.0 86.0 77.0 31.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 97.0 64.0 63.0 96.0 57.0 Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. Phi-3.5-Vis.-In. 50.0 99.0 100.0 57.6 39.3 0.0 13.0 41.8 65.0 52.3 94.0 100.0 62.0 Task category Text-only Text with dot images Text with full images Area comparison (ACM) 55.1 ± 19.1 33.6 ± 10.2 50.6 ± 23.5 Basic coordinate tasks (BCT) 32.4 ± 39.5 19.2 ± 25.9 53.4 ± 42.8 Circle properties (CPR) 59.4 ± 22.3 51.5 ± 4.6 71.0 ± 32.3 Elementary calculations (ECL) 26.1 ± 36.6 38.3 ± 35.9 33.7 ± 37.9 Geometric transformations (GTR) 12.1 ± 31.2 27.9 ± 36.6 18.6 ± 34.6 Parallelism and Perpendicularity (PAR) 51.6 ± 15.6 48.8 ± 9.1 49.7 ± 20.1 Remarkable lines of a triangle (RLT) 32.8 ± 30.9 57.3 ± 31.4 42.8 ± 37.0 Simple circle properties (SCP) 35.2 ± 34.4 47.6 ± 28.2 39.4 ± 30.9 Symmetry (SYM) 65.4 ± 19.6 50.0 ± 8.3 68.9 ± 27.5 Experimental Setup Models and Implementation. We selected a broad range of state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, including both proprietary and open-source models, to capture representative examples of current capabilities. Our model selection also allows us to analyze trends across model generations and explore the effect of model scale on geometric and multimodal reasoning. In total, we evaluated over 45 models. Proprietary API-based models include GPT-4.1, GPT-4.1-Mini, and GPT-4.1-Nano. Open-source models span the Qwen series (Qwen2, Qwen2.5 (Team 2024 ) and Qwen3 (Yang et al. 2025 ) , along with multimodal variants Qwen2-VL (Wang et al. 2024 ) and Qwen2.5-VL (Bai et al. 2025 ) ), the LLaMA-3.1 series (Grattafiori et al. 2024 ) , and Mistral models (Jiang et al. 2023 ) (including versions with math-specific pretraining), among others. Additionally, we evaluated math-specific VLMs, including the G-LLaVA (Gao et al. 2023 ) , URSA (Luo et al. 2025a ) , Math-LLaVA (Shi et al. 2024 ) , and Multimath-7B-LLaVA-v1.5 (Peng et al. 2024 ) , to contrast general-purpose and specialized models. To ensure consistency across models, we standardized generation settings: fixed random seed, temperature set to 0.6, and a maximum output length of 2048 tokens. For instruction-tuned models, we used their native chat templates and applied a unified system prompt. Evaluation Scheme. We focus on each model’s direct-answer capability - its ability to solve tasks without producing intermediate reasoning steps. To enforce structured output and prevent unsolicited reasoning, we applied a structured generation approach. Each task specifies a JSON-formatted response template based on the expected answer type (e.g., multiple choice, numeric value, or coordinate point). This structure is communicated to the model through a structure prompt appended to each question. We implemented this setup using the Outlines (Willard and Louf 2023 ) and xgrammar (Dong et al. 2024 ) libraries, which convert expected JSON structures into regular expressions. These are compiled into finite state machines that bias model generation by modifying logits. For efficient model serving, we used the VLLM library (Kwon et al. 2023 ) . Evaluation Metrics & Policy. We evaluated the capabilities of LLMs and VLMs by comparing generated and reference answers using the accuracy metric. For multiple-choice tasks, answers were considered to match if they were an exact match for one of the generated answer options. For numerical and coordinate answers, we defined a tolerable error interval of 0.5, identical to the grid step in visualizations of geometric problems. Numerical answers and point coordinates were considered correct if they met the following criteria: a) they were valid numbers; b) they fell within the interval [reference answer - 0.5, reference answer + 0.5]. Regarding point coordinates, both coordinates of the answer point also had to be correct according to the numerical answer criteria mentioned above. To gain a more detailed understanding of error magnitude in cases involving numerical answers, we calculated regression metrics (mean squared error, MSE) for tasks where the answer was either a number or a point. If the answer did not match the required format — if it was not valid JSON, included an additional reasoning trail, or lacked the correct answer fields in JSON — we marked it as incorrect and awarded no credit, even if the answer was mathematically correct. This strict policy isolates a model’s geometric competence from its propensity to reveal private reasoning. Human Evaluation For the dotted image format, we also conducted a human evaluation to assess how accurately humans can solve these tasks. The human baseline was obtained using the Toloka platform. Annotators completed training, examination, and control tasks, with 10 tasks per page and 10 minutes allowed per page. Each task was answered by three crowd workers, and majority voting was used to aggregate responses. Participants were instructed not to use external resources; the only aid was the task’s dotted-format overlay. The average annotator age was 39 years, with compensation of approximately $1 per page. Experimental Setup Models and Implementation. We selected a broad range of state-of-the-art LLMs and VLMs, including both proprietary and open-source models, to capture representative examples of current capabilities. Our model selection also allows us to analyze trends across model generations and explore the effect of model scale on geometric and multimodal reasoning. In total, we evaluated over 45 models. Proprietary API-based models include GPT-4.1, GPT-4.1-Mini, and GPT-4.1-Nano. Open-source models span the Qwen series (Qwen2, Qwen2.5 (Team 2024 ) and Qwen3 (Yang et al. 2025 ) , along with multimodal variants Qwen2-VL (Wang et al. 2024 ) and Qwen2.5-VL (Bai et al. 2025 ) ), the LLaMA-3.1 series (Grattafiori et al. 2024 ) , and Mistral models (Jiang et al. 2023 ) (including versions with math-specific pretraining), among others. Additionally, we evaluated math-specific VLMs, including the G-LLaVA (Gao et al. 2023 ) , URSA (Luo et al. 2025a ) , Math-LLaVA (Shi et al. 2024 ) , and Multimath-7B-LLaVA-v1.5 (Peng et al. 2024 ) , to contrast general-purpose and specialized models. To ensure consistency across models, we standardized generation settings: fixed random seed, temperature set to 0.6, and a maximum output length of 2048 tokens. For instruction-tuned models, we used their native chat templates and applied a unified system prompt. Evaluation Scheme. We focus on each model’s direct-answer capability - its ability to solve tasks without producing intermediate reasoning steps. To enforce structured output and prevent unsolicited reasoning, we applied a structured generation approach. Each task specifies a JSON-formatted response template based on the expected answer type (e.g., multiple choice, numeric value, or coordinate point). This structure is communicated to the model through a structure prompt appended to each question. We implemented this setup using the Outlines (Willard and Louf 2023 ) and xgrammar (Dong et al. 2024 ) libraries, which convert expected JSON structures into regular expressions. These are compiled into finite state machines that bias model generation by modifying logits. For efficient model serving, we used the VLLM library (Kwon et al. 2023 ) . Evaluation Metrics & Policy. We evaluated the capabilities of LLMs and VLMs by comparing generated and reference answers using the accuracy metric. For multiple-choice tasks, answers were considered to match if they were an exact match for one of the generated answer options. For numerical and coordinate answers, we defined a tolerable error interval of 0.5, identical to the grid step in visualizations of geometric problems. Numerical answers and point coordinates were considered correct if they met the following criteria: a) they were valid numbers; b) they fell within the interval [reference answer - 0.5, reference answer + 0.5]. Regarding point coordinates, both coordinates of the answer point also had to be correct according to the numerical answer criteria mentioned above. To gain a more detailed understanding of error magnitude in cases involving numerical answers, we calculated regression metrics (mean squared error, MSE) for tasks where the answer was either a number or a point. If the answer did not match the required format — if it was not valid JSON, included an additional reasoning trail, or lacked the correct answer fields in JSON — we marked it as incorrect and awarded no credit, even if the answer was mathematically correct. This strict policy isolates a model’s geometric competence from its propensity to reveal private reasoning. Human Evaluation For the dotted image format, we also conducted a human evaluation to assess how accurately humans can solve these tasks. The human baseline was obtained using the Toloka platform. Annotators completed training, examination, and control tasks, with 10 tasks per page and 10 minutes allowed per page. Each task was answered by three crowd workers, and majority voting was used to aggregate responses. Participants were instructed not to use external resources; the only aid was the task’s dotted-format overlay. The average annotator age was 39 years, with compensation of approximately $1 per page. Human Evaluation For the dotted image format, we also conducted a human evaluation to assess how accurately humans can solve these tasks. The human baseline was obtained using the Toloka platform. Annotators completed training, examination, and control tasks, with 10 tasks per page and 10 minutes allowed per page. Each task was answered by three crowd workers, and majority voting was used to aggregate responses. Participants were instructed not to use external resources; the only aid was the task’s dotted-format overlay. The average annotator age was 39 years, with compensation of approximately $1 per page. Main results General performance. There is a significant disparity in the extent to which different models comprehend geometry and leverage cross-modal relations. Table 2 shows the average quality of a few representative LLMs and VLMs across task categories. Table 3 shows the average quality of problem solving across all evaluated models within task categories, taking into account the standard deviation. Based on these results, we draw several key conclusions. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Models evaluated with text and full images consistently outperform both text-only and text with dotted images settings across nearly all task types and categories. For example, Qwen2.5-VL-7B-Instruct reaches 100% accuracy on several classification and unstable tasks (basic coordinate tasks, symmetry, circle properties) when provided with full image input, compared to much lower scores in the dotted-image setup. It also shows markedly improved performance on numerically intensive tasks such as basic coordinate tasks (79.0%) and elementary calculations (33.7%), which are typically challenging across the board. This strong overall trend is visualized in Figure 2 , where most task categories exhibit substantial positive accuracy gaps favoring full images. The largest average gains occur in tasks involving curved shapes and global geometry, such as Area comparison (ACM), Basic Coordinates Tasks (BCT) and Circle Properties (CPR). By contrast, linear or axis-aligned tasks, such as Parallelism, Perpendicularity, or Geometric Transformations (GTR), show minimal or no improvement between dotted and full visual input. This suggests that dots-only representations already encode sufficient information for solving simpler spatial alignment problems. A closer task-level breakdown further reinforces this distinction: while some tasks yield dramatic gains of +40–100% when full images are provided, others exhibit near-zero or even negative improvements. These findings demonstrate that high-fidelity visual input is essential for activating geometric reasoning in current VLMs. While sparse or dotted stimuli may suffice for simple linear tasks, they fall short for complex shape recognition and spatial inference , underscoring the need for more expressive and grounded visual processing in geometric reasoning benchmarks. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Figure 2 shows the gain from dots to full images. InternVL‑2.5‑1B and Qwen2‑VL‑Instruct improve consistently, whereas InternVL‑3, G‑LLaVA‑13, and URSA gain little or regress, signaling weak visual grounding or instruction‑following most pronounced on numeric items. This phenomenon may correlate with several factors: poor handling of large or complex images, degraded adherence to structured prompts in multimodal settings, or overfitting to irrelevant visual patterns that misalign with the task objective. These cases highlight a critical limitation – larger image context can confuse undertrained or improperly aligned VLMs, leading to performance drops. The takeaway message here is that merely accessing visual data is not enough; it’s essential to effectively ground and integrate image features to fully capitalize on the advantages offered by complete image input . Task sensitivity to modality. Some tasks (e.g., remarkable triangle lines, simple circle properties) show dramatic performance gains when moving from text-only to full visual input (e.g., Qwen2.5: from 0.0% on text-only task to 99.0% on full image task on unstable simple circle properties with VL model version). Others (e.g., symmetry) remain relatively stable, indicating that some tasks are more sensitive to modality than others. This uncovers another pattern: benchmarking across modality types reveals where geometry is textually recoverable versus inherently visual. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Math‑specialized text-only models (e.g., Qwen2.5‑Math‑7B‑Instruct) often ignore structured prompts and misformat outputs, performing worse on classification and unstable tasks than general instruction‑tuned peers. This suggests that domain‑specific fine‑tuning can erode broad instruction adherence by overfitting to rigid mathematical formats. Additionally, we note the high standard deviations across task categories (see Table 3 ), which likely reflect the varying difficulty of tasks within each category. Some tasks are straightforward, while others require an understanding of complex geometry and precise calculation of answers, resulting in uneven performance across models. Differences in model capabilities and training objectives also contribute to this variability. Humans breeze through dotted‑image multiple‑choice items, yet struggle with numeric perimeter/area estimates – sometimes scoring below InternVL, Phi‑3.5, and LLaVA‑Mini on ECL tasks. Figure 2: Distribution of model-level performance gaps per task category, comparing ‘text with full image‘ to ‘text with dotted image‘ setups. All F All D C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT D U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT D U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT D U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT D C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST D U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST D Tran DS Config All UF 97.4 58.6 98.0 50.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 48.0 94.0 77.0 93.0 61.0 100.0 68.0 100.0 67.0 94.0 46.0 FF 92.6 61.4 98.0 57.0 100.0 54.0 96.0 54.0 85.0 80.0 68.0 66.0 100.0 78.0 100.0 49.0 94.0 53.0 UD 56.6 83.9 47.0 93.0 79.0 91.0 41.0 61.0 68.0 91.0 56.0 73.0 67.0 93.0 38.0 96.0 57.0 73.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 92.0 51.0 66.0 48.0 59.0 59.0 84.0 43.0 61.0 49.0 84.0 38.0 74.0 59.0 63.0 Separate UF 97.4 58.6 100.0 63.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 49.0 93.0 87.0 95.0 46.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 94.0 51.0 FF 92.6 61.4 99.0 48.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 51.0 88.0 83.0 70.0 58.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 91.0 49.0 UD 56.6 83.9 49.0 95.0 50.0 97.0 51.0 70.0 81.0 93.0 69.0 75.0 68.0 93.0 60.0 99.0 52.0 67.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 82.0 47.0 67.0 49.0 61.0 71.0 87.0 58.0 68.0 77.0 90.0 41.0 89.0 60.0 65.0 Table 4: Linear‑probe accuracy (binary) for models trained jointly (top 4 rows) or per task (bottom 4). Configs: UF/FF = unfrozen/frozen encoder on full images; UD/FD = unfrozen/frozen on dot images. Evaluation tags: BC = basic‑coordinate, CP = circle‑properties, PP = parallelism‑perpendicularity, Sym = symmetry; subscript F/D marks full vs. dot test images. Main results General performance. There is a significant disparity in the extent to which different models comprehend geometry and leverage cross-modal relations. Table 2 shows the average quality of a few representative LLMs and VLMs across task categories. Table 3 shows the average quality of problem solving across all evaluated models within task categories, taking into account the standard deviation. Based on these results, we draw several key conclusions. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Models evaluated with text and full images consistently outperform both text-only and text with dotted images settings across nearly all task types and categories. For example, Qwen2.5-VL-7B-Instruct reaches 100% accuracy on several classification and unstable tasks (basic coordinate tasks, symmetry, circle properties) when provided with full image input, compared to much lower scores in the dotted-image setup. It also shows markedly improved performance on numerically intensive tasks such as basic coordinate tasks (79.0%) and elementary calculations (33.7%), which are typically challenging across the board. This strong overall trend is visualized in Figure 2 , where most task categories exhibit substantial positive accuracy gaps favoring full images. The largest average gains occur in tasks involving curved shapes and global geometry, such as Area comparison (ACM), Basic Coordinates Tasks (BCT) and Circle Properties (CPR). By contrast, linear or axis-aligned tasks, such as Parallelism, Perpendicularity, or Geometric Transformations (GTR), show minimal or no improvement between dotted and full visual input. This suggests that dots-only representations already encode sufficient information for solving simpler spatial alignment problems. A closer task-level breakdown further reinforces this distinction: while some tasks yield dramatic gains of +40–100% when full images are provided, others exhibit near-zero or even negative improvements. These findings demonstrate that high-fidelity visual input is essential for activating geometric reasoning in current VLMs. While sparse or dotted stimuli may suffice for simple linear tasks, they fall short for complex shape recognition and spatial inference , underscoring the need for more expressive and grounded visual processing in geometric reasoning benchmarks. Full visual context significantly boosts VLM performance. Models evaluated with text and full images consistently outperform both text-only and text with dotted images settings across nearly all task types and categories. For example, Qwen2.5-VL-7B-Instruct reaches 100% accuracy on several classification and unstable tasks (basic coordinate tasks, symmetry, circle properties) when provided with full image input, compared to much lower scores in the dotted-image setup. It also shows markedly improved performance on numerically intensive tasks such as basic coordinate tasks (79.0%) and elementary calculations (33.7%), which are typically challenging across the board. This strong overall trend is visualized in Figure 2 , where most task categories exhibit substantial positive accuracy gaps favoring full images. The largest average gains occur in tasks involving curved shapes and global geometry, such as Area comparison (ACM), Basic Coordinates Tasks (BCT) and Circle Properties (CPR). By contrast, linear or axis-aligned tasks, such as Parallelism, Perpendicularity, or Geometric Transformations (GTR), show minimal or no improvement between dotted and full visual input. This suggests that dots-only representations already encode sufficient information for solving simpler spatial alignment problems. A closer task-level breakdown further reinforces this distinction: while some tasks yield dramatic gains of +40–100% when full images are provided, others exhibit near-zero or even negative improvements. These findings demonstrate that high-fidelity visual input is essential for activating geometric reasoning in current VLMs. While sparse or dotted stimuli may suffice for simple linear tasks, they fall short for complex shape recognition and spatial inference , underscoring the need for more expressive and grounded visual processing in geometric reasoning benchmarks. Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Figure 2 shows the gain from dots to full images. InternVL‑2.5‑1B and Qwen2‑VL‑Instruct improve consistently, whereas InternVL‑3, G‑LLaVA‑13, and URSA gain little or regress, signaling weak visual grounding or instruction‑following most pronounced on numeric items. This phenomenon may correlate with several factors: poor handling of large or complex images, degraded adherence to structured prompts in multimodal settings, or overfitting to irrelevant visual patterns that misalign with the task objective. These cases highlight a critical limitation – larger image context can confuse undertrained or improperly aligned VLMs, leading to performance drops. The takeaway message here is that merely accessing visual data is not enough; it’s essential to effectively ground and integrate image features to fully capitalize on the advantages offered by complete image input . Not all VLMs leverage full images equally. Figure 2 shows the gain from dots to full images. InternVL‑2.5‑1B and Qwen2‑VL‑Instruct improve consistently, whereas InternVL‑3, G‑LLaVA‑13, and URSA gain little or regress, signaling weak visual grounding or instruction‑following most pronounced on numeric items. This phenomenon may correlate with several factors: poor handling of large or complex images, degraded adherence to structured prompts in multimodal settings, or overfitting to irrelevant visual patterns that misalign with the task objective. These cases highlight a critical limitation – larger image context can confuse undertrained or improperly aligned VLMs, leading to performance drops. The takeaway message here is that merely accessing visual data is not enough; it’s essential to effectively ground and integrate image features to fully capitalize on the advantages offered by complete image input . Task sensitivity to modality. Some tasks (e.g., remarkable triangle lines, simple circle properties) show dramatic performance gains when moving from text-only to full visual input (e.g., Qwen2.5: from 0.0% on text-only task to 99.0% on full image task on unstable simple circle properties with VL model version). Others (e.g., symmetry) remain relatively stable, indicating that some tasks are more sensitive to modality than others. This uncovers another pattern: benchmarking across modality types reveals where geometry is textually recoverable versus inherently visual. Task sensitivity to modality. Some tasks (e.g., remarkable triangle lines, simple circle properties) show dramatic performance gains when moving from text-only to full visual input (e.g., Qwen2.5: from 0.0% on text-only task to 99.0% on full image task on unstable simple circle properties with VL model version). Others (e.g., symmetry) remain relatively stable, indicating that some tasks are more sensitive to modality than others. This uncovers another pattern: benchmarking across modality types reveals where geometry is textually recoverable versus inherently visual. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Math‑specialized text-only models (e.g., Qwen2.5‑Math‑7B‑Instruct) often ignore structured prompts and misformat outputs, performing worse on classification and unstable tasks than general instruction‑tuned peers. This suggests that domain‑specific fine‑tuning can erode broad instruction adherence by overfitting to rigid mathematical formats. Additionally, we note the high standard deviations across task categories (see Table 3 ), which likely reflect the varying difficulty of tasks within each category. Some tasks are straightforward, while others require an understanding of complex geometry and precise calculation of answers, resulting in uneven performance across models. Differences in model capabilities and training objectives also contribute to this variability. Humans breeze through dotted‑image multiple‑choice items, yet struggle with numeric perimeter/area estimates – sometimes scoring below InternVL, Phi‑3.5, and LLaVA‑Mini on ECL tasks. Figure 2: Distribution of model-level performance gaps per task category, comparing ‘text with full image‘ to ‘text with dotted image‘ setups. All F All D C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT D U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT D U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT D U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT D C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST D U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST D Tran DS Config All UF 97.4 58.6 98.0 50.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 48.0 94.0 77.0 93.0 61.0 100.0 68.0 100.0 67.0 94.0 46.0 FF 92.6 61.4 98.0 57.0 100.0 54.0 96.0 54.0 85.0 80.0 68.0 66.0 100.0 78.0 100.0 49.0 94.0 53.0 UD 56.6 83.9 47.0 93.0 79.0 91.0 41.0 61.0 68.0 91.0 56.0 73.0 67.0 93.0 38.0 96.0 57.0 73.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 92.0 51.0 66.0 48.0 59.0 59.0 84.0 43.0 61.0 49.0 84.0 38.0 74.0 59.0 63.0 Separate UF 97.4 58.6 100.0 63.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 49.0 93.0 87.0 95.0 46.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 94.0 51.0 FF 92.6 61.4 99.0 48.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 51.0 88.0 83.0 70.0 58.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 91.0 49.0 UD 56.6 83.9 49.0 95.0 50.0 97.0 51.0 70.0 81.0 93.0 69.0 75.0 68.0 93.0 60.0 99.0 52.0 67.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 82.0 47.0 67.0 49.0 61.0 71.0 87.0 58.0 68.0 77.0 90.0 41.0 89.0 60.0 65.0 Table 4: Linear‑probe accuracy (binary) for models trained jointly (top 4 rows) or per task (bottom 4). Configs: UF/FF = unfrozen/frozen encoder on full images; UD/FD = unfrozen/frozen on dot images. Evaluation tags: BC = basic‑coordinate, CP = circle‑properties, PP = parallelism‑perpendicularity, Sym = symmetry; subscript F/D marks full vs. dot test images. Instruction-following abilities degradation risk in math-specialized models. Math‑specialized text-only models (e.g., Qwen2.5‑Math‑7B‑Instruct) often ignore structured prompts and misformat outputs, performing worse on classification and unstable tasks than general instruction‑tuned peers. This suggests that domain‑specific fine‑tuning can erode broad instruction adherence by overfitting to rigid mathematical formats. Additionally, we note the high standard deviations across task categories (see Table 3 ), which likely reflect the varying difficulty of tasks within each category. Some tasks are straightforward, while others require an understanding of complex geometry and precise calculation of answers, resulting in uneven performance across models. Differences in model capabilities and training objectives also contribute to this variability. Humans breeze through dotted‑image multiple‑choice items, yet struggle with numeric perimeter/area estimates – sometimes scoring below InternVL, Phi‑3.5, and LLaVA‑Mini on ECL tasks. All F All F All D All D C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT F C-BCT-CT D C-BCT-CT D U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT F U-CPR-CDT D U-CPR-CDT D U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT F U-SCP-STT D U-SCP-STT D U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT F U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PLT D U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT F U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-PT D U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT F U-PAP-RAT D U-PAP-RAT D C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST F C-SYM-SST D C-SYM-SST D U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST F U-SYM-ST D U-SYM-ST D Tran DS Config All UF 97.4 58.6 98.0 50.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 48.0 94.0 77.0 93.0 61.0 100.0 68.0 100.0 67.0 94.0 46.0 FF 92.6 61.4 98.0 57.0 100.0 54.0 96.0 54.0 85.0 80.0 68.0 66.0 100.0 78.0 100.0 49.0 94.0 53.0 UD 56.6 83.9 47.0 93.0 79.0 91.0 41.0 61.0 68.0 91.0 56.0 73.0 67.0 93.0 38.0 96.0 57.0 73.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 92.0 51.0 66.0 48.0 59.0 59.0 84.0 43.0 61.0 49.0 84.0 38.0 74.0 59.0 63.0 Separate UF 97.4 58.6 100.0 63.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 49.0 93.0 87.0 95.0 46.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 94.0 51.0 FF 92.6 61.4 99.0 48.0 100.0 52.0 100.0 51.0 88.0 83.0 70.0 58.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 52.0 91.0 49.0 UD 56.6 83.9 49.0 95.0 50.0 97.0 51.0 70.0 81.0 93.0 69.0 75.0 68.0 93.0 60.0 99.0 52.0 67.0 FD 49.2 72.9 47.0 82.0 47.0 67.0 49.0 61.0 71.0 87.0 58.0 68.0 77.0 90.0 41.0 89.0 60.0 65.0 Vision Encoders Linear Probing To measure how much of each geometry task is already linearly separable in contemporary vision embeddings (Alain and Bengio 2017 ) , we carry out 2 stages of linear probing. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. We extract image embeddings with the OpenAI CLIP‑ViT-B/32 encoder (Radford et al. 2021 ) and train a linear classifier on them. For every one of eight binary geometry tasks – collinearity, diameter, semicircle‑triangle, parallelism, perpendicular lines, right angles, shape symmetry, and symmetry points – we generate 10K training and 10K test images. In the multi‑task regime this amounts to 80K training samples. We probe each VLM’s vision backbone and CLIP to assess (i) tasks’ linear separability and (ii) geometric improvements from vision-language pre-training. Four setups are tested: frozen/fine-tuned encoders with full/dot-only images, using linear heads pooling all patch tokens. Training includes task-specific probes (10K samples each), multi-task probes (80K images), and cross-task transfer tests. Vision Encoders Linear Probing To measure how much of each geometry task is already linearly separable in contemporary vision embeddings (Alain and Bengio 2017 ) , we carry out 2 stages of linear probing. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. We extract image embeddings with the OpenAI CLIP‑ViT-B/32 encoder (Radford et al. 2021 ) and train a linear classifier on them. For every one of eight binary geometry tasks – collinearity, diameter, semicircle‑triangle, parallelism, perpendicular lines, right angles, shape symmetry, and symmetry points – we generate 10K training and 10K test images. In the multi‑task regime this amounts to 80K training samples. We probe each VLM’s vision backbone and CLIP to assess (i) tasks’ linear separability and (ii) geometric improvements from vision-language pre-training. Four setups are tested: frozen/fine-tuned encoders with full/dot-only images, using linear heads pooling all patch tokens. Training includes task-specific probes (10K samples each), multi-task probes (80K images), and cross-task transfer tests. Estimating task solvability in standalone vision features. We extract image embeddings with the OpenAI CLIP‑ViT-B/32 encoder (Radford et al. 2021 ) and train a linear classifier on them. For every one of eight binary geometry tasks – collinearity, diameter, semicircle‑triangle, parallelism, perpendicular lines, right angles, shape symmetry, and symmetry points – we generate 10K training and 10K test images. In the multi‑task regime this amounts to 80K training samples. We probe each VLM’s vision backbone and CLIP to assess (i) tasks’ linear separability and (ii) geometric improvements from vision-language pre-training. Four setups are tested: frozen/fine-tuned encoders with full/dot-only images, using linear heads pooling all patch tokens. Training includes task-specific probes (10K samples each), multi-task probes (80K images), and cross-task transfer tests. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. A fine-tuned ViT-B/32 linear probe achieves 97% accuracy on full images but drops to 58% on dot-only tests, showing CLIP’s reliance on global shape cues. Retraining on dots reverses this pattern: 85% on dots, 57% on full images. Effect of freezing. Freezing the backbone costs roughly five points on full images (FF = 92%) and yields the weakest dot performance (FD ∼ \sim 73%), indicating that a small amount of adaptation is important for geometry. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Parallel‑line probes push right‑angle accuracy to 86%, and symmetry probes lift circle‑symmetry to 81%, confirming family‑level transfer. Still, VLMs lag on NoReGeo, implying language training overlooks these geometric cues. Train Dataset Eval Dataset Configs with Accuracy U-SYM-ST C-SYM-SST UD (81.0) U-SYM-ST U-CPR-CDT UD (74.0) C-SYM-SST U-CPR-CDT FF (79.0) C-SYM-SST C-BCT-CT FD (86.0) U-PAP-PLT U-PAP-PT UD (75.0), UD (74.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PLT C-BCT-CT FD( 90.0), FF (78.0) U-PAP-PT C-SYM-SST FF (72.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-PLT UD (90.0), UD (86.0), FD (85.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-RAT UD (80.0), FD (78.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PT U-CPR-CDT UD (83.0), FF (76.0), UF (75.0) U-SCP-STT C-SYM-SST FF (90.0) U-CPR-CDT U-SCP-STT UF (80.0), FF (77.0) C-BCT-CT U-SCP-STT UF (95.0) C-BCT-CT U-CPR-CDT UF (100.0), FF (73.0) Table 5: Linear‐probing training transfer. Probing Results Analysis Full vs. dotted diagrams. A fine-tuned ViT-B/32 linear probe achieves 97% accuracy on full images but drops to 58% on dot-only tests, showing CLIP’s reliance on global shape cues. Retraining on dots reverses this pattern: 85% on dots, 57% on full images. Full vs. dotted diagrams. A fine-tuned ViT-B/32 linear probe achieves 97% accuracy on full images but drops to 58% on dot-only tests, showing CLIP’s reliance on global shape cues. Retraining on dots reverses this pattern: 85% on dots, 57% on full images. Effect of freezing. Freezing the backbone costs roughly five points on full images (FF = 92%) and yields the weakest dot performance (FD ∼ \sim 73%), indicating that a small amount of adaptation is important for geometry. Effect of freezing. Freezing the backbone costs roughly five points on full images (FF = 92%) and yields the weakest dot performance (FD ∼ \sim 73%), indicating that a small amount of adaptation is important for geometry. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Parallel‑line probes push right‑angle accuracy to 86%, and symmetry probes lift circle‑symmetry to 81%, confirming family‑level transfer. Still, VLMs lag on NoReGeo, implying language training overlooks these geometric cues. Train Dataset Eval Dataset Configs with Accuracy U-SYM-ST C-SYM-SST UD (81.0) U-SYM-ST U-CPR-CDT UD (74.0) C-SYM-SST U-CPR-CDT FF (79.0) C-SYM-SST C-BCT-CT FD (86.0) U-PAP-PLT U-PAP-PT UD (75.0), UD (74.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PLT C-BCT-CT FD( 90.0), FF (78.0) U-PAP-PT C-SYM-SST FF (72.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-PLT UD (90.0), UD (86.0), FD (85.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-RAT UD (80.0), FD (78.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PT U-CPR-CDT UD (83.0), FF (76.0), UF (75.0) U-SCP-STT C-SYM-SST FF (90.0) U-CPR-CDT U-SCP-STT UF (80.0), FF (77.0) C-BCT-CT U-SCP-STT UF (95.0) C-BCT-CT U-CPR-CDT UF (100.0), FF (73.0) Table 5: Linear‐probing training transfer. Cross‑task transfer (Table 5 ). Parallel‑line probes push right‑angle accuracy to 86%, and symmetry probes lift circle‑symmetry to 81%, confirming family‑level transfer. Still, VLMs lag on NoReGeo, implying language training overlooks these geometric cues. Train Dataset Eval Dataset Configs with Accuracy U-SYM-ST C-SYM-SST UD (81.0) U-SYM-ST U-CPR-CDT UD (74.0) C-SYM-SST U-CPR-CDT FF (79.0) C-SYM-SST C-BCT-CT FD (86.0) U-PAP-PLT U-PAP-PT UD (75.0), UD (74.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PLT C-BCT-CT FD( 90.0), FF (78.0) U-PAP-PT C-SYM-SST FF (72.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-PLT UD (90.0), UD (86.0), FD (85.0) U-PAP-PT U-PAP-RAT UD (80.0), FD (78.0), UF (71.0) U-PAP-PT U-CPR-CDT UD (83.0), FF (76.0), UF (75.0) U-SCP-STT C-SYM-SST FF (90.0) U-CPR-CDT U-SCP-STT UF (80.0), FF (77.0) C-BCT-CT U-SCP-STT UF (95.0) C-BCT-CT U-CPR-CDT UF (100.0), FF (73.0) Conclusion We introduced NoReGeo, a cross-modal benchmark of elementary geometry problems designed to assess whether LLMs and VLMs can answer spatial questions without relying on explicit reasoning. Across more than 45 state-of-the-art models, we find that most struggle with tasks that humans solve through immediate geometric intuition, often producing unnecessary chain-of-thought explanations even when instructed otherwise. In contrast, a frozen vision encoder paired with a simple linear probe performs almost perfectly, indicating that the essential geometric cues are already embedded in visual representations. These findings position NoReGeo as a practical tool for probing latent geometric competence in modern foundation models and for selecting models when fast, geometry-aware inference is required. Looking ahead, we plan to explore how fine-tuning and representation alignment influence generalization across geometric concepts and whether models can be encouraged to develop more robust, human-like geometric intuition. Conclusion We introduced NoReGeo, a cross-modal benchmark of elementary geometry problems designed to assess whether LLMs and VLMs can answer spatial questions without relying on explicit reasoning. Across more than 45 state-of-the-art models, we find that most struggle with tasks that humans solve through immediate geometric intuition, often producing unnecessary chain-of-thought explanations even when instructed otherwise. In contrast, a frozen vision encoder paired with a simple linear probe performs almost perfectly, indicating that the essential geometric cues are already embedded in visual representations. These findings position NoReGeo as a practical tool for probing latent geometric competence in modern foundation models and for selecting models when fast, geometry-aware inference is required. Looking ahead, we plan to explore how fine-tuning and representation alignment influence generalization across geometric concepts and whether models can be encouraged to develop more robust, human-like geometric intuition. Appendix A Acknowledgments Innopolis University authors were supported by the Research Center of the Artificial Intelligence Institute at Innopolis University. Financial support was provided by the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation (No. 25-139-66879-1-0003). Appendix A Acknowledgments Innopolis University authors were supported by the Research Center of the Artificial Intelligence Institute at Innopolis University. Financial support was provided by the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation (No. 25-139-66879-1-0003). References Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt (2024) Abraham, S. S.; Alirezaie, M.; and Raedt, L. D. 2024. CLEVR-POC: Reasoning-Intensive Visual Question Answering in Partially Observable Environments. arXiv:2403.03203. Alain and Bengio (2017) Alain, G.; and Bengio, Y. 2017. Understanding intermediate layers using linear classifier probes. Bai et al. (2025) Bai, S.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; Song, S.; Dang, K.; Wang, P.; Wang, S.; Tang, J.; et al. 2025. Qwen2. 5-vl technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.13923 . Chen et al. (2024) Chen, L.; Li, J.; Dong, X.; Zhang, P.; Zang, Y.; Chen, Z.; Duan, H.; Wang, J.; Qiao, Y.; Lin, D.; and Zhao, F. 2024. Are We on the Right Way for Evaluating Large Vision-Language Models? arXiv:2403.20330. Chevalier-Boisvert et al. (2019) Chevalier-Boisvert, M.; Bahdanau, D.; Lahlou, S.; Willems, L.; Saharia, C.; Nguyen, T. H.; and Bengio, Y. 2019. BabyAI: A Platform to Study the Sample Efficiency of Grounded Language Learning. arXiv:1810.08272. Dong et al. (2024) Dong, Y.; Ruan, C. F.; Cai, Y.; Lai, R.; Xu, Z.; Zhao, Y.; and Chen, T. 2024. Xgrammar: Flexible and efficient structured generation engine for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.15100 . Gao et al. (2023) Gao, J.; Pi, R.; Zhang, J.; Ye, J.; Zhong, W.; Wang, Y.; Hong, L.; Han, J.; Xu, H.; Li, Z.; et al. 2023. G-llava: Solving geometric problem with multi-modal large language model. arXiv preprint arXiv:2312.11370 . Grattafiori et al. (2024) Grattafiori, A.; Dubey, A.; Jauhri, A.; Pandey, A.; Kadian, A.; Al-Dahle, A.; Letman, A.; Mathur, A.; Schelten, A.; Vaughan, A.; et al. 2024. The llama 3 herd of models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.21783 . Hong et al. (2025) Hong, H.; Qiao, Y.; Wang, S.; Liu, J.; and Wu, Q. 2025. General Scene Adaptation for Vision-and-Language Navigation. arXiv:2501.17403. Jiang et al. (2023) Jiang, A. Q.; Sablayrolles, A.; Mensch, A.; Bamford, C.; Chaplot, D. S.; de las Casas, D.; Bressand, F.; Lengyel, G.; Lample, G.; Saulnier, L.; Lavaud, L. R.; Lachaux, M.-A.; Stock, P.; Scao, T. L.; Lavril, T.; Wang, T.; Lacroix, T.; and Sayed, W. E. 2023. Mistral 7B. arXiv:2310.06825. Kazemi et al. (2024) Kazemi, M.; Alvari, H.; Anand, A.; Wu, J.; Chen, X.; and Soricut, R. 2024. GeomVerse: A Systematic Evaluation of Large Models for Geometric Reasoning. In AI for Math Workshop @ ICML 2024 . Kwon et al. (2023) Kwon, W.; Li, Z.; Zhuang, S.; Sheng, Y.; Zheng, L.; Yu, C. H.; Gonzalez, J. E.; Zhang, H.; and Stoica, I. 2023. Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttention. arXiv:2309.06180. Lu et al. (2024) Lu, P.; Bansal, H.; Xia, T.; Liu, J.; Li, C.; Hajishirzi, H.; Cheng, H.; Chang, K.-W.; Galley, M.; and Gao, J. 2024. MathVista: Evaluating Mathematical Reasoning of Foundation Models in Visual Contexts. arXiv:2310.02255. Lu et al. (2021) Lu, P.; Gong, R.; Jiang, S.; Qiu, L.; Huang, S.; Liang, X.; and Zhu, S.-C. 2021. Inter-GPS: Interpretable Geometry Problem Solving with Formal Language and Symbolic Reasoning. In The 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) . Luo et al. (2025a) Luo, R.; Zheng, Z.; Wang, Y.; Ni, X.; Lin, Z.; Jiang, S.; Yu, Y.; Shi, C.; Chu, R.; Zeng, J.; et al. 2025a. Ursa: Understanding and verifying chain-of-thought reasoning in multimodal mathematics. arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.04686 . Luo et al. (2025b) Luo, S.; Zhu, Z.; Yuan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Shan, L.; and Wu, Y. 2025b. GeoGramBench: Benchmarking the Geometric Program Reasoning in Modern LLMs. arXiv:2505.17653. Ma et al. (2025) Ma, W.; Chen, H.; Zhang, G.; Chou, Y.-C.; de Melo, C. M.; and Yuille, A. 2025. 3DSRBench: A Comprehensive 3D Spatial Reasoning Benchmark. arXiv:2412.07825. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2000. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics . Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ISBN 0-87353-480-8. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers (2010) National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. 2010. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. Accessed: 2025. Peng et al. (2024) Peng, S.; Fu, D.; Gao, L.; Zhong, X.; Fu, H.; and Tang, Z. 2024. Multimath: Bridging visual and mathematical reasoning for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.00147 . Radford et al. (2021) Radford, A.; Kim, J. W.; Hallacy, C.; Ramesh, A.; Goh, G.; Agarwal, S.; Sastry, G.; Askell, A.; Mishkin, P.; Clark, J.; Krueger, G.; and Sutskever, I. 2021. Learning Transferable Visual Models From Natural Language Supervision. arXiv:2103.00020. Rodionov et al. (2025) Rodionov, F.; Eldesokey, A.; Birsak, M.; Femiani, J.; Ghanem, B.; and Wonka, P. 2025. PlanQA: A Benchmark for Spatial Reasoning in LLMs using Structured Representations. arXiv:2507.07644. Shi et al. (2024) Shi, W.; Hu, Z.; Bin, Y.; Liu, J.; Yang, Y.; Ng, S.-K.; Bing, L.; and Lee, R. K.-W. 2024. Math-llava: Bootstrapping mathematical reasoning for multimodal large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.17294 . Shridhar et al. (2020) Shridhar, M.; Thomason, J.; Gordon, D.; Bisk, Y.; Han, W.; Mottaghi, R.; Zettlemoyer, L.; and Fox, D. 2020. ALFRED: A Benchmark for Interpreting Grounded Instructions for Everyday Tasks. arXiv:1912.01734. Team (2024) Team, Q. 2024. Qwen2 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.10671 . Trinh et al. (2024) Trinh, T. H.; Wu, Y.; Le, Q. V.; He, H.; and Luong, T. 2024. Solving olympiad geometry without human demonstrations. Nature , 625(7995): 476–482. Wang et al. (2024) Wang, P.; Bai, S.; Tan, S.; Wang, S.; Fan, Z.; Bai, J.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; et al. 2024. Qwen2-vl: Enhancing vision-language model’s perception of the world at any resolution. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.12191 . Wang et al. (2025) Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhu, W.; and Wang, R. 2025. Do Large Language Models Truly Understand Geometric Structures? In The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations . Willard and Louf (2023) Willard, B. T.; and Louf, R. 2023. Efficient Guided Generation for LLMs. arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.09702 . Yang et al. (2025) Yang, A.; Li, A.; Yang, B.; Zhang, B.; Hui, B.; Zheng, B.; Yu, B.; Gao, C.; Huang, C.; Lv, C.; et al. 2025. Qwen3 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.09388 . Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng (2019) Yang, K.; Russakovsky, O.; and Deng, J. 2019. SpatialSense: An Adversarially Crowdsourced Benchmark for Spatial Relation Recognition. arXiv:1908.02660. Zhang et al. (2024a) Zhang, J.; Li, Z.-Z.; Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; Liu, C.-L.; and Moshfeghi, Y. 2024a. GeoEval: Benchmark for Evaluating LLMs and Multi-Modal Models on Geometry Problem-Solving. In Ku, L.-W.; Martins, A.; and Srikumar, V., eds., Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2024 , 1258–1276. Bangkok, Thailand: Association for Computational Linguistics. Zhang, Yin, and Liu (2023) Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; and Liu, C.-L. 2023. A multi-modal neural geometric solver with textual clauses parsed from diagram. In Proceedings of the Thirty-Second International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence , IJCAI ’23. ISBN 978-1-956792-03-4. Zhang et al. (2024b) Zhang, R.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Lin, H.; Guo, Z.; Qiu, P.; Zhou, A.; Lu, P.; Chang, K.-W.; Gao, P.; and Li, H. 2024b. MathVerse: Does Your Multi-modal LLM Truly See the Diagrams in Visual Math Problems? arXiv:2403.14624. References Abraham, Alirezaie, and Raedt (2024) Abraham, S. S.; Alirezaie, M.; and Raedt, L. D. 2024. CLEVR-POC: Reasoning-Intensive Visual Question Answering in Partially Observable Environments. arXiv:2403.03203. Alain and Bengio (2017) Alain, G.; and Bengio, Y. 2017. Understanding intermediate layers using linear classifier probes. Bai et al. (2025) Bai, S.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; Song, S.; Dang, K.; Wang, P.; Wang, S.; Tang, J.; et al. 2025. Qwen2. 5-vl technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.13923 . Chen et al. (2024) Chen, L.; Li, J.; Dong, X.; Zhang, P.; Zang, Y.; Chen, Z.; Duan, H.; Wang, J.; Qiao, Y.; Lin, D.; and Zhao, F. 2024. Are We on the Right Way for Evaluating Large Vision-Language Models? arXiv:2403.20330. Chevalier-Boisvert et al. (2019) Chevalier-Boisvert, M.; Bahdanau, D.; Lahlou, S.; Willems, L.; Saharia, C.; Nguyen, T. H.; and Bengio, Y. 2019. BabyAI: A Platform to Study the Sample Efficiency of Grounded Language Learning. arXiv:1810.08272. Dong et al. (2024) Dong, Y.; Ruan, C. F.; Cai, Y.; Lai, R.; Xu, Z.; Zhao, Y.; and Chen, T. 2024. Xgrammar: Flexible and efficient structured generation engine for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.15100 . Gao et al. (2023) Gao, J.; Pi, R.; Zhang, J.; Ye, J.; Zhong, W.; Wang, Y.; Hong, L.; Han, J.; Xu, H.; Li, Z.; et al. 2023. G-llava: Solving geometric problem with multi-modal large language model. arXiv preprint arXiv:2312.11370 . Grattafiori et al. (2024) Grattafiori, A.; Dubey, A.; Jauhri, A.; Pandey, A.; Kadian, A.; Al-Dahle, A.; Letman, A.; Mathur, A.; Schelten, A.; Vaughan, A.; et al. 2024. The llama 3 herd of models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.21783 . Hong et al. (2025) Hong, H.; Qiao, Y.; Wang, S.; Liu, J.; and Wu, Q. 2025. General Scene Adaptation for Vision-and-Language Navigation. arXiv:2501.17403. Jiang et al. (2023) Jiang, A. Q.; Sablayrolles, A.; Mensch, A.; Bamford, C.; Chaplot, D. S.; de las Casas, D.; Bressand, F.; Lengyel, G.; Lample, G.; Saulnier, L.; Lavaud, L. R.; Lachaux, M.-A.; Stock, P.; Scao, T. L.; Lavril, T.; Wang, T.; Lacroix, T.; and Sayed, W. E. 2023. Mistral 7B. arXiv:2310.06825. Kazemi et al. (2024) Kazemi, M.; Alvari, H.; Anand, A.; Wu, J.; Chen, X.; and Soricut, R. 2024. GeomVerse: A Systematic Evaluation of Large Models for Geometric Reasoning. In AI for Math Workshop @ ICML 2024 . Kwon et al. (2023) Kwon, W.; Li, Z.; Zhuang, S.; Sheng, Y.; Zheng, L.; Yu, C. H.; Gonzalez, J. E.; Zhang, H.; and Stoica, I. 2023. Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttention. arXiv:2309.06180. Lu et al. (2024) Lu, P.; Bansal, H.; Xia, T.; Liu, J.; Li, C.; Hajishirzi, H.; Cheng, H.; Chang, K.-W.; Galley, M.; and Gao, J. 2024. MathVista: Evaluating Mathematical Reasoning of Foundation Models in Visual Contexts. arXiv:2310.02255. Lu et al. (2021) Lu, P.; Gong, R.; Jiang, S.; Qiu, L.; Huang, S.; Liang, X.; and Zhu, S.-C. 2021. Inter-GPS: Interpretable Geometry Problem Solving with Formal Language and Symbolic Reasoning. In The 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) . Luo et al. (2025a) Luo, R.; Zheng, Z.; Wang, Y.; Ni, X.; Lin, Z.; Jiang, S.; Yu, Y.; Shi, C.; Chu, R.; Zeng, J.; et al. 2025a. Ursa: Understanding and verifying chain-of-thought reasoning in multimodal mathematics. arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.04686 . Luo et al. (2025b) Luo, S.; Zhu, Z.; Yuan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Shan, L.; and Wu, Y. 2025b. GeoGramBench: Benchmarking the Geometric Program Reasoning in Modern LLMs. arXiv:2505.17653. Ma et al. (2025) Ma, W.; Chen, H.; Zhang, G.; Chou, Y.-C.; de Melo, C. M.; and Yuille, A. 2025. 3DSRBench: A Comprehensive 3D Spatial Reasoning Benchmark. arXiv:2412.07825. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2000. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics . Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ISBN 0-87353-480-8. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers (2010) National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. 2010. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. Accessed: 2025. Peng et al. (2024) Peng, S.; Fu, D.; Gao, L.; Zhong, X.; Fu, H.; and Tang, Z. 2024. Multimath: Bridging visual and mathematical reasoning for large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.00147 . Radford et al. (2021) Radford, A.; Kim, J. W.; Hallacy, C.; Ramesh, A.; Goh, G.; Agarwal, S.; Sastry, G.; Askell, A.; Mishkin, P.; Clark, J.; Krueger, G.; and Sutskever, I. 2021. Learning Transferable Visual Models From Natural Language Supervision. arXiv:2103.00020. Rodionov et al. (2025) Rodionov, F.; Eldesokey, A.; Birsak, M.; Femiani, J.; Ghanem, B.; and Wonka, P. 2025. PlanQA: A Benchmark for Spatial Reasoning in LLMs using Structured Representations. arXiv:2507.07644. Shi et al. (2024) Shi, W.; Hu, Z.; Bin, Y.; Liu, J.; Yang, Y.; Ng, S.-K.; Bing, L.; and Lee, R. K.-W. 2024. Math-llava: Bootstrapping mathematical reasoning for multimodal large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.17294 . Shridhar et al. (2020) Shridhar, M.; Thomason, J.; Gordon, D.; Bisk, Y.; Han, W.; Mottaghi, R.; Zettlemoyer, L.; and Fox, D. 2020. ALFRED: A Benchmark for Interpreting Grounded Instructions for Everyday Tasks. arXiv:1912.01734. Team (2024) Team, Q. 2024. Qwen2 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.10671 . Trinh et al. (2024) Trinh, T. H.; Wu, Y.; Le, Q. V.; He, H.; and Luong, T. 2024. Solving olympiad geometry without human demonstrations. Nature , 625(7995): 476–482. Wang et al. (2024) Wang, P.; Bai, S.; Tan, S.; Wang, S.; Fan, Z.; Bai, J.; Chen, K.; Liu, X.; Wang, J.; Ge, W.; et al. 2024. Qwen2-vl: Enhancing vision-language model’s perception of the world at any resolution. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.12191 . Wang et al. (2025) Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhu, W.; and Wang, R. 2025. Do Large Language Models Truly Understand Geometric Structures? In The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations . Willard and Louf (2023) Willard, B. T.; and Louf, R. 2023. Efficient Guided Generation for LLMs. arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.09702 . Yang et al. (2025) Yang, A.; Li, A.; Yang, B.; Zhang, B.; Hui, B.; Zheng, B.; Yu, B.; Gao, C.; Huang, C.; Lv, C.; et al. 2025. Qwen3 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2505.09388 . Yang, Russakovsky, and Deng (2019) Yang, K.; Russakovsky, O.; and Deng, J. 2019. SpatialSense: An Adversarially Crowdsourced Benchmark for Spatial Relation Recognition. arXiv:1908.02660. Zhang et al. (2024a) Zhang, J.; Li, Z.-Z.; Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; Liu, C.-L.; and Moshfeghi, Y. 2024a. GeoEval: Benchmark for Evaluating LLMs and Multi-Modal Models on Geometry Problem-Solving. In Ku, L.-W.; Martins, A.; and Srikumar, V., eds., Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2024 , 1258–1276. Bangkok, Thailand: Association for Computational Linguistics. Zhang, Yin, and Liu (2023) Zhang, M.-L.; Yin, F.; and Liu, C.-L. 2023. A multi-modal neural geometric solver with textual clauses parsed from diagram. In Proceedings of the Thirty-Second International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence , IJCAI ’23. ISBN 978-1-956792-03-4. Zhang et al. (2024b) Zhang, R.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Lin, H.; Guo, Z.; Qiu, P.; Zhou, A.; Lu, P.; Chang, K.-W.; Gao, P.; and Li, H. 2024b. MathVerse: Does Your Multi-modal LLM Truly See the Diagrams in Visual Math Problems? arXiv:2403.14624. Appendix B Appendix A. Evaluation details and models performance Evaluation protocol. Table 6 lists the system prompts used for every task. All inferences were run at temperature 0 (no sampling) to ensure consistent results. System Prompt You are a highly capable AI assistant with expertise in geometry. You can accurately analyze geometric figures, solve problems. Structuring Prompt Variations [Point answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON with keys: ’x’ and ’y’ for point coordinates. Return only that object. [Number answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is a floating point or integer number. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABC, DEF, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABCD, EFGH, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: median, altitude, bisector. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: yes, no. Return only that object. Table 6: System and answer-structuring prompts used during inference. Detailed model evaluation (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with text-only input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the text-only NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 3: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using only text inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. In this section, we present detailed heatmaps of model performance across all NoReGeo task categories, types and evaluation setups. In addition to the accuracy-based evaluations shown in Figure 3 (a), Figure 4 (a), Figure 5 (a), we include regression-based heatmaps using Mean Squared Error (MSE) to assess the numerical precision of model outputs in tasks requiring quantitative responses: Figure 3 (b), Figure 4 (b) and Figure 5 (b). These plots reveal complementary insights by highlighting cases where models may produce approximately correct values despite low classification accuracy, or vice versa. The MSE metric is particularly informative for tasks with numerical and coordinates answer types, where small deviations from the correct answer carry semantic significance. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + dotted images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + dotted images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 4: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + dotted images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + full images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + full images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 5: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + full images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. Figure 6: Performance gap between full-image and dot-image setups for VLMs. This heatmap shows the difference in Accuracy rate (%) for each task when evaluated with full images vs. dot images, computed as: Accuracy(full) − Accuracy(dot). Blue cells indicate improved performance with full images, red cells indicate a drop. The final row shows the average difference between setups across tasks for each model. As discussed in Main results section, models evaluated with text + full images generally outperform those using text + dotted images across most task types and categories. However, a more detailed analysis is crucial, as the performance gap varies significantly across conceptually different tasks. To capture this variation, we provide a task-level summary of performance differences between the two visual setups in Figure 7 , along with a fine-grained heatmap of model-by-task performance gaps in Figure 6 . Figure 7: Task-level performance difference between the ‘text + full image‘ and ‘text + dot image‘ evaluation setups for VLMs. Appendix B Appendix A. Evaluation details and models performance Evaluation protocol. Table 6 lists the system prompts used for every task. All inferences were run at temperature 0 (no sampling) to ensure consistent results. System Prompt You are a highly capable AI assistant with expertise in geometry. You can accurately analyze geometric figures, solve problems. Structuring Prompt Variations [Point answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON with keys: ’x’ and ’y’ for point coordinates. Return only that object. [Number answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is a floating point or integer number. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABC, DEF, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABCD, EFGH, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: median, altitude, bisector. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: yes, no. Return only that object. Table 6: System and answer-structuring prompts used during inference. Evaluation protocol. Table 6 lists the system prompts used for every task. All inferences were run at temperature 0 (no sampling) to ensure consistent results. System Prompt You are a highly capable AI assistant with expertise in geometry. You can accurately analyze geometric figures, solve problems. Structuring Prompt Variations [Point answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON with keys: ’x’ and ’y’ for point coordinates. Return only that object. [Number answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is a floating point or integer number. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABC, DEF, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: ABCD, EFGH, equal. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: median, altitude, bisector. Return only that object. [Multiple-choice answer type]: Provide your answer as JSON: {’answer’: <value>}, where <value> is from the options: yes, no. Return only that object. Detailed model evaluation (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with text-only input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the text-only NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 3: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using only text inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. In this section, we present detailed heatmaps of model performance across all NoReGeo task categories, types and evaluation setups. In addition to the accuracy-based evaluations shown in Figure 3 (a), Figure 4 (a), Figure 5 (a), we include regression-based heatmaps using Mean Squared Error (MSE) to assess the numerical precision of model outputs in tasks requiring quantitative responses: Figure 3 (b), Figure 4 (b) and Figure 5 (b). These plots reveal complementary insights by highlighting cases where models may produce approximately correct values despite low classification accuracy, or vice versa. The MSE metric is particularly informative for tasks with numerical and coordinates answer types, where small deviations from the correct answer carry semantic significance. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + dotted images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + dotted images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 4: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + dotted images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. (a) Accuracy heatmap for the NoReGeo benchmark with ‘text + full images‘ input. Rows correspond to individual tasks, columns to LLMs. Cell color intensity reflects model performance: greener indicates higher accuracy, redder indicates lower performance. (b) Mean Squared Error (MSE) heatmap on numeric tasks under the ‘text + full images‘ NoReGeo setup. Each row represents a numeric reasoning task, and each column an LLM. Greener cells indicate lower regression error, while more blue cells highlight higher error. Figure 5: Detailed performance evaluation of large language models (LLMs) on the NoReGeo benchmark using ‘text + full images‘ inputs. Subfigure (a) shows task-level classification accuracy across all task types, while subfigure (b) focuses on regression error (MSE) for numeric tasks. Figure 6: Performance gap between full-image and dot-image setups for VLMs. This heatmap shows the difference in Accuracy rate (%) for each task when evaluated with full images vs. dot images, computed as: Accuracy(full) − Accuracy(dot). Blue cells indicate improved performance with full images, red cells indicate a drop. The final row shows the average difference between setups across tasks for each model. As discussed in Main results section, models evaluated with text + full images generally outperform those using text + dotted images across most task types and categories. However, a more detailed analysis is crucial, as the performance gap varies significantly across conceptually different tasks. To capture this variation, we provide a task-level summary of performance differences between the two visual setups in Figure 7 , along with a fine-grained heatmap of model-by-task performance gaps in Figure 6 . Figure 7: Task-level performance difference between the ‘text + full image‘ and ‘text + dot image‘ evaluation setups for VLMs. Detailed model evaluation In this section, we present detailed heatmaps of model performance across all NoReGeo task categories, types and evaluation setups. In addition to the accuracy-based evaluations shown in Figure 3 (a), Figure 4 (a), Figure 5 (a), we include regression-based heatmaps using Mean Squared Error (MSE) to assess the numerical precision of model outputs in tasks requiring quantitative responses: Figure 3 (b), Figure 4 (b) and Figure 5 (b). These plots reveal complementary insights by highlighting cases where models may produce approximately correct values despite low classification accuracy, or vice versa. The MSE metric is particularly informative for tasks with numerical and coordinates answer types, where small deviations from the correct answer carry semantic significance. As discussed in Main results section, models evaluated with text + full images generally outperform those using text + dotted images across most task types and categories. However, a more detailed analysis is crucial, as the performance gap varies significantly across conceptually different tasks. To capture this variation, we provide a task-level summary of performance differences between the two visual setups in Figure 7 , along with a fine-grained heatmap of model-by-task performance gaps in Figure 6 . Appendix C Appendix B. Visual Encoders Experimental Details Architecture and Implementation Our experimental framework employs the OpenAI CLIP-ViT-base-patch32 model as the foundation visual encoder, utilizing its pre-trained representations learned from large-scale image-text pairs. The architecture processes input images at 224×224 resolution with 32×32 patch decomposition, resulting in a sequence of 49 patch tokens plus one classification token. For feature extraction, we implement a linear pooling strategy that aggregates information across all spatial locations. Given the transformer’s output embeddings of dimensionality [ batch_size , 50 , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},50,768] , we apply global flattening to obtain [ batch_size , 38400 ] [\text{batch\_size},38400] and subsequently project through a learnable linear transformation to the original embedding dimension [ batch_size , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},768] . This approach allows the model to learn optimal spatial attention weights rather than relying on fixed pooling strategies. The classification head consists of a single linear layer mapping from the 768-dimensional pooled representation to binary output logits. We systematically evaluate two training regimes: frozen backbone configuration where only the linear layers are optimized, and fine-tuned configuration allowing end-to-end parameter updates throughout the visual encoder. Our implementation leverages PyTorch framework with Hugging Face Transformers library for model instantiation and management. Training is conducted on single GPU with automatic mixed precision to optimize memory utilization and computational efficiency. We employ comprehensive logging through TensorBoard to monitor training dynamics, convergence behavior, and per-task performance metrics throughout the optimization process. Training Configuration All experiments follow a consistent training protocol designed for rapid convergence on geometric perception tasks. We utilize the AdamW optimizer with a conservative learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} and L2 regularization coefficient of 0.01 to prevent overfitting. The training spans 2 epochs with batch size 32, sufficient for convergence given the relatively simple linear classification objective. All experiments were conducted on single A100 (80GB) GPU. Early stopping mechanism monitors validation F1-score, prioritizing model generalization over training loss minimization. Cross-entropy loss serves as the optimization objective for all binary classification tasks. Complete hyperparameter settings are summarized in Table 7 . The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Parameter Value Batch size 32 Epochs 2 Learning rate 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} Weight decay 0.01 Optimizer AdamW Loss function Cross-entropy Early stopping metric Validation F1-score Mixed precision Enabled Table 7: Training hyperparameters for visual encoder probing experiments Complete Results The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Figure 8: Appendix B Table of results for all experiments on ViT model. Appendix C Appendix B. Visual Encoders Experimental Details Architecture and Implementation Our experimental framework employs the OpenAI CLIP-ViT-base-patch32 model as the foundation visual encoder, utilizing its pre-trained representations learned from large-scale image-text pairs. The architecture processes input images at 224×224 resolution with 32×32 patch decomposition, resulting in a sequence of 49 patch tokens plus one classification token. For feature extraction, we implement a linear pooling strategy that aggregates information across all spatial locations. Given the transformer’s output embeddings of dimensionality [ batch_size , 50 , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},50,768] , we apply global flattening to obtain [ batch_size , 38400 ] [\text{batch\_size},38400] and subsequently project through a learnable linear transformation to the original embedding dimension [ batch_size , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},768] . This approach allows the model to learn optimal spatial attention weights rather than relying on fixed pooling strategies. The classification head consists of a single linear layer mapping from the 768-dimensional pooled representation to binary output logits. We systematically evaluate two training regimes: frozen backbone configuration where only the linear layers are optimized, and fine-tuned configuration allowing end-to-end parameter updates throughout the visual encoder. Our implementation leverages PyTorch framework with Hugging Face Transformers library for model instantiation and management. Training is conducted on single GPU with automatic mixed precision to optimize memory utilization and computational efficiency. We employ comprehensive logging through TensorBoard to monitor training dynamics, convergence behavior, and per-task performance metrics throughout the optimization process. Architecture and Implementation Our experimental framework employs the OpenAI CLIP-ViT-base-patch32 model as the foundation visual encoder, utilizing its pre-trained representations learned from large-scale image-text pairs. The architecture processes input images at 224×224 resolution with 32×32 patch decomposition, resulting in a sequence of 49 patch tokens plus one classification token. For feature extraction, we implement a linear pooling strategy that aggregates information across all spatial locations. Given the transformer’s output embeddings of dimensionality [ batch_size , 50 , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},50,768] , we apply global flattening to obtain [ batch_size , 38400 ] [\text{batch\_size},38400] and subsequently project through a learnable linear transformation to the original embedding dimension [ batch_size , 768 ] [\text{batch\_size},768] . This approach allows the model to learn optimal spatial attention weights rather than relying on fixed pooling strategies. The classification head consists of a single linear layer mapping from the 768-dimensional pooled representation to binary output logits. We systematically evaluate two training regimes: frozen backbone configuration where only the linear layers are optimized, and fine-tuned configuration allowing end-to-end parameter updates throughout the visual encoder. Our implementation leverages PyTorch framework with Hugging Face Transformers library for model instantiation and management. Training is conducted on single GPU with automatic mixed precision to optimize memory utilization and computational efficiency. We employ comprehensive logging through TensorBoard to monitor training dynamics, convergence behavior, and per-task performance metrics throughout the optimization process. Training Configuration All experiments follow a consistent training protocol designed for rapid convergence on geometric perception tasks. We utilize the AdamW optimizer with a conservative learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} and L2 regularization coefficient of 0.01 to prevent overfitting. The training spans 2 epochs with batch size 32, sufficient for convergence given the relatively simple linear classification objective. All experiments were conducted on single A100 (80GB) GPU. Early stopping mechanism monitors validation F1-score, prioritizing model generalization over training loss minimization. Cross-entropy loss serves as the optimization objective for all binary classification tasks. Complete hyperparameter settings are summarized in Table 7 . The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Parameter Value Batch size 32 Epochs 2 Learning rate 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} Weight decay 0.01 Optimizer AdamW Loss function Cross-entropy Early stopping metric Validation F1-score Mixed precision Enabled Table 7: Training hyperparameters for visual encoder probing experiments Training Configuration All experiments follow a consistent training protocol designed for rapid convergence on geometric perception tasks. We utilize the AdamW optimizer with a conservative learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} and L2 regularization coefficient of 0.01 to prevent overfitting. The training spans 2 epochs with batch size 32, sufficient for convergence given the relatively simple linear classification objective. All experiments were conducted on single A100 (80GB) GPU. Early stopping mechanism monitors validation F1-score, prioritizing model generalization over training loss minimization. Cross-entropy loss serves as the optimization objective for all binary classification tasks. Complete hyperparameter settings are summarized in Table 7 . The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Parameter Value Batch size 32 Epochs 2 Learning rate 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} Weight decay 0.01 Optimizer AdamW Loss function Cross-entropy Early stopping metric Validation F1-score Mixed precision Enabled Complete Results The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Figure 8: Appendix B Table of results for all experiments on ViT model. Complete Results The complete training and evaluation results across the full experimental matrix are presented in Figure 8 , providing comprehensive accuracy scores for each train-evaluation task pair under all model configurations. Appendix D Appendix C. Human Evaluation Protocol Tasks from the NoReGeo benchmark were preprocessed for the Toloka platform. We used the dotted version of the benchmark split; ground truth answers were excluded and stored separately. Training, examination, and control tasks were created for the annotators. The tasks’ creation protocol is given below. • Each page contained 10 tasks, and annotators had 10 minutes to complete a page. • We applied majority voting with an overlap of 10: for each task, votes for all options were tallied. • We computed the same evaluation metrics on the aggregated annotation table as those used for model evaluation. • The average annotator age was 39 years, and the compensation averaged $1 per task page. Appendix D Appendix C. Human Evaluation Protocol Tasks from the NoReGeo benchmark were preprocessed for the Toloka platform. We used the dotted version of the benchmark split; ground truth answers were excluded and stored separately. Training, examination, and control tasks were created for the annotators. The tasks’ creation protocol is given below. • Each page contained 10 tasks, and annotators had 10 minutes to complete a page. Each page contained 10 tasks, and annotators had 10 minutes to complete a page. • We applied majority voting with an overlap of 10: for each task, votes for all options were tallied. We applied majority voting with an overlap of 10: for each task, votes for all options were tallied. • We computed the same evaluation metrics on the aggregated annotation table as those used for model evaluation. We computed the same evaluation metrics on the aggregated annotation table as those used for model evaluation. • The average annotator age was 39 years, and the compensation averaged $1 per task page. The average annotator age was 39 years, and the compensation averaged $1 per task page.
|
https://arxiv.org/html/2601.10254v1
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Characteristics 2 Taxonomy and subspecies Toggle Taxonomy and subspecies subsection 2.1 Chromosomal races 2.1 Chromosomal races 3 Evolution 4 Behavior 5 Social behavior 6 Senses and communication Toggle Senses and communication subsection 6.1 Vision 6.2 Olfaction 6.3 Tactile 6.1 Vision 6.2 Olfaction 6.3 Tactile 7 Life cycle and reproduction Toggle Life cycle and reproduction subsection 7.1 Polygamy 7.1.1 Evolutionary and behavioural consequences 7.2 Polyandry 7.2.1 Evolutionary consequences 7.3 Inbreeding avoidance 7.1 Polygamy 7.1.1 Evolutionary and behavioural consequences 7.1.1 Evolutionary and behavioural consequences 7.2 Polyandry 7.2.1 Evolutionary consequences 7.2.1 Evolutionary consequences 7.3 Inbreeding avoidance 8 Genetics 9 Life expectancy 10 Aging 11 Mice and humans Toggle Mice and humans subsection 11.1 History 11.2 As pets 11.3 Mice as pests 11.4 Mice and diseases 11.5 Invasive species 11.6 As a model organism 11.7 In folk culture 11.1 History 11.2 As pets 11.3 Mice as pests 11.4 Mice and diseases 11.5 Invasive species 11.6 As a model organism 11.7 In folk culture 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links House mouse Afrikaans Anarâškielâ العربية Aragonés Armãneashti Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca Basa Bali বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara Eʋegbe فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Iñupiatun IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lombard Magyar മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Napulitano Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Sardu Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tayal ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Walon West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 中文 ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikiquote Wikidata item House mouse Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [ 1 ] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Family: Muridae Genus: Mus Subgenus: Mus Species: M. musculus Binomial name Mus musculus Linnaeus , 1758 Subspecies Mus musculus bactrianus [ 2 ] Mus musculus castaneus Mus musculus domesticus Mus musculus gentilulus Mus musculus molossinus † Mus musculus muralis Mus musculus musculus Mus musculus bactrianus [ 2 ] Mus musculus castaneus Mus musculus domesticus Mus musculus gentilulus Mus musculus molossinus † Mus musculus muralis Mus musculus musculus House mouse range (note: distribution is incomplete) Synonyms Mus abbotti Mus abbotti The house mouse ( Mus musculus ) is a small mammal of the rodent family Muridae , characteristically having a pointed snout, large rounded ears, and a long and almost hairless tail. It is one of the most abundant species of the genus Mus . Although a wild animal , the house mouse has benefited significantly from associating with human habitation to the point that truly wild populations are significantly less common than the synanthropic populations near human activity. The house mouse has been domesticated as the pet or fancy mouse , and as the laboratory mouse , which is one of the most important model organisms in biology and medicine. The complete mouse reference genome was sequenced in 2002. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Characteristics House mice have an adult body length (nose to base of tail) of 7.5–10 centimetres (3–4 in) and a tail length of 5–10 cm (2–4 in). The weight is typically .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 11–30 g ( 3 ⁄ 8 –1 oz). In the wild they vary in color from grey and light brown to black (individual hairs are actually agouti coloured), but domesticated fancy mice and laboratory mice are produced in many colors ranging from white to champagne to pink. They have short hair and some, but not all, sub-species have a light belly. [ 5 ] The ears and tail have little hair. The hind feet are short compared to Apodemus mice, only 15–19 mm ( 9 ⁄ 16 – 3 ⁄ 4 in) long; the normal gait is a run with a stride of about 4.5 cm ( 1 + 3 ⁄ 4 in), though they can jump vertically up to 45 cm (18 in). [ 6 ] The voice is a high-pitched squeak. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] House mice thrive under a variety of conditions; they are found in and around homes and commercial structures, as well as in open fields and agricultural lands. [ 9 ] Newborn males and females can be distinguished on close examination as the anogenital distance in males is about double that of the female. [ 10 ] From the age of about 10 days, females have five pairs of mammary glands and nipples ; males have no nipples. [ 11 ] When sexually mature, the most striking and obvious difference is the presence of testicles on the males. These are large compared to the rest of the body and can be retracted into the body. [ 12 ] The tail, which is used for balance, [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] has only a thin covering of hair as it is the main peripheral organ of heat loss in thermoregulation [ 14 ] along with—to a lesser extent—the hairless parts of the paws and ears. Blood flow to the tail can be precisely controlled in response to changes in ambient temperature using a system of arteriovenous anastomoses to increase the temperature of the skin on the tail by as much as 10 °C (10 K; 18 °F) to lose body heat. [ 16 ] Tail length varies according to the environmental temperature of the mouse during postnatal development, so mice living in colder regions tend to have shorter tails. [ 5 ] The tail is also used for balance when the mouse is climbing or running, or as a base when the animal stands on its hind legs (a behaviour known as tripoding ), and to convey information about the dominance status of an individual in encounters with other mice. [ 17 ] In addition to the regular pea-sized thymus organ in the chest, house mice have a second functional pinhead-sized thymus organ in the neck next to the trachea. [ 18 ] Taxonomy and subspecies Euarchontoglires Glires Rodentia (rodents) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, pikas) Euarchonta Scandentia (treeshrews) Primatomorpha Dermoptera (flying lemurs) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Glires Rodentia (rodents) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, pikas) Rodentia (rodents) Rodentia (rodents) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, pikas) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, pikas) Euarchonta Scandentia (treeshrews) Primatomorpha Dermoptera (flying lemurs) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Scandentia (treeshrews) Scandentia (treeshrews) Primatomorpha Dermoptera (flying lemurs) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Dermoptera (flying lemurs) Dermoptera (flying lemurs) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Primates († Plesiadapiformes , Strepsirrhini , Haplorrhini ) Mice are boreoeutherian placental mammals of the Glires clade , which means they are amongst the closest relatives of humans other than lagomorphs , treeshrews , flying lemurs and other primates . The three widely accepted subspecies are increasingly treated as distinct species by some: [ 19 ] [ 20 ] Southeastern Asian house mouse ( M. m. castaneus ) (southern and southeastern Asia) Western European house mouse ( M. m. domesticus ); includes the fancy mouse and the laboratory mouse (Western Europe, North America, South America, Africa and Oceania) Eastern European house mouse ( M. m. musculus ) (Eastern Europe and northern Asia) Two additional subspecies have been recognized more recently: [ 20 ] Southwestern Asian house mouse ( M. m. bactrianus ) (southwestern and Central Asia). However, due to significant genetic similarity observed between M. m. bactrianus and M. m. castaneus , the subspecies designation for M. m. bactrianus has now been questioned. [ 2 ] Pygmy house mouse ( M. m. gentilulus ) (the Arabian Peninsula and Madagascar) [ 21 ] Many more subspecies' names have been given to house mice, but these are now regarded as synonyms of the five subspecies. Some populations are hybrids of different subspecies, including the Japanese house mouse ( M. m. molossinus ). [ 20 ] A notable region of hybridization is a region in general Europe where M. m. domesticus and M. m. musculus are often found to hybridize. [ 22 ] However, male hybrid mice typically experience hybrid sterility, which maintains reproductive separation between the two subspecies. [ 23 ] Chromosomal races The standard species karyotype is composed of 40 chromosomes . Within Western Europe there are numerous populations – chromosomal races – with a reduced chromosome count arising from Robertsonian fusion . Evolution Suzuki et al. , 2013 confirms the theory that M. musculus originates in Southwestern Asia and identifies 5 subspecies and their origins: musculus in northern Eurasia , castaneus in India and Southeast Asia, a previously unknown subspecies from Nepal , domesticus in western Europe, and gentilulus in Yemen . [ 24 ] A recent study using 89 whole-genome sequences revealed that the modern day M. m. castaneus emerged from an ancestral M. musculus population in Indian subcontinent some time around 700 kya. From there, this ancestral population migrated to Iran around 360 kya to form M. m. domesticus and then to Afghanistan around 260 kya to form M. m. musculus . [ 25 ] Behavior House mice usually run, walk, or stand on all fours, but when eating, fighting, or orienting themselves, they rear up on their hind legs with additional support from the tail – a behavior known as "tripoding". Mice are good jumpers, climbers, and swimmers, and are generally considered to be thigmotactic . Mice are mostly crepuscular or nocturnal ; they are averse to bright lights. The average sleep time of a captive house mouse is reported to be 12.5 hours per day. [ citation needed ] They live in a wide variety of hidden places near food sources, and construct nests from various soft materials. Mice are territorial, and one dominant male usually lives together with several females and young mice. Dominant males respect each other's territories and normally enter another's territory only if it is vacant. If two or more males are housed together in a cage, they often become aggressive unless they have been raised together from birth. [ citation needed ] House mice primarily feed on plant matter, but are omnivorous . [ 26 ] They eat their own faeces to acquire nutrients produced by bacteria in their intestines. [ 27 ] House mice, like most other rodents, do not vomit. [ 28 ] Mice are generally afraid of rats, which often kill and eat them, a behavior known as muricide . Despite this, free-living populations of rats and mice do exist together in forest areas in New Zealand, North America, and elsewhere. House mice are generally poor competitors and in most areas cannot survive away from human settlements in areas where other small mammals, such as wood mice , are present. [ 29 ] However, in some areas (such as Australia), mice are able to coexist with other small rodent species. [ 30 ] Social behavior The social behavior of the house mouse is not rigidly fixed into species-specific patterns but is instead adaptable to the environmental conditions, such as the availability of food and space. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] This adaptability allows house mice to inhabit diverse areas ranging from sandy dunes to apartment buildings. [ 31 ] House mice have two forms of social behaviour, the expression of which depends on the environmental context. House mice in buildings and other urbanized areas with close proximity to humans are known as commensal . [ 31 ] Commensal mice populations often have an excessive food source resulting in high population densities and small home ranges. This causes a switch from territorial behaviour to a hierarchy of individuals. [ 31 ] [ 33 ] When populations have an excess of food, there is less female-female aggression, which usually occurs to gain access to food or to prevent infanticide. [ 31 ] Male-male aggression occurs in commensal populations, mainly to defend female mates and protect a small territory. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] The high level of male-male aggression, with a low female-female aggression level is common in polygamous populations. [ 34 ] The social unit of commensal house mouse populations generally consists of one male and two or more females, usually related. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These groups breed cooperatively, with the females communally nursing. This cooperative breeding and rearing by related females helps increase reproductive success. When no related females are present, breeding groups can form from non-related females. [ 35 ] In open areas such as shrubs and fields, the house mouse population is known as noncommensal. These populations are often limited by water or food supply and have large territories. [ 32 ] Female-female aggression in the noncommensal house mouse populations is much higher, reaching a level generally attributed to free-ranging species. Male aggression is also higher in noncommensal populations. In commensal populations, males come into contact with other males quite frequently due to high population densities and aggression must be mediated or the risk of injury becomes too great. [ 31 ] Both commensal and noncommensal house mouse males aggressively defend their territory and act to exclude all intruders. Males mark their territory by scent marking with urine. In marked territories, intruders showed significantly lower aggression than the territory residents. [ 32 ] House mice show a male-biased dispersal; males generally leave their birth sites and migrate to form new territories whereas females generally stay and are opportunistic breeders rather than seasonal. [ 36 ] Senses and communication Vision The visual apparatus of mice is basically similar to that of humans but differs in that they are dichromats and have only two types of cone cells whereas humans are trichromats and have three. This means that mice do not perceive some of the colors in the human visual spectrum. [ 37 ] However, the ventral area of the mouse retina has a much greater density of ultraviolet -sensitive cones than other areas of the retina, although the biological significance of this structure is unknown. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] In 2007, mice genetically engineered to produce the third type of cone were shown to be able to distinguish a range of colors similar to that perceived by tetrachromats . [ 37 ] Olfaction House mice also rely on pheromones for social communication, some of which are produced by the preputial glands of both sexes. The tear fluid and urine of male mice also contains pheromones, such as major urinary proteins . [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Mice detect pheromones mainly with the vomeronasal organ (Jacobson's organ), located at the bottom of the nose. The urine of house mice, especially that of males, has a characteristic strong odor. At least 10 different compounds, such as alkanes , alcohols , etc., are detectable in the urine. Among them, five compounds are specific to males, namely 3-cyclohexene-1-methanol, aminotriazole (3-amino-s-triazole), 4-ethyl phenol, 3-ethyl-2,7-dimethyl octane and 1-iodoundecane. [ 43 ] Odours from adult males or from pregnant or lactating females can speed up or retard sexual maturation in juvenile females and synchronise reproductive cycles in mature females (i.e. the Whitten effect ). Odours of unfamiliar male mice may terminate pregnancies, i.e. the Bruce effect . Tactile Mice can sense surfaces and air movements with their whiskers which are also used during thigmotaxis . If mice are blind from birth, super-normal growth of the vibrissae occurs presumably as a compensatory response. [ 44 ] Conversely, if the vibrissae are absent, the use of vision is intensified. [ 45 ] Life cycle and reproduction Female house mice have an estrous cycle about four to six days long, with estrus itself lasting less than a day. If several females are held together under crowded conditions, they will often not have an estrus at all. If they are then exposed to male urine, they will come into estrus after 72 hours. [ citation needed ] Male house mice court females by emitting characteristic ultrasonic calls in the 30 kHz–110 kHz [ citation needed ] range. The calls are most frequent during courtship when the male is sniffing and following the female; however, the calls continue after mating has begun, at which time the calls are coincident with mounting behaviour. Males can be induced to emit these calls by female pheromones. The vocalizations appear to differ between individuals and have been compared to bird songs because of their complexity. [ 46 ] While females have the capability to produce ultrasonic calls, they typically do not do so during mating behaviour. [ citation needed ] Following copulation, female mice will normally develop a mating plug which prevents further copulation. The plug is not necessary for pregnancy initiation, as this will also occur without the plug. The presence or absence of the plug will not affect litter size either. [ 47 ] This plug stays in place for some 24 hours. The gestation period is about 19–21 days, and they give birth to a litter of 3–14 young (average six to eight). One female can have 5 to 10 litters per year, so the mouse population can increase very quickly. Breeding occurs throughout the year. (However, animals living in the wild do not reproduce in the colder months, even though they do not hibernate .) [ citation needed ] The pups are born blind and without fur or ears. The ears are fully developed by the fourth day, fur begins to appear at about six days and the eyes open around 13 days after birth; the pups are weaned at around 21 days. Females reach sexual maturity at about six weeks of age and males at about eight weeks, but both can copulate as early as five weeks. [ 48 ] Polygamy Although house mice can be either monogamous or polygamous, they are most commonly polygamous . They generally show characteristics of mate-defense polygyny in that males are highly territorial and protective of their mates, while females are less agonistic . [ 49 ] The communal nursing groups that result from these behaviors lead to lower numbers of infanticide since more females are able to protect greater numbers of offspring. [ 50 ] Evolutionary and behavioural consequences Both evolutionary and behavioral consequences result from the polygamous nature of the house mouse. One consequence is the paternal investment , which is lower in polygamous mice than in mice that are monogamous. [ 51 ] This occurs due to the fact that males spend more time involved in sexual competition than do females, leaving less time for paternal care. [ 51 ] Polygamous male house mice spend less time alone with pups. [ 51 ] They are also less likely and slower to retrieve lost pups than males of monogamous mice. [ 51 ] In contrast, the maternal investment is similar between female mice that have mated once versus multiply. [ 51 ] The polygamous behavior of female house mice promotes sperm competition , which affects both male and female evolutionary fitness . [ 47 ] Females who mate with multiple males tend to produce both pups in greater numbers, [ 47 ] and with higher survival rates, [ 52 ] increasing female fitness. Sperm competition that arises from polygamy favors males with faster, more motile sperm in higher numbers, increasing male fitness. [ 47 ] The competitive aspect of insemination increases the frequency of polyandrous events and fertilizations. Polyandry has evolved to increase reproductive success. [ 53 ] Male mating behavior is also affected in response to the practice of polygamous behavior. Compared to monogamous house mice, polygamous house mice mate for longer periods of time. [ 54 ] This behaviour allows for an increase in both the transfer of sperm and paternity success, which in turn increases male fitness. [ 54 ] Polyandry As opposed to polygyny, polyandrous behavior in females is the act of breeding with several males in the same season. [ 55 ] Variation in number of males that females mate with occurs among a population. Polyandrous behavior is a common mating pattern in the subspecies M. m. musculus as well as its relative M. m. domesticus . [ 55 ] Polyandry occurs in 30% of all wild populations of house mice. [ 56 ] Litters from multiple sires tend to be more genetically diverse than litters of single sires. [ 55 ] Multiple paternity is also more common in larger populations than smaller populations, because there is a larger number of mates and more diverse mates to choose from. [ 56 ] Within a population, males and females show different levels of multiple mating. Females show bias toward unrelated males rather than related males during sexual selection, resulting in more genetically diverse offspring and a reduction of inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression increases genetic incompatibilities, levels of homozygosity, and the chance of expression of deleterious recessive alleles. [ 53 ] Polyandry has been shown to increase offspring survival compared to monandry. Evolutionary consequences The fitness of females increases in polyandrous lines due to more genetic diversity and greater litter size. [ 47 ] Due to polyandry, males can be confused by the identity of new offspring. Multiple mating by females and paternity confusion can decrease rates of infanticide. If the males are uncertain if the offspring are theirs, they are less likely to kill the offspring. [ 57 ] Intrauterine insemination causes an evolutionary consequence resulting from polyandrous behavior. When multiple males mate with one female, there are multiple sets of sperm gametes in a female mouse. Offspring fertilized by multiple males can compete more strongly for mother's resources and can lead to a decrease in body size and variation in body size. [ 58 ] Inbreeding avoidance Since inbreeding is detrimental, it tends to be avoided. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein ( MUP ) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating. [ 59 ] Another mechanism for avoiding inbreeding is evident when a female house mouse mates with multiple males. In such a case, there appears to be egg-driven sperm selection against sperm from related males. [ 60 ] Genetics As a model organism, a great deal is known about mouse genetics, with a major tool being the knockout mouse technique. Life expectancy House mice usually live less than one year in the wild, due to a high level of predation and exposure to harsh environments. [ 61 ] In protected environments, however, they often live two to three years. The Methuselah Mouse Prize is a competition to breed or engineer extremely long-lived laboratory mice. As of 2005 [update] , the record holder was a genetically engineered mouse that lived for 1,819 days (7 days short of 5 years). [ 62 ] Another record holder that was kept in an enriched environment but did not receive any genetic, pharmacological, or dietary treatment lived for 1,551 days (4 years, 90 days). [ 63 ] [ 64 ] Aging In several different mouse strains, with age, nuclear DNA from the liver , heart , brain , kidney , skeletal muscle and spleen showed significantly higher levels of 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), a direct marker of DNA damage . This increase was attributed to an increase in sensitivity of these tissues to oxidative stress . Caloric restriction is known to increase the lifespan of rodents and to reduce aging . A study conducted with mice undergoing dietary restriction was found to significantly reduce the age-related accumulation of 8-oxo-dG levels in all tissues studied when compared with a control. [ 65 ] Thus, it has been suggested that oxidative DNA damage as a result of normal cellular metabolism could be a highly relevant factor of aging. [ 65 ] In another study, two forms of DNA damage (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and DNA-protein crosslinks) were also found to increase with age in mouse brain and liver tissues. [ 66 ] Mice and humans History House mice usually live in proximity to humans, in or around houses and/or fields. They are native to India , [ 67 ] [ 68 ] and later they spread to the eastern Mediterranean about 13,000 BC, only spreading into the rest of Europe around 1000 BC. This time lag is thought to be because the mice require agrarian human settlements above a certain size. [ 69 ] The house mouse first arrived in the Americas in the early sixteenth century. It was carried aboard on the ships of Spanish explorers and Conquistadors . About one hundred years later, it arrived in North America with French fur traders and English colonists. They have since been spread to all parts of the globe by humans. [ 70 ] Many studies have been done on mouse phylogenies to reconstruct early human movements. For example, one study suggests the possibility of a previously unsuspected early link between Northern Europe and Madeira on the basis of the origin of Madeiran mice. [ 71 ] House mice were thought to be the primary reason for the domestication of cats . [ 72 ] As pets The first written reference to mice kept as pets occurs in the Erya , the oldest extant Chinese dictionary, from a mention in an 1100 BC version. [ 73 ] Human domestication led to numerous strains of " fancy " or hobby mice with a variety of colours and a docile temperament . Domestic varieties of the house mouse are bred as a food source for some carnivorous pet reptiles, birds, arthropods , and fish. [ 74 ] The effects of domestication can be rapid, with captive-reared mice differing in boldness and activity patterns compared to wild-caught mice after 4–5 generations in recent research. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Mice as pests Mice are widespread pest organisms, and one of the most common rodents to infest human buildings. They commonly forage outdoors during the spring and summer, but retreat into buildings through the autumn and winter to seek warmth and food. They typically feed on unattended food, leftovers and garden produce. Their foraging risks the contamination and degradation of food supplies, and can also spread other pests such as fleas , ticks , lice and mites . [ 77 ] When infesting homes, house mice may pose a risk of damaging and compromising the structure of furniture and the building itself. They gnaw various materials to file down their growing teeth and keep the length under control. Common damage includes gnawed electrical wires, marks on wooden furniture and construction supporting elements, and textile damage. [ 78 ] Mice and diseases House mice can sometimes transmit diseases, contaminate food, and damage food packaging. Although the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides a list with diseases transmitted by rodents, [ 79 ] only a few of the diseases are transmitted through the house mouse. [ 80 ] Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV) can be transmitted by mice, but is not a commonly reported infection in humans, though most infections are mild and are often never diagnosed. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Some concern exists that women should not be infected with LCMV during pregnancy. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] House mice are not usually a vector of human plague ( bubonic plague ) because they have fewer infestations with fleas than do rats, and because the fleas which house mice normally carry exhibit little tendency to bite humans rather than their natural host. [ 86 ] Rickettsialpox , caused by the bacterium Rickettsia akari and similar to chickenpox , is spread by mice in general, but is very rare and generally mild and resolves within two or three weeks if untreated. No known deaths have resulted from the disease. Murine typhus (also called endemic typhus), caused by the bacterium Rickettsia typhi , is transmitted by the fleas that infest rats. While rat fleas are the most common vectors, cat fleas and mouse fleas are less common modes of transmission. [ 87 ] Endemic typhus is highly treatable with antibiotics. The U.S. CDC currently does not mention rickettsialpox or murine typhus on its website about diseases directly transmitted by rodents (in general). [ 79 ] Leptospirosis is carried by a variety of wild and domestic animals including dogs, rats, swine, cattle, mice in general, and can be transmitted by the urine of an infected animal and is contagious as long as the urine is still moist. [ 88 ] In Central Europe, the Dobriva sequence of hantavirus has been found in house mice. This is the most serious type of hanta that can infect humans. [ 89 ] Mice contribute indirectly to the transmission of Lyme disease by acting as hosts for tick larvae. [ 90 ] When young ticks feed on infected mice, they acquire the bacteria responsible for the disease. As these ticks mature, they can transmit the infection to humans and other animals through subsequent bites, thereby playing a crucial role in the disease's ecological cycle. [ 91 ] Invasive species Mice have become an invasive species on islands to where they have spread during the period of European exploration and colonisation. [ 92 ] New Zealand had no land mammals other than two species of bat prior to human occupation, and the house mouse is one of many species that have been introduced. Mice are responsible for a reduction in native bird species since they eat some of the same foods as birds. They are also known to kill lizards and have a large effect on native insects. [ 93 ] Gough Island in the South Atlantic is used by 20 species of seabirds for breeding, including almost all of the world's Tristan albatross ( Diomedea dabbenena ) and Atlantic petrel ( Pterodroma incerta ). Until house mice arrived on the island in the 19th century with sailors, the birds did not have any mammalian predators. The mice have since grown unusually large and have learned to attack albatross chicks, which can be 90 cm tall, but are largely immobile, by working in groups and gnawing on them until they bleed to death. [ 94 ] In the grain belt of southeastern Australia, the introduced subspecies M. m. domesticus breed so successfully, every three years or so they reach plague proportions, achieving densities of 1000 per hectare and causing massive disruption to communities, and losses to agriculture of A$36 million annually. [ 95 ] As a model organism Mice are the most commonly used mammalian laboratory animal, due to their relatively close relationship, and associated high homology , with humans, their ease in maintenance and handling, and their high rate of reproduction. Laboratory mice typically belong to standardized inbred strains selected for the stability or clarity of specific harmful mutations. This allows research with laboratory mice to easily restrict genetic and biological variables, making them very useful model organisms in genetic and medicinal research. [ 96 ] Mice have been used in scientific research since the 1650s. [ 97 ] In folk culture Importance of mice as a house and agricultural pest resulted in a development of a variety of mouse-related rituals and stories in world's cultures. The Ancient Egyptians had a story about "The mouse as vizier ". [ 98 ] Many South Slavs had a traditional annual "Mouse Day" celebration. In the eastern Balkans (most of Bulgaria, North Macedonia , the Torlak districts of Serbia ), the "Mouse Day" ( Bulgarian : Миши ден, Мишин ден ) was celebrated on 9 October of the Julian calendar (corresponds to 27 October of the Gregorian calendar in the 20th and 21st centuries), the next day after the feast of Saint Demetrius . In the western Balkans ( Bosnia , Croatia ), the Mouse Day would usually be celebrated in the spring, during the Maslenitsa week or early in the Lent . [ 99 ] See also Woolly mouse Myobia musculi , common mite found in fur of house mouse References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Musser, G.; Hutterer, R.; Kryštufek, B.; Yigit, N.; Mitsainas, G. (2021) [amended version of 2016 assessment]. " Mus musculus " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021 e.T13972A197519724. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T13972A197519724.en . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ a b Lawal, R.A.; et al. (2022). "Taxonomic assessment of two wild house mouse subspecies using whole-genome sequencing" . Scientific Reports . 12 (20866) 20866. Bibcode : 2022NatSR..1220866L . doi : 10.1038/s41598-022-25420-x . PMC 9718808 . PMID 36460842 . ^ Gregory SG, Sekhon M, Schein J, Zhao S, Osoegawa K, Scott CE, et al. (August 2002). "A physical map of the mouse genome". Nature . 418 (6899): 743– 50. Bibcode : 2002Natur.418..743G . doi : 10.1038/nature00957 . PMID 12181558 . S2CID 4325788 . ^ Waterston RH, Lindblad-Toh K, Birney E, Rogers J, Abril JF, Agarwal P, et al. (December 2002). "Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome" . Nature . 420 (6915): 520– 62. Bibcode : 2002Natur.420..520W . doi : 10.1038/nature01262 . PMID 12466850 . ^ a b Berry, R.J. (1970). "The natural history of the house mouse" . Field Studies . 3 : 219– 62 . Retrieved 18 December 2013 . ^ Baker RO, Bodman GR, Timm RM (1994). "Rodent-Proof Construction and Exclusion Methods" . In Hygnstrom SE, Timm RM, Larson GE (eds.). Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage . University of Nebraska-Lincoln. [ page needed ] ^ Lyneborg, L. (1971). Mammals of Europe . Blandford Press. [ page needed ] ^ Lawrence MJ, Brown RW (1974). Mammals of Britain Their Tracks, Trails and Signs . Blandford Press. [ page needed ] ^ "ANRCatalog - House Mouse: Pest Notes for Home and Landscape - ANR Catalog" . anrcatalog.ucanr.edu . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . ^ Hotchkiss AK, Vandenbergh JG (July 2005). "The anogenital distance index of mice ( Mus musculus domesticus ): an analysis". Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science . 44 (4): 46– 8. PMID 16050669 . ^ Mayer JA, Foley J, De La Cruz D, Chuong CM , Widelitz R (November 2008). "Conversion of the nipple to hair-bearing epithelia by lowering bone morphogenetic protein pathway activity at the dermal-epidermal interface" . The American Journal of Pathology . 173 (5): 1339– 48. doi : 10.2353/ajpath.2008.070920 . PMC 2570124 . PMID 18832580 . ^ Hickman, D.L.; Johnson, J.; Vemulapalli, T.H.; Crisler, J.R.; Shepherd, R. (2017), "Commonly Used Animal Models", Principles of Animal Research , Elsevier, pp. 117– 175, doi : 10.1016/B978-0-12-802151-4.00007-4 , ISBN 978-0-12-802151-4 , PMC 7150119 ^ Greene, Eunice Chace (1935). "Anatomy of the Rat". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge . Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 27 . American Philosophical Society: iii–370. doi : 10.2307/1005513 . JSTOR 1005513 . OCLC 685221899 . ^ a b Siegel, Michael I. (1970). "The tail, locomotion and balance in mice". American Journal of Physical Anthropology . 33 (1): 101– 2. Bibcode : 1970AJPA...33..101S . doi : 10.1002/ajpa.1330330113 . ^ Buck, CW, Tolman N, Tolman, W (November 1925). "The Tail as a Balancing Organ in Mice". Journal of Mammalogy . 6 (4): 267– 71. doi : 10.2307/1373415 . JSTOR 1373415 . ^ Le Bars D, Gozariu M, Cadden SW (December 2001). "Animal models of nociception" . Pharmacological Reviews . 53 (4): 597– 652. doi : 10.1016/S0031-6997(24)01514-X . PMID 11734620 . ^ Drickamer, Lee C. (2005). "Use of the tail for communication in house mice" . In Víctor, Sánchez-Cordero; Medellin, Rodrigo A. (eds.). Contribuciones mastozoológicas en homenaje a Bernardo Villa [ Mammal Collection in Honor of Bernardo Villa ] (in Spanish). UNAM. pp. 157– 62. ISBN 978-970-32-2603-0 . ^ Terszowski G, Müller SM, Bleul CC, Blum C, Schirmbeck R, Reimann J, Pasquier LD, Amagai T, Boehm T, Rodewald HR (April 2006). "Evidence for a functional second thymus in mice" . Science . 312 (5771): 284– 7. Bibcode : 2006Sci...312..284T . doi : 10.1126/science.1123497 . PMID 16513945 . S2CID 24553384 . ^ Mitchell-Jones A.J.; Amori G.; Bogdanowicz W.; Kryštufek B.; Reijnders PJH; Spitzenberger F.; Stubbe M; Thissen JBM; Vohralík V.; Zima J. (1999). The Atlas of European Mammals . T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-130-8 . [ page needed ] ^ a b c Musser, Guy G.; Carleton, Michael D. (2005). "Superfamily Muroidea" . In Wilson, Don E.; Reeder, DeeAnn M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 894– 1531. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 . ^ Prager EM, Orrego C, Sage RD (October 1998). "Genetic variation and phylogeography of central Asian and other house mice, including a major new mitochondrial lineage in Yemen" . Genetics . 150 (2): 835– 61. doi : 10.1093/genetics/150.2.835 . PMC 1460354 . PMID 9755213 . ^ Turner, Leslie M; Harr, Bettina (9 December 2014). "Genome-wide mapping in a house mouse hybrid zone reveals hybrid sterility loci and Dobzhansky-Muller interactions" . eLife . 3 : e02504. doi : 10.7554/eLife.02504.001 . hdl : 11858/00-001M-0000-0024-5B29-0 . PMC 4359376 . PMID 25487987 . ^ Forejt, Jiří (October 1996). "Hybrid sterility in the mouse". Trends in Genetics . 12 (10): 412– 417. doi : 10.1016/0168-9525(96)10040-8 . PMID 8909138 . ^ Chaichan, P.; Mercier, A.; Galal, L.; Mahittikorn, A.; Ariey, F.; Morand, S.; Boumédiène, F.; Udonsom, R.; Hamidovic, A.; Murat, J.B.; Sukthana, Y.; Dardé, M.L. (2017). "Geographical distribution of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes in Asia: A link with neighboring continents". Infection, Genetics and Evolution . 53 . Elsevier BV : 227– 238. Bibcode : 2017InfGE..53..227C . doi : 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.06.002 . ISSN 1567-1348 . PMID 28583867 . S2CID 4698999 . This review cites this research. Suzuki, H.; Nunome, M.; Kinoshita, G.; Aplin, K. P.; Vogel, P.; Kryukov, A. P.; Jin, M-L; Han, S-H; Maryanto, I.; Tsuchiya, K.; Ikeda, H.; Shiroishi, T.; Yonekawa, H.; Moriwaki, K. (2013). "Evolutionary and dispersal history of Eurasian house mice Mus musculus clarified by more extensive geographic sampling of mitochondrial DNA" . Heredity . 111 (5). Nature Portfolio : 375– 390. Bibcode : 2013Hered.111..375S . doi : 10.1038/hdy.2013.60 . ISSN 0018-067X . PMC 3806020 . PMID 23820581 . S2CID 25657111 . The Genetics Society . ^ Lawal, R.A.; Dumont, B.L. (2023). "Ancestral variation and its impact on wild house mouse genomes". bioRxiv 10.1101/2023.11.09.566486 . ^ Kolb, Peter. "Things That Squeak - MSU Extension" . www.montana.edu . Montana State University . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . ^ Hilscher-Conklin, Caryl (1998). "Rattus Biologicus: Coprophagy: Healthy Behavior For Your Rats" . Rat & Mouse Gazette . ^ Horn CC, Kimball BA, Wang H, Kaus J, Dienel S, Nagy A, Gathright GR, Yates BJ, Andrews PL (2013). "Why can't rodents vomit? A comparative behavioral, anatomical, and physiological study" . PLOS ONE . 8 (4) e60537. Bibcode : 2013PLoSO...860537H . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0060537 . PMC 3622671 . PMID 23593236 . Charles Q. Choi (16 April 2013). "Why Woodchucks Don't Upchuck" . Live Science . Charles Q. Choi (16 April 2013). "Why Woodchucks Don't Upchuck" . Live Science . ^ Tattersall, Françoise H.; Smith, R. H.; Nowell, F. (1997). "Experimental colonisation of contrasting habitats by house mice" . Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde . 62 (6): 350– 8. ^ Moro, Dorian; Morris, Keith (2000). "Movements and refugia of Lakeland Downs short-tailed mice, Leggadina lakedownensis , and house mice, Mus domesticus , on Thevenard Island, Western Australia". Wildlife Research . 27 (1): 11– 20. Bibcode : 2000WildR..27...11M . doi : 10.1071/WR99016 . ^ a b c d e f g Frynta, Daniel; Slábová, Markéta; Váchová, Hana; Volfová, Radka; Munclinger, Pavel (2005). "Aggression and commensalism in house mouse: A comparative study across Europe and the near east". Aggressive Behavior . 31 (3): 283– 93. doi : 10.1002/ab.15555 . ^ a b c d Gray, Samantha J; Hurst, Jane L (1997). "Behavioural mechanisms underlying the spatial dispersion of commensal Mus domesticus and grassland Mus spretus ". Animal Behaviour . 53 (3): 511– 24. Bibcode : 1997AnBeh..53..511G . doi : 10.1006/anbe.1996.0301 . S2CID 54989751 . ^ Wolff, Robert J. (1985). "Mating behaviour and female choice: Their relation to social structure in wild caught House mice ( Mus musculus ) housed in a semi-natural environment". Journal of Zoology . 207 (1): 43– 51. Bibcode : 1985JZoo..207...43W . doi : 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb04914.x . ^ a b Szenczi P, Bánszegi O, Groó Z, Altbäcker V (2012). "Development of the social behavior of two mice species with contrasting social systems". Aggressive Behavior . 38 (4): 288– 97. doi : 10.1002/ab.21431 . PMID 25363698 . ^ a b Dobson, F Stephen; Baudoin, Claude (2002). "Experimental tests of spatial association and kinship in monogamous mice ( Mus spicilegus ) and polygynous mice ( Mus musculus domesticus )". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 80 (6): 980– 6. Bibcode : 2002CaJZ...80..980D . doi : 10.1139/z02-055 . ^ Gerlach, Gabriele (1996). "Emigration mechanisms in feral house mice - a laboratory investigation of the influence of social structure, population density, and aggression". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology . 39 (3): 159– 70. Bibcode : 1996BEcoS..39..159G . doi : 10.1007/s002650050277 . JSTOR 4601248 . OCLC 299796761 . S2CID 24161932 . ^ a b Odling Smee, Lucy (2007). "Mice made to see a rainbow of colours" . News@nature . doi : 10.1038/news070319-12 . OCLC 605144848 . S2CID 211729271 . ^ Calderone JB, Jacobs GH (2009). "Regional variations in the relative sensitivity to UV light in the mouse retina". Visual Neuroscience . 12 (3): 463– 8. doi : 10.1017/s0952523800008361 . PMID 7654604 . S2CID 45068446 . ^ Yokoyama S, Shi Y (December 2000). "Genetics and evolution of ultraviolet vision in vertebrates". FEBS Letters . 486 (2): 167– 72. Bibcode : 2000FEBSL.486..167Y . doi : 10.1016/s0014-5793(00)02269-9 . PMID 11113460 . S2CID 28891403 . ^ Neitz M, Neitz J (May 2001). "The uncommon retina of the common house mouse". Trends in Neurosciences . 24 (5): 248– 50. doi : 10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01773-2 . PMID 11311361 . S2CID 3756078 . ^ Kimoto H, Haga S, Sato K, Touhara K (October 2005). "Sex-specific peptides from exocrine glands stimulate mouse vomeronasal sensory neurons". Nature . 437 (7060): 898– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.437..898K . doi : 10.1038/nature04033 . PMID 16208374 . S2CID 4388164 . ^ Chamero P, Marton TF, Logan DW, Flanagan K, Cruz JR, Saghatelian A, Cravatt BF, Stowers L (December 2007). "Identification of protein pheromones that promote aggressive behaviour". Nature . 450 (7171): 899– 902. Bibcode : 2007Natur.450..899C . doi : 10.1038/nature05997 . PMID 18064011 . S2CID 4398766 . ^ Achiraman S, Archunan G (December 2002). "Characterization of urinary volatiles in Swiss male mice ( Mus musculus ): bioassay of identified compounds". Journal of Biosciences . 27 (7): 679– 86. doi : 10.1007/BF02708376 . PMID 12571373 . S2CID 8533630 . ^ Rauschecker JP, Tian B, Korte M, Egert U (June 1992). "Crossmodal changes in the somatosensory vibrissa/barrel system of visually deprived animals" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 89 (11): 5063– 7. Bibcode : 1992PNAS...89.5063R . doi : 10.1073/pnas.89.11.5063 . JSTOR 2359588 . PMC 49229 . PMID 1594614 . ^ Sokolov VE, Tikhonova GN, Tikhonov IA (1996). "[The role of sensory systems in the behavior of Ryukyu mice ( Mus caroli Banhote, 1902)]". Izvestiia Akademii Nauk. Seriia Biologicheskaia (in Russian) (2): 169– 75. PMID 8723619 . ^ Holy TE, Guo Z (December 2005). "Ultrasonic songs of male mice" . PLOS Biology . 3 (12) e386. doi : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030386 . PMC 1275525 . PMID 16248680 . Michael Purdy (31 October 2005). "Researchers add mice to list of creatures that sing in the presence of mates" . Washington University in St. Louis . Michael Purdy (31 October 2005). "Researchers add mice to list of creatures that sing in the presence of mates" . Washington University in St. Louis . ^ a b c d e Firman RC, Simmons LW (May 2010). "Experimental evolution of sperm quality via postcopulatory sexual selection in house mice" . Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution . 64 (5): 1245– 56. doi : 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00894.x . PMID 19922447 . ^ "Mouse Husbandry, Breeding and Development" . University of Carolina, Irvine, Transgenic Mouse Facility Guidelines . University of Carolina. Archived from the original on 4 July 2007. ^ Dobson, F Stephen; Jacquot Catherine (June 2002). "Experimental tests of spatial association and kinship in monogamous mice and polygynous mice". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 80 (6): 980– 986. doi : 10.1139/Z02-055 . ^ Dobson, F Stephen; Jacquot Catherine; Baudoin, Claude (October 2000). "An experimental test of kin association in the house mouse". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 78 (10): 1807– 1812. Bibcode : 2000CaJZ...78.1806D . doi : 10.1139/z00-100 . ^ a b c d e Patris B, Baudoin C (October 2000). "A comparative study of parental care between two rodent species: implications for the mating system of the mound-building mouse Mus spicilegus ". Behavioural Processes . 51 ( 1– 3): 35– 43. Bibcode : 2000BehPr..51...35P . doi : 10.1016/S0376-6357(00)00117-0 . PMID 11074310 . S2CID 12674813 . ^ Firman RC, Simmons LW (7 March 2008). "Polyandry, sperm competition, and reproductive success in mice" . Behavioral Ecology . 19 (4): 695– 702. doi : 10.1093/beheco/arm158 . ^ a b Dean, M.D.; Ardlie, K.G.; Nachman, M.W. (2006). "The frequency of multiple paternity suggests that sperm competition is common in house mice ( Mus domesticus )" . Molecular Ecology . 15 (13): 4141– 4151. Bibcode : 2006MolEc..15.4141D . doi : 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2006.03068.x . PMC 2904556 . PMID 17054508 . ^ a b Klemme, Ines; Firman, Renée Claire (April 2013). "Male house mice that have evolved with sperm competition have increased mating duration and paternity success". Animal Behaviour . 85 (4): 751– 758. Bibcode : 2013AnBeh..85..751K . doi : 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.016 . S2CID 17428265 . ^ a b c Thonhauser KE, Thoß M, Musolf K, Klaus T, Penn DJ (January 2014). "Multiple paternity in wild house mice ( Mus musculus musculus ): effects on offspring genetic diversity and body mass" . Ecology and Evolution . 4 (2): 200– 9. Bibcode : 2014EcoEv...4..200T . doi : 10.1002/ece3.920 . PMC 3925383 . PMID 24558575 . ^ a b Firman RC, Simmons LW (March 2008). Snook, R. (ed.). "Polyandry facilitates postcopulatory inbreeding avoidance in house mice" . Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution . 62 (3): 603– 11. Bibcode : 2008Evolu..62..603F . doi : 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00307.x . PMID 18081715 . S2CID 23933418 . ^ Auclair Y, König B, Lindholm AK (November 2014). "Socially mediated polyandry: a new benefit of communal nesting in mammals" . Behavioral Ecology . 25 (6): 1467– 1473. doi : 10.1093/beheco/aru143 . PMC 4235584 . PMID 25419087 . ^ Firman, R.; Simmons, L. (2007). "Polyandry, sperm competition, and reproductive success in mice" . Behavioral Ecology . 19 (4): 695– 702. doi : 10.1093/beheco/arm158 . ^ Sherborne AL, Thom MD, Paterson S, Jury F, Ollier WE, Stockley P, Beynon RJ, Hurst JL (December 2007). "The genetic basis of inbreeding avoidance in house mice" . Current Biology . 17 (23): 2061– 6. Bibcode : 2007CBio...17.2061S . doi : 10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.041 . PMC 2148465 . PMID 17997307 . ^ Firman RC, Simmons LW (September 2015). "Gametic interactions promote inbreeding avoidance in house mice". Ecology Letters . 18 (9): 937– 43. Bibcode : 2015EcolL..18..937F . doi : 10.1111/ele.12471 . PMID 26154782 . ^ Phipatanakul, Wanda; Matsui, Elizabeth; Portnoy, Jay; Williams, P. Brock; Barnes, Charles; Kennedy, Kevin; Bernstein, David; Blessing-Moore, Joann; Cox, Linda; Khan, David; Lang, David; Nicklas, Richard; Oppenheimer, John; Randolph, Christopher; Schuller, Diane (December 2012). "Environmental assessment and exposure reduction of rodents: a practice parameter" . Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology . 109 (6): 375– 387. doi : 10.1016/j.anai.2012.09.019 . ISSN 1534-4436 . PMC 3519934 . PMID 23176873 . ^ Gobel, D. (2013) [2003]. "Latest Mprize Winners" . Andrzej Bartke Mprize for Longevity . Methuselah Foundation . Retrieved 6 February 2019 . ^ Connor, Steve (31 October 2004). "Oldest mouse in captivity wins top science award" . The Independent (UK) . Retrieved 30 July 2013 . ^ "Reversal Prize" . Methuselah Foundation. Archived from the original on 30 August 2008 . Retrieved 14 March 2009 . ^ a b Hamilton ML, Van Remmen H, Drake JA, Yang H, Guo ZM, Kewitt K, Walter CA, Richardson A (August 2001). "Does oxidative damage to DNA increase with age?" . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 98 (18): 10469– 74. Bibcode : 2001PNAS...9810469H . doi : 10.1073/pnas.171202698 . PMC 56984 . PMID 11517304 . ^ Izzotti A, Cartiglia C, Taningher M, De Flora S, Balansky R (December 1999). "Age-related increases of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and DNA-protein crosslinks in mouse organs". Mutat Res . 446 (2): 215– 23. Bibcode : 1999MRGTE.446..215I . doi : 10.1016/s1383-5718(99)00189-8 . PMID 10635344 . ^ Museum Notes, Volume 36, Issue 1 – Volume 46, Issue 33 . University of Nebraska. The house mouse originally came from India ^ Boursot P, Din W, Anand R, Darviche D, Dod B, von Deimling F, Talwar GP, Bonhomme F (1996). "Origin and radiation of the house mouse: Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny". Journal of Evolutionary Biology . 9 (4): 391– 415. doi : 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1996.9040391.x . S2CID 84895257 . ^ Cucchi T, Vigne JD, Auffray JC (2005). "First occurrence of the house mouse ( Mus musculus domesticus Schwarz & Schwarz, 1943) in the Western Mediterranean: A zooarchaeological revision of subfossil occurrences" (PDF) . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society . 84 (3): 429– 45. doi : 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00445.x . ^ Skotnes-Brown, Jules (March 2023). "Scurrying seafarers: shipboard rats, plague, and the land/sea border" . Journal of Global History . 18 (1): 108– 130. doi : 10.1017/S1740022822000158 . hdl : 10023/25280 . ISSN 1740-0228 . PMC 7618229 . PMID 41078506 . ^ Gündüz I, Auffray JC, Britton-Davidian J, Catalan J, Ganem G, Ramalhinho MG, Mathias ML, Searle JB (August 2001). "Molecular studies on the colonization of the Madeiran archipelago by house mice". Molecular Ecology . 10 (8): 2023– 9. Bibcode : 2001MolEc..10.2023G . doi : 10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01346.x . PMID 11555245 . S2CID 19068030 . ^ O'Brien, Carlos A. Driscoll, Juliet Clutton-Brock, Andrew C. Kitchener, Stephen J. (1 June 2009). "The Evolution of House Cats" . Scientific American . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ "The History Of Fancy Mice" . American Fancy Rat and Mouse Association. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009 . Retrieved 29 July 2013 . ^ the Rat and Mouse Club of America ^ Courtney Jones, Stephanie K.; Byrne, Phillip G. (December 2017). "What role does heritability play in transgenerational phenotypic responses to captivity? Implications for managing captive populations". Zoo Biology . 36 (6): 397– 406. doi : 10.1002/zoo.21389 . PMID 29193268 . ^ Courtney Jones, Stephanie K.; Munn, Adam J.; Byrne, Phillip G. (April 2017). "Effects of captivity on house mice behaviour in a novel environment: Implications for conservation practices" . Applied Animal Behaviour Science . 189 : 98– 106. doi : 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.01.007 . ^ Ho, Jeffery; Changbunjong, Tanasak; Weluwanarak, Thekhawet; Hussain, Sabir; Sparagano, Olivier (1 March 2021). "The pests of a pest: A systematic review of ectoparasitic fauna among synanthropic rodents in the 21st century with meta-analysis" . Acta Tropica . 215 105802. doi : 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105802 . ISSN 0001-706X . PMID 33352168 . ^ Rodent Exclusion Manual: Mechanical Rodent Proofing Techniques: a training manual for National Park Service Employees (PDF) . National Park Service – via U.S. Department of the Interior . ^ a b "Diseases directly transmitted by rodents" . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (page last updated: 7 June 2011). 4 September 2018. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. ^ Panti-May, J. A.; DE Andrade, R. R. C.; Gurubel-González, Y.; Palomo-Arjona, E.; Sodá-Tamayo, L.; Meza-Sulú, J.; Ramírez-Sierra, M.; Dumonteil, E.; Vidal-Martínez, V. M.; Machaín-Williams, C.; DE Oliveira, D.; Reis, M. G.; Torres-Castro, M. A.; Robles, M. R.; Hernández-Betancourt, S. F. (August 2017). "A survey of zoonotic pathogens carried by house mouse and black rat populations in Yucatan, Mexico" . Epidemiology and Infection . 145 (11): 2287– 2295. doi : 10.1017/S0950268817001352 . ISSN 1469-4409 . PMC 6231242 . PMID 28689507 . ^ "Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis" (PDF) . Iowa State University Center for Food Security and Public Health. March 2010. ^ Verhaegh EM, Moudrous W, Buiting AG, van der Eijk AA, Tijssen CC (2014). "[Meningitis after a mouse bite]" [Meningitis after a mouse bite]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde (in Dutch). 158 : A7033. PMID 25017980 . ^ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (August 2005). "Interim guidance for minimizing risk for human lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection associated with rodents". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 54 (30): 747– 9. PMID 16079740 . ^ Jamieson DJ, Kourtis AP, Bell M, Rasmussen SA (June 2006). "Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: an emerging obstetric pathogen?" . American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology . 194 (6): 1532– 6. doi : 10.1016/j.ajog.2005.11.040 . PMID 16731068 . ^ Bonthius, DJ (September 2012). "Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: an underrecognized cause of neurologic disease in the fetus, child, and adult" . Seminars in Pediatric Neurology . 19 (3): 89– 95. doi : 10.1016/j.spen.2012.02.002 . PMC 4256959 . PMID 22889536 . ^ Shrewsbury, J. F. D. (1970). A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles . Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ^ "A previous study [1943] reported house mice naturally infected with R. typhi in the state of Georgia; however, no PCR-positive mice were detected in our study. Eruptions of mouse populations in the absence of rats have been implicated in several outbreaks of murine typhus; however, these observations were not supported by laboratory data." Eremeeva ME, Warashina WR, Sturgeon MM, Buchholz AE, Olmsted GK, Park SY, Effler PV, Karpathy SE (October 2008). "Rickettsia typhi and R. felis in rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis), Oahu, Hawaii" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 14 (10): 1613– 5. doi : 10.3201/eid1410.080571 . PMC 2609893 . PMID 18826827 . ^ Brown K, Prescott J (February 2008). "Leptospirosis in the family dog: a public health perspective" . CMAJ . 178 (4): 399– 401. doi : 10.1503/cmaj.071097 . PMC 2228361 . PMID 18268265 . ^ Weidmann, Manfred; Schmidt, P.; Vackova, M.; Krivanec, K.; Munclinger, P.; Hufert, F. T. (February 2005). "Identification of Genetic Evidence for Dobrava Virus Spillover in Rodents by Nested Reverse Transcription (RT)-PCR and TaqMan RT-PCR" . Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 43 (2): 808– 812. doi : 10.1128/JCM.43.2.808-812.2005 . PMC 548048 . PMID 15695684 . ^ "The Hidden Complexity of Mice" . abasprixextermination.com . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . ^ "Wild immunology: Mice, habitat quality and the spread of Lyme disease" . College of Public Health News . 28 August 2023 . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . ^ Gabriel, S. I.; Mathias, M. L.; Searle, J. B. (2015). "Of mice and the 'Age of Discovery': the complex history of colonization of the Azorean archipelago by the house mouse (Mus musculus) as revealed by mitochondrial DNA variation" . Journal of Evolutionary Biology . 28 (1): 130– 145. doi : 10.1111/jeb.12550 . ISSN 1420-9101 . PMID 25394749 . ^ King, Caroline, ed. (1995). The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals . Auckland, N.Z.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-558320-5 . [ page needed ] ^ Wanless RM, Angel A, Cuthbert RJ, Hilton GM, Ryan PG (June 2007). "Can predation by invasive mice drive seabird extinctions?" . Biology Letters . 3 (3): 241– 4. doi : 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0120 . PMC 2464706 . PMID 17412667 . ^ "Mice: a case study" . Biotechnology Australia . Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015 . Retrieved 25 April 2015 . ^ "MGI — Biology of the Laboratory Mouse" . Informatics.jax.org . Retrieved 6 February 2019 . ^ d'Isa R, Fasano S, Brambilla R (June 2024). "Editorial: Animal-friendly methods for rodent behavioral testing in neuroscience research" . Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience . 18 1431310. doi : 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1431310 . PMC 11232432 . PMID 38983871 . ^ The mouse as vizier , sourced to: Emma Brunner-Traut, Tiergeschichten aus dem Pharaonenland , Mainz, Zabern, 2000. ^ Plotnikova, Anna Arkadievna (Анна Аркадьевна Плотникова) (2004). Этнолингвистическая география Южной Славии [ Ethnolinguistic Geography of the South Slav Lands ] (in Russian). Moscow: Indrik. pp. 64– 68. ISBN 978-5-85759-287-8 . Further reading Nyby, John G. (2001). "Auditory Communication among Adults" . In Willott, James F. (ed.). Handbook of Mouse Auditory Research: From Behavior to Molecular Biology . CRC Press. pp. 3– 18. ISBN 978-1-4200-3873-6 . External links findmice.org Ensembl Mus musculus genome browser , from the Ensembl Project .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Major model organisms in genetics v t e Lambda phage E. coli Chlamydomonas Tetrahymena Budding yeast Fission yeast Neurospora Maize Arabidopsis Medicago truncatula C. elegans Drosophila Xenopus Zebrafish Rat Mouse Lambda phage E. coli Chlamydomonas Tetrahymena Budding yeast Fission yeast Neurospora Maize Arabidopsis Medicago truncatula C. elegans Drosophila Xenopus Zebrafish Rat Mouse v t e Extant species of subfamily Murinae ( Melasmothrix – Mus ) v t e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordate Class: Mammalia Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Rodentia Family: Muridae Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordate Class: Mammalia Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Rodentia Family: Muridae Melasmothrix division Melasmothrix Sulawesian shrew rat ( M. naso ) Tateomys (Greater Sulawesian shrew rats) Long-tailed shrew rat ( T. macrocercus ) Tate's shrew rat ( T. rhinogradoides ) Melasmothrix Sulawesian shrew rat ( M. naso ) Sulawesian shrew rat ( M. naso ) Tateomys (Greater Sulawesian shrew rats) Long-tailed shrew rat ( T. macrocercus ) Tate's shrew rat ( T. rhinogradoides ) Long-tailed shrew rat ( T. macrocercus ) Tate's shrew rat ( T. rhinogradoides ) Micromys division Chiropodomys (Pencil-tailed tree mice) Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. calamianensis ) Indomalayan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. gliroides ) Koopman's pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. karlkoopmani ) Large pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. major ) Gray-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. muroides ) Small pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. pusillus ) Haeromys (Pygmy tree mice) Ranee mouse ( H. margarettae ) Minahassa ranee mouse ( H. minahassae ) Lesser ranee mouse ( H. pusillus ) Hapalomys (Marmoset rats) Delacour's marmoset rat ( H. delacouri ) Marmoset rat ( H. longicaudatus ) Micromys Indochinese harvest mouse ( M. erythrotis ) Eurasian harvest mouse ( M. minutus ) Vandeleuria (Long-tailed climbing mice) Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse ( V. nilagirica ) Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. nolthenii ) Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. oleracea ) Vernaya Red climbing mouse ( V. fulva ) Chiropodomys (Pencil-tailed tree mice) Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. calamianensis ) Indomalayan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. gliroides ) Koopman's pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. karlkoopmani ) Large pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. major ) Gray-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. muroides ) Small pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. pusillus ) Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. calamianensis ) Indomalayan pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. gliroides ) Koopman's pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. karlkoopmani ) Large pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. major ) Gray-bellied pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. muroides ) Small pencil-tailed tree mouse ( C. pusillus ) Haeromys (Pygmy tree mice) Ranee mouse ( H. margarettae ) Minahassa ranee mouse ( H. minahassae ) Lesser ranee mouse ( H. pusillus ) Ranee mouse ( H. margarettae ) Minahassa ranee mouse ( H. minahassae ) Lesser ranee mouse ( H. pusillus ) Hapalomys (Marmoset rats) Delacour's marmoset rat ( H. delacouri ) Marmoset rat ( H. longicaudatus ) Delacour's marmoset rat ( H. delacouri ) Marmoset rat ( H. longicaudatus ) Micromys Indochinese harvest mouse ( M. erythrotis ) Eurasian harvest mouse ( M. minutus ) Indochinese harvest mouse ( M. erythrotis ) Eurasian harvest mouse ( M. minutus ) Vandeleuria (Long-tailed climbing mice) Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse ( V. nilagirica ) Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. nolthenii ) Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. oleracea ) Nilgiri long-tailed tree mouse ( V. nilagirica ) Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. nolthenii ) Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse ( V. oleracea ) Vernaya Red climbing mouse ( V. fulva ) Red climbing mouse ( V. fulva ) Millardia division Cremnomys Cutch rat ( C. cutchicus ) Elvira rat ( C. elvira ) Diomys Crump's mouse ( D. crumpi ) Madromys Blanford's rat ( M. blanfordi ) Millardia (Asian soft-furred rats) Sand-colored soft-furred rat ( M. gleadowi ) Miss Ryley's soft-furred rat ( M. kathleenae ) Kondana soft-furred rat ( M. kondana ) Soft-furred rat ( M. meltada ) Cremnomys Cutch rat ( C. cutchicus ) Elvira rat ( C. elvira ) Cutch rat ( C. cutchicus ) Elvira rat ( C. elvira ) Diomys Crump's mouse ( D. crumpi ) Crump's mouse ( D. crumpi ) Madromys Blanford's rat ( M. blanfordi ) Blanford's rat ( M. blanfordi ) Millardia (Asian soft-furred rats) Sand-colored soft-furred rat ( M. gleadowi ) Miss Ryley's soft-furred rat ( M. kathleenae ) Kondana soft-furred rat ( M. kondana ) Soft-furred rat ( M. meltada ) Sand-colored soft-furred rat ( M. gleadowi ) Miss Ryley's soft-furred rat ( M. kathleenae ) Kondana soft-furred rat ( M. kondana ) Soft-furred rat ( M. meltada ) Mus division Muriculus Ethiopian striped mouse ( M. imberbis ) Mus (Typical mice) Subgenus Coelomys : Sumatran shrewlike mouse ( M. crociduroides ) Mayor's mouse ( M. mayori ) Gairdner's shrewmouse ( M. pahari ) Volcano mouse ( M. vulcani ) M. lepidoides group : M. lepidoides Subgenus Mus : Little Indian field mouse ( M. booduga ) Ryukyu mouse ( M. caroli ) Fawn-colored mouse ( M. cervicolor ) Cook's mouse ( M. cookii ) Cypriot mouse ( M. cypriacus ) Servant mouse ( M. famulus ) Sheath-tailed mouse ( M. fragilicauda ) Macedonian mouse ( M. macedonicus ) House mouse ( M. musculus ) Mus nitidulus Steppe mouse ( M. spicilegus ) Algerian mouse ( M. spretus ) Earth-colored mouse ( M. terricolor ) Subgenus Nannomys : Baoule's mouse ( M. baoulei ) Toad mouse ( M. bufo ) Callewaert's mouse ( M. callewaerti ) Gounda mouse ( M. goundae ) Hausa mouse ( M. haussa ) Desert pygmy mouse ( M. indutus ) Mahomet mouse ( M. mahomet ) Matthey's mouse ( M. mattheyi ) African pygmy mouse ( M. minutoides ) Temminck's mouse ( M. musculoides ) Neave's mouse ( M. neavei ) Free State pygmy mouse ( M. orangiae ) Oubangui mouse ( M. oubanguii ) Peters's mouse ( M. setulosus ) Setzer's pygmy mouse ( M. setzeri ) Thomas's pygmy mouse ( M. sorella ) Delicate mouse ( M. tenellus ) Gray-bellied pygmy mouse ( M. triton ) Subgenus Pyromys : Ceylon spiny mouse ( M. fernandoni ) Phillips's mouse ( M. phillipsi ) Flat-haired mouse ( M. platythrix ) Rock-loving mouse ( M. saxicola ) Shortridge's mouse ( M. shortridgei ) Muriculus Ethiopian striped mouse ( M. imberbis ) Ethiopian striped mouse ( M. imberbis ) Ethiopian striped mouse ( M. imberbis ) Mus (Typical mice) Subgenus Coelomys : Sumatran shrewlike mouse ( M. crociduroides ) Mayor's mouse ( M. mayori ) Gairdner's shrewmouse ( M. pahari ) Volcano mouse ( M. vulcani ) M. lepidoides group : M. lepidoides Subgenus Mus : Little Indian field mouse ( M. booduga ) Ryukyu mouse ( M. caroli ) Fawn-colored mouse ( M. cervicolor ) Cook's mouse ( M. cookii ) Cypriot mouse ( M. cypriacus ) Servant mouse ( M. famulus ) Sheath-tailed mouse ( M. fragilicauda ) Macedonian mouse ( M. macedonicus ) House mouse ( M. musculus ) Mus nitidulus Steppe mouse ( M. spicilegus ) Algerian mouse ( M. spretus ) Earth-colored mouse ( M. terricolor ) Subgenus Nannomys : Baoule's mouse ( M. baoulei ) Toad mouse ( M. bufo ) Callewaert's mouse ( M. callewaerti ) Gounda mouse ( M. goundae ) Hausa mouse ( M. haussa ) Desert pygmy mouse ( M. indutus ) Mahomet mouse ( M. mahomet ) Matthey's mouse ( M. mattheyi ) African pygmy mouse ( M. minutoides ) Temminck's mouse ( M. musculoides ) Neave's mouse ( M. neavei ) Free State pygmy mouse ( M. orangiae ) Oubangui mouse ( M. oubanguii ) Peters's mouse ( M. setulosus ) Setzer's pygmy mouse ( M. setzeri ) Thomas's pygmy mouse ( M. sorella ) Delicate mouse ( M. tenellus ) Gray-bellied pygmy mouse ( M. triton ) Subgenus Pyromys : Ceylon spiny mouse ( M. fernandoni ) Phillips's mouse ( M. phillipsi ) Flat-haired mouse ( M. platythrix ) Rock-loving mouse ( M. saxicola ) Shortridge's mouse ( M. shortridgei ) Subgenus Coelomys : Sumatran shrewlike mouse ( M. crociduroides ) Subgenus Coelomys : Sumatran shrewlike mouse ( M. crociduroides ) Mayor's mouse ( M. mayori ) Gairdner's shrewmouse ( M. pahari ) Volcano mouse ( M. vulcani ) Mayor's mouse ( M. mayori ) Gairdner's shrewmouse ( M. pahari ) Volcano mouse ( M. vulcani ) M. lepidoides group : M. lepidoides M. lepidoides group : M. lepidoides Subgenus Mus : Little Indian field mouse ( M. booduga ) Ryukyu mouse ( M. caroli ) Fawn-colored mouse ( M. cervicolor ) Cook's mouse ( M. cookii ) Cypriot mouse ( M. cypriacus ) Servant mouse ( M. famulus ) Sheath-tailed mouse ( M. fragilicauda ) Macedonian mouse ( M. macedonicus ) House mouse ( M. musculus ) Mus nitidulus Steppe mouse ( M. spicilegus ) Algerian mouse ( M. spretus ) Earth-colored mouse ( M. terricolor ) Subgenus Mus : Little Indian field mouse ( M. booduga ) Ryukyu mouse ( M. caroli ) Fawn-colored mouse ( M. cervicolor ) Cook's mouse ( M. cookii ) Cypriot mouse ( M. cypriacus ) Servant mouse ( M. famulus ) Sheath-tailed mouse ( M. fragilicauda ) Macedonian mouse ( M. macedonicus ) House mouse ( M. musculus ) Mus nitidulus Steppe mouse ( M. spicilegus ) Algerian mouse ( M. spretus ) Earth-colored mouse ( M. terricolor ) Subgenus Nannomys : Baoule's mouse ( M. baoulei ) Toad mouse ( M. bufo ) Callewaert's mouse ( M. callewaerti ) Gounda mouse ( M. goundae ) Hausa mouse ( M. haussa ) Desert pygmy mouse ( M. indutus ) Mahomet mouse ( M. mahomet ) Matthey's mouse ( M. mattheyi ) African pygmy mouse ( M. minutoides ) Temminck's mouse ( M. musculoides ) Neave's mouse ( M. neavei ) Free State pygmy mouse ( M. orangiae ) Oubangui mouse ( M. oubanguii ) Peters's mouse ( M. setulosus ) Setzer's pygmy mouse ( M. setzeri ) Thomas's pygmy mouse ( M. sorella ) Delicate mouse ( M. tenellus ) Gray-bellied pygmy mouse ( M. triton ) Subgenus Nannomys : Baoule's mouse ( M. baoulei ) Toad mouse ( M. bufo ) Callewaert's mouse ( M. callewaerti ) Gounda mouse ( M. goundae ) Hausa mouse ( M. haussa ) Desert pygmy mouse ( M. indutus ) Mahomet mouse ( M. mahomet ) Matthey's mouse ( M. mattheyi ) African pygmy mouse ( M. minutoides ) Temminck's mouse ( M. musculoides ) Neave's mouse ( M. neavei ) Free State pygmy mouse ( M. orangiae ) Oubangui mouse ( M. oubanguii ) Peters's mouse ( M. setulosus ) Setzer's pygmy mouse ( M. setzeri ) Thomas's pygmy mouse ( M. sorella ) Delicate mouse ( M. tenellus ) Gray-bellied pygmy mouse ( M. triton ) Subgenus Pyromys : Ceylon spiny mouse ( M. fernandoni ) Phillips's mouse ( M. phillipsi ) Flat-haired mouse ( M. platythrix ) Rock-loving mouse ( M. saxicola ) Shortridge's mouse ( M. shortridgei ) Subgenus Pyromys : Ceylon spiny mouse ( M. fernandoni ) Phillips's mouse ( M. phillipsi ) Flat-haired mouse ( M. platythrix ) Rock-loving mouse ( M. saxicola ) Shortridge's mouse ( M. shortridgei ) See also Aethomys – Chrotomys Colomys – Golunda Hadromys – Maxomys Oenomys – Pithecheir Pogonomys – Pseudomys Rattus Stenocephalomys – Xeromys Otomys Others Taxon identifiers Mus musculus Wikidata : Q83310 Wikispecies : Mus musculus ADW : Mus_musculus AFD : Mus_musculus BioLib: 20625 BOLD : 16125 CoL : 7VW9H EoL : 328450 EPPO : MUSXMU Fauna Europaea : 305687 Fauna Europaea (new) : a225ae4c-f49f-484f-9d10-f51d290668c0 GBIF : 2438780 GISD : 97 iNaturalist : 44705 IRMNG : 10716878 ISC : 35218 ITIS : 180366 IUCN : 13972 MDD : 1003372 MSW : 13001562 NatureServe : 2.106007 NBN : NBNSYS0000005121 NCBI : 10090 NZOR: 434b353c-0b45-4431-a70e-5f5c568ae97e Observation.org : 85171 ODNR : house-mouse Open Tree of Life : 542509 Paleobiology Database : 104205 TaiCOL : t0080709 TSA : 11049 WoRMS : 993616 Xeno-canto : Mus-musculus Wikidata : Q83310 Wikispecies : Mus musculus ADW : Mus_musculus AFD : Mus_musculus BioLib: 20625 BOLD : 16125 CoL : 7VW9H EoL : 328450 EPPO : MUSXMU Fauna Europaea : 305687 Fauna Europaea (new) : a225ae4c-f49f-484f-9d10-f51d290668c0 GBIF : 2438780 GISD : 97 iNaturalist : 44705 IRMNG : 10716878 ISC : 35218 ITIS : 180366 IUCN : 13972 MDD : 1003372 MSW : 13001562 NatureServe : 2.106007 NBN : NBNSYS0000005121 NCBI : 10090 NZOR: 434b353c-0b45-4431-a70e-5f5c568ae97e Observation.org : 85171 ODNR : house-mouse Open Tree of Life : 542509 Paleobiology Database : 104205 TaiCOL : t0080709 TSA : 11049 WoRMS : 993616 Xeno-canto : Mus-musculus IUCN Red List least concern species House mouse Cosmopolitan mammals Mammals described in 1758 Mus (rodent) Storage pests Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Rodents of Asia Rodents of Europe Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2015 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2025 Articles with 'species' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2005 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing Bulgarian-language text Taxonbars with 30–34 taxon IDs This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 10:28 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Life Toggle Life subsection 1.1 Early life and career (1864–1886) 1.2 Success in conducting and tone poems (1885–1898) 1.3 Fame and success with operas (1898–1933) 1.4 Nazi Germany (1933–1945) 1.4.1 Reichsmusikkammer 1.4.2 Late operas and family tragedy 1.4.3 Metamorphosen and end of the war 1.5 "Indian Summer", final years and death (1942–1949) 1.1 Early life and career (1864–1886) 1.2 Success in conducting and tone poems (1885–1898) 1.3 Fame and success with operas (1898–1933) 1.4 Nazi Germany (1933–1945) 1.4.1 Reichsmusikkammer 1.4.2 Late operas and family tragedy 1.4.3 Metamorphosen and end of the war 1.4.1 Reichsmusikkammer 1.4.2 Late operas and family tragedy 1.4.3 Metamorphosen and end of the war 1.5 "Indian Summer", final years and death (1942–1949) 2 Music Toggle Music subsection 2.1 Solo and chamber works 2.2 Tone poems and other orchestral works 2.3 Concertos 2.4 Opera 2.5 Lieder 2.1 Solo and chamber works 2.2 Tone poems and other orchestral works 2.3 Concertos 2.4 Opera 2.5 Lieder 3 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 3.1 Recordings as a conductor 3.1 Recordings as a conductor 4 Honors 5 In later culture 6 References Toggle References subsection 6.1 Citations 6.2 Cited sources 6.1 Citations 6.2 Cited sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Richard Strauss Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Chamoru Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Richard Strauss Portrait of Strauss (1918) Born ( 1864-06-11 ) 11 June 1864 Munich , Bavaria Died 8 September 1949 (1949-09-08) (aged 85) Garmisch-Partenkirchen , West Germany Occupations .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Composer conductor Composer conductor Works List of compositions Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Pauline de Ahna ( m. 1894) Signature Richard Georg Strauss ( / s t r aʊ s / ; .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} German: [ˈʁɪçaʁt ˈʃtʁaʊs] ⓘ ; 11 June 1864 – 8 September 1949) was a German composer and conductor known for his tone poems and operas . A leading figure of the late Romantic and early Modern era, and a successor to Richard Wagner and Franz Liszt , [ 1 ] he combined, along with his friend Gustav Mahler , subtleties of orchestration with an advanced harmonic style. His compositional output began in 1870 when he was just six years old and lasted until his death nearly eighty years later. His first tone poem to achieve wide acclaim was Don Juan , and this was followed by other lauded works of this kind, including Death and Transfiguration , Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks , Also sprach Zarathustra , Don Quixote , Ein Heldenleben , Symphonia Domestica , and An Alpine Symphony . His first opera to achieve international fame was Salome , which used a libretto by Hedwig Lachmann that was a German translation of the French play Salomé by Oscar Wilde . This was followed by several critically acclaimed operas with librettist Hugo von Hofmannsthal : Elektra , Der Rosenkavalier , Ariadne auf Naxos , Die Frau ohne Schatten , Die ägyptische Helena , and Arabella . His last operas, Daphne , Friedenstag , Die Liebe der Danae and Capriccio used libretti written by Joseph Gregor , the Viennese theatre historian. Other well-known works by Strauss include two symphonies, lieder (especially the Four Last Songs ), the Violin Concerto in D minor , the Horn Concerto No. 1 , Horn Concerto No. 2 , his Oboe Concerto and other instrumental works such as Metamorphosen . A prominent conductor in Western Europe and the Americas, Strauss enjoyed quasi-celebrity status as his compositions became standards of orchestral and operatic repertoire. He was chiefly admired for his interpretations of the works of Liszt, Mozart, and Wagner in addition to his own works. A conducting disciple of Hans von Bülow , Strauss began his conducting career as Bülow's assistant with the Meiningen Court Orchestra in 1883. After Bülow resigned in 1885, Strauss served as that orchestra's primary conductor for five months before being appointed to the conducting staff of the Bavarian State Opera where he worked as third conductor from 1886 to 1889. He then served as principal conductor of the Deutsches Nationaltheater und Staatskapelle Weimar from 1889 to 1894. In 1894 he made his conducting debut at the Bayreuth Festival , conducting Wagner's Tannhäuser with his wife, soprano Pauline de Ahna , singing Elisabeth. He then returned to the Bavarian State Opera, this time as principal conductor, from 1894 to 1898, after which he was principal conductor of the Berlin State Opera from 1898 to 1913. From 1919 to 1924 he was principal conductor of the Vienna State Opera , and in 1920 he co-founded the Salzburg Festival . In addition to these posts, Strauss was a frequent guest conductor in opera houses and with orchestras internationally. In 1933 Strauss was appointed to two important positions in the musical life of Nazi Germany : head of the Reichsmusikkammer and principal conductor of the Bayreuth Festival. The latter role he accepted after conductor Arturo Toscanini had resigned from the position in protest against the Nazi Party . These positions have led some to criticize Strauss for his seeming collaboration with the Nazis. However, Strauss's daughter-in-law, Alice Grab Strauss (née von Hermannswörth), was Jewish, and much of his apparent acquiescence to the Nazi Party was done to save her life and the lives of her children (his Jewish grandchildren). He was also apolitical, and took the Reichsmusikkammer post to advance copyright protections for composers, attempting as well to preserve performances of works by banned composers such as Mahler and Felix Mendelssohn . Further, Strauss insisted on using a Jewish librettist, Stefan Zweig , for his opera Die schweigsame Frau which ultimately led to his firing from the Reichsmusikkammer and Bayreuth. His opera Friedenstag , which premiered just before the outbreak of World War II , was a thinly veiled criticism of the Nazi Party that attempted to persuade Germans to abandon violence for peace. Thanks to his influence, his daughter-in-law was placed under protected house arrest during the war, but despite extensive efforts he was unable to save dozens of his in-laws from being killed in Nazi concentration camps . In 1948, a year before his death, he was cleared of any wrongdoing by a denazification tribunal in Munich. Life Early life and career (1864–1886) Strauss was born on 11 June 1864 in Munich , the son of Josephine (née Pschorr) and Franz Strauss , who was the principal horn player at the Court Opera in Munich and a professor at the Königliche Musikschule . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] His mother was the daughter of Georg Pschorr, a financially prosperous brewer from Munich . [ 1 ] A child prodigy in composition, Strauss began his musical studies at the age of four, studying piano with August Tombo who was the harpist in the Munich Court Orchestra. [ 1 ] Soon after, he began attending the rehearsals of the orchestra, and began getting lessons in music theory and orchestration from the ensemble's assistant conductor. He wrote his first composition at the age of six, and continued to write music almost until his death. In 1872, he started receiving violin instruction from Benno Walter , the director of the Munich Court Orchestra and his father's cousin, and at 11 began five years of compositional study with Friedrich Wilhelm Meyer. [ 1 ] In 1882 he graduated from the Ludwigsgymnasium and afterwards attended only one year at the University of Munich in 1882–1883. [ 1 ] In addition to his formal teachers, Strauss was profoundly influenced musically by his father who made instrumental music-making central to the Strauss home. The Strauss family was frequently joined in their home for music making, meals, and other activities by the orphaned composer and music theorist Ludwig Thuille who was viewed as an adopted member of the family. [ 1 ] Strauss's father taught his son the music of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart, and Schubert. [ 1 ] His father further assisted his son with his musical composition during the 1870s and into the early 1880s, providing advice, comments, and criticisms. [ 1 ] His father also provided support by showcasing his son's compositions in performance with the Wilde Gung'l, an amateur orchestra he conducted from 1875 to 1896. Many of his early symphonic compositions were written for this ensemble. [ 1 ] His compositions at this time were indebted to the style of Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn , true to his father's teachings. His father undoubtedly had a crucial influence on his son's developing taste, not least in Strauss's abiding love for the horn. His Horn Concerto No. 1 is representative of this period and is a staple of the modern horn repertoire. [ 1 ] In 1874, Strauss heard his first Wagner operas, Lohengrin and Tannhäuser . [ 3 ] In 1878 he attended performances of Die Walküre and Siegfried in Munich, and in 1879 he attended performances of the entire Ring Cycle , Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , and Tristan und Isolde . [ 1 ] The influence of Wagner's music on Strauss's style was to be profound, but at first his musically conservative father forbade him to study it. In the Strauss household, the music of Richard Wagner was viewed with deep suspicion, and it was not until the age of 16 that Strauss was able to obtain a score of Tristan und Isolde . [ 3 ] In 1882 he went to the Bayreuth Festival to hear his father perform in the world premiere of Wagner's Parsifal ; after which surviving letters to his father and to Thuille detail his seemingly negative impression of Wagner and his music. [ 1 ] In later life, Strauss said that he deeply regretted the conservative hostility to Wagner's progressive works. [ 3 ] In early 1882, in Vienna, Strauss gave the first performance of his Violin Concerto in D minor , playing a piano reduction of the orchestral part himself, with his teacher Benno Walter as soloist. The same year he entered Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich , where he studied philosophy and art history, but not music. He left a year later to go to Berlin, where he studied briefly before securing a post with the Meiningen Court Orchestra as assistant conductor to Hans von Bülow , who had been enormously impressed by the young composer's Serenade (Op. 7) for wind instruments, composed when he was only 16 years of age. [ 1 ] Strauss learned the art of conducting by observing Bülow in rehearsal. Bülow was very fond of the young man, and Strauss considered him as his greatest conducting mentor, often crediting him as teaching him "the art of interpretation". [ 1 ] Notably, under Bülow's baton he made his first major appearance as a concert pianist, performing Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 24 , for which he composed his own cadenzas . [ 1 ] In December 1885, Bülow unexpectedly resigned from his post, and Strauss was left to lead the Meiningen Court Orchestra as interim principal conductor for the remainder of the artistic season through April 1886. [ 1 ] He notably helped prepare the orchestra for the world premiere performance of Johannes Brahms 's Symphony No. 4 , which Brahms himself conducted. He also conducted his Symphony No. 2 for Brahms, who advised Strauss: "Your symphony contains too much playing about with themes. This piling up of many themes based on a triad, which differ from one another only in rhythm, has no value." [ 1 ] Brahms' music, like Wagner's, also left a tremendous impression upon Strauss, and he often referred to this time of his life as his 'Brahmsschwärmerei' ('Brahms adoration') during which several his compositions clearly show Brahms' influence, including the Piano Quartet in C minor , Op. 13 (1883–84), Wandrers Sturmlied (1884) and Burleske (1885–86)." [ 1 ] Success in conducting and tone poems (1885–1898) In 1885, Strauss met the composer Alexander Ritter who was a violinist in the Meiningen orchestra and the husband of one of Richard Wagner 's nieces. An avid champion of the ideals of Wagner and Franz Liszt , Ritter had a tremendous impact on the trajectory of Strauss's work as a composer from 1885 onward. Ritter convinced Strauss to abandon his more conservative style of composing and embrace the "music of the future" by modeling his compositional style on Wagner and Liszt. [ 1 ] He further influenced Strauss by engaging him in studies and conversations on the writings of Arthur Schopenhauer , Wagner, and Friedrich von Hausegger. All of this together gave a new aesthetic anchor to Strauss which first became evident in his embrace of the tone poem genre. [ 1 ] In 1886, after leaving his post in Meiningen, Strauss spent several weeks traveling throughout Italy before assuming a new post as third conductor at the Bavarian State Opera , then known as the Munich Hofoper. While traveling he wrote down descriptions of the various sites he was seeing along with tonal impressions that went with those descriptions. These he communicated in a letter to his mother, and they ultimately were used as the beginning of his first tone poem, Aus Italien (1886). [ 1 ] Shortly after Strauss assumed his opera conducting duties in Munich, Ritter himself moved to the city in September 1886. For the next three years the two men met regularly, often joined by Thuille and Anton Seidl , to discuss music, particularly Wagner and Liszt, and discuss poetry, literature, and philosophy. [ 1 ] Strauss's tenure at the Bavarian State Opera was not a happy one. With the death of Ludwig II of Bavaria in June 1886, the opera house was not as well financially supported by his successor Otto of Bavaria which meant that much of the more ambitious and expensive repertoire that he wanted to stage, such as Wagner's operas, were unfeasible. The opera assignments he was given, works by Boieldieu, Auber and Donizetti, bored him, and to make matters worse Hermann Levi, the senior conductor at the house, was often ill and Strauss was required to step in at the last minute to conduct performance for operas which he had never rehearsed. This caused problems for him, the singers, and the orchestra. [ 1 ] During this time, Strauss found much more enjoyable conducting work outside Munich in Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzig. In Leipzig he met and befriended the composer Gustav Mahler in the autumn of 1887. Also happily, Strauss met his future wife, soprano Pauline de Ahna , in 1887. De Ahna was then a voice student at the Munich Musikschule, now the University of Music and Performing Arts Munich , but soon switched to private lessons with Strauss, who became her principal teacher. [ 1 ] In May 1889, Strauss left his post with the Bavarian State Opera after being appointed Kapellmeister to Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in Weimar, beginning in the autumn of 1889. During the summer of 1889 he served as the assistant conductor of the Bayreuth Festival during which time he befriended Cosima Wagner who became a longterm close friend. [ 1 ] Pauline De Ahna went with Strauss to Weimar and he later married her on 10 September 1894. She was famous for being irascible, garrulous, eccentric and outspoken, but to all appearances the marriage was essentially happy, and she was a great source of inspiration to him. Throughout his life, from his earliest songs to the final Four Last Songs of 1948, he preferred the soprano voice to all others, and all his operas contain important soprano roles. In Weimar she created the role of Freihild in Strauss's first opera, Guntram , in 1894. The opera was received with mixed reviews in Weimar, but its later production in Munich was met with scorn and was Strauss's first major failure. [ 1 ] In spite of the failure of his first opera, Strauss's tenure in Weimar brought about several important successes for his career. His tone poem Don Juan premiered in Weimar on 11 November 1889 to tremendous critical response, and the work quickly brought him international fame and success. This was followed by another lauded achievement, the premiere of his tone poem Death and Transfiguration in 1890. Both of these works, along with the earlier Burleske , became internationally known and established him as a leading modernist composer. [ 1 ] He also had much success as a conductor in Weimar, particularly with the symphonic poems of Liszt and an uncut production of Tristan und Isolde in 1892. [ 1 ] In the summer of 1894 Strauss made his conducting debut at the Bayreuth Festival, conducting Wagner's Tannhäuser with Pauline singing Elisabeth. Just prior to their marriage the following September, Strauss left his post in Weimar when he was appointed Kapellmeister, or first conductor, of the Bavarian State Opera where he became responsible for the operas of Wagner. [ 1 ] While working in Munich for the next four years he had his largest creative period of tone poem composition, producing Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (1895), Also sprach Zarathustra (1896), Don Quixote (1897), and Ein Heldenleben (1898). [ 1 ] He also served as principal conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic in 1894–1895. In 1897, the Strausses' only child, their son Franz, was born. [ 4 ] In 1906, Strauss purchased a block of land at Garmisch-Partenkirchen and had a villa ( Strauss-Villa [ de ] ) built there with the down payments from the publisher Adolph Fürstner [ 5 ] for his opera Salome , [ 6 ] [ 7 ] residing there until his death. [ 1 ] Fame and success with operas (1898–1933) Strauss left the Bavarian State Opera in 1898 when he became principal conductor of the Staatskapelle Berlin at the Berlin State Opera in the fall of 1898; a position he remained in for 15 years. By this time in his career, he was in constant demand as a guest conductor internationally and enjoyed celebrity status as a conductor; particularly in the works of Wagner , Mozart , and Liszt in addition to his own compositions. [ 1 ] He became president of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein in 1901, and that same year became leader of the Berliner Tonkünstlerverein . [ 1 ] He also served as editor of the book series Die Musik . He used all of these posts to champion contemporary German composers like Mahler . His own compositions were becoming increasingly popular, and the first major orchestra to perform an entire concert of only his music was the Vienna Philharmonic in 1901. [ 1 ] In 1903 Strauss Festivals dedicated to his music were established in London and Heidelberg. At the latter festival his cantata Taillefer was given its world premiere. [ 1 ] In 1904 Strauss embarked on his first North American tour, with stops in Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Cincinnati, New York City, and Pittsburgh. At Carnegie Hall he conducted the world premiere of his Symphonia Domestica on 21 March 1904 with the Wetzler Symphony Orchestra . [ 8 ] He also conducted several other works in collaboration with composer Hermann Hans Wetzler and his orchestra that year at Carnegie Hall, and also performed a concert of lieder with his wife. [ 8 ] During this trip he was working intensively on composing his third opera, Salome , based on Oscar Wilde 's 1891 play Salome . The work, which premiered in Dresden in 1905, became Strauss's greatest triumph in his career up to that point, and opera houses all over the world quickly began programing the opera. [ 1 ] After Salome , Strauss had a string of critically successful operas which he created with the librettist and poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal . These operas included Elektra (1909), Der Rosenkavalier (1911), Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, rev. 1916), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), Die ägyptische Helena (1928), and Arabella (1933). [ 1 ] While all of these works remain part of the opera repertoire, his opera Der Rosenkavalier is generally considered his finest achievement. [ 1 ] During this time he continued to work internationally as a celebrity conductor, and from 1919 to 1924 he was principal conductor of the Vienna State Opera . [ 1 ] In 1920, he co-founded the Salzburg Festival with Max Reinhardt and the set designer Alfred Rolle. In 1924 Strauss's opera Intermezzo premiered at the Dresden Semperoper with both the music and libretto by Strauss. For this opera, Strauss wanted to move away from post-Wagnerian metaphysics which had been the philosophical framework of Hofmannsthal's libretti, and instead embrace a modern domestic comedy to Hofmannsthal's chagrin. [ 1 ] The work proved to be a success. [ 1 ] At the outbreak of World War I Strauss was invited to sign the Manifesto of German artists and intellectuals supporting the German role in the conflict. Several colleagues, including Max Reinhardt , signed, but Strauss refused, and his response was recorded with approval by the French critic Romain Rolland in his diary for October 1914: "Declarations about war and politics are not fitting for an artist, who must give his attention to his creations and his works." [ 9 ] In 1924 Strauss's son Franz married Alice von Grab-Hermannswörth, daughter of a Jewish industrialist, in a Roman Catholic ceremony. [ 4 ] Franz and Alice had two sons, Richard and Christian. [ 4 ] Nazi Germany (1933–1945) Reichsmusikkammer In March 1933, when Strauss was 68, Adolf Hitler rose to power . Strauss never joined the Nazi Party , and studiously avoided Nazi forms of greeting . For reasons of expediency, however, he was initially drawn into cooperating with the early Nazi regime in the hope that Hitler—an ardent Wagnerian and music lover who had admired Strauss's work since viewing Salome in 1907—would promote German art and culture. Strauss's need to protect his Jewish daughter-in-law and Jewish grandchildren also motivated his behavior, [ 1 ] in addition to his determination to preserve and conduct the music of banned composers such as Gustav Mahler and Claude Debussy . In 1933, Strauss wrote in his private notebook: I consider the Streicher –Goebbels Jew-baiting as a disgrace to German honour, as evidence of incompetence—the basest weapon of untalented, lazy mediocrity against a higher intelligence and greater talent. [ 10 ] I consider the Streicher –Goebbels Jew-baiting as a disgrace to German honour, as evidence of incompetence—the basest weapon of untalented, lazy mediocrity against a higher intelligence and greater talent. [ 10 ] Meanwhile, far from being an admirer of Strauss's work, Joseph Goebbels maintained expedient cordiality with Strauss only for a period. Goebbels wrote in his diary: Unfortunately we still need him, but one day we shall have our own music and then we shall have no further need of this decadent neurotic. [ 11 ] Unfortunately we still need him, but one day we shall have our own music and then we shall have no further need of this decadent neurotic. [ 11 ] Nevertheless, because of Strauss's international eminence, in November 1933 he was appointed to the post of president of the newly founded Reichsmusikkammer , the Reich Music Chamber. Strauss, who had lived through numerous political regimes and had no interest in politics, decided to accept the position but to remain apolitical, a decision which would eventually become untenable. He wrote to his family, "I made music under the Kaiser , and under Ebert . I'll survive under this one as well." [ 12 ] He later wrote in his journal: In November 1933, the minister Goebbels nominated me president of the Reichsmusikkammer without obtaining my prior agreement. I was not consulted. I accepted this honorary office because I hoped that I would be able to do some good and prevent worse misfortunes, if from now onwards German musical life were going to be, as it was said, "reorganized" by amateurs and ignorant place-seekers. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] In November 1933, the minister Goebbels nominated me president of the Reichsmusikkammer without obtaining my prior agreement. I was not consulted. I accepted this honorary office because I hoped that I would be able to do some good and prevent worse misfortunes, if from now onwards German musical life were going to be, as it was said, "reorganized" by amateurs and ignorant place-seekers. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Strauss privately scorned Goebbels and called him "a pipsqueak". [ 15 ] However, in 1933 he dedicated an orchestral song, " Das Bächlein " ("The Little Brook"), to Goebbels, to gain his cooperation in extending German music copyright laws from 30 years to 50 years. [ 16 ] Also in 1933, he replaced Arturo Toscanini as director of the Bayreuth Festival after Toscanini had resigned in protest against the Nazi regime. [ 1 ] That year, he also replaced Jewish conductor Bruno Walter after Walter was forced by Goebbels to withdraw from a concert at the Berlin Philharmonic . [ 17 ] Strauss attempted to ignore Nazi bans on performances of works by Debussy, Mahler, and Mendelssohn. He also continued to work on a comic opera, Die schweigsame Frau , with his Jewish friend and librettist Stefan Zweig . When the opera was premiered in Dresden in 1935, Strauss insisted that Zweig's name appear on the theatrical billing, much to the ire of the Nazi regime. Hitler and Goebbels avoided attending the opera, and it was halted after three performances and subsequently banned by the Third Reich . [ 18 ] On 17 June 1935, Strauss wrote a letter to Stefan Zweig, in which he stated: Do you believe I am ever, in any of my actions, guided by the thought that I am 'German'? Do you suppose Mozart was consciously 'Aryan' when he composed? I recognise only two types of people: those who have talent and those who have none. [ 19 ] Do you believe I am ever, in any of my actions, guided by the thought that I am 'German'? Do you suppose Mozart was consciously 'Aryan' when he composed? I recognise only two types of people: those who have talent and those who have none. [ 19 ] This letter to Zweig was intercepted by the Gestapo and sent to Hitler. Strauss was subsequently dismissed from his post as Reichsmusikkammer president in 1935. The 1936 Berlin Summer Olympics nevertheless used Strauss's Olympische Hymne , which he had composed in 1934. In 1940, Strauss was chosen by Goebbels to compose the Japanese Festival Music to celebrate the 2600th anniversity of the founding of the Japanese Empire. [ 20 ] Strauss's seeming relationship with the Nazis in the 1930s attracted criticism from some noted musicians, including Toscanini, who in 1933 had said, "To Strauss the composer I take off my hat; to Strauss the man I put it back on again", when Strauss had accepted the presidency of the Reichsmusikkammer . [ 21 ] Much of Strauss's motivation in his conduct during the Third Reich was, however, to protect his Jewish daughter-in-law Alice and his Jewish grandchildren from persecution. Both of his grandsons were bullied at school, but Strauss used his considerable influence to prevent the boys or their mother being sent to concentration camps . [ 22 ] Late operas and family tragedy Frustrated that he could no longer work with Zweig as his librettist, Strauss turned to Joseph Gregor , a Viennese theatre historian, at Gregor's request. The first opera they worked on together was Daphne , but it ultimately became the second of their operas to be premiered. Their first work to be staged was in 1938, when the entire nation was preparing for war, they presented Friedenstag ( Peace Day ), a one-act opera set in a besieged fortress during the Thirty Years' War . The work is essentially a hymn to peace and a thinly veiled criticism of the Third Reich. With its contrasts between freedom and enslavement, war and peace, light and dark, this work has a close affinity with Beethoven 's Fidelio . Productions of the opera ceased shortly after the outbreak of war in 1939. The two men collaborated on two more operas which proved to be Strauss's last: Die Liebe der Danae (1940) and Capriccio (1942). [ 1 ] When his Jewish daughter-in-law Alice was placed under house arrest in Garmisch-Partenkirchen in 1938, Strauss used his connections in Berlin, including opera-house General Intendant Heinz Tietjen , to secure her safety. He drove to the Theresienstadt concentration camp to argue, albeit unsuccessfully, for the release of Alice's grandmother, Paula Neumann. In the end, Neumann and 25 other relatives were murdered in the camps. [ 23 ] While Alice's mother, Marie von Grab, was safe in Lucerne, Switzerland, Strauss also wrote several letters to the SS pleading for the release of her children who were also held in camps; his letters were ignored. [ 24 ] In 1942, Strauss moved with his family back to Vienna, where Alice and her children could be protected by Baldur von Schirach , the Gauleiter of Vienna. However, Strauss was unable to protect his Jewish relatives completely; in early 1944, while Strauss was away, Alice and her son Franz were abducted by the Gestapo and imprisoned for two nights. Strauss's personal intervention at this point saved them, and he was able to take them back to Garmisch, where the two remained under house arrest until the end of the war. [ 1 ] Metamorphosen and end of the war Strauss completed the composition of Metamorphosen , a work for 23 solo strings, in 1945. The title and inspiration for the work comes from a profoundly self-examining poem by Goethe , which Strauss had considered setting as a choral work. [ 25 ] Generally regarded as one of the masterpieces of the string repertoire, Metamorphosen contains Strauss's most sustained outpouring of tragic emotion. Conceived and written during the blackest days of World War II, the piece expresses Strauss's mourning of, among other things, the destruction of German culture—including the bombing of every great opera house in the nation. [ 26 ] At the end of the war, Strauss wrote in his private diary: The most terrible period of human history is at an end, the twelve year reign of bestiality, ignorance and anti-culture under the greatest criminals, during which Germany's 2000 years of cultural evolution met its doom. [ 27 ] The most terrible period of human history is at an end, the twelve year reign of bestiality, ignorance and anti-culture under the greatest criminals, during which Germany's 2000 years of cultural evolution met its doom. [ 27 ] In April 1945, American soldiers occupying Germany at the end of the war arrived at Strauss's Garmisch estate. As Strauss descended the staircase, he announced to Lieutenant Milton Weiss of the U.S. Army, "I am Richard Strauss, the composer of Rosenkavalier and Salome ." Lt. Weiss, who was also a musician, nodded in recognition. An "Off Limits" sign was subsequently placed on the lawn to protect Strauss. [ 28 ] The American oboist John de Lancie , who knew Strauss's orchestral writing for oboe thoroughly, was in the army unit, and asked Strauss to compose an oboe concerto. Initially dismissive of the idea, Strauss completed this late work, his Oboe Concerto , before the end of the year. [ 1 ] "Indian Summer", final years and death (1942–1949) The metaphor " Indian summer " has been used by journalists, biographers, and music critics, notably [ 29 ] Norman Del Mar in 1964, [ 30 ] to describe Strauss's late creative upsurge from 1942 to the end of his life. The events of World War II seemed to bring the composer – who had grown old, tired, and a little jaded – into focus. [ 26 ] The major works of the last years of Strauss's life, written in his late 70s and 80s, include, among others, his Horn Concerto No. 2 , Metamorphosen , his Oboe Concerto , his Duet concertino for clarinet and bassoon , and his Four Last Songs . [ 1 ] In June 1945, after finishing Metamorphosen , Strauss completed his Sonatina No 2 in E-flat major (" Fröhliche Werkstatt ") for 16 wind instruments, which he had begun in early 1944; at the end of the score he wrote "To the Manes of the divine Mozart at the end of a life full of thankfulness". [ 31 ] Like those of most Germans, Strauss's bank accounts were frozen, and many of his assets seized by American forces. Now elderly and with very few resources left, Strauss and his wife left Germany for Switzerland in October 1945 where they settled in a hotel outside Zurich, and later at the Montreux Palace hotel in Montreux. There they met the Swiss music critic Willy Schuh , who became Strauss's biographer. Short of money, in 1947 Strauss embarked on his last international tour, a three-week trip to London, in which he conducted several of his tone poems and excerpts of his operas, and was present during a complete staging of Elektra by the BBC . The trip was a critical success and provided him and his wife with some much-needed money. [ 1 ] From May to September 1948, just before his death, Strauss composed the Four Last Songs , which deal with the subject of dying. The last one, "Im Abendrot" (At Sunset), ends with the line "Is this perhaps death?" The question is not answered in words, but instead Strauss quotes the "transfiguration theme" from his earlier tone poem Death and Transfiguration — meant to symbolize the transfiguration and fulfilment of the soul after death. In June 1948, he was cleared of any wrong-doing by a denazification tribunal in Munich. [ 1 ] That same month he orchestrated Ruhe, meine Seele! , a song that he had originally composed in 1894. [ 1 ] In December 1948, Strauss was hospitalized for several weeks after undergoing bladder surgery. [ 1 ] His health rapidly deteriorated after that, and he conducted his last performance, the end of Act 2 of Der Rosenkavalier at the Prinzregententheater in Munich, during celebrations of his 85th birthday on 10 June 1949. On 15 August, he suffered a heart attack and he quietly died of kidney failure in his sleep shortly after 2 PM on 8 September 1949, in Garmisch-Partenkirchen , West Germany . [ 1 ] From his death-bed, he remarked to his daughter-in-law Alice, "dying is just as I composed it in Tod und Verklärung ". [ 32 ] Georg Solti , who had arranged Strauss's 85th birthday celebration, also directed an orchestra during Strauss's burial. [ 33 ] The conductor later described how, during the singing of the famous trio from Rosenkavalier , "each singer broke down in tears and dropped out of the ensemble, but they recovered themselves and we all ended together". [ 34 ] Strauss's wife, Pauline de Ahna, died eight months later on 13 May 1950, at the age of 88. [ 35 ] Strauss himself declared in 1947 with characteristic self-deprecation: "I may not be a first-rate composer, but I am a first-class second-rate composer." [ 36 ] The Canadian pianist Glenn Gould described Strauss in 1962 as "the greatest musical figure who has lived in this century". [ 37 ] Music Solo and chamber works Some of Strauss's first compositions were solo instrumental and chamber works. These pieces include early compositions for piano solo in a conservative harmonic style, many of which are lost: two piano trios (1877 and 1878), a string quartet (1881), a piano sonata (1882), a cello sonata (1883), a piano quartet (1885), a violin sonata (1888), as well as a serenade (1882) and a longer suite (1884), both scored for double wind quintet plus two additional horns and contrabassoon. After 1890, Strauss composed very infrequently for chamber groups, his energies being almost completely absorbed with large-scale orchestral works and operas. Four of his chamber pieces are actually arrangements of portions of his operas, including the Daphne-Etude for solo violin and the String Sextet, which is the overture to his final opera Capriccio . His last independent chamber work, an Allegretto in E major for violin and piano, dates from 1948. He also composed two large-scale works for wind ensemble during this period: Sonatina No. 1 "From an Invalid's Workshop" (1943) and Sonatina No. 2 "Happy Workshop" (1946)—both scored for double wind quintet plus two additional horns, a third clarinet in C, bassett horn, bass clarinet, and contrabassoon. Tone poems and other orchestral works Strauss wrote two early symphonies: Symphony No. 1 (1880) and Symphony No. 2 (1884). However, Strauss's style began to truly develop and change when, in 1885, he met Alexander Ritter , a noted composer and violinist, and the husband of one of Richard Wagner's nieces. It was Ritter who persuaded Strauss to abandon the conservative style of his youth and begin writing tone poems . He also introduced Strauss to the essays of Wagner and the writings of Arthur Schopenhauer . Strauss went on to conduct one of Ritter's operas, and at Strauss's request Ritter later wrote a poem describing the events depicted in Strauss's tone poem Death and Transfiguration . The new influences from Ritter resulted in what is widely regarded [ 38 ] as Strauss's first piece to show his mature personality, the tone poem Don Juan (1888), which displays a new kind of virtuosity in its bravura orchestral manner. Strauss went on to write a series of increasingly ambitious tone poems: Death and Transfiguration (1889), Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (1895), Also sprach Zarathustra (1896), Don Quixote (1897), Ein Heldenleben (1898), Symphonia Domestica (1903) and An Alpine Symphony (1911–1915). One commentator has observed of these works that "no orchestra could exist without his tone poems, written to celebrate the glories of the post-Wagnerian symphony orchestra." [ 35 ] James Hepokoski notes a shift in Strauss's technique in the tone poems, occurring between 1892 and 1893. It was after this point that Strauss rejected the philosophy of Schopenhauer and began more forcefully critiquing the institution of the symphony and the symphonic poem, thereby differentiating the second cycle of tone poems from the first. Concertos Strauss's output of works for solo instrument or instruments with orchestra was fairly extensive. The most famous include two concertos for horn, which are still part of the standard repertoire of most horn soloists— Horn Concerto No. 1 (1883) and Horn Concerto No. 2 (1942); the Romanze for cello and orchestra (1883); a Violin Concerto in D minor (1882); the Burleske for piano and orchestra (1885, revised 1889); the tone poem Don Quixote for cello, viola and orchestra (1897); the well-known late Oboe Concerto in D major (1945); and the Duet concertino for clarinet and bassoon with string orchestra, which was one of his last works (1948). Opera Around the end of the 19th century, Strauss turned his attention to opera. His first two attempts in the genre, Guntram (1894) and Feuersnot (1901), were controversial works; Guntram was the first significant critical failure of Strauss's career, and Feuersnot was considered obscene by some critics. [ 39 ] In 1905, Strauss produced Salome , a somewhat dissonant modernist opera based on the play by Oscar Wilde , which produced a passionate reaction from audiences. The premiere was a major success, with the artists taking more than 38 curtain calls. [ 40 ] Many later performances of the opera were also successful, not only with the general public but also with Strauss's peers: Maurice Ravel said that Salome was "stupendous"; [ 41 ] Gustav Mahler described it as "a live volcano, a subterranean fire". [ 42 ] Strauss reputedly financed his house in Garmisch-Partenkirchen completely from the revenues generated by the opera. [ 43 ] As with the later Elektra , Salome features an extremely taxing lead soprano role. Strauss often remarked that he preferred writing for the female voice, which is apparent in these two sister operas—the male parts are almost entirely smaller roles, included only to supplement the soprano's performance. Strauss's next opera was Elektra (1909), which took his use of dissonance even further, in particular with the Elektra chord . Elektra was also the first opera in which Strauss collaborated with the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal as his librettist. The two subsequently worked together on numerous occasions. For his later works with Hofmannsthal, Strauss moderated his harmonic language: he used a more lush, melodic late-Romantic style based on Wagnerian chromatic harmonies that he had used in his tone poems, with much less dissonance, and exhibiting immense virtuosity in orchestral writing and tone color. This resulted in operas such as Der Rosenkavalier (1911) having great public success. Strauss continued to produce operas at regular intervals until 1942. With Hofmannsthal he created Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), Die ägyptische Helena (1928), and Arabella (1933). For Intermezzo (1924) Strauss provided his own libretto. Die schweigsame Frau (1935) was composed with Stefan Zweig as librettist; Friedenstag (1935–36) and Daphne (1937) both had a libretto by Joseph Gregor and Stefan Zweig; and Die Liebe der Danae (1940) was with Joseph Gregor. Strauss's final opera, Capriccio (1942), had a libretto by Clemens Krauss , although the genesis for it came from Stefan Zweig and Joseph Gregor. Lieder Strauss was a prolific composer of lieder . He often composed them with the voice of his wife in mind. His lieder were written for voice and piano, and he orchestrated several of them after the fact. In 1894–1895, around the age of 30, he published several well-known songs including " Ruhe, meine Seele! ", " Cäcilie ", " Morgen! ", " Heimliche Aufforderung ", and " Traum durch die Dämmerung ". In 1918, after a long hiatus devoted to opera, he wrote Sechs Lieder , Op. 68 , also called Brentano Lieder . He completed his works in the genre in 1948 with Four Last Songs for soprano and orchestra. He reportedly composed these with Kirsten Flagstad in mind and she gave the first performance, which was recorded. Strauss's songs have always been popular with audiences and performers, and are generally considered by musicologists—along with many of his other compositions—to be masterpieces. Legacy TIME magazine suggested in 1927 that he wrote music to test how much "cacophony, dissonance, exaggeration, and clowning" his audiences would applaud. Early in Strauss's career, eminent musicologist Hugo Riemann reflected "His last works only too clearly reveal his determination to make a sensation at all costs". [ 44 ] Until the 1980s, Strauss was regarded by some post-modern musicologists as a conservative, backward-looking composer, but re-examination of and new research on the composer has re-evaluated his place as that of a modernist, [ 45 ] albeit one who still utilized and sometimes revered tonality and lush orchestration. [ 46 ] Strauss is noted for his pioneering subtleties of orchestration, combined with an advanced harmonic style; when he first played Strauss at a university production of Ariadne auf Naxos , the conductor Mark Elder "was flabbergasted. I had no idea music could do the things he was doing with harmony and melody." [ 47 ] Strauss's music had a considerable influence on composers at the start of the 20th century. Béla Bartók heard Also sprach Zarathustra in 1902, and later said that the work "contained the seeds for a new life"; a Straussian influence is clearly present in his works of that period, including his First String Quartet , Kossuth , and Bluebeard's Castle . [ 48 ] Similarly, Strauss had a huge impact on Arnold Schönberg [ 49 ] and Anton Webern . [ 50 ] Karol Szymanowski was also greatly influenced by Strauss, reflected in such pieces as his Concert Overture and his first and second symphonies, [ 51 ] and his opera Hagith which was modeled after Salome . English composers were also influenced by Strauss, from Edward Elgar in his concert overture In the South (Alassio) and other works [ 52 ] to Benjamin Britten in his opera writing. Many contemporary composers recognise a debt to Strauss, including John Adams and John Corigliano . [ 53 ] Strauss's musical style played a major role in the development of film music in the middle of the 20th century. The style of his musical depictions of character (Don Juan, Till Eulenspiegel, the Hero) and emotions found their way into the lexicon of film music. Film music historian Timothy Schuerer wrote, "The elements of post (late) romantic music that had greatest impact on scoring are its lush sound, expanded harmonic language, chromaticism, use of program music and use of Leitmotifs . Hollywood composers found the post-romantic idiom compatible with their efforts in scoring film". [ 54 ] Max Steiner and Erich Korngold came from the same musical world as Strauss and were quite naturally drawn to write in his style. As film historian Roy Prendergast wrote, "When confronted with the kind of dramatic problem films presented to them, Steiner, Korngold and Newman ... looked to Wagner, Puccini , Verdi and Strauss for the answers to dramatic film scoring." [ 55 ] Later, the opening to Also sprach Zarathustra became one of the best-known pieces of film music when Stanley Kubrick used it in his 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey . The film music of John Williams has continued the Strauss influence, in scores for mainstream hits such as Superman and Star Wars . [ 56 ] Strauss has always been popular with audiences in the concert hall and continues to be so. He has consistently been in the top 10 composers most performed by symphony orchestras in the US and Canada over the period 2002–2010. [ 57 ] He is also in the top 5 of 20th-century composers (born after 1860) in terms of the number of currently available recordings of his works. [ 58 ] Recordings as a conductor Strauss, as conductor, made a large number of recordings, both of his own music as well as music by German and Austrian composers. His 1929 performances of Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks and Don Juan with the Berlin State Opera Orchestra have long been considered the best of his early electrical recordings. In the first complete performance of his An Alpine Symphony , made in 1941 and later released by EMI , Strauss used the full complement of percussion instruments required in this work. Koch Legacy has also released Strauss's recordings of overtures by Gluck , Carl Maria von Weber , Peter Cornelius , and Wagner . The preference for German and Austrian composers in Germany in the 1920s through the 1940s was typical of the German nationalism that existed after World War I . Strauss clearly capitalized on national pride for the great German-speaking composers. There were many other recordings, including some taken from radio broadcasts and concerts during the 1930s and early 1940s. The sheer volume of recorded performances would undoubtedly yield some definitive performances from a very capable and rather forward-looking conductor. In 1944, Strauss celebrated his 80th birthday and conducted the Vienna Philharmonic in recordings of his own major orchestral works, as well as his seldom-heard Schlagobers ( Whipped Cream ) ballet music. Some find more feeling in these performances than in Strauss's earlier recordings, which were recorded on the Magnetophon tape recording equipment. Vanguard Records later issued the recordings on LPs. Some of these recordings have been reissued on CD by Preiser. The last recording made by Strauss was on 19 October 1947 live at the Royal Albert Hall in London, where he conducted the Philharmonia Orchestra in his Burleske for piano and orchestra (Alfred Blumen piano), Don Juan and Sinfonia Domestica . [ 59 ] Strauss also made live-recording player piano music rolls for the Hupfeld system and in 1906 ten recordings for the reproducing piano Welte-Mignon all of which survive today. Strauss was also the composer of the music on the first CD to be commercially released: Deutsche Grammophon 's 1983 release of their 1980 recording of Herbert von Karajan conducting the Alpine Symphony . Pierre Boulez said that Strauss the conductor was "a complete master of his trade". [ 60 ] Music critic Harold C. Schonberg writes that, while Strauss was a very fine conductor, he often put scant effort into his recordings. [ 61 ] Schonberg focused primarily on Strauss's recordings of Mozart 's Symphony No. 40 and Beethoven 's Symphony No. 7 , as well as noting that Strauss played a breakneck version of Beethoven's 9th Symphony in about 45 minutes. Concerning Beethoven's 7th Symphony, Schonberg wrote, "There is almost never a ritard or a change in expression or nuance. The slow movement is almost as fast as the following vivace ; and the last movement, with a big cut in it, is finished in 4 minutes, 25 seconds. (It should run between 7 and 8 minutes.)" [ 61 ] He also complained that the Mozart symphony had "no force, no charm, no inflection, with a metronomic rigidity". Peter Gutmann 's 1994 review for ClassicalNotes.com says the performances of the Beethoven 5th and 7th symphonies, as well as Mozart's last three symphonies, are actually quite good, even if they are sometimes unconventional. Gutmann wrote: It is true, as the critics suggest, that the readings forego overt emotion, but what emerges instead is a solid sense of structure, letting the music speak convincingly for itself. It is also true that Strauss's tempos are generally swift, but this, too, contributes to the structural cohesion and in any event is fully in keeping with our modern outlook in which speed is a virtue and attention spans are defined more by MTV clips and news sound bites than by evenings at the opera and thousand page novels. [ 62 ] It is true, as the critics suggest, that the readings forego overt emotion, but what emerges instead is a solid sense of structure, letting the music speak convincingly for itself. It is also true that Strauss's tempos are generally swift, but this, too, contributes to the structural cohesion and in any event is fully in keeping with our modern outlook in which speed is a virtue and attention spans are defined more by MTV clips and news sound bites than by evenings at the opera and thousand page novels. [ 62 ] Honors His honors included: [ 63 ] 1903: Honorary Doctorate, Heidelberg University . 1907: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur , Croix de Chevalier , Paris, France. [ 64 ] Officier , (14 June 1914). [ 65 ] 1910: Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art . [ 66 ] 1914: Honorary Doctorate, Oxford University . Honorary citizen of Munich. 1924: Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Art, German award . [ 67 ] 1924: Honorary Doctorate, University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna . Freedom of the cities of Vienna and Salzburg. 1932: New York College of Music Medal. 1936: the Royal Philharmonic Society 's gold medal. 1939: Commandeur de L'Ordre de la Couronne , presented by Leopold III of Belgium . [ 68 ] 1949: Honorary Doctorate, University of Munich . [ 69 ] In later culture James Blish 's science fiction story " A Work of Art " features the concept of Richard Strauss's essence and personality being implanted into another person. References Citations ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba Gilliam & Youmans 2001 ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Richard Strauss facts, information, pictures" . encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 29 April 2017 . ^ a b c Boyden 1999 , p. [ page needed ] ^ a b c "Richard Strauss Website" . ^ 'Salome 2' . Salome (opera) . Adolph Fürstner . 'The Bible Through Music'. Indiana University . (USA). ^ Jefferson, Alan. (1973). The Life of Richard Strauss . p. 107. ISBN 0-7153-6199-6 . David & Charles . (Devon, UK) ^ Hopkins, Kate. (16 January 2018). 'Opera Essentials: Strauss's Salome' . Royal Opera House . (United Kingdom). ^ a b "Herman Wetzler, Composer, 72, Dies". The New York Times . 30 May 1943. p. 26. ^ Richard Strauss; Romain Rolland (1968). Rollo Myers (ed.). Richard Strauss & Romain Rolland: Correspondence . Calder, London. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 274. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 293. ^ Kennedy, Michael (1995). Richard Strauss . Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-19-816481-4 . ^ McGlaughlin, Bill . "Richard Strauss" , Exploring Music (2004) on the WFMT Radio Network; episode 5 of 5, first aired 9 January 2004. Quoted at 01:35 of episode "Friday, July 14, 2024". Retrieved 16 June 2024 . Archived 14 June 2024 at the Wayback Machine ^ Ashley, Tim (1999). Richard Strauss . Phaidon Press . p. 164. ISBN 9780714837949 . Strauss was nominated president of the music section, the Reichsmusikkammer. 'I was not consulted', he later wrote. 'I accepted this honorary office because I hoped that I would be able to do some good and prevent worse misfortunes, if from now onwards German musical life were going to be, as it was said, "reorganized" by amateurs and ignorant place-seekers.' ^ Reuth 1993 , p. 402. ^ Kennedy 1999 , pp. 281–282. ^ Ryding, Erik; Pechefsky, Rebecca (2001). Bruno Walter: a World Elsewhere . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 220– 222. ISBN 978-0-300-08713-0 . ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 285. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 297. ^ Gallagher, David. "About This Recording" . Naxos . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Kennedy, Michael (October 1978). "Review of A Confidential Matter: The Letters of Richard Strauss and Stefan Zweig, 1931–1935 ". Music & Letters . 59 (4): 472– 475. doi : 10.1093/ml/59.4.472 . ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 316. ^ "Music; Richard Strauss and Hitler's Reich: Jupiter in Hell" by Michael Hans Kater , The New York Times , 6 January 2002 ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 339. ^ Ross 2009 , p. 338. ^ a b McGlaughlin, Bill . Exploring Music , Episode 5 of 5 of "Richard Strauss" , first aired 9 January 2004. Archived 14 June 2024 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 361. ^ Ross 2009 , p. 373. ^ Peter Shaw (9 November 2019). " Four Last Songs (Richard Strauss)" . Radio New Zealand . ^ Norman Del Mar (Summer 1964). "Some Centenary Reflections". Tempo (69, Richard Strauss 1864–1964). Cambridge University Press: 2– 5. JSTOR 942721 . ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 365. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 113. ^ Portrait of Sir Georg Solti. , documentary (1984), directed by Valerie Pitts ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 394. ^ a b Kennedy 1999 , p. 395 ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 378. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 3. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 69. ^ Tim Ashley, " Feuersnot ". The Guardian . London. 30 November 2000. Retrieved 27 October 2007. ^ Derrick Puffett et al , Richard Strauss: "Salome" (1989), p. 4 ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 145. ^ Kennedy 1999 , p. 149. ^ James Morwood (January 2018). "Richard Strauss's Salome and Oscar Wilde's French Text". The Wildean (52): 63– 73. JSTOR 48569305 . ^ "Music: Intermezzo" . Time . 24 January 1927. ISSN 0040-781X . Retrieved 14 January 2023 . ^ Shirley, Hugo (2012). "In Search of Strauss" in Journal of the Royal Musical Association , vol. 137, issue 1, pp. 187–192 ^ Hepokoski 2010 , p. 78. ^ Tom Service ; Imogen Tilden (17 January 2014). "Richard Strauss: profound genius or gifted entertainer?" . The Guardian . Retrieved 8 January 2022 . ^ Elliott Antokoletz and Paolo Susanni, Béla Bartók: A Research and Information Guide , 2nd revised edition (1997), Routledge, London, ISBN 978-0-8153-2088-3 , Introduction p. xxi. ^ See Craig De Wilde, "Arnold Schoenberg and Richard Strauss", in The Cambridge Companion to Schoenberg , edited by Jennifer Shaw and Joseph Auner, Cambridge University Press, 2011, 68–78. ^ See for example, Sebastian Wedler, "Thus Spoke the Early Modernist: Zarathustra and Rotational Form in Webern's String Quartet (1905)", Twentieth-Century Music 12/2 (2015), 225-251. ^ Paul Caldrin, "Orchestra music and orchestration", pp. 166–169 in Paul Cadrin and Stephen Downes (editors), The Szymanowski Companion , Routledge, London, revised edition (2015). ISBN 978-0-7546-6151-1 ^ Ian Parrott, Elgar (Master Musician) , Everyman Ltd, London, First Edition (1971), p. 60. ^ Ross, Alex (2010). "Strauss's Place in the Twentieth Century". In The Cambridge Companion to Richard Strauss , edited by Charles Youmans, 195–212. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-72815-7 . p. 211. ^ Timothy Scheurer, Music and Mythmaking in Film , Mcfarland, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7864-3190-8 . p. 41. ^ Roy Prendergast, Film Music: A neglected Art , W. W. Norton & Company, 1992, ISBN 978-0-393-30874-7 . ^ "WQXR – New York's Classical Music Radio Station" . Retrieved 29 April 2017 . ^ "ORR Archive – League of American Orchestras" . Retrieved 29 April 2017 . ^ Arkivemusic Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine . The ranking is Debussy, Ravel, Rachmaninoff, Strauss, Prokofiev. ^ Richard Strauss: The Last Concerts , CD issued by Testament SBT2 1441, 2009 ^ Boulez 2003 , p. [ page needed ] . ^ a b Schonberg 1967 , p. [ page needed ] . ^ Peter Gutmann, "Richard Strauss Conducts" on classicalnotes.net ^ Listed in Wilhelm 1989 , pp. 298–299. Details in Trenner 2003 ^ Trenner 2003 , p. 292. ^ Trenner 2003 , p. 357. ^ Trenner 2003 , p. 322. ^ Trenner 2003 , p. 452. ^ Trenner 2003 , p. 595. ^ Kater, Michael H. (2000). Composers of the Nazi Era , p. 262. London: Oxford University Press 1999. ISBN 978-0-19-509924-9 Cited sources Boulez, Pierre (2003). Boulez on Conducting: Conversations with Cécile Gilly . Translated by Richard Strokes. London, England: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-21967-5 . Boyden, Matthew (1999). Richard Strauss . Boston, Massachusetts: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 1-55553-418-X . De Wilde, Craig (2011). "Arnold Schoenberg and Richard Strauss". In Jennifer Shaw, Joseph Auner (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Arnold Schoenberg . Cambridge Companions to Music . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 68– 78. doi : 10.1017/CCOL9780521870498.006 . ISBN 9780511780912 . Gilliam, Bryan; Youmans, Charles (2001). "Richard Strauss". Strauss, Richard . Grove Music Online . doi : 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40117 . ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription required) (This article is very different from the one in the 1980 Grove ; in particular, the analysis of Strauss's behavior during the Nazi period is more detailed.) Hepokoski, James (2010). "The Second Cycle of Tone Poems". In Charles Youmans (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Richard Strauss, Part II: Works . Cambridge Companions to Music . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 78– 104. doi : 10.1017/CCOL9780521899307.006 . ISBN 9780511782060 . Kennedy, Michael (1999). Richard Strauss: Man, Musician, Enigma . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02774-8 . Reuth, Ralf Georg (1993). Goebbels . Harcourt Brace. ISBN 9780151360765 . times when an artist of my rank has to ask a pipsqueak Ross, Alex (2009). The Rest Is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century . New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-24939-7 . Schonberg, Harold C. (1967). The Great Conductors . New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-20735-0 . Trenner, Franz [in German] (2003). Richard Strauss Chronik (in German). Vienna: Verlag Dr Richard Strauss. ISBN 3-901974-01-6 . Wilhelm, Kurt (1989). Richard Strauss: An Intimate Portrait . London, England: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-01459-0 . Further reading Del Mar, Norman (3 vols. 1962–1973). Richard Strauss: A Critical Commentary on his Life and Works . London: Barrie & Jenkins. ISBN 0-214-15735-0 . Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univ Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8014-9319-6 Dubal, David (2003), The Essential Canon of Classical Music , North Point Press, ISBN 0-86547-664-0 . Gilliam, Bryan (1999). The Life of Richard Strauss. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57895-7 . Kennedy, Michael . "Richard Strauss", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , ed. Stanley Sadie . London, Macmillan Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-56159-174-2 Kennedy, Michael (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Music , 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4 Murray, David (1998), "Richard Strauss", in Stanley Sadie , (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , vol. 3, pp. 565–575. London: Macmillan Publishers. 1998. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 , 1-56159-228-5 . Osborne, Charles (1991). The Complete Operas of Richard Strauss. New York City: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80459-X . Tuchman, Barbara W. (1966, reprinted 1980). The Proud Tower chapter 6. Macmillan, London. ISBN 0-333-30645-7 . Youmans, Charles (2005). Richard Strauss's Orchestral Music and the German Intellectual Tradition: The Philosophical Roots of Musical Modernism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34573-1 . External links Works by or about Richard Georg Strauss at Wikisource Free scores by Richard Strauss at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) "Discovering Richard Strauss" . BBC Radio 3 . Free scores by Richard Strauss in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Newspaper clippings about Richard Strauss in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Richard Strauss online Richard Strauss Institute (in German) Richard-Strauss-Quellenverzeichnis (RSQV) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Richard Strauss v t e List of operas List of compositions List of operas List of compositions Operas Guntram (1894) Feuersnot (1901) Salome (1905) Elektra (1909) Der Rosenkavalier (1911) Ariadne auf Naxos (1912/16) Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919) Intermezzo (1924) Die ägyptische Helena (1928) Arabella (1933) Die schweigsame Frau (1935) Friedenstag (1938) Daphne (1938) Die Liebe der Danae (1940) Capriccio (1942) Guntram (1894) Feuersnot (1901) Salome (1905) Elektra (1909) Der Rosenkavalier (1911) Ariadne auf Naxos (1912/16) Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919) Intermezzo (1924) Die ägyptische Helena (1928) Arabella (1933) Die schweigsame Frau (1935) Friedenstag (1938) Daphne (1938) Die Liebe der Danae (1940) Capriccio (1942) Ballets Josephs Legende (1914) Schlagobers (1924) Verklungene Feste (1940) Josephs Legende (1914) Schlagobers (1924) Verklungene Feste (1940) Orchestral Symphony No. 1 (1880) Violin Concerto (1881–82) Horn Concerto No. 1 (1882–83) Symphony No. 2 (1883–84) Burleske (1885–86) Le bourgeois gentilhomme (1911–17) Dance Suite from Keyboard Pieces by François Couperin (1923) Wiener Philharmoniker Fanfare (1924) Olympische Hymne (1936) Japanese Festival Music (1940) Divertimento for Chamber Orchestra after Keyboard Pieces by Couperin (1941) Horn Concerto No. 2 (1942) Metamorphosen (1945) Oboe Concerto (1945) Duet concertino for clarinet and bassoon (1947) Symphony No. 1 (1880) Violin Concerto (1881–82) Horn Concerto No. 1 (1882–83) Symphony No. 2 (1883–84) Burleske (1885–86) Le bourgeois gentilhomme (1911–17) Dance Suite from Keyboard Pieces by François Couperin (1923) Wiener Philharmoniker Fanfare (1924) Olympische Hymne (1936) Japanese Festival Music (1940) Divertimento for Chamber Orchestra after Keyboard Pieces by Couperin (1941) Horn Concerto No. 2 (1942) Metamorphosen (1945) Oboe Concerto (1945) Duet concertino for clarinet and bassoon (1947) Tone poems Aus Italien (1886) Macbeth (1888) Don Juan (1888) Death and Transfiguration (1889) Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (1895) Also sprach Zarathustra (1896) Don Quixote (1897) Ein Heldenleben (1898) Symphonia Domestica (1903) An Alpine Symphony (1911–15) Aus Italien (1886) Macbeth (1888) Don Juan (1888) Death and Transfiguration (1889) Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (1895) Also sprach Zarathustra (1896) Don Quixote (1897) Ein Heldenleben (1898) Symphonia Domestica (1903) An Alpine Symphony (1911–15) Chamber music Piano Sonata (1881) Cello Sonata in F major (1883) Piano Quartet (1884–1885) Violin Sonata (1888) Enoch Arden (1897) Piano Sonata (1881) Cello Sonata in F major (1883) Piano Quartet (1884–1885) Violin Sonata (1888) Enoch Arden (1897) Lieder " Zueignung " (1885) " Die Nacht " (1885) " Allerseelen " (1885) " Winternacht " (1886) " Ständchen " (1886) " Ruhe, meine Seele! " (1894) " Cäcilie " (1894) " Heimliche Aufforderung " (1894) " Morgen! " (1894) " Traum durch die Dämmerung " (1895) " Sehnsucht " (1896) " Der Arbeitsmann " (1898) " Befreit " (1898) " Notturno " (1899) " Des Dichters Abendgang " (1900) " Freundliche Vision " (1900) " Frühlingsfeier " (1906) Brentano Lieder (1918) Der Krämerspiegel (1918) Four Last Songs (1948) " Zueignung " (1885) " Die Nacht " (1885) " Allerseelen " (1885) " Winternacht " (1886) " Ständchen " (1886) " Ruhe, meine Seele! " (1894) " Cäcilie " (1894) " Heimliche Aufforderung " (1894) " Morgen! " (1894) " Traum durch die Dämmerung " (1895) " Sehnsucht " (1896) " Der Arbeitsmann " (1898) " Befreit " (1898) " Notturno " (1899) " Des Dichters Abendgang " (1900) " Freundliche Vision " (1900) " Frühlingsfeier " (1906) Brentano Lieder (1918) Der Krämerspiegel (1918) Four Last Songs (1948) Choral Wandrers Sturmlied (1884) Utan svafvel och fosfor (1889) Taillefer (1903) Die Tageszeiten (1928) Wandrers Sturmlied (1884) Utan svafvel och fosfor (1889) Taillefer (1903) Die Tageszeiten (1928) Film adaptations Der Rosenkavalier (1926 film) Der Rosenkavalier (1926 film) Family and peers Franz Strauss (father) Pauline de Ahna (wife) Hans von Bülow Hugo von Hofmannsthal Max Reinhardt Stefan Zweig Joseph Gregor Franz Strauss (father) Pauline de Ahna (wife) Hans von Bülow Hugo von Hofmannsthal Max Reinhardt Stefan Zweig Joseph Gregor Related articles Elektra chord Treatise on Instrumentation Modernism Neoclassicism Neo-romanticism Elektra chord Treatise on Instrumentation Modernism Neoclassicism Neo-romanticism Category Audio Category Audio Links to related articles v t e Bayerisches Staatsorchester General Music Directors Franz Lachner (1836) Hans von Bülow (1867) Franz Wüllner (1870) Hermann Levi (1872) Richard Strauss (1894) Hermann Zumpe (1901) Felix Mottl (1904) Bruno Walter (1913) Hans Knappertsbusch (1922) Clemens Krauss (1937) Hans Knappertsbusch (1945) Georg Solti (1946) Rudolf Kempe (1952) Ferenc Fricsay (1956) Joseph Keilberth (1959) Wolfgang Sawallisch (1971) Peter Schneider (1992) Zubin Mehta (1998) Kent Nagano (2006) Kirill Petrenko (2013) Vladimir Jurowski (2021) v t e Vienna Staatsoper Directors Franz von Dingelstedt (1867) Johann von Herbeck (1870) Franz von Jauner (1875) Wilhelm Jahn (1881) Gustav Mahler (1897) Felix Weingartner (1908) Hans Gregor (1911) Richard Strauss / Franz Schalk (1919) Franz Schalk (1924) Clemens Krauss (1929) Felix Weingartner (1935) Heinrich Karl Strohm (1940) Lothar Müthel (1941) Karl Böhm (1943) Franz Salmhofer (1945) Karl Böhm (1954) Herbert von Karajan (1956) Egon Hilbert (1964) Heinrich Reif-Gintl (1968) Rudolf Gamsjäger (1972) Egon Seefehlner (1976) Lorin Maazel (1982) Egon Seefehlner (1984) Claus Helmut Drese (1986) Eberhard Waechter / Ioan Holender (1991) Ioan Holender (1992) Dominique Meyer (2010) v t e Staatsoper Unter den Linden Berlin General Music Directors Johannes Wesalius (1572) Johannes Eccard (1609) Nicolaus Zangius (1612) William Brade (1618) Johann Friedrich Agricola (1759) Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1775) Bernhard Anselm Weber (1816) Gaspare Spontini (1820) Giacomo Meyerbeer (1842) Otto Nicolai (1848) Robert Radecke (1871) Joseph Sucher (1888) Richard Strauss (1899) Leo Blech (1913) Erich Kleiber (1923) Clemens Krauss (1935) Herbert von Karajan (1941) Joseph Keilberth (1948) Erich Kleiber (1951) Franz Konwitschny (1955) Otmar Suitner (1964) Daniel Barenboim (1992) Christian Thielemann (2024) v t e Berlin Philharmonic Conductors Ludwig von Brenner (1882–1887) Hans von Bülow (1887–1893) Richard Strauss (1894–1895) Arthur Nikisch (1895–1922) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1922–1945) Leo Borchard (1945) Sergiu Celibidache (1945–1952) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1952–1954) Herbert von Karajan (1954–1989) Claudio Abbado (1989–2002) Simon Rattle (2002–2018) Kirill Petrenko (2019–present) Groups Philharmonia Quartet Berlin Scharoun Ensemble The 12 Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic Related Berliner Philharmonie Digital Concert Hall Karajan: Beethoven Symphonies (1963) Rhythm Is It! Category v t e Romantic music List of Romantic composers Composers and musicians Adam Alkan Arensky Atterberg Auber Balakirev Bax Bazzini Beach Beethoven Bellini Bennett Bériot Berlioz Bertin Berwald Bizet Borodin Bortkiewicz Brahms Bretón Bruch Bruckner Busoni Chadwick Chaminade Chapí Chausson Cherubini Chopin Crusell Cui Czerny Félicien David Ferdinand David Delibes Delius Denza d'Indy Donizetti Dvořák Elgar Farrenc Fauré Field Foote Foster Franck Franz Giuliani Glazunov Glinka Gomes J. Gomis Gounod Gretchaninov Grieg Halévy Herbert Hérold Herz Holst Hummel Joachim Joplin Kalivoda Kalkbrenner Karłowicz Kreisler Kuhlau Kuula Lachner Lalo Leoncavallo Liszt Loewe Lumbye Lysenko MacDowell Madetoja Mahler Marschner Masarnau Massenet Medtner Méhul Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Mercadante Méreaux Meyerbeer Moniuszko Moscheles Moszkowski Mussorgsky Niedermeyer Nielsen Offenbach Onslow Pacini Paderewski Paganini Paine Popper Prudent Puccini Rachmaninoff Raff Reicha Reinecke Respighi Ries Rimsky-Korsakov Rode Rossini Rubinstein Saint-Saëns Sarasate Schubert C. Schumann R. Schumann Scriabin Sibelius Smetana Sor Sousa Spohr Spontini J. Strauss I J. Strauss II R. Strauss Suppé Taneyev Tárrega Tchaikovsky Thalberg Tobias Verdi Vieuxtemps Voříšek Wagner Weber Wieniawski Vaughan Williams Wolf Ysaÿe Instrumentation Romantic guitar Romantic orchestra Genres Ballade Character piece Chorale prelude Intermezzo Lied Kujawiak Mazurka Orchestral song Romantic ballet Romantic opera Symphonic poem Symphony Other topics Indianist movement Musical nationalism Neue Zeitschrift für Musik New German School Post-romanticism Tchaikovsky and the Belyayev circle Tchaikovsky and The Five " War of the Romantics " Background Common practice period Romanticism Chess Gothic Revival architecture Poetry Science Musical nationalism Romantic nationalism ← Classical music Modernist music → Category Portal v t e Romanticism Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Italy Japan Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Ancients Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark Düsseldorf School German historical school Gothic revival Hudson River School Indianism Jena Lake Poets Lebensphilosophie Nationalist Nazarene movement Neo Pre Sturm und Drang Post Purismo Transcendentalism Ukrainian school Ultra Wallenrodism Themes Blue flower British Marine Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Hero Byronic Romantic Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Noble savage Nostalgia Ossian Pantheism Rhine Romantic genius Wanderlust Weltschmerz White Mountain art Writers Brazil Abreu Alencar Manuel Antônio de Almeida Alves Assis Azevedo Barreto Dias Guimarães Macedo Magalhães Reis Taunay Varela France Baudelaire Bertrand Chateaubriand Dumas Gautier Hugo Lamartine Mérimée Musset Nerval Nodier Staël Vigny Germany A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Beer Brentano Eichendorff Fouqué Goethe Brothers Grimm Günderrode Gutzkow Hauff Heine Hoffmann Hölderlin Jean Paul Kleist Mörike Novalis Schwab Tieck Uhland Great Britain Barbauld Blake Anne Brontë C. Brontë E. Brontë Burns Byron Carlyle Clare Coleridge de Quincey Maria Edgeworth Keats Lamb Maturin Polidori Radcliffe Mary Robinson Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Southey Wordsworth Poland Fredro Krasiński Józef Ignacy Kraszewski Malczewski Mickiewicz Norwid Potocki Wincenty Pol Słowacki Portugal Castelo Branco Castilho João de Deus Dinis Garrett Herculano Soares dos Passos Romania Mihail Kogălniceanu Constantin Negruzzi Vasile Alecsandri Dimitrie Bolintineanu Mihai Eminescu George Coșbuc Octavian Goga Alexandru Macedonski Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Russia Baratynsky Batyushkov Gogol Karamzin Küchelbecker Lermontov Pushkin Tyutchev Vyazemsky Zhukovsky Serbia Jakšić Kostić Milutinović-Sarajlija Njegoš Radičević Stojadinović-Srpkinja Vidaković Zmaj Spain Bécquer Rosalía de Castro Espronceda Gutiérrez Saavedra Zorrilla U.S. Bryant Cooper Emerson Hawthorne Josiah Gilbert Holland Irving Longfellow Lowell Poe Other Abovian Alfieri Andersen Baratashvili Botev Chavchavadze Foscolo Frashëri Geijer Grundtvig Heliade Isaacs Lenau Leopardi Mácha Manzoni Maturin Oehlenschläger Orbeliani Prešeren Raffi Runeberg Shevchenko Topelius Vörösmarty Wergeland Musicians Austria Bruckner Czerny Hummel Mahler Schubert Thalberg Wolf Czechia Dvořák Moscheles Reicha Smetana Voříšek France Adam Alkan Auber Berlioz Fauré Halévy Méhul Onslow Saint-Saëns Germany Beethoven Brahms Bruch Kalkbrenner Loewe Marschner Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Meyerbeer Moszkowski C. Schumann R. Schumann Spohr Strauss Wagner Weber Great Britain Elgar Holst Vaughan Williams Hungary Erkel Goldmark Heller Hubay Joachim Liszt Italy Bellini Busoni Cherubini Donizetti Paganini Respighi Rossini Spontini Verdi Poland Bortkiewicz Chopin Lipiński Moniuszko Paderewski Stolpe Tausig Wieniawski Russia Arensky Balakirev Borodin Cui Glinka Lyapunov Medtner Mussorgsky Rachmaninoff Rimsky-Korsakov Rubinstein Scriabin Tchaikovsky Serbia Hristić Konjović Mokranjac Stanković U.S. Chadwick Beach Foote Foster Joplin MacDowell Sousa Other Bennett Berwald Field Franck Grieg Sibelius Sor Philosophers Belinsky Berchet Burke Carlyle Chaadayev Coleridge Constant Emerson Fichte Goethe Hazlitt Hegel Khomyakov Lamennais Larra Maistre Mazzini Michelet Müller Novalis Quinet Rousseau Schelling Schiller A. Schlegel F. Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour Snellman Staël Thoreau Tieck Wackenroder Visual artists Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Cowper Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Edelfelt Friedrich Fuseli Gallen-Kallela Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rolland Rude Runge Saleh Sant Scheffer Stattler Stroy Tidemand Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Scholars Abraham Abrams Barzun Beiser Berlin Blanning Bloom Blume Dahlhaus Ferber Frye Janion Lacoue-Labarthe Lovejoy de Man Nancy Porthan Ricks Rosen Wellek Related topics Coleridge's theory of life German idealism List of romantics List of Romantic poets Middle Ages in history Opium and Romanticism Romantic ballet Romantic epistemology Romantic medicine Romantic poetry Romantic psychology Romanticism and economics Romanticism and the French Revolution Romanticism in science Bacon Evolution theory Wanderer above the Sea of Fog ← Age of Enlightenment Modernism → Category v t e Modernist music List of modernist composers Composers Europe Austria Berg Krenek Mahler Schoenberg Webern Belgium Pousseur Czechia Hába France Debussy Henry Jolivet Koechlin Messiaen Milhaud Poulenc Ravel Varèse Germany Orff Reger Strauss Weill Greece Skalkottas Hungary Bartók Kodály Poland Paderewski Szymanowski Romania Enescu Russia Prokofiev Scriabin Stravinsky Switzerland Honegger Martin Americas United States Antheil Babbitt Carter Copland Cowell Ives Mexico Chávez Brazil Villa-Lobos Asia Japan Setoguchi Genres and techniques Atonality Experimental Expressionism Futurism Microtonal Modes of limited transposition Neotonality New Complexity New Objectivity Noise Pandiatonicism Polyrhythms Polytonality Post-romanticism Process Quartal and quintal harmony Serialism Sound mass Spectral Stochastic Surrealism Tone cluster Twelve-tone technique Schools of composition Second Viennese School Darmstadt School ← Romantic music Category Portal v t e Modernism Movements Acmeism Art Deco Art Nouveau Ashcan School Constructivism Cubism Dada Expressionism Der Blaue Reiter Die Brücke Music Fauvism Functionalism Bauhaus Futurism Imagism Lettrism Neoplasticism De Stijl Orphism Surrealism Symbolism Synchromism Tonalism Literary arts Literature Apollinaire Barnes Beckett Bely Breton Broch Bulgakov Chekhov Conrad Döblin Forster Faulkner Flaubert Ford Gide Hamsun Hašek Hemingway Hesse Joyce Kafka Koestler Lawrence Mann Mansfield Marinetti Musil Dos Passos Platonov Porter Proust Stein Svevo Unamuno Woolf Poetry Akhmatova Aldington Auden Cendrars Crane H.D. Desnos Eliot Éluard Elytis George Jacob Lorca Lowell (Amy) Lowell (Robert) Mallarmé Moore Owen Pessoa Pound Rilke Seferis Stevens Thomas Tzara Valéry Williams Yeats Works In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) The Metamorphosis (1915) Ulysses (1922) The Waste Land (1922) The Magic Mountain (1924) Mrs Dalloway (1925) The Sun Also Rises (1926) The Master and Margarita (1928–1940) The Sound and the Fury (1929) Visual arts Painting Albers Arp Balthus Bellows Boccioni Bonnard Brâncuși Braque Calder Cassatt Cézanne Chagall Chirico Claudel Dalí Degas Delaunay Delaunay Demuth Dix Doesburg Duchamp Dufy Ensor Ernst Gauguin Giacometti Goncharova Gris Grosz Höch Hopper Kahlo Kandinsky Kirchner Klee Kokoschka Kooning Lawrence Léger Magritte Malevich Manet Marc Matisse Metzinger Miró Modigliani Mondrian Monet Moore Munch Nolde O'Keeffe Picabia Picasso Pissarro Ray Redon Renoir Rodin Rousseau Schiele Seurat Signac Sisley Soutine Steichen Stieglitz Toulouse-Lautrec Van Gogh Vuillard Wood Film Akerman Aldrich Antonioni Avery Bergman Bresson Buñuel Carné Cassavetes Chaplin Clair Cocteau Dassin Deren Dovzhenko Dreyer Edwards Eisenstein Epstein Fassbinder Fellini Flaherty Ford Fuller Gance Godard Hitchcock Hubley Jones Keaton Kubrick Kuleshov Kurosawa Lang Losey Lupino Lye Marker Minnelli Murnau Ozu Pabst Pudovkin Ray (Nicholas) Ray (Satyajit) Resnais Renoir Richardson Rossellini Sirk Sjöström Sternberg Tarkovsky Tati Trnka Truffaut Varda Vertov Vigo Welles Wiene Wood Architecture Breuer Bunshaft Gaudí Gropius Guimard Horta Hundertwasser Johnson Kahn Le Corbusier Loos Melnikov Mendelsohn Mies Nervi Neutra Niemeyer Rietveld Saarinen Steiner Sullivan Tatlin Wright Works A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887) The Starry Night (1889) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) The Dance (1909–1910) Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912) Black Square (1915) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Ballet Mécanique (1923) Battleship Potemkin (1925) Metropolis (1927) Un Chien Andalou (1929) Villa Savoye (1931) Fallingwater (1936) Citizen Kane (1941) Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) Performing arts Music Antheil Bartók Berg Berio Boulanger Boulez Copland Debussy Dutilleux Falla Feldman Górecki Hindemith Honegger Ives Janáček Ligeti Lutosławski Milhaud Nono Partch Russolo Satie Schaeffer Schoenberg Scriabin Stockhausen Strauss Stravinsky Szymanowski Varèse Villa-Lobos Webern Weill Theatre Anderson Anouilh Artaud Beckett Brecht Chekhov Ibsen Jarry Kaiser Maeterlinck Mayakovsky O'Casey O'Neill Osborne Pirandello Piscator Strindberg Toller Wedekind Wilder Witkiewicz Dance Balanchine Cunningham Diaghilev Duncan Fokine Fuller Graham Holm Laban Massine Nijinsky Shawn Sokolow St. Denis Tamiris Wiesenthal Wigman Works Don Juan (1888) Ubu Roi (1896) Verklärte Nacht (1899) Pelléas et Mélisande (1902) Salome (1905) The Firebird (1910) Afternoon of a Faun (1912) The Rite of Spring (1913) Fountain (1917) Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) The Threepenny Opera (1928) Waiting for Godot (1953) Related American modernism Armory Show Avant-garde Ballets Russes Bloomsbury Group Buddhist modernism Classical Hollywood cinema Degenerate art Ecomodernism Experimental film Film noir Fin de siècle Fourth dimension in art Fourth dimension in literature Grosvenor School of Modern Art Hanshinkan Modernism High modernism Hippie modernism Impressionism Music Literature Post- Incoherents International Style Late modernism Late modernity List of art movements List of avant-garde artists List of modernist poets Maximalism Metamodernism Modernity Neo-primitivism Neo-romanticism New Hollywood New Objectivity Poetic realism Pop Art Pulp noir Reactionary modernism Remodernism Second Viennese School Structural film Underground film Vulgar modernism ← Romanticism Postmodernism → Category v t e Bayerisches Staatsorchester General Music Directors v t e Franz Lachner (1836) Hans von Bülow (1867) Franz Wüllner (1870) Hermann Levi (1872) Richard Strauss (1894) Hermann Zumpe (1901) Felix Mottl (1904) Bruno Walter (1913) Hans Knappertsbusch (1922) Clemens Krauss (1937) Hans Knappertsbusch (1945) Georg Solti (1946) Rudolf Kempe (1952) Ferenc Fricsay (1956) Joseph Keilberth (1959) Wolfgang Sawallisch (1971) Peter Schneider (1992) Zubin Mehta (1998) Kent Nagano (2006) Kirill Petrenko (2013) Vladimir Jurowski (2021) Franz Lachner (1836) Hans von Bülow (1867) Franz Wüllner (1870) Hermann Levi (1872) Richard Strauss (1894) Hermann Zumpe (1901) Felix Mottl (1904) Bruno Walter (1913) Hans Knappertsbusch (1922) Clemens Krauss (1937) Hans Knappertsbusch (1945) Georg Solti (1946) Rudolf Kempe (1952) Ferenc Fricsay (1956) Joseph Keilberth (1959) Wolfgang Sawallisch (1971) Peter Schneider (1992) Zubin Mehta (1998) Kent Nagano (2006) Kirill Petrenko (2013) Vladimir Jurowski (2021) v t e Vienna Staatsoper Directors v t e Franz von Dingelstedt (1867) Johann von Herbeck (1870) Franz von Jauner (1875) Wilhelm Jahn (1881) Gustav Mahler (1897) Felix Weingartner (1908) Hans Gregor (1911) Richard Strauss / Franz Schalk (1919) Franz Schalk (1924) Clemens Krauss (1929) Felix Weingartner (1935) Heinrich Karl Strohm (1940) Lothar Müthel (1941) Karl Böhm (1943) Franz Salmhofer (1945) Karl Böhm (1954) Herbert von Karajan (1956) Egon Hilbert (1964) Heinrich Reif-Gintl (1968) Rudolf Gamsjäger (1972) Egon Seefehlner (1976) Lorin Maazel (1982) Egon Seefehlner (1984) Claus Helmut Drese (1986) Eberhard Waechter / Ioan Holender (1991) Ioan Holender (1992) Dominique Meyer (2010) Franz von Dingelstedt (1867) Johann von Herbeck (1870) Franz von Jauner (1875) Wilhelm Jahn (1881) Gustav Mahler (1897) Felix Weingartner (1908) Hans Gregor (1911) Richard Strauss / Franz Schalk (1919) Franz Schalk (1924) Clemens Krauss (1929) Felix Weingartner (1935) Heinrich Karl Strohm (1940) Lothar Müthel (1941) Karl Böhm (1943) Franz Salmhofer (1945) Karl Böhm (1954) Herbert von Karajan (1956) Egon Hilbert (1964) Heinrich Reif-Gintl (1968) Rudolf Gamsjäger (1972) Egon Seefehlner (1976) Lorin Maazel (1982) Egon Seefehlner (1984) Claus Helmut Drese (1986) Eberhard Waechter / Ioan Holender (1991) Ioan Holender (1992) Dominique Meyer (2010) v t e Staatsoper Unter den Linden Berlin General Music Directors v t e Johannes Wesalius (1572) Johannes Eccard (1609) Nicolaus Zangius (1612) William Brade (1618) Johann Friedrich Agricola (1759) Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1775) Bernhard Anselm Weber (1816) Gaspare Spontini (1820) Giacomo Meyerbeer (1842) Otto Nicolai (1848) Robert Radecke (1871) Joseph Sucher (1888) Richard Strauss (1899) Leo Blech (1913) Erich Kleiber (1923) Clemens Krauss (1935) Herbert von Karajan (1941) Joseph Keilberth (1948) Erich Kleiber (1951) Franz Konwitschny (1955) Otmar Suitner (1964) Daniel Barenboim (1992) Christian Thielemann (2024) Johannes Wesalius (1572) Johannes Eccard (1609) Nicolaus Zangius (1612) William Brade (1618) Johann Friedrich Agricola (1759) Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1775) Bernhard Anselm Weber (1816) Gaspare Spontini (1820) Giacomo Meyerbeer (1842) Otto Nicolai (1848) Robert Radecke (1871) Joseph Sucher (1888) Richard Strauss (1899) Leo Blech (1913) Erich Kleiber (1923) Clemens Krauss (1935) Herbert von Karajan (1941) Joseph Keilberth (1948) Erich Kleiber (1951) Franz Konwitschny (1955) Otmar Suitner (1964) Daniel Barenboim (1992) Christian Thielemann (2024) v t e Berlin Philharmonic v t e Conductors Ludwig von Brenner (1882–1887) Hans von Bülow (1887–1893) Richard Strauss (1894–1895) Arthur Nikisch (1895–1922) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1922–1945) Leo Borchard (1945) Sergiu Celibidache (1945–1952) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1952–1954) Herbert von Karajan (1954–1989) Claudio Abbado (1989–2002) Simon Rattle (2002–2018) Kirill Petrenko (2019–present) Ludwig von Brenner (1882–1887) Hans von Bülow (1887–1893) Richard Strauss (1894–1895) Arthur Nikisch (1895–1922) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1922–1945) Leo Borchard (1945) Sergiu Celibidache (1945–1952) Wilhelm Furtwängler (1952–1954) Herbert von Karajan (1954–1989) Claudio Abbado (1989–2002) Simon Rattle (2002–2018) Kirill Petrenko (2019–present) Groups Philharmonia Quartet Berlin Scharoun Ensemble The 12 Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic Philharmonia Quartet Berlin Scharoun Ensemble The 12 Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic Related Berliner Philharmonie Digital Concert Hall Karajan: Beethoven Symphonies (1963) Rhythm Is It! Berliner Philharmonie Digital Concert Hall Karajan: Beethoven Symphonies (1963) Rhythm Is It! Category v t e Romantic music v t e List of Romantic composers Composers and musicians Adam Alkan Arensky Atterberg Auber Balakirev Bax Bazzini Beach Beethoven Bellini Bennett Bériot Berlioz Bertin Berwald Bizet Borodin Bortkiewicz Brahms Bretón Bruch Bruckner Busoni Chadwick Chaminade Chapí Chausson Cherubini Chopin Crusell Cui Czerny Félicien David Ferdinand David Delibes Delius Denza d'Indy Donizetti Dvořák Elgar Farrenc Fauré Field Foote Foster Franck Franz Giuliani Glazunov Glinka Gomes J. Gomis Gounod Gretchaninov Grieg Halévy Herbert Hérold Herz Holst Hummel Joachim Joplin Kalivoda Kalkbrenner Karłowicz Kreisler Kuhlau Kuula Lachner Lalo Leoncavallo Liszt Loewe Lumbye Lysenko MacDowell Madetoja Mahler Marschner Masarnau Massenet Medtner Méhul Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Mercadante Méreaux Meyerbeer Moniuszko Moscheles Moszkowski Mussorgsky Niedermeyer Nielsen Offenbach Onslow Pacini Paderewski Paganini Paine Popper Prudent Puccini Rachmaninoff Raff Reicha Reinecke Respighi Ries Rimsky-Korsakov Rode Rossini Rubinstein Saint-Saëns Sarasate Schubert C. Schumann R. Schumann Scriabin Sibelius Smetana Sor Sousa Spohr Spontini J. Strauss I J. Strauss II R. Strauss Suppé Taneyev Tárrega Tchaikovsky Thalberg Tobias Verdi Vieuxtemps Voříšek Wagner Weber Wieniawski Vaughan Williams Wolf Ysaÿe Adam Alkan Arensky Atterberg Auber Balakirev Bax Bazzini Beach Beethoven Bellini Bennett Bériot Berlioz Bertin Berwald Bizet Borodin Bortkiewicz Brahms Bretón Bruch Bruckner Busoni Chadwick Chaminade Chapí Chausson Cherubini Chopin Crusell Cui Czerny Félicien David Ferdinand David Delibes Delius Denza d'Indy Donizetti Dvořák Elgar Farrenc Fauré Field Foote Foster Franck Franz Giuliani Glazunov Glinka Gomes J. Gomis Gounod Gretchaninov Grieg Halévy Herbert Hérold Herz Holst Hummel Joachim Joplin Kalivoda Kalkbrenner Karłowicz Kreisler Kuhlau Kuula Lachner Lalo Leoncavallo Liszt Loewe Lumbye Lysenko MacDowell Madetoja Mahler Marschner Masarnau Massenet Medtner Méhul Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Mercadante Méreaux Meyerbeer Moniuszko Moscheles Moszkowski Mussorgsky Niedermeyer Nielsen Offenbach Onslow Pacini Paderewski Paganini Paine Popper Prudent Puccini Rachmaninoff Raff Reicha Reinecke Respighi Ries Rimsky-Korsakov Rode Rossini Rubinstein Saint-Saëns Sarasate Schubert C. Schumann R. Schumann Scriabin Sibelius Smetana Sor Sousa Spohr Spontini J. Strauss I J. Strauss II R. Strauss Suppé Taneyev Tárrega Tchaikovsky Thalberg Tobias Verdi Vieuxtemps Voříšek Wagner Weber Wieniawski Vaughan Williams Wolf Ysaÿe Instrumentation Romantic guitar Romantic orchestra Romantic guitar Romantic orchestra Genres Ballade Character piece Chorale prelude Intermezzo Lied Kujawiak Mazurka Orchestral song Romantic ballet Romantic opera Symphonic poem Symphony Ballade Character piece Chorale prelude Intermezzo Lied Kujawiak Mazurka Orchestral song Romantic ballet Romantic opera Symphonic poem Symphony Other topics Indianist movement Musical nationalism Neue Zeitschrift für Musik New German School Post-romanticism Tchaikovsky and the Belyayev circle Tchaikovsky and The Five " War of the Romantics " Indianist movement Musical nationalism Neue Zeitschrift für Musik New German School Post-romanticism Tchaikovsky and the Belyayev circle Tchaikovsky and The Five " War of the Romantics " Background Common practice period Romanticism Chess Gothic Revival architecture Poetry Science Musical nationalism Romantic nationalism Common practice period Romanticism Chess Gothic Revival architecture Poetry Science Chess Gothic Revival architecture Poetry Science Musical nationalism Romantic nationalism Romantic nationalism ← Classical music Modernist music → Category Portal Category Portal v t e Romanticism v t e Countries Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Italy Japan Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Denmark England (literature) France (literature) Germany Italy Japan Norway Poland Russia (literature) Scotland Spain (literature) Sweden (literature) Movements Ancients Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark Düsseldorf School German historical school Gothic revival Hudson River School Indianism Jena Lake Poets Lebensphilosophie Nationalist Nazarene movement Neo Pre Sturm und Drang Post Purismo Transcendentalism Ukrainian school Ultra Wallenrodism Ancients Bohemianism Coppet group Counter-Enlightenment Dark Düsseldorf School German historical school Gothic revival Hudson River School Indianism Jena Lake Poets Lebensphilosophie Nationalist Nazarene movement Neo Pre Sturm und Drang Sturm und Drang Post Purismo Transcendentalism Ukrainian school Ultra Wallenrodism Themes Blue flower British Marine Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Hero Byronic Romantic Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Noble savage Nostalgia Ossian Pantheism Rhine Romantic genius Wanderlust Weltschmerz White Mountain art Blue flower British Marine Gesamtkunstwerk Gothic fiction Hero Byronic Romantic Byronic Romantic Historical fiction Mal du siècle Medievalism Noble savage Nostalgia Ossian Pantheism Rhine Romantic genius Wanderlust Weltschmerz White Mountain art Writers Brazil Abreu Alencar Manuel Antônio de Almeida Alves Assis Azevedo Barreto Dias Guimarães Macedo Magalhães Reis Taunay Varela France Baudelaire Bertrand Chateaubriand Dumas Gautier Hugo Lamartine Mérimée Musset Nerval Nodier Staël Vigny Germany A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Beer Brentano Eichendorff Fouqué Goethe Brothers Grimm Günderrode Gutzkow Hauff Heine Hoffmann Hölderlin Jean Paul Kleist Mörike Novalis Schwab Tieck Uhland Great Britain Barbauld Blake Anne Brontë C. Brontë E. Brontë Burns Byron Carlyle Clare Coleridge de Quincey Maria Edgeworth Keats Lamb Maturin Polidori Radcliffe Mary Robinson Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Southey Wordsworth Poland Fredro Krasiński Józef Ignacy Kraszewski Malczewski Mickiewicz Norwid Potocki Wincenty Pol Słowacki Portugal Castelo Branco Castilho João de Deus Dinis Garrett Herculano Soares dos Passos Romania Mihail Kogălniceanu Constantin Negruzzi Vasile Alecsandri Dimitrie Bolintineanu Mihai Eminescu George Coșbuc Octavian Goga Alexandru Macedonski Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Russia Baratynsky Batyushkov Gogol Karamzin Küchelbecker Lermontov Pushkin Tyutchev Vyazemsky Zhukovsky Serbia Jakšić Kostić Milutinović-Sarajlija Njegoš Radičević Stojadinović-Srpkinja Vidaković Zmaj Spain Bécquer Rosalía de Castro Espronceda Gutiérrez Saavedra Zorrilla U.S. Bryant Cooper Emerson Hawthorne Josiah Gilbert Holland Irving Longfellow Lowell Poe Other Abovian Alfieri Andersen Baratashvili Botev Chavchavadze Foscolo Frashëri Geijer Grundtvig Heliade Isaacs Lenau Leopardi Mácha Manzoni Maturin Oehlenschläger Orbeliani Prešeren Raffi Runeberg Shevchenko Topelius Vörösmarty Wergeland Brazil Abreu Alencar Manuel Antônio de Almeida Alves Assis Azevedo Barreto Dias Guimarães Macedo Magalhães Reis Taunay Varela Abreu Alencar Manuel Antônio de Almeida Alves Assis Azevedo Barreto Dias Guimarães Macedo Magalhães Reis Taunay Varela France Baudelaire Bertrand Chateaubriand Dumas Gautier Hugo Lamartine Mérimée Musset Nerval Nodier Staël Vigny Baudelaire Bertrand Chateaubriand Dumas Gautier Hugo Lamartine Mérimée Musset Nerval Nodier Staël Vigny Germany A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Beer Brentano Eichendorff Fouqué Goethe Brothers Grimm Günderrode Gutzkow Hauff Heine Hoffmann Hölderlin Jean Paul Kleist Mörike Novalis Schwab Tieck Uhland A. v. Arnim B. v. Arnim Beer Brentano Eichendorff Fouqué Goethe Brothers Grimm Günderrode Gutzkow Hauff Heine Hoffmann Hölderlin Jean Paul Kleist Mörike Novalis Schwab Tieck Uhland Great Britain Barbauld Blake Anne Brontë C. Brontë E. Brontë Burns Byron Carlyle Clare Coleridge de Quincey Maria Edgeworth Keats Lamb Maturin Polidori Radcliffe Mary Robinson Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Southey Wordsworth Barbauld Blake Anne Brontë C. Brontë E. Brontë Burns Byron Carlyle Clare Coleridge de Quincey Maria Edgeworth Keats Lamb Maturin Polidori Radcliffe Mary Robinson Scott Seward M. Shelley P. B. Shelley Southey Wordsworth Poland Fredro Krasiński Józef Ignacy Kraszewski Malczewski Mickiewicz Norwid Potocki Wincenty Pol Słowacki Fredro Krasiński Józef Ignacy Kraszewski Malczewski Mickiewicz Norwid Potocki Wincenty Pol Słowacki Portugal Castelo Branco Castilho João de Deus Dinis Garrett Herculano Soares dos Passos Castelo Branco Castilho João de Deus Dinis Garrett Herculano Soares dos Passos Romania Mihail Kogălniceanu Constantin Negruzzi Vasile Alecsandri Dimitrie Bolintineanu Mihai Eminescu George Coșbuc Octavian Goga Alexandru Macedonski Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Mihail Kogălniceanu Constantin Negruzzi Vasile Alecsandri Dimitrie Bolintineanu Mihai Eminescu George Coșbuc Octavian Goga Alexandru Macedonski Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Russia Baratynsky Batyushkov Gogol Karamzin Küchelbecker Lermontov Pushkin Tyutchev Vyazemsky Zhukovsky Baratynsky Batyushkov Gogol Karamzin Küchelbecker Lermontov Pushkin Tyutchev Vyazemsky Zhukovsky Serbia Jakšić Kostić Milutinović-Sarajlija Njegoš Radičević Stojadinović-Srpkinja Vidaković Zmaj Jakšić Kostić Milutinović-Sarajlija Njegoš Radičević Stojadinović-Srpkinja Vidaković Zmaj Spain Bécquer Rosalía de Castro Espronceda Gutiérrez Saavedra Zorrilla Bécquer Rosalía de Castro Espronceda Gutiérrez Saavedra Zorrilla U.S. Bryant Cooper Emerson Hawthorne Josiah Gilbert Holland Irving Longfellow Lowell Poe Bryant Cooper Emerson Hawthorne Josiah Gilbert Holland Irving Longfellow Lowell Poe Other Abovian Alfieri Andersen Baratashvili Botev Chavchavadze Foscolo Frashëri Geijer Grundtvig Heliade Isaacs Lenau Leopardi Mácha Manzoni Maturin Oehlenschläger Orbeliani Prešeren Raffi Runeberg Shevchenko Topelius Vörösmarty Wergeland Abovian Alfieri Andersen Baratashvili Botev Chavchavadze Foscolo Frashëri Geijer Grundtvig Heliade Isaacs Lenau Leopardi Mácha Manzoni Maturin Oehlenschläger Orbeliani Prešeren Raffi Runeberg Shevchenko Topelius Vörösmarty Wergeland Musicians Austria Bruckner Czerny Hummel Mahler Schubert Thalberg Wolf Czechia Dvořák Moscheles Reicha Smetana Voříšek France Adam Alkan Auber Berlioz Fauré Halévy Méhul Onslow Saint-Saëns Germany Beethoven Brahms Bruch Kalkbrenner Loewe Marschner Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Meyerbeer Moszkowski C. Schumann R. Schumann Spohr Strauss Wagner Weber Great Britain Elgar Holst Vaughan Williams Hungary Erkel Goldmark Heller Hubay Joachim Liszt Italy Bellini Busoni Cherubini Donizetti Paganini Respighi Rossini Spontini Verdi Poland Bortkiewicz Chopin Lipiński Moniuszko Paderewski Stolpe Tausig Wieniawski Russia Arensky Balakirev Borodin Cui Glinka Lyapunov Medtner Mussorgsky Rachmaninoff Rimsky-Korsakov Rubinstein Scriabin Tchaikovsky Serbia Hristić Konjović Mokranjac Stanković U.S. Chadwick Beach Foote Foster Joplin MacDowell Sousa Other Bennett Berwald Field Franck Grieg Sibelius Sor Austria Bruckner Czerny Hummel Mahler Schubert Thalberg Wolf Bruckner Czerny Hummel Mahler Schubert Thalberg Wolf Czechia Dvořák Moscheles Reicha Smetana Voříšek Dvořák Moscheles Reicha Smetana Voříšek France Adam Alkan Auber Berlioz Fauré Halévy Méhul Onslow Saint-Saëns Adam Alkan Auber Berlioz Fauré Halévy Méhul Onslow Saint-Saëns Germany Beethoven Brahms Bruch Kalkbrenner Loewe Marschner Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Meyerbeer Moszkowski C. Schumann R. Schumann Spohr Strauss Wagner Weber Beethoven Brahms Bruch Kalkbrenner Loewe Marschner Fanny Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Meyerbeer Moszkowski C. Schumann R. Schumann Spohr Strauss Wagner Weber Great Britain Elgar Holst Vaughan Williams Elgar Holst Vaughan Williams Hungary Erkel Goldmark Heller Hubay Joachim Liszt Erkel Goldmark Heller Hubay Joachim Liszt Italy Bellini Busoni Cherubini Donizetti Paganini Respighi Rossini Spontini Verdi Bellini Busoni Cherubini Donizetti Paganini Respighi Rossini Spontini Verdi Poland Bortkiewicz Chopin Lipiński Moniuszko Paderewski Stolpe Tausig Wieniawski Bortkiewicz Chopin Lipiński Moniuszko Paderewski Stolpe Tausig Wieniawski Russia Arensky Balakirev Borodin Cui Glinka Lyapunov Medtner Mussorgsky Rachmaninoff Rimsky-Korsakov Rubinstein Scriabin Tchaikovsky Arensky Balakirev Borodin Cui Glinka Lyapunov Medtner Mussorgsky Rachmaninoff Rimsky-Korsakov Rubinstein Scriabin Tchaikovsky Serbia Hristić Konjović Mokranjac Stanković Hristić Konjović Mokranjac Stanković U.S. Chadwick Beach Foote Foster Joplin MacDowell Sousa Chadwick Beach Foote Foster Joplin MacDowell Sousa Other Bennett Berwald Field Franck Grieg Sibelius Sor Bennett Berwald Field Franck Grieg Sibelius Sor Philosophers Belinsky Berchet Burke Carlyle Chaadayev Coleridge Constant Emerson Fichte Goethe Hazlitt Hegel Khomyakov Lamennais Larra Maistre Mazzini Michelet Müller Novalis Quinet Rousseau Schelling Schiller A. Schlegel F. Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour Snellman Staël Thoreau Tieck Wackenroder Belinsky Berchet Burke Carlyle Chaadayev Coleridge Constant Emerson Fichte Goethe Hazlitt Hegel Khomyakov Lamennais Larra Maistre Mazzini Michelet Müller Novalis Quinet Rousseau Schelling Schiller A. Schlegel F. Schlegel Schleiermacher Senancour Snellman Staël Thoreau Tieck Wackenroder Visual artists Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Cowper Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Edelfelt Friedrich Fuseli Gallen-Kallela Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rolland Rude Runge Saleh Sant Scheffer Stattler Stroy Tidemand Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Aivazovsky Bierstadt Blake Bonington Bryullov Chassériau Church Constable Cole Corot Cowper Dahl David d'Angers Delacroix Edelfelt Friedrich Fuseli Gallen-Kallela Géricault Girodet Głowacki Goya Gude Hayez Janmot Jones Kiprensky Koch Lampi Leutze Martin Michałowski Palmer Porto-Alegre Préault Révoil Richard Rolland Rude Runge Saleh Sant Scheffer Stattler Stroy Tidemand Tropinin Turner Veit Ward Wiertz Scholars Abraham Abrams Barzun Beiser Berlin Blanning Bloom Blume Dahlhaus Ferber Frye Janion Lacoue-Labarthe Lovejoy de Man Nancy Porthan Ricks Rosen Wellek Abraham Abrams Barzun Beiser Berlin Blanning Bloom Blume Dahlhaus Ferber Frye Janion Lacoue-Labarthe Lovejoy de Man Nancy Porthan Ricks Rosen Wellek Related topics Coleridge's theory of life German idealism List of romantics List of Romantic poets Middle Ages in history Opium and Romanticism Romantic ballet Romantic epistemology Romantic medicine Romantic poetry Romantic psychology Romanticism and economics Romanticism and the French Revolution Romanticism in science Bacon Evolution theory Wanderer above the Sea of Fog Coleridge's theory of life German idealism List of romantics List of Romantic poets Middle Ages in history Opium and Romanticism Romantic ballet Romantic epistemology Romantic medicine Romantic poetry Romantic psychology Romanticism and economics Romanticism and the French Revolution Romanticism in science Bacon Evolution theory Bacon Evolution theory Wanderer above the Sea of Fog ← Age of Enlightenment Modernism → Category Category v t e Modernist music v t e List of modernist composers Composers Europe Austria Berg Krenek Mahler Schoenberg Webern Belgium Pousseur Czechia Hába France Debussy Henry Jolivet Koechlin Messiaen Milhaud Poulenc Ravel Varèse Germany Orff Reger Strauss Weill Greece Skalkottas Hungary Bartók Kodály Poland Paderewski Szymanowski Romania Enescu Russia Prokofiev Scriabin Stravinsky Switzerland Honegger Martin Americas United States Antheil Babbitt Carter Copland Cowell Ives Mexico Chávez Brazil Villa-Lobos Asia Japan Setoguchi Europe Austria Berg Krenek Mahler Schoenberg Webern Belgium Pousseur Czechia Hába France Debussy Henry Jolivet Koechlin Messiaen Milhaud Poulenc Ravel Varèse Germany Orff Reger Strauss Weill Greece Skalkottas Hungary Bartók Kodály Poland Paderewski Szymanowski Romania Enescu Russia Prokofiev Scriabin Stravinsky Switzerland Honegger Martin Austria Berg Krenek Mahler Schoenberg Webern Berg Krenek Mahler Schoenberg Webern Belgium Pousseur Pousseur Czechia Hába Hába France Debussy Henry Jolivet Koechlin Messiaen Milhaud Poulenc Ravel Varèse Debussy Henry Jolivet Koechlin Messiaen Milhaud Poulenc Ravel Varèse Germany Orff Reger Strauss Weill Orff Reger Strauss Weill Greece Skalkottas Skalkottas Hungary Bartók Kodály Bartók Kodály Poland Paderewski Szymanowski Paderewski Szymanowski Romania Enescu Enescu Russia Prokofiev Scriabin Stravinsky Prokofiev Scriabin Stravinsky Switzerland Honegger Martin Honegger Martin Americas United States Antheil Babbitt Carter Copland Cowell Ives Mexico Chávez Brazil Villa-Lobos United States Antheil Babbitt Carter Copland Cowell Ives Antheil Babbitt Carter Copland Cowell Ives Mexico Chávez Chávez Brazil Villa-Lobos Villa-Lobos Asia Japan Setoguchi Japan Setoguchi Setoguchi Genres and techniques Atonality Experimental Expressionism Futurism Microtonal Modes of limited transposition Neotonality New Complexity New Objectivity Noise Pandiatonicism Polyrhythms Polytonality Post-romanticism Process Quartal and quintal harmony Serialism Sound mass Spectral Stochastic Surrealism Tone cluster Twelve-tone technique Atonality Experimental Expressionism Futurism Microtonal Modes of limited transposition Neotonality New Complexity New Objectivity Noise Pandiatonicism Polyrhythms Polytonality Post-romanticism Process Quartal and quintal harmony Serialism Sound mass Spectral Stochastic Surrealism Tone cluster Twelve-tone technique Schools of composition Second Viennese School Darmstadt School Second Viennese School Darmstadt School ← Romantic music Category Portal Category Portal v t e Modernism v t e Movements Acmeism Art Deco Art Nouveau Ashcan School Constructivism Cubism Dada Expressionism Der Blaue Reiter Die Brücke Music Fauvism Functionalism Bauhaus Futurism Imagism Lettrism Neoplasticism De Stijl Orphism Surrealism Symbolism Synchromism Tonalism Acmeism Art Deco Art Nouveau Ashcan School Constructivism Cubism Dada Expressionism Der Blaue Reiter Die Brücke Music Der Blaue Reiter Die Brücke Music Fauvism Functionalism Bauhaus Bauhaus Futurism Imagism Lettrism Neoplasticism De Stijl De Stijl Orphism Surrealism Symbolism Synchromism Tonalism Literary arts Literature Apollinaire Barnes Beckett Bely Breton Broch Bulgakov Chekhov Conrad Döblin Forster Faulkner Flaubert Ford Gide Hamsun Hašek Hemingway Hesse Joyce Kafka Koestler Lawrence Mann Mansfield Marinetti Musil Dos Passos Platonov Porter Proust Stein Svevo Unamuno Woolf Poetry Akhmatova Aldington Auden Cendrars Crane H.D. Desnos Eliot Éluard Elytis George Jacob Lorca Lowell (Amy) Lowell (Robert) Mallarmé Moore Owen Pessoa Pound Rilke Seferis Stevens Thomas Tzara Valéry Williams Yeats Works In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) The Metamorphosis (1915) Ulysses (1922) The Waste Land (1922) The Magic Mountain (1924) Mrs Dalloway (1925) The Sun Also Rises (1926) The Master and Margarita (1928–1940) The Sound and the Fury (1929) Literature Apollinaire Barnes Beckett Bely Breton Broch Bulgakov Chekhov Conrad Döblin Forster Faulkner Flaubert Ford Gide Hamsun Hašek Hemingway Hesse Joyce Kafka Koestler Lawrence Mann Mansfield Marinetti Musil Dos Passos Platonov Porter Proust Stein Svevo Unamuno Woolf Apollinaire Barnes Beckett Bely Breton Broch Bulgakov Chekhov Conrad Döblin Forster Faulkner Flaubert Ford Gide Hamsun Hašek Hemingway Hesse Joyce Kafka Koestler Lawrence Mann Mansfield Marinetti Musil Dos Passos Platonov Porter Proust Stein Svevo Unamuno Woolf Poetry Akhmatova Aldington Auden Cendrars Crane H.D. Desnos Eliot Éluard Elytis George Jacob Lorca Lowell (Amy) Lowell (Robert) Mallarmé Moore Owen Pessoa Pound Rilke Seferis Stevens Thomas Tzara Valéry Williams Yeats Akhmatova Aldington Auden Cendrars Crane H.D. Desnos Eliot Éluard Elytis George Jacob Lorca Lowell (Amy) Lowell (Robert) Mallarmé Moore Owen Pessoa Pound Rilke Seferis Stevens Thomas Tzara Valéry Williams Yeats Works In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) The Metamorphosis (1915) Ulysses (1922) The Waste Land (1922) The Magic Mountain (1924) Mrs Dalloway (1925) The Sun Also Rises (1926) The Master and Margarita (1928–1940) The Sound and the Fury (1929) In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) The Metamorphosis (1915) Ulysses (1922) The Waste Land (1922) The Magic Mountain (1924) Mrs Dalloway (1925) The Sun Also Rises (1926) The Master and Margarita (1928–1940) The Sound and the Fury (1929) Visual arts Painting Albers Arp Balthus Bellows Boccioni Bonnard Brâncuși Braque Calder Cassatt Cézanne Chagall Chirico Claudel Dalí Degas Delaunay Delaunay Demuth Dix Doesburg Duchamp Dufy Ensor Ernst Gauguin Giacometti Goncharova Gris Grosz Höch Hopper Kahlo Kandinsky Kirchner Klee Kokoschka Kooning Lawrence Léger Magritte Malevich Manet Marc Matisse Metzinger Miró Modigliani Mondrian Monet Moore Munch Nolde O'Keeffe Picabia Picasso Pissarro Ray Redon Renoir Rodin Rousseau Schiele Seurat Signac Sisley Soutine Steichen Stieglitz Toulouse-Lautrec Van Gogh Vuillard Wood Film Akerman Aldrich Antonioni Avery Bergman Bresson Buñuel Carné Cassavetes Chaplin Clair Cocteau Dassin Deren Dovzhenko Dreyer Edwards Eisenstein Epstein Fassbinder Fellini Flaherty Ford Fuller Gance Godard Hitchcock Hubley Jones Keaton Kubrick Kuleshov Kurosawa Lang Losey Lupino Lye Marker Minnelli Murnau Ozu Pabst Pudovkin Ray (Nicholas) Ray (Satyajit) Resnais Renoir Richardson Rossellini Sirk Sjöström Sternberg Tarkovsky Tati Trnka Truffaut Varda Vertov Vigo Welles Wiene Wood Architecture Breuer Bunshaft Gaudí Gropius Guimard Horta Hundertwasser Johnson Kahn Le Corbusier Loos Melnikov Mendelsohn Mies Nervi Neutra Niemeyer Rietveld Saarinen Steiner Sullivan Tatlin Wright Works A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887) The Starry Night (1889) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) The Dance (1909–1910) Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912) Black Square (1915) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Ballet Mécanique (1923) Battleship Potemkin (1925) Metropolis (1927) Un Chien Andalou (1929) Villa Savoye (1931) Fallingwater (1936) Citizen Kane (1941) Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) Painting Albers Arp Balthus Bellows Boccioni Bonnard Brâncuși Braque Calder Cassatt Cézanne Chagall Chirico Claudel Dalí Degas Delaunay Delaunay Demuth Dix Doesburg Duchamp Dufy Ensor Ernst Gauguin Giacometti Goncharova Gris Grosz Höch Hopper Kahlo Kandinsky Kirchner Klee Kokoschka Kooning Lawrence Léger Magritte Malevich Manet Marc Matisse Metzinger Miró Modigliani Mondrian Monet Moore Munch Nolde O'Keeffe Picabia Picasso Pissarro Ray Redon Renoir Rodin Rousseau Schiele Seurat Signac Sisley Soutine Steichen Stieglitz Toulouse-Lautrec Van Gogh Vuillard Wood Albers Arp Balthus Bellows Boccioni Bonnard Brâncuși Braque Calder Cassatt Cézanne Chagall Chirico Claudel Dalí Degas Delaunay Delaunay Demuth Dix Doesburg Duchamp Dufy Ensor Ernst Gauguin Giacometti Goncharova Gris Grosz Höch Hopper Kahlo Kandinsky Kirchner Klee Kokoschka Kooning Lawrence Léger Magritte Malevich Manet Marc Matisse Metzinger Miró Modigliani Mondrian Monet Moore Munch Nolde O'Keeffe Picabia Picasso Pissarro Ray Redon Renoir Rodin Rousseau Schiele Seurat Signac Sisley Soutine Steichen Stieglitz Toulouse-Lautrec Van Gogh Vuillard Wood Film Akerman Aldrich Antonioni Avery Bergman Bresson Buñuel Carné Cassavetes Chaplin Clair Cocteau Dassin Deren Dovzhenko Dreyer Edwards Eisenstein Epstein Fassbinder Fellini Flaherty Ford Fuller Gance Godard Hitchcock Hubley Jones Keaton Kubrick Kuleshov Kurosawa Lang Losey Lupino Lye Marker Minnelli Murnau Ozu Pabst Pudovkin Ray (Nicholas) Ray (Satyajit) Resnais Renoir Richardson Rossellini Sirk Sjöström Sternberg Tarkovsky Tati Trnka Truffaut Varda Vertov Vigo Welles Wiene Wood Akerman Aldrich Antonioni Avery Bergman Bresson Buñuel Carné Cassavetes Chaplin Clair Cocteau Dassin Deren Dovzhenko Dreyer Edwards Eisenstein Epstein Fassbinder Fellini Flaherty Ford Fuller Gance Godard Hitchcock Hubley Jones Keaton Kubrick Kuleshov Kurosawa Lang Losey Lupino Lye Marker Minnelli Murnau Ozu Pabst Pudovkin Ray (Nicholas) Ray (Satyajit) Resnais Renoir Richardson Rossellini Sirk Sjöström Sternberg Tarkovsky Tati Trnka Truffaut Varda Vertov Vigo Welles Wiene Wood Architecture Breuer Bunshaft Gaudí Gropius Guimard Horta Hundertwasser Johnson Kahn Le Corbusier Loos Melnikov Mendelsohn Mies Nervi Neutra Niemeyer Rietveld Saarinen Steiner Sullivan Tatlin Wright Breuer Bunshaft Gaudí Gropius Guimard Horta Hundertwasser Johnson Kahn Le Corbusier Loos Melnikov Mendelsohn Mies Nervi Neutra Niemeyer Rietveld Saarinen Steiner Sullivan Tatlin Wright Works A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887) The Starry Night (1889) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) The Dance (1909–1910) Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912) Black Square (1915) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Ballet Mécanique (1923) Battleship Potemkin (1925) Metropolis (1927) Un Chien Andalou (1929) Villa Savoye (1931) Fallingwater (1936) Citizen Kane (1941) Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887) The Starry Night (1889) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) The Dance (1909–1910) Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912) Black Square (1915) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Ballet Mécanique (1923) Battleship Potemkin (1925) Metropolis (1927) Un Chien Andalou (1929) Villa Savoye (1931) Fallingwater (1936) Citizen Kane (1941) Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) Performing arts Music Antheil Bartók Berg Berio Boulanger Boulez Copland Debussy Dutilleux Falla Feldman Górecki Hindemith Honegger Ives Janáček Ligeti Lutosławski Milhaud Nono Partch Russolo Satie Schaeffer Schoenberg Scriabin Stockhausen Strauss Stravinsky Szymanowski Varèse Villa-Lobos Webern Weill Theatre Anderson Anouilh Artaud Beckett Brecht Chekhov Ibsen Jarry Kaiser Maeterlinck Mayakovsky O'Casey O'Neill Osborne Pirandello Piscator Strindberg Toller Wedekind Wilder Witkiewicz Dance Balanchine Cunningham Diaghilev Duncan Fokine Fuller Graham Holm Laban Massine Nijinsky Shawn Sokolow St. Denis Tamiris Wiesenthal Wigman Works Don Juan (1888) Ubu Roi (1896) Verklärte Nacht (1899) Pelléas et Mélisande (1902) Salome (1905) The Firebird (1910) Afternoon of a Faun (1912) The Rite of Spring (1913) Fountain (1917) Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) The Threepenny Opera (1928) Waiting for Godot (1953) Music Antheil Bartók Berg Berio Boulanger Boulez Copland Debussy Dutilleux Falla Feldman Górecki Hindemith Honegger Ives Janáček Ligeti Lutosławski Milhaud Nono Partch Russolo Satie Schaeffer Schoenberg Scriabin Stockhausen Strauss Stravinsky Szymanowski Varèse Villa-Lobos Webern Weill Antheil Bartók Berg Berio Boulanger Boulez Copland Debussy Dutilleux Falla Feldman Górecki Hindemith Honegger Ives Janáček Ligeti Lutosławski Milhaud Nono Partch Russolo Satie Schaeffer Schoenberg Scriabin Stockhausen Strauss Stravinsky Szymanowski Varèse Villa-Lobos Webern Weill Theatre Anderson Anouilh Artaud Beckett Brecht Chekhov Ibsen Jarry Kaiser Maeterlinck Mayakovsky O'Casey O'Neill Osborne Pirandello Piscator Strindberg Toller Wedekind Wilder Witkiewicz Anderson Anouilh Artaud Beckett Brecht Chekhov Ibsen Jarry Kaiser Maeterlinck Mayakovsky O'Casey O'Neill Osborne Pirandello Piscator Strindberg Toller Wedekind Wilder Witkiewicz Dance Balanchine Cunningham Diaghilev Duncan Fokine Fuller Graham Holm Laban Massine Nijinsky Shawn Sokolow St. Denis Tamiris Wiesenthal Wigman Balanchine Cunningham Diaghilev Duncan Fokine Fuller Graham Holm Laban Massine Nijinsky Shawn Sokolow St. Denis Tamiris Wiesenthal Wigman Works Don Juan (1888) Ubu Roi (1896) Verklärte Nacht (1899) Pelléas et Mélisande (1902) Salome (1905) The Firebird (1910) Afternoon of a Faun (1912) The Rite of Spring (1913) Fountain (1917) Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) The Threepenny Opera (1928) Waiting for Godot (1953) Don Juan (1888) Ubu Roi (1896) Verklärte Nacht (1899) Pelléas et Mélisande (1902) Salome (1905) The Firebird (1910) Afternoon of a Faun (1912) The Rite of Spring (1913) Fountain (1917) Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) The Threepenny Opera (1928) Waiting for Godot (1953) Related American modernism Armory Show Avant-garde Ballets Russes Bloomsbury Group Buddhist modernism Classical Hollywood cinema Degenerate art Ecomodernism Experimental film Film noir Fin de siècle Fourth dimension in art Fourth dimension in literature Grosvenor School of Modern Art Hanshinkan Modernism High modernism Hippie modernism Impressionism Music Literature Post- Incoherents International Style Late modernism Late modernity List of art movements List of avant-garde artists List of modernist poets Maximalism Metamodernism Modernity Neo-primitivism Neo-romanticism New Hollywood New Objectivity Poetic realism Pop Art Pulp noir Reactionary modernism Remodernism Second Viennese School Structural film Underground film Vulgar modernism American modernism Armory Show Avant-garde Ballets Russes Bloomsbury Group Buddhist modernism Classical Hollywood cinema Degenerate art Ecomodernism Experimental film Film noir Fin de siècle Fourth dimension in art Fourth dimension in literature Grosvenor School of Modern Art Hanshinkan Modernism High modernism Hippie modernism Impressionism Music Literature Post- Music Literature Post- Incoherents International Style Late modernism Late modernity List of art movements List of avant-garde artists List of modernist poets Maximalism Metamodernism Modernity Neo-primitivism Neo-romanticism New Hollywood New Objectivity Poetic realism Pop Art Pulp noir Reactionary modernism Remodernism Second Viennese School Structural film Underground film Vulgar modernism ← Romanticism Postmodernism → Category Classical music Opera Biography Music Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI 2 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz KulturNav ADK Discography of American Historical Recordings BRAHMS FID MusicBrainz KulturNav ADK Discography of American Historical Recordings BRAHMS FID People BMLO Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB BMLO Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Richard Strauss 1864 births 1949 deaths 19th-century German classical composers 19th-century German conductors (music) 19th-century German male musicians 20th-century German classical composers 20th-century German conductors (music) 20th-century German male musicians Composers from Munich Deutsche Grammophon artists General Directors of the Vienna State Opera Music directors of the Berlin State Opera Music directors of the Bavarian State Opera Principal conductors of the Berlin Philharmonic German anti-fascists German male conductors (music) German male opera composers German opera composers German Romantic composers Honorary members of the Royal Philharmonic Society Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists Modernist composers Musicians from the Kingdom of Bavaria Opera managers People from Garmisch-Partenkirchen Recipients of the Legion of Honour Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Lieder composers Composers for horn Composers for piano left-hand Pages using the Phonos extension Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2021 Biography with signature Articles with hCards Pages with German IPA Pages including recorded pronunciations Articles with hAudio microformats Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1 interwiki-linked names CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link from Wikidata Composers with IMSLP links Articles with International Music Score Library Project links Articles containing German-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 26 December 2025, at 07:52 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Strauss
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_ref-124
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Regency crisis of 1788 3 Horse racing 4 Marriage and mistresses 5 Regency 6 Reign 7 Declining health and death 8 Legacy 9 Titles, styles, honours, and arms Toggle Titles, styles, honours, and arms subsection 9.1 Titles and styles 9.2 Honours 9.2.1 National honours 9.2.2 Foreign honours 9.2.3 Military appointments 9.3 Arms 9.1 Titles and styles 9.2 Honours 9.2.1 National honours 9.2.2 Foreign honours 9.2.3 Military appointments 9.2.1 National honours 9.2.2 Foreign honours 9.2.3 Military appointments 9.3 Arms 10 Ancestry 11 References Toggle References subsection 11.1 Works cited 11.1 Works cited 12 Further reading 13 External links George IV Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand پښتو Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item George IV Coronation portrait of George IV (1821) King of the United Kingdom and Hanover Reign 29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830 Coronation 19 July 1821 Predecessor George III Successor William IV Prince Regent of the United Kingdom Regency 5 February 1811 – 29 January 1820 Monarch George III Born ( 1762-08-12 ) 12 August 1762 St James's Palace , London, England Died 26 June 1830 (1830-06-26) (aged 67) Windsor Castle , Berkshire, England Burial 15 July 1830 Royal Vault, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Caroline of Brunswick ( m. 1795; died 1821) Issue Princess Charlotte of Wales Names George Augustus Frederick Names George Augustus Frederick House Hanover Father George III Mother Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Religion Protestant Signature George IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 29 January 1820 until his death in 1830. At the time of his accession to the throne, he was acting as prince regent for his father, King George III , having done so since 5 February 1811 during his father's final mental illness . George IV was the eldest child of King George III and Queen Charlotte . He led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era . He was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace , and commissioned Jeffry Wyatville to rebuild Windsor Castle . George's charm and culture earned him the title "the first gentleman of England", but his dissolute way of life and poor relationships with his parents and his wife, Caroline of Brunswick , earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy. He excluded Caroline from his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in an unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. George's rule was tarnished by scandal and financial extravagance. His ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible, and he was strongly influenced by favourites. [ 1 ] During most of George's regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as prime minister of the United Kingdom . Liverpool's government presided over Britain's ultimate victory over Napoleon and negotiated a peace settlement with the French. After Liverpool's retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only legitimate child, Princess Charlotte , predeceased him in 1817, as did his childless younger brother Prince Frederick in 1827, so he was succeeded by another younger brother, William IV . Early life George was born on 12 August 1762 at St James's Palace , London, the first child of King George III and Queen Charlotte . As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth; he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a few days later. [ 2 ] George was baptised on 18 September by Thomas Secker , Archbishop of Canterbury . [ 3 ] His godparents were his maternal uncle Adolphus Frederick IV, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (for whom the Lord Chamberlain , William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire , stood proxy); his paternal grand-uncle Prince William, Duke of Cumberland ; and his grandmother Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales . [ 4 ] George was a talented student and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. [ 5 ] At the age of 18, Prince George was given a separate establishment, and in dramatic contrast to his prosaic, scandal-free father, threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, but grossly expensive, taste in decorating his residences. George turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 (equivalent to £9,124,000 today [ 6 ] ) from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 (equivalent to £7,603,000 today [ 6 ] ) from his father. It was far too little for his wants—his stables alone cost £31,000 a year. He then established his residence in Carlton House , where he lived a profligate life. [ 7 ] Animosity developed between the Prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent . The King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the Prince's adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. [ 8 ] Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert . She was a commoner (though granddaughter of a baronet), six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. [ 9 ] Nevertheless, the Prince was determined to marry her. This was in spite of the Act of Settlement 1701 , which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne, and the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , which prohibited his marriage without the King's consent. [ 10 ] The couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at Fitzherbert's house in Park Street, Mayfair . Legally the union was void, as the King's consent was not granted (and never even requested). [ 11 ] However, Fitzherbert believed that she was the Prince's canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union was to remain secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it. [ 12 ] But, in spring 1786, covert allusions to the marriage appeared in the press, and several satirical prints depicted the clandestine marriage. [ 13 ] Prince George was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle. His father refused to assist him, forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert's residence. In 1787, the Prince's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant. George's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected, and revelation of the illegal marriage would have scandalised the nation and doomed any parliamentary proposal to aid him. Acting on Prince George's authority, the Whig leader Charles James Fox declared that the story was a calumny. [ 14 ] Fitzherbert was not pleased with the public denial of the marriage in such vehement terms and contemplated severing her ties to George. He appeased her by asking another Whig, Richard Brinsley Sheridan , to restate Fox's forceful declaration in more careful words. Parliament, meanwhile, granted the Prince £161,000 (equivalent to £25,841,000 today [ 6 ] ) to pay his debts and £60,000 (equivalent to £9,630,000 today [ 6 ] ) for improvements to Carlton House. [ 5 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Regency crisis of 1788 In the summer of 1788, the King's mental health deteriorated. He nonetheless discharged some of his duties and declared Parliament prorogued from 25 September to 20 November. During the prorogation, he became deranged, posing a threat to his own life, and when Parliament reconvened in November, the King could not deliver the customary speech from the throne during the State Opening of Parliament . Parliament found itself in an untenable position: according to long-established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King's Speech at a State Opening. [ 14 ] [ 17 ] Although arguably barred from doing so, Parliament began debating a regency. In the House of Commons , Charles James Fox declared his opinion that Prince George was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King's incapacity. A contrasting opinion was held by the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger , who argued that, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, the right to choose a regent belonged to Parliament alone. [ 18 ] He even stated that, without parliamentary authority "the Prince of Wales had no more right ... to assume the government, than any other individual subject of the country". [ 19 ] Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a regency, Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a regent. [ 14 ] [ 17 ] The Prince of Wales, though offended by Pitt's boldness, did not lend his full support to Fox's approach. Prince George's brother Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany , declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament. [ 20 ] Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the regency, suggesting that Prince George's powers be greatly limited. Among other things, George would not be able either to sell the King's property or to grant a peerage to anyone other than a child of the King. Prince George denounced Pitt's scheme by declaring it a "project for producing weakness, disorder, and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs". [ 21 ] In the interests of the nation, both factions agreed to compromise. [ 17 ] A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne, which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes. The speech was normally delivered by the King but could also be delivered by royal representatives known as Lords Commissioners . However, no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless the Great Seal of the Realm was affixed to it. The seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the sovereign. Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King's consent, as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the bill. The legal fiction was denounced by Edmund Burke as "forgery, fraud"; [ 22 ] a "glaring falsehood" [ 23 ] and a "palpable absurdity". [ 23 ] Prince Frederick described the plan as "unconstitutional and illegal". [ 21 ] Nevertheless, others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government. Consequently, on 3 February 1789, more than two months after it had convened, Parliament was formally opened by an "illegal" group of Lords Commissioners. The Regency Bill was introduced, but before it could be passed the King recovered. The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid. [ 14 ] [ 17 ] Horse racing Prince George was an avid horseracing fan and racehorse owner. In 1790, his jockey Samuel Chifney and racehorse Escape were embroiled in a scandal over a perceived reversal of form. [ 24 ] The Newmarket stewards did not accept Chifney's explanation and warned the Prince of Wales that if he continued to use Chifney, no gentleman would race against him. [ 25 ] In consequence, not wanting to make an example of his jockey, the Prince of Wales sold his stable and ended his connection with the turf. He told Chifney he would be unlikely to return to ownership, "but if I ever do, Sam Chifney, you shall train and manage them. You shall have your 200 guineas a year all the same. I cannot give it to you for your life, I can only give it to you for my own. You have been a good and honest servant to me." [ 25 ] Despite pleas from the Jockey Club, the prince never returned to Newmarket. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Marriage and mistresses Prince George's debts continued to climb, and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousin Princess Caroline of Brunswick . [ 28 ] In 1795, the Prince acquiesced, and they were married on 8 April 1795 at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace . The marriage, however, was disastrous; each party was unsuited to the other. The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child, Princess Charlotte , in 1796, and remained separated thereafter. George remained attached to Maria Fitzherbert for the rest of his life, despite several periods of estrangement. [ 29 ] George's mistresses included Mary Robinson , an actress whom he paid to leave the stage; [ 30 ] Grace Elliott , the divorced wife of a physician; [ 31 ] [ 32 ] and Frances Villiers, Countess of Jersey , who dominated his life for some years. [ 29 ] In later life, his mistresses were Isabella Ingram-Seymour-Conway, Marchioness of Hertford and Elizabeth Conyngham, Marchioness Conyngham . [ 33 ] George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children. James Ord (born 1786)—who moved to the United States and became a Jesuit priest—was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert. [ 34 ] Late in life, George told a friend that he had a son who was a naval officer in the West Indies, whose identity has been tentatively established as Captain Henry A. F. Hervey (1786–1824), reportedly George's child by the songwriter Lady Anne Lindsay (later Barnard), a daughter of James Lindsay, 5th Earl of Balcarres . [ 35 ] Other reported children include Major George Seymour Crole, the son of theatre manager's daughter Eliza Crole; William Hampshire, the son of publican 's daughter Sarah Brown; and Charles "Beau" Candy, the son of a Frenchwoman with that surname. [ 36 ] Anthony Camp , Director of Research at the Society of Genealogists , has dismissed the claims that George IV was the father of Ord, Hervey, Hampshire and Candy as fictitious. [ 37 ] Prince of Wales Act 1795 Act of Parliament Parliament of Great Britain Long title An act for enabling his Majesty to settle an annuity on his royal highness the prince of Wales, during the joint lives of his Majesty and of his said royal highness; for making provision out of his revenues for the payment of any debts that may be due from his royal highness; for preventing the accumulation of debts in future; and for regulating the mode of expenditure of the said revenues. Citation 35 Geo. 3 . c. 129 Dates Royal assent 27 June 1795 Other legislation Repealed by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Statute Law Revision Act 1871 Statute Law Revision Act 1871 Status: Repealed Annuity to Prince of Wales, etc. Act 1803 Act of Parliament Parliament of the United Kingdom Long title An act for enabling his Majesty to settle an Annuity on his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, to continue until the fifth Day of July One thousand eight hundred and six; and for repealing so much of an Act made in the thirty-fifth Year of the Reign of his Majesty, as directs the annual Payment of thirteen thousand rounds out of the Revenues of the Dutchy of Cornwall to the Commissioners appointed by the said Act. Citation 43 Geo. 3 . c. 26 Dates Royal assent 24 March 1803 Other legislation Repealed by Statute Law Revision Act 1872 Statute Law Revision Act 1872 Status: Repealed The problem of George's debts, which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £630,000 in 1795 [ 38 ] (equivalent to £82,215,000 today [ 6 ] ), was solved (at least temporarily) by Parliament. Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts, it passed the .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Prince of Wales Act 1795 ( 35 Geo. 3 . c. 129) which provided him an additional sum of £65,000 (equivalent to £8,482,000 today [ 6 ] ) per annum. [ 39 ] In 1803, a further £60,000 (equivalent to £6,921,000 today [ 6 ] ) was added by the Annuity to Prince of Wales, etc. Act 1803 ( 43 Geo. 3 . c. 26), and George's debts as at 1795 were finally cleared in 1806, although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained. [ 16 ] In 1804, a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte, which led to her being placed in the care of the King. It also led to a parliamentary commission of enquiry into Princess Caroline's conduct after her husband accused her of having an illegitimate son. The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet. [ 40 ] Regency In late 1810, the King's mental health once again broke down, following the death of his youngest daughter, Princess Amelia . Parliament agreed to follow the precedent of 1788; without the King's consent, the Lord Chancellor affixed the Great Seal of the Realm to letters patent naming Lords Commissioners. The letters patent lacked the Royal Sign Manual , but were sealed by request of resolutions passed by both Houses of Parliament. The Lords Commissioners appointed by the letters patent, in the name of the King, then signified the granting of Royal Assent to a bill that became the Regency Act 1811 . Parliament restricted some of the powers of the Prince Regent (as the Prince of Wales became known). The constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act. [ 41 ] The Prince of Wales became Prince Regent on 5 February 1811. [ 42 ] The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far smaller role than his father. The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons, whether the King personally favoured him or not, became established. [ 43 ] His governments, with little help from the Regent, presided over British policy. One of the most important political conflicts facing the country concerned Catholic emancipation , the movement to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities. The Tories , led by Prime Minister Spencer Perceval , were opposed to Catholic emancipation, while the Whigs supported it. At the beginning of the Regency, Prince George was expected to support the Whig leader, Lord Grenville . He did not, however, immediately put Grenville and the Whigs into office. Influenced by his mother, he claimed that a sudden dismissal of the Tory government would exact too great a toll on the health of the King (a steadfast supporter of the Tories), thereby eliminating any chance of a recovery. [ 44 ] In 1812, when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover, the Prince Regent again failed to appoint a new Whig administration. Instead, he asked the Whigs to join the existing ministry under Perceval . The Whigs, however, refused to co-operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation. Grudgingly, Prince George allowed Perceval to continue as prime minister. [ 45 ] On 11 May 1812, Perceval was assassinated by John Bellingham . The Prince Regent was prepared to reappoint all the members of the Perceval ministry under a new leader. The House of Commons formally declared its desire for a "strong and efficient administration", [ 46 ] so George then offered leadership of the government to Lord Wellesley and afterwards to Lord Moira . He doomed the attempts of both to failure, however, by forcing each to construct an all-party ministry at a time when neither party wished to share power with the other. Possibly using the failure of the two peers as a pretext, George immediately reappointed the Perceval administration, with Lord Liverpool as prime minister. [ 47 ] The Tories, unlike Whigs such as Lord Grey , sought to continue the vigorous prosecution of the war in Continental Europe against the powerful and aggressive Emperor of the French, Napoleon I . [ 48 ] An anti-French alliance, which included Russia , Prussia , Austria , Britain and several smaller countries, defeated Napoleon in 1814. In the subsequent Congress of Vienna , it was decided that the Electorate of Hanover , a state that had shared a monarch with Britain since 1714, would be raised to the Kingdom of Hanover . Napoleon returned from exile in 1815, but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington , brother of Lord Wellesley. [ 49 ] During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste, and his associates such as the dandy Beau Brummell and the architect John Nash created the Regency style , exemplified by the Regency terraces of Regent's Park and Regent Street . George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had the Brighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace, adapted by Nash in the "Indian Gothic" style inspired loosely by the Taj Mahal , with extravagant "Indian" and "Chinese" interiors. [ 50 ] Reign When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent, then aged 57, ascended the throne as George IV, with no real change in his powers. [ 51 ] By the time of his accession, he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum . [ 5 ] George IV's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession. They had lived separately since 1796, and both were having affairs. In 1814, Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe, but she chose to return for her husband's coronation and to publicly assert her rights as queen consort . However, he refused to recognise Caroline as queen, and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same. By royal command, Caroline's name was omitted from the Book of Common Prayer , the liturgy of the Church of England . [ 52 ] The King sought a divorce, but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to George's own adulterous relationships. Therefore, he requested and ensured the introduction of the Pains and Penalties Bill , under which Parliament could have imposed legal penalties without a trial in a court of law. The bill would have annulled the marriage and stripped Caroline of the title of queen. The bill proved extremely unpopular with the public, and was withdrawn from Parliament. George decided, nonetheless, to exclude his wife from his coronation at Westminster Abbey , on 19 July 1821. Caroline fell ill that day and died on 7 August; during her final illness she often stated that she thought she had been poisoned. [ 53 ] George's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair, costing about £243,000 (approximately £28,000,000 in 2023; [ 6 ] for comparison, his father's coronation had only cost about £10,000). Despite the enormous cost, it was a popular event. [ 5 ] In 1821, George became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland since Richard II of England . [ 54 ] The following year he visited Edinburgh for "one and twenty daft days". [ 55 ] His visit to Scotland , organised by Sir Walter Scott , was the first by a reigning monarch since the mid-17th century. [ 56 ] George spent most of his later reign in seclusion at Windsor Castle , [ 57 ] but he continued to intervene in politics. At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation, as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797, but his anti-Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813. By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public. [ 58 ] Having taken the coronation oath on his accession, George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith, and could not support any pro-Catholic measures. [ 59 ] The influence of the Crown was so great, and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Liverpool so strong, that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless. In 1827, however, Liverpool retired, to be replaced by the pro-emancipation Tory George Canning . When Canning entered office, the King, hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question, thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father, George III. [ 60 ] Canning's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories, including the Duke of Wellington. As a result, the ministry was forced to include Whigs. [ 61 ] Canning died later in that year, leaving Lord Goderich to lead the tenuous Tory–Whig coalition. Goderich left office in 1828, to be succeeded by Wellington, who had by that time accepted that the denial of some measure of relief to Roman Catholics was politically untenable. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] George was never as friendly with Wellington as he had been with Canning and chose to annoy the Duke by pretending to have fought at Waterloo disguised as a German general. With great difficulty Wellington obtained the King's consent to the introduction of a Catholic Relief Bill on 29 January 1829. Under pressure from his fanatically anti-Catholic brother Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland , the King withdrew his approval and in protest the Cabinet resigned en masse on 4 March. The next day the King, now under intense political pressure, reluctantly agreed to the Bill and the ministry remained in power. [ 5 ] Royal assent was finally granted to the Catholic Relief Act on 13 April. [ 64 ] Declining health and death George's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s. While still Prince of Wales, he had become obese through his huge banquets and copious consumption of alcohol, making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public; [ 66 ] by 1797, his weight had reached 17 stone 7 pounds (111 kg; 245 lb). [ 67 ] By 1824, his corset was made for a waist of 50 inches (130 cm). [ 68 ] He had gout , arteriosclerosis , peripheral edema ("dropsy"), and possibly porphyria . In his last years, he spent whole days in bed and had acute and serious spasms of breathlessness. [ 5 ] George's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs. Privately, a senior aide to the King confided to his diary: "A more contemptible, cowardly, selfish, unfeeling dog does not exist ... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them ... and this I believe to be one of the worst." [ 1 ] By December 1828, like his father, George was almost completely blind from cataracts , and had such severe gout in his right hand and arm that he could no longer sign documents. [ 69 ] In mid-1829, David Wilkie reported the King "was wasting away frightfully day after day", and had become so obese that he looked "like a great sausage stuffed into the covering". [ 69 ] George took laudanum to counteract severe bladder pains, which left him in a drugged and mentally impaired state for days on end. [ 70 ] He underwent surgery to remove a cataract in September 1829, by which time he was regularly taking over 100 drops of laudanum before state occasions. [ 71 ] By the spring of 1830, George's imminent end was apparent. Now largely confined to his bedchambers, having completely lost sight in one eye and describing himself "as blind as a beetle", he was forced to approve legislation with a stamp of his signature in the presence of witnesses. [ 72 ] His weight was recorded to be 20 stone (130 kg; 280 lb). [ 73 ] Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair, and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen in order to drain excess fluid. [ 70 ] Despite his obvious decline, George was admired for clinging doggedly to life. [ 74 ] His will to live and still-prodigious appetite astonished observers; in April 1830, the Duke of Wellington wrote that the King had consumed for breakfast "a Pidgeon and Beef Steak Pye ... Three parts of a bottle of Mozelle , a Glass of Dry Champagne, two Glasses of Port [and] a Glass of Brandy ", followed by a large dose of laudanum. [ 72 ] Writing to Maria Fitzherbert in June, the King's physician, Sir Henry Halford , noted "His Majesty's constitution is a gigantic one, and his elasticity under the most severe pressure exceeds what I have ever witnessed in thirty-eight years' experience." [ 75 ] Though George had been under Halford's care since the time of the Regency, the doctor's social ambitions and perceived lack of competence were strongly criticised, with The Lancet labelling Halford's bulletins on the King's health as "utterly and entirely destitute of information", subsequently characterising Halford's treatment of George, which involved administering both opium and laudanum as sedatives, as appearing to lack sense or direction. [ 76 ] George dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months, confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his dissolute life, but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects. [ 70 ] By June, he was unable to lie down, and received the Sacrament on 14 June in the presence of Lady Conyngham, Halford, and a clergyman. [ 75 ] While Halford only informed the Cabinet on 24 June that "the King's cough continues with considerable expectoration", he privately told his wife that "things are coming to a conclusion ... I shall be released about Monday." [ 77 ] At about three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle, George awoke and passed a bowel movement—"a large evacuation mix'd with blood ". [ 77 ] He then sent for Halford, allegedly calling to his servants "Sir Henry! Sir Henry! Fetch him; this is death!" [ 77 ] Accounts of George's final moments and last words vary. According to Halford, following his arrival and that of Sir William Knighton , the King's "lips grew livid, and he dropped his head on the page 's shoulder ... I was up the stairs in five minutes, and he died but eight minutes afterwards." [ 77 ] Other accounts state the King placed his hands on his stomach and said "Surely, this must be death", or that he called out "Good God, what is this?", clasped his page's hand, and said "my boy, this is death". [ 78 ] [ 77 ] [ 79 ] George died at 3:15 am. [ 77 ] An autopsy conducted by his physicians revealed George had died from upper gastrointestinal bleeding resulting from the rupture of a blood vessel in his stomach . [ 80 ] A large tumour "the size of an orange" was found attached to his bladder; his heart was enlarged, had heavily calcified valves and was surrounded by a large fat deposit. [ 80 ] The King was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle , on 15 July. [ 81 ] Legacy George's only legitimate child, Charlotte, had died from post-partum complications in 1817, after delivering a stillborn son. George III's second son, Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, had died childless in 1827, so the throne passed to the third son of George III, William, Duke of Clarence, who reigned as William IV . [ 82 ] George was described as the "First Gentleman of England" on account of his style and manners. [ 83 ] He was bright, clever, and knowledgeable, but his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent. The Times wrote that he would always prefer "a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon". [ 84 ] The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George. After political opponents put a tax on wig powder , he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair. [ 85 ] He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size, favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser, and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin. [ 86 ] His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival, if not the creation, of Scottish tartan dress as it is known today. [ 87 ] During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation, the Duke of Wellington said that George was "the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life, the most selfish, the most false, the most ill-natured, the most entirely without one redeeming quality". [ 88 ] However, his eulogy delivered in the House of Lords called George "the most accomplished man of his age" and praised his knowledge and talent. [ 89 ] Wellington's true feelings were probably somewhere between these two extremes; as he said later, George was "a magnificent patron of the arts ... the most extraordinary compound of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and good feeling—in short a medley of the most opposite qualities, with a great preponderance of good—that I ever saw in any character in my life." [ 89 ] After George's death, The Times wrote: "There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow-creatures than this deceased king. What eye has wept for him? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow? ... If he ever had a friend—a devoted friend in any rank of life—we protest that the name of him or her never reached us". [ 90 ] There are many statues of George IV, a large number of which were erected during his reign. In the United Kingdom, they include a bronze statue of him on horseback by Sir Francis Chantrey in Trafalgar Square . [ 91 ] Chantrey also crafted the bronze statue outside the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. [ 92 ] In Edinburgh, " George IV Bridge " is a main street linking the Old Town High Street to the north over the ravine of the Cowgate , designed by the architect Thomas Hamilton in 1829 and completed in 1835. King's Cross , now a major transport hub sitting on the border of Camden and Islington in north London, takes its name from a short-lived monument erected to George IV in the early 1830s. [ 93 ] A square and a neighbouring park in St Luke's, Islington , are also named after George IV. [ 94 ] Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At birth, George was entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of Cornwall, and Duke of Rothesay. [ 95 ] Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the regency, the prince's formal title as regent was "Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". [ 96 ] Honours National honours 26 December 1765 : Royal Knight of the Garter [ 95 ] 21 November 1783 : Privy Counsellor [ 95 ] 26 January 1789 : Fellow of the Royal Society [ 95 ] 2 May 1810 : Doctor of Civil Law , University of Oxford [ 95 ] 28 April 1818 : Founder of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George [ 97 ] Kingdom of Hanover : 28 April 1815 : Founder of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order [ 98 ] Foreign honours Russian Empire : 25 November 1813 : Knight of St. Andrew [ 95 ] 20 April 1814 : Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky [ 95 ] 25 November 1813 : Knight of St. Andrew [ 95 ] 20 April 1814 : Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky [ 95 ] Kingdom of Prussia : 11 April 1814 : Knight of the Black Eagle [ 99 ] Kingdom of France : 20 April 1814 : Knight of the Holy Spirit [ 95 ] Kingdom of Spain : 5 July 1814 : Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III [ 100 ] United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves : 7 April 1815 : Sash of the Three Orders [ 101 ] Austrian Empire : 8 June 1815 : Knight of the Golden Fleece [ 101 ] 1819 : Grand Cross of St. Stephen [ 102 ] 8 June 1815 : Knight of the Golden Fleece [ 101 ] 1819 : Grand Cross of St. Stephen [ 102 ] Denmark : 4 July 1815 : Knight of the Elephant [ 103 ] Two Sicilies : 1816 : Knight of St. Januarius [ 104 ] 1816 : Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit [ 104 ] 1816 : Knight of St. Januarius [ 104 ] 1816 : Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit [ 104 ] Netherlands : 27 November 1818 : Grand Cross of the Military William Order [ 105 ] Kingdom of Bavaria : 1826 : Knight of St. Hubert [ 106 ] Military appointments 1782 : Colonel, British Army [ 95 ] 1796–1820 : Colonel of the 10th Light Dragoons [ 95 ] Arms George's coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal arms (with an inescutcheon of Gules plain in the Hanoverian quarter ), differenced by a label of three points Argent . [ 107 ] The arms included the royal crest and supporters but with the single arched coronet of his rank, all charged on the shoulder with a similar label . His arms followed the change in the royal arms in 1801, when the Hanoverian quarter became an inescutcheon and the French quarter was dropped altogether. [ 108 ] The 1816 alteration did not affect him as it only applied to the arms of the King. [ 109 ] As king, George's arms were those of his two kingdoms, the United Kingdom and Hanover, superimposed: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules ( for Scotland ); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ); overall an escutcheon tierced in pall reversed (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent ( for Westphalia ), overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or, the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown. [ 110 ] Ancestry Ancestors of George IV [ 111 ] 8. George II of Great Britain 4. Frederick, Prince of Wales 9. Princess Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach 2. George III of the United Kingdom 10. Frederick II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 5. Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 11. Princess Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst 1. George IV of the United Kingdom 12. Adolphus Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 6. Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 13. Princess Christiane Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 3. Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 14. Ernest Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen 7. Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen 15. Countess Sophia Albertine of Erbach-Erbach 8. George II of Great Britain 4. Frederick, Prince of Wales 9. Princess Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach 2. George III of the United Kingdom 10. Frederick II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 5. Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg 11. Princess Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst 1. George IV of the United Kingdom 12. Adolphus Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 6. Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 13. Princess Christiane Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 3. Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 14. Ernest Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen 7. Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen 15. Countess Sophia Albertine of Erbach-Erbach References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Baker, Kenneth (2005). "George IV: a Sketch". History Today . 55 (10): 30– 36. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 1. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 2. ^ Hibbert (1972) , p. 2. ^ a b c d e f Hibbert (2008) . ^ a b c d e f g h UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 7 May 2024 . ^ Smith (1999) , pp. 25–28. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 48. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 33. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 64. ^ Smith (1999) , pp. 36–38. ^ David (2000) , pp. 57–91. ^ Garrett (2022) , p. 105. ^ a b c d Innes (1914) , pp. 396–397. ^ De-la-Noy (1998) , p. 31. ^ a b Marilyn, Morris (2004). "Princely Debt, Public Credit, and Commercial Values in Late Georgian Britain". Journal of British Studies . 43 (3): 339– 365. doi : 10.1086/383599 . S2CID 145614284 . ^ a b c d David, pp. 92–119. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 54. ^ Derry (1963) , p. 71. ^ Derry (1963) , p. 91. ^ a b May, Thomas Erskine (1896). "Chapter III: The Prerogatives of the Crown, During the Minority or Incapacity of the Sovereign". The Constitutional History of England Since the Accession of George the Third, 1760–1860 (11th ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 184– 195. ^ Derry (1963) , p. 181. ^ a b Derry (1963) , p. 109. ^ Mortimer, Roger; Onslow, Richard; Willett, Peter (1978). Biographical Encyclopedia of British Flat Racing . Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 978-0-354-08536-6 . ^ a b Mortimer, Onslow & Willett 1978 , p. 119. ^ George, Mary Dorothy (1935). Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum . British Museum . ^ Setterfield, Ray. "Prince of Wales Gallops Out of Horseracing After Scandal" . On This Day . Retrieved 6 October 2024 . ^ Smith (1999) , p. 70. ^ a b David, pp. 150–205. ^ Carroll, Leslie (2008). "George IV and Mary Robinson 1757–1800". Royal Affairs: A Lusty Romp Through the Extramarital Adventures That Rocked the British Monarchy . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-451-22398-2 . ^ Major, Joanne; Murden, Sarah (2016), An infamous mistress: the life, loves and family of the celebrated Grace Dalrymple Elliott , Pen & Sword History, ISBN 1473844835 ^ Hibbert (1972) , p. 18. ^ Hibbert (1973) , p. 214. ^ David (2000) , pp. 76–78. ^ David (2000) , p. 78. ^ David (2000) , p. 80. ^ Camp, Anthony J. (2007) Royal Mistresses and Bastards: Fact and Fiction 1714–1936 , ISBN 978-0-9503308-2-2 ^ De-la-Noy (1998) , p. 55. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 97. ^ Ashley, Mike (1998). The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens . London: Robinson. p. 684. ISBN 1-84119-096-9 . ^ Innes (1915) , p. 50. ^ "No. 16451" . The London Gazette . 5 February 1811. p. 227. ^ Bagehot, Walter (1872) The English constitution , p. 247. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 185. ^ Smith (1999) , pp. 141–142. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 144. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 145. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 146. ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 264–281. ^ Rutherford, Jessica M. F. (1995). The Royal Pavilion: The Palace of George IV . Brighton Borough Council. p. 81 . ISBN 0-948723-21-1 . ^ Innes (1915) , p. 81. ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 209–224. ^ Innes (1915) , p. 82. ^ De-la-Noy (1998) , p. 95. ^ Prebble (1988) . ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 316–323. ^ "King George IV" . Official website of the British monarchy . Retrieved 18 April 2016 . ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 189. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 238. ^ Hibbert (1973) , p. 292. ^ Smith (1999) , pp. 231–234. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 190. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 237. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 381. ^ "King Henry IV" . Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 4 February 2021 . ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 355. ^ De-la-Noy (1998) , p. 43. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 171. ^ a b Smith (1999) , pp. 266–267. ^ a b c Smith (1999) , p. 269. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 4. ^ a b Parissien (2001) , p. 3. ^ Baker, Kenneth (2005). George IV: a life in caricature . Hudson and Thames. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-500-25127-0 . ^ Smith (1999) , p. 270. ^ a b Parissien (2001) , p. 6. ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 5–6. ^ a b c d e f Parissien (2001) , pp. 7–8. ^ De-la-Noy (1998) , p. 103. ^ Smith (1999) , p. 271. ^ a b Smith (1999) , p. 275. ^ Hibbert (1973) , p. 336. ^ Innes (1915) , p. 105. ^ The Diary of Prince Pückler-Muskau (May 1828). Quoted in Parissien (2001), p. 420. ^ Clarke, John (1975). "George IV". The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England . Knopf: 225. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 112. ^ Parissien (2001) , p. 114. ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 324–326. ^ Hibbert (1973) , p. 310. ^ a b Hibbert (1973) , p. 344. ^ The Times (London) 16 July 1830 quoted in Hibbert, George IV: Regent and King 1811–1830 , p. 342. ^ Parissien (2001) , pp. 14, 162–163, 201, 277. ^ Seddon, Jill; Seddon, Peter; McIntosh, Anthony (2014). Public Sculpture of Sussex . Public Sculpture of Britain. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 13– 14. ISBN 9781781381250 . ^ "Camden's history" . Camden Council . Archived from the original on 6 March 2007 . Retrieved 5 March 2007 . ^ "History" . St Clement's Church, King Square . Archived from the original on 24 February 2015 . Retrieved 3 April 2015 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cokayne, G. E. (1910). Gibbs, Vicary (ed.). The complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom . Vol. 4. London: St Catherine's Press. pp. 450– 451. ^ Hibbert (1972) , p. 280. ^ Duckers, Peter (2009) [2004]. British Orders and Decorations . Oxford: Shire Publications. pp. 26– 27. ISBN 978-0-7478-0580-9 . OCLC 55587484 . ^ Robertson, Megan C. (2 April 2007). "United Kingdom: The Royal Guelphic Order" . Medals of the World . ^ Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm III. ernannte Ritter" p. 17 ^ Guerra, Francisco (1826). "Caballeros Grandes-cruces existentes en la Real y distinguida Orden Española de Carlos Tercero" . Calendario manual y guía de forasteros en Madrid (in Spanish). p. 46 . Retrieved 8 October 2020 . ^ a b Bragança, Jose Vicente de (2011). "A Evolução da Banda das Três Ordens Militares (1789–1826)" [The Evolution of the Band of the Three Military Orders (1789–1826)] (PDF) . Lusíada História (in Portuguese). 2 (8): 276, 278. ISSN 0873-1330 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" . Archived from the original on 22 December 2010. ^ Jørgen Pedersen (2009). Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 207. ISBN 978-87-7674-434-2 . ^ a b "Capitolo XIV: Ordini cavallereschi" . Almanacco Reale del Regno Delle Due Sicilie (in Italian). 1829. pp. 416 , 421 . Retrieved 8 October 2020 . ^ "Militaire Willems-Orde: Wales, George Augustus Frederick, Prince of" [Military William Order: Wales, George Augustus Frederick, Prince of]. Ministerie van Defensie (in Dutch). 27 November 1818 . Retrieved 12 March 2016 . ^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1827 . Landesamt. 1827. p. 7 . ^ Velde, Francois R. "Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family" . Heraldica . Retrieved 11 May 2013 . ^ "No. 15324" . The London Gazette . 30 December 1800. p. 2. ^ Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974). The Royal Heraldry of England . Heraldry Today. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. pp. 228– 229. ISBN 0-900455-25-X . ^ "No. 17149" . The London Gazette . 29 June 1816. p. 1237. ^ Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans [ Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living ] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 5. Works cited David, Saul (2000). Prince of Pleasure: The Prince of Wales and the Making of the Regency . Grove Press . ISBN 0-8021-3703-2 . De-la-Noy, Michael (1998). George IV . Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1821-7 . Derry, John W. (1963). The Regency Crisis and the Whigs . Cambridge University Press. Garrett, Natalee (2022). "Royalty, Celebrity, and the Press in Georgian Britain, 1770-1820" (PDF) . Royal Studies Journal . 9 (2): 99– 115. doi : 10.21039/rsj.351 . Hibbert, Christopher (1972). George IV, Prince of Wales, 1762–1811 . London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-12675-4 . Hibbert, Christopher (1973). George IV, Regent and King, 1811–1830 . London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-0487-9 . Hibbert, Christopher (2008) [2004]. "George IV (1762–1830)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/10541 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) Innes, Arthur Donald (1914). A History of England and the British Empire . Vol. 3. The MacMillan Company. Innes, Arthur Donald (1915). A History of England and the British Empire . Vol. 4. The MacMillan Company. Parissien, Steven (2001). George IV: The Grand Entertainment . London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5652-X . Prebble, John (1988). The King's Jaunt: George IV in Scotland, 1822 . London: Collins. ISBN 9-780002-154048 . Smith, E. A. (1999). George IV . Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07685-1 . Further reading Machin, G. I. T. (1964). The Catholic Question in English Politics 1820 to 1830 . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Priestley, J. B. (1969). The Prince of Pleasure and His Regency (1811–20) . London: Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-434-60357-2 . Raymond, John (1962). "King George IV: A Reappraisal". History Today . 12 ( 8– 9): 538– 547, 614– 621. Richardson, Joanna (1960). The Disastrous Marriage: A Study of George IV and Caroline of Brunswick . London: Jonathan Cape. Richardson, Joanna (1966). George IV: A Portrait . London: Sidgwick & Jackson. External links George IV at the official website of the British monarchy George IV at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust George IV at BBC History Portraits of King George IV at the National Portrait Gallery, London George IV House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 12 August 1762 Died: 26 June 1830 Regnal titles Preceded by George III King of the United Kingdom and Hanover 29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830 Succeeded by William IV British royalty Vacant Title last held by George (III) Prince of Wales 1762–1820 Vacant Title next held by Albert Edward Vacant Title last held by Frederick Duke of Cornwall Duke of Rothesay 1762–1820 Military offices Preceded by Sir William Augustus Pitt Colonel of the 10th (The Prince of Wales's Own) Royal Regiment of (Light) Dragoons (Hussars) 1796–1820 Succeeded by The Lord Stewart Masonic offices Preceded by The Duke of Cumberland Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England 1790–1813 Succeeded by The Duke of Sussex Other offices Preceded by The Duke of Portland President of the Foundling Hospital 1809–1820 Succeeded by The Duke of York and Albany Previous: Caroline of Ansbach as Regent of Great Britain Regent of the United Kingdom 5 February 1811 – 29 January 1820 Became King Most recent .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e English , Scottish , and British monarchs v t e Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. v t e British princes v t e The generations indicate descent from George I , who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. 1st generation King George II King George II 2nd generation Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland 3rd generation King George III Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn Prince Frederick King George III Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn Prince Frederick 4th generation King George IV Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany King William IV Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn King Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince Octavius Prince Alfred Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh King George IV Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany King William IV Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn King Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince Octavius Prince Alfred Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh 5th generation Prince Albert 1 King George V of Hanover Prince George, Duke of Cambridge Prince Albert 1 King George V of Hanover Prince George, Duke of Cambridge 6th generation King Edward VII Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Prince Ernest Augustus King Edward VII Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Prince Ernest Augustus 7th generation Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale King George V Prince Alexander John of Wales Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur of Connaught Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince George William of Hanover Prince Christian of Hanover Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale King George V Prince Alexander John of Wales Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur of Connaught Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince George William of Hanover Prince Christian of Hanover Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick 8th generation King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Prince George, Duke of Kent Prince John Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Hubertus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince George William of Hanover King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Prince George, Duke of Kent Prince John Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Hubertus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince George William of Hanover 9th generation Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 2 Prince William of Gloucester Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester Prince Edward, Duke of Kent Prince Michael of Kent Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 2 Prince William of Gloucester Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester Prince Edward, Duke of Kent Prince Michael of Kent 10th generation King Charles III Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh King Charles III Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh 11th generation William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex 12th generation Prince George of Wales Prince Louis of Wales Prince Archie of Sussex Prince George of Wales Prince Louis of Wales Prince Archie of Sussex 1 Not a British prince by birth, but created Prince Consort . 2 Not a British prince by birth, but created a Prince of the United Kingdom. Princes whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics . v t e Princes of Wales v t e Edward of Caernarfon (1301–1307) Edward the Black Prince (1343–1376) Richard of Bordeaux (1376–1377) Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413) Edward of Westminster (1454–1471) Edward (1471–1483) Edward of Middleham (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1728–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) Edward of Caernarfon (1301–1307) Edward the Black Prince (1343–1376) Richard of Bordeaux (1376–1377) Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413) Edward of Westminster (1454–1471) Edward (1471–1483) Edward of Middleham (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1728–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) See also : Principality of Wales v t e Dukes of Cornwall v t e Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Cornwall Portal v t e Dukes of Rothesay v t e David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) v t e Rulers of Hanover v t e Electors of Hanover Ernest Augustus I (Elector-designate) George I Louis * George II * George III * Ernest Augustus I (Elector-designate) George I Louis * George II * George III * Kings of Hanover George III * George IV * William * Ernest Augustus II ** George V ** George III * George IV * William * Ernest Augustus II ** George V ** * also British monarch **also Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale v t e Hanoverian princes v t e Generations are numbered by descent from George III , first king of Hanover 1st generation King George IV 1 Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany 1 King William IV 1 Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn 1 King Ernest Augustus 1 Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex 1 Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge 1 King George IV 1 Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany 1 King William IV 1 Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn 1 King Ernest Augustus 1 Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex 1 Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge 1 2nd generation King George V 1 Prince George, Duke of Cambridge 1 King George V 1 Prince George, Duke of Cambridge 1 3rd generation Crown Prince Ernest Augustus 1 Crown Prince Ernest Augustus 1 4th generation Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick 1 Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick 1 5th generation Ernest Augustus, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick 1 Prince George William 1 Ernest Augustus, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick 1 Prince George William 1 6th generation Ernest Augustus, Prince of Hanover Prince Ludwig Rudolph Prince Heinrich Ernest Augustus, Prince of Hanover Prince Ludwig Rudolph Prince Heinrich 7th generation Hereditary Prince Ernest Augustus Prince Christian Hereditary Prince Ernest Augustus Prince Christian 1 also prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 1 also prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland v t e Premier Grand Lodge of England v t e Active 1717–1813, united with the Ancient Grand Lodge of England (1751–1813) to create the United Grand Lodge of England (1813–present) Grand Masters Anthony Sayer (1717–1718) George Payne (1718–1719) John Theophilus Desaguliers (1719–1720) George Payne (1720–1721) Duke of Montagu (1721–1723) Duke of Wharton (1723) Earl of Dalkeith (1723–1724) Duke of Richmond (1724) Lord Paisley (1724–1725) Earl of Inchiquin (1726–1727) Baron Colerane (1727–1728) Baron Kingston (1728–1730) Duke of Norfolk (1730–1731) Baron Lovell (1731–1732) Viscount Montagu (1732–1733) Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne (1733–1734) Earl of Crawford (1734–1735) Lord Weymouth (1735–1736) Earl of Loudoun (1736–1737) Earl of Darnley (1737–1738) Marquis of Carnarvon (1738–1739) Baron Raymond (1739–1740) Earl of Kintore (1740–1741) Earl of Morton (1741–1742) Baron Ward (1742–1744) Lord Cranstoun (1744–1747) Baron Byron (1747–1752) Baron Carysfort (1752–1753) Marquis of Carnarvon (1754–1757) Lord Aberdour (1757–1762) Earl Ferrers (1762–1764) Baron Blayney (1764–1767) Duke of Beaufort (1767–1772) Baron Petre (1772–1777) Duke of Manchester (1777–1782) Duke of Cumberland (1782–1790) George, Prince of Wales (1792–1813) Duke of Sussex (1813) Anthony Sayer (1717–1718) George Payne (1718–1719) John Theophilus Desaguliers (1719–1720) George Payne (1720–1721) Duke of Montagu (1721–1723) Duke of Wharton (1723) Earl of Dalkeith (1723–1724) Duke of Richmond (1724) Lord Paisley (1724–1725) Earl of Inchiquin (1726–1727) Baron Colerane (1727–1728) Baron Kingston (1728–1730) Duke of Norfolk (1730–1731) Baron Lovell (1731–1732) Viscount Montagu (1732–1733) Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne (1733–1734) Earl of Crawford (1734–1735) Lord Weymouth (1735–1736) Earl of Loudoun (1736–1737) Earl of Darnley (1737–1738) Marquis of Carnarvon (1738–1739) Baron Raymond (1739–1740) Earl of Kintore (1740–1741) Earl of Morton (1741–1742) Baron Ward (1742–1744) Lord Cranstoun (1744–1747) Baron Byron (1747–1752) Baron Carysfort (1752–1753) Marquis of Carnarvon (1754–1757) Lord Aberdour (1757–1762) Earl Ferrers (1762–1764) Baron Blayney (1764–1767) Duke of Beaufort (1767–1772) Baron Petre (1772–1777) Duke of Manchester (1777–1782) Duke of Cumberland (1782–1790) George, Prince of Wales (1792–1813) Duke of Sussex (1813) Related articles History of Freemasonry Antient Grand Lodge of England United Grand Lodge of England James Anderson's The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1723) Freemasons' Tavern Freemasons' Hall, London Royal Society Society of Antiquaries of London Royal College of Physicians Worshipful Society of Apothecaries Spalding Gentlemen's Society Newtonianism English Enlightenment Order of the Bath Walpole ministries Whiggism ( Kit-Cat Club ) Gormogons Hellfire Club Foundling Hospital Unlawful Societies Act 1799 History of Freemasonry Antient Grand Lodge of England United Grand Lodge of England James Anderson's The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1723) Freemasons' Tavern Freemasons' Hall, London Royal Society Society of Antiquaries of London Royal College of Physicians Worshipful Society of Apothecaries Spalding Gentlemen's Society Newtonianism English Enlightenment Order of the Bath Walpole ministries Whiggism ( Kit-Cat Club ) Gormogons Hellfire Club Foundling Hospital Unlawful Societies Act 1799 Members James Anderson John Byrom William Stukeley William Jones Earl of Chesterfield Charles Delafaye Baron Carpenter William Billers Sir Thomas Prendergast, 2nd Baronet Brook Taylor Martin Folkes John Arbuthnot Charles Cox Earl Cornwallis Richard Cantillon John Machin William Rutty James Vernon John Senex James Thornhill Earl of Macclesfield John Browne James Jurin James Douglas Alexander Stuart Ephraim Chambers Richard Manningham Frank Nicholls Richard Rawlinson Charles Stanhope Lord James Cavendish Earl of Hopetoun William Richardson William Becket John Anstis Duke of Ancaster Charles Hayes Edmund Prideaux George Shelvocke John Woodward John Ward John Baptist Grano Baron King Jacques Leblon Adolphus Oughton Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet Viscount Cobham Francis Columbine Hugh Warburton Earl of Pembroke Viscount Townshend Martin Bladen Earl Waldegrave Duke of Kingston Earl of Burlington Earl of Essex Duke of Queensberry Earl of Deloraine Earl of Portmore Duke of Marlborough Baron Baltimore Duke of Atholl Marquess of Lothian Earl of Balcarres Earl of Winchilsea Sir Arthur Acheson, 5th Baronet Sir Robert Lawley, 4th Baronet Alexander Brodie William Hogarth Charles Labelye Walter Blackett Frederick, Prince of Wales Thomas Wright Edward Gibbon Baron Hervey Thomas Dunckerley William Preston Marquess of Hastings James Moore Smythe Robert Boyle-Walsingham Sir Robert de Cornwall Batty Langley Thomas Arne John Soane Joseph Banks Johan Zoffany John Coustos Hipólito da Costa Meyer Löw Schomberg Joseph Salvador Sampson Eardley Moses Mendez Meyer Solomon Moses Montefiore Nathan Mayer Rothschild Prime ministers Robert Walpole Henry Pelham Duke of Newcastle James Anderson John Byrom William Stukeley William Jones Earl of Chesterfield Charles Delafaye Baron Carpenter William Billers Sir Thomas Prendergast, 2nd Baronet Brook Taylor Martin Folkes John Arbuthnot Charles Cox Earl Cornwallis Richard Cantillon John Machin William Rutty James Vernon John Senex James Thornhill Earl of Macclesfield John Browne James Jurin James Douglas Alexander Stuart Ephraim Chambers Richard Manningham Frank Nicholls Richard Rawlinson Charles Stanhope Lord James Cavendish Earl of Hopetoun William Richardson William Becket John Anstis Duke of Ancaster Charles Hayes Edmund Prideaux George Shelvocke John Woodward John Ward John Baptist Grano Baron King Jacques Leblon Adolphus Oughton Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet Viscount Cobham Francis Columbine Hugh Warburton Earl of Pembroke Viscount Townshend Martin Bladen Earl Waldegrave Duke of Kingston Earl of Burlington Earl of Essex Duke of Queensberry Earl of Deloraine Earl of Portmore Duke of Marlborough Baron Baltimore Duke of Atholl Marquess of Lothian Earl of Balcarres Earl of Winchilsea Sir Arthur Acheson, 5th Baronet Sir Robert Lawley, 4th Baronet Alexander Brodie William Hogarth Charles Labelye Walter Blackett Frederick, Prince of Wales Thomas Wright Edward Gibbon Baron Hervey Thomas Dunckerley William Preston Marquess of Hastings James Moore Smythe Robert Boyle-Walsingham Sir Robert de Cornwall Batty Langley Thomas Arne John Soane Joseph Banks Johan Zoffany John Coustos Hipólito da Costa Meyer Löw Schomberg Joseph Salvador Sampson Eardley Moses Mendez Meyer Solomon Moses Montefiore Nathan Mayer Rothschild Prime ministers Robert Walpole Henry Pelham Duke of Newcastle Robert Walpole Henry Pelham Duke of Newcastle Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Netherlands Norway Croatia Sweden Poland 2 Vatican Israel Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Netherlands Norway Croatia Sweden Poland 2 2 Vatican Israel Catalonia Belgium Academics CiNii CiNii Artists ULAN RKD Artists ULAN RKD Artists People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM George IV 10th Royal Hussars officers 1762 births 1830 deaths 18th-century British people 19th-century British monarchs 19th-century regents 18th-century princes of Wales 19th-century princes of Wales 18th-century dukes of Cornwall 19th-century dukes of Cornwall Blind royalty and nobility British blind people British royalty and nobility with disabilities Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Children of George III Crown princes of Hanover Deaths from gastrointestinal hemorrhage Dukes of Rothesay Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England Grand Crosses of the Order of Aviz Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal) Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary Grand masters of the Premier Grand Lodge of England Hanoverian princes Heirs to the British throne Kings of Hanover Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William Knights of the Garter Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria Princes and great stewards of Scotland Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain Monarchs of the Isle of Man Monarchs of the United Kingdom Owners of Epsom Derby winners People associated with King's College London Regency London Sons of kings Sons of prince-electors CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) CS1 Danish-language sources (da) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Use British English from August 2011 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from November 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 7 January 2026, at 11:39 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IV
|
An official website of the United States government Here’s how you know Here’s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. An official website of the United States government Here’s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Products and Services All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) Resources for You For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public Explore NLM About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events Grants and Research NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications Home This page is no longer being maintained. You can find a previous version at: . There is no guarentee that this redirect page will be maintained. You will be redirected in 10 seconds. Connect with NLM National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure NLM Support Center Accessibility Careers NLM | NIH | HHS | USA.gov
|
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/information-in-other-languages.html
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Original magazine: 1899–1998 1.2 Relaunch: 1998–2005 1.3 Modern magazine: 2005–present 1.1 Original magazine: 1899–1998 1.2 Relaunch: 1998–2005 1.3 Modern magazine: 2005–present 2 Annual lists Toggle Annual lists subsection 2.1 Innovators Under 35 2.1 Innovators Under 35 3 Recognition 4 Other languages 5 See also 6 References 7 External links MIT Technology Review العربية Bosanski Català Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano 日本語 Português Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article relies excessively on references to primary sources . Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources . Find sources: "MIT Technology Review" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( February 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Cover of 125th anniversary issue (September–October 2024) Editor-in-Chief Mat Honan [ 1 ] Categories Science , technology Frequency Bimonthly Circulation 208,658 [ 2 ] Publisher Elizabeth Bramson-Boudreau First issue 1899 ; 127 years ago ( 1899 ) Company MIT Technology Review [ 3 ] Country United States Based in Cambridge, Massachusetts Language English Website technologyreview .com ISSN 1099-274X MIT Technology Review is a bimonthly magazine wholly owned by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It was founded in 1899 as The Technology Review , [ 4 ] and was re-launched without the leading article in its name on April 23, 1998, under then publisher R. Bruce Journey. In September 2005, it was changed, under its then editor-in-chief and publisher, Jason Pontin , to a form resembling the historical magazine. Before the 1998 re-launch, the editor stated that "nothing will be left of the old magazine except the name." It was therefore necessary to distinguish between the modern and the historical Technology Review . [ 4 ] The historical magazine had been published by the MIT Alumni Association, was more closely aligned with the interests of MIT alumni, and had a more intellectual tone and much smaller public circulation. The magazine, billed from 1998 to 2005 as "MIT's Magazine of Innovation", and from 2005 onwards as simply "published by MIT", focused on new technology and how it is commercialized; was sold to the public and targeted at senior executives, researchers, financiers, and policymakers, as well as MIT alumni. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] In 2011, Technology Review received an Utne Reader Independent Press Award for Best Science/Technology Coverage. [ 6 ] History Original magazine: 1899–1998 Technology Review was founded in 1899 under the name The Technology Review and relaunched in 1998 without "The" in its original name. It currently claims to be "the oldest technology magazine in the world." [ 7 ] In 1899, The New York Times commented: [ 8 ] We give a cordial welcome to No. 1 of Vol. I of The Technology Review, a Quarterly Magazine Relating to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published in Boston, and under charge of the Association of Class Secretaries. As far as make-up goes, cover, paper, typography and illustrations are in keeping with the strong characteristics of the Institution it represents. This magazine, as its editors announce, is intended to be "a clearing house of information and thought," and, as far as the Institute of Technology is concerned, "to increase its power, to minimize its waste, to insure [sic] among its countless friends the most perfect co-operation." We give a cordial welcome to No. 1 of Vol. I of The Technology Review, a Quarterly Magazine Relating to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published in Boston, and under charge of the Association of Class Secretaries. As far as make-up goes, cover, paper, typography and illustrations are in keeping with the strong characteristics of the Institution it represents. This magazine, as its editors announce, is intended to be "a clearing house of information and thought," and, as far as the Institute of Technology is concerned, "to increase its power, to minimize its waste, to insure [sic] among its countless friends the most perfect co-operation." The career path of James Rhyne Killian illustrates the close ties between Technology Review and the Institute. In 1926, Killian graduated from college and got his first job as assistant managing editor of Technology Review; he rose to editor-in-chief; became executive assistant to then-president Karl Taylor Compton in 1939; vice-president of MIT in 1945; and succeeded Compton as president in 1949. The May 4, 1929, issue contained an article by Dr. Norbert Wiener , then Assistant Professor of Mathematics, describing some deficiencies in a paper Albert Einstein had published earlier that year. Wiener also commented on a cardinal's critique of the Einstein theory saying: The pretended incomprehensibility of the Einstein theory has been used as capital by professional anti-Einsteinians. Without prejudice to the cause of religion, I may remark that theological discussions have not at all times been distinguished by their character of lucidity. The pretended incomprehensibility of the Einstein theory has been used as capital by professional anti-Einsteinians. Without prejudice to the cause of religion, I may remark that theological discussions have not at all times been distinguished by their character of lucidity. The historical Technology Review often published articles that were controversial, or critical of certain technologies. A 1980 issue contained an article by Jerome Wiesner attacking the Reagan administration's nuclear defense strategy . The cover of a 1983 issue stated, "Even if the fusion program produces a reactor, no one will want it," and contained an article by Lawrence M. Lidsky , [ 9 ] associate director of MIT's Plasma Fusion Center , challenging the feasibility of fusion power (which at the time was often fancied to be just around the corner). The May 1984 issue contained an exposé about microchip manufacturing hazards. In 1966, the magazine started using a puzzle column started in Tech Engineering News a few months earlier. Its author is Allan Gottlieb , who has now written the column for more than fifty years. [ 10 ] As late as 1967, the New York Times described Technology Review as a "scientific journal." Of its writing style, writer George V. Higgins complained: Technology Review , according to [then-editor] Stephen [ sic ] Marcus... [subjects] its scientific contributors to rewrite rigors that would give fainting spells to the most obstreperous cub reporter. Marcus believes this produces readable prose on arcane subjects. I don't agree. [ 11 ] Technology Review , according to [then-editor] Stephen [ sic ] Marcus... [subjects] its scientific contributors to rewrite rigors that would give fainting spells to the most obstreperous cub reporter. Marcus believes this produces readable prose on arcane subjects. I don't agree. [ 11 ] In 1984, Technology Review printed an article about a Russian scientist using ova from frozen mammoths to create a mammoth-elephant hybrid called a "mammontelephas". [ 12 ] Apart from being dated "April 1, 1984", there were no obvious giveaways in the story. The Chicago Tribune News Service picked it up as a real news item, and it was printed as fact in hundreds of newspapers. In 1994, a survey of "opinion leaders" ranked Technology Review [ 4 ] No. 1 in the nation in the "most credible" category. [ 13 ] Contributors to the magazine also included Thomas A. Edison , Winston Churchill , and Tim Berners-Lee . [ 14 ] Relaunch: 1998–2005 A radical transition of the magazine occurred in 1996. At that time, according to the Boston Business Journal , [ 15 ] in 1996 Technology Review had lost $1.6 million over the previous seven years and was "facing the possibility of folding" due to "years of declining advertising revenue." R. Bruce Journey was named publisher, the first full-time publisher in the magazine's history. According to previous publisher William J. Hecht, although Technology Review had "long been highly regarded for its editorial excellence," the purpose of appointing Journey was to enhance its "commercial potential" and "secure a prominent place for Technology Review in the competitive world of commercial publishing." [ 16 ] John Benditt replaced Steven J. Marcus as editor-in-chief, the entire editorial staff was fired, and the modern Technology Review was born. Boston Globe columnist David Warsh [ 17 ] described the transition by saying that the magazine had been serving up "old 1960s views of things: humanist , populist , ruminative, suspicious of the unseen dimensions of new technologies" and had now been replaced with one that "takes innovation seriously and enthusiastically." Former editor Marcus characterized the magazine's new stance as "cheerleading for innovation." Under Bruce Journey, Technology Review billed itself as "MIT's Magazine of Innovation". Since 2001, it has been published by Technology Review Inc., a nonprofit independent media company owned by MIT. [ 18 ] Intending to appeal to business leaders, editor John Benditt said in 1999, "We're really about new technologies and how they get commercialized." Technology Review covers breakthroughs and current issues on fields such as biotechnology , nanotechnology , and computing . Articles are also devoted to more mature disciplines such as energy , telecommunications , transportation , and the military . Since Journey, Technology Review has been distributed as a regular mass-market magazine and appears on newsstands. By 2003, circulation had more than tripled from 92,000 to 315,000, about half that of Scientific American , and included 220,000 paid subscribers and 95,000 sent free to MIT alumni. Additionally, in August 2003, a German edition of Technology Review was started in cooperation with the publishing house Heinz Heise (circulation of about 50,000 as of 2005). According to The New York Times , [ 19 ] as of 2004 the magazine was still "partly financed by M.I.T. (though it is expected to turn a profit eventually)." Technology Review also functions as the MIT alumni magazine; the edition sent to alumni contains a separate section, "MIT News," containing items such as alumni class notes. This section is not included in the edition distributed to the general public. The magazine is published by Technology Review, Inc, an independent media company owned by MIT. MIT's website lists it as an MIT publication, [ 20 ] and the MIT News Office states that "the magazine often uses MIT expertise for some of its content." In 1999 The Boston Globe noted that (apart from the alumni section) "few Technology Review articles actually concern events or research at MIT." [ 21 ] However, in the words of editor Jason Pontin: Our job is not to promote MIT; but we analyse and explain emerging technologies, [ 22 ] and because we believe that new technologies are, generally speaking, a good thing, we do indirectly promote MIT's core activity: that is, the development of innovative technology. [ 23 ] Our job is not to promote MIT; but we analyse and explain emerging technologies, [ 22 ] and because we believe that new technologies are, generally speaking, a good thing, we do indirectly promote MIT's core activity: that is, the development of innovative technology. [ 23 ] From 1997 to 2005, R. Bruce Journey held the title of "publisher"; Journey was also the president and CEO of Technology Review, Inc. Editors-in-chief have included John Benditt (1997), Robert Buderi (2002), and Jason Pontin (2004). The magazine has won numerous Folio! awards, presented at the annual magazine publishing trade show conducted by Folio! magazine. In 2001, these included a "Silver Folio: Editorial Excellence Award" in the consumer science and technology magazine category and many awards for typography and design . [ 24 ] In 2006, Technology Review was named a finalist in the "general excellence" category of the annual National Magazine Awards, sponsored by the American Society of Magazine Editors. [ 25 ] On June 6, 2001, Fortune and CNET Networks launched a publication entitled Fortune/CNET Technology Review . [ 26 ] MIT sued [ 27 ] Fortune ' s parent corporation, Time, Inc. for infringement of the Technology Review trademark. [ 28 ] The case was quickly settled. In August the MIT student newspaper reported that lawyers for MIT and Time were reluctant to discuss the case, citing a confidentiality agreement that both sides described as very restrictive. Jason Kravitz, a Boston attorney who represented MIT in the case, suggested that the magazine's change of name to Fortune/CNET Tech Review , a change that occurred in the middle of the case, may have been part of the settlement. [ 29 ] Many publications covering specific technologies have used "technology review" as part of their names, such as Lawrence Livermore Labs 's Energy & Technology Review , [ 30 ] AACE 's Educational Technology Review , [ 31 ] and the International Atomic Energy Agency 's Nuclear Technology Review. [ 32 ] The magazine adopted a more serious tone in a 2004 redesign. [ 33 ] In 2005, Technology Review , along with Wired News and other technology publications, was embarrassed by the publication of a number of stories by freelancer Michelle Delio containing information which could not be corroborated. Editor-in-chief Pontin said, "Of the ten stories which were published, only three were entirely accurate. In two of the stories, I'm fairly confident that Michelle Delio either did not speak to the person she said she spoke to, or misrepresented her interview with him." [ 34 ] The stories were retracted. Modern magazine: 2005–present On August 30, 2005, Technology Review announced that R. Bruce Journey, publisher from 1996 to 2005, would be replaced by the then current Editor in Chief, Jason Pontin, and would reduce the print publication frequency from eleven to six issues per year while enhancing the publication's website. [ 34 ] The Boston Globe characterized the change as a "strategic overhaul." Editor and publisher Jason Pontin stated that he would "focus the print magazine on what print does best: present[ing] longer-format, investigative stories and colorful imagery." Technology Review's Web site, Pontin said, would henceforth publish original, daily news and analysis (whereas before it had merely republished the print magazine's stories). Finally, Pontin said that Technology Review's stories in print and online would identify and analyze emerging technologies. [ 35 ] This focus resembles that of the historical Technology Review. Pontin convinced copy editors to adopt the diaeresis mark for words like "coördinate", a rarity in native English usage , though failed to convince them to use logical punctuation . [ 36 ] Without evident comment, the July/August, 2017, issue revealed a shift in top personnel, with Elizabeth Bramson-Boudreau listed as Chief Executive Officer and Publisher, and David Rotman as Editor. [ 1 ] Gideon Lichfield was named editor-in-chief in November 2017. [ 37 ] In 2020, the Brazilian version of MIT Technology Review , known as MIT Technology Review Brasil , was launched. [ 38 ] [ failed verification ] The magazine, like many others has transitioned its focus from print to digital. [ 39 ] Every year, the magazine publishes a list of the 10 technologies it considers the most influential. [ 40 ] Annual lists Each year, MIT Technology Review publishes three annual lists: Innovators Under 35 (formerly TR35) 10 Breakthrough Technologies 50 Smartest Companies Innovators Under 35 MIT Technology Review has become well known for its annual Innovators Under 35 . In 1999, and then in 2002—2004, MIT Technology Review produced the TR100 , a list of "100 remarkable innovators under the age of 35." In 2005, this list was renamed the TR35 and shortened to 35 individuals under the age of 35. Notable recipients of the award include Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin , PayPal co-founder Max Levchin , Geekcorps creator Ethan Zuckerman , Linux developer Linus Torvalds , BitTorrent developer Bram Cohen , MacArthur "genius" bioengineer Jim Collins , investors Micah Siegel and Steve Jurvetson , and Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen . [ 41 ] [ 42 ] The list was renamed Innovators Under 35 in 2013. Recognition This section may contain information not important or relevant to the article's subject. Please help improve this section . ( November 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) In 2006, Technology Review was a finalist in the National Magazine Awards in the category of General Excellence. [ 43 ] In 2010, Technology Review won the gold and silver prizes for best full issue of a technology magazine (for its November and June 2009 issues) and the gold, silver, and bronze prizes for best single article in a technology magazine (for "Natural Gas Changes the Energy Map" by David Rotman; [ 44 ] “Prescription: Networking” by David Talbot; [ 45 ] and "Chasing the Sun" by David Rotman) [ 46 ] in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards. [ 47 ] In 2007, Technology Review won the bronze prizes in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards in the categories of best issue of a technology magazine and best single technology article. [ 48 ] That same year, technologyreview.com won third place in the MPA Digital Awards for best business or news Website and second place for best online video or video series. [ 49 ] In 2008, Technology Review won the gold prize for the best issue of a technology magazine (for its May 2008 issue); the gold, silver, and bronze prizes for best single articles in a technology magazine (for The Price of Biofuels by David Rotman; [ 50 ] Brain Trauma in Iraq by Emily Singer; [ 51 ] and Una Laptop por Niño by David Talbot); [ 52 ] the gold prize for best online community; and the bronze prize for best online tool in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards. [ 53 ] That same year, Technology Review won third place in the Magazine Publishers of America (MPA) Digital Awards for best online videos. [ 54 ] In 2009, Technology Review won the gold prize for Best Online News Coverage; the gold and silver prizes for best single articles in a technology magazine (for "How Obama Really Did It" by David Talbot) [ 55 ] and "Can Technology Save the Economy?" by David Rotman [ 56 ] and the silver prize for best online community in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards. [ 57 ] In 2011, Technology Review won the silver prize for best full issue of a technology magazine (for its January 2011 issue) and the gold and silver prizes for best single article in a technology magazine (for “Moore's Outlaws” by David Talbot [ 58 ] and "Radical Opacity" by Julian Dibbell) [ 59 ] in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards. [ 60 ] That same year, Technology Review was recognized for the best science and technology coverage in the Utne Reader Independent Press Awards. [ 61 ] In 2012, MIT Technology Review won the gold and silver prizes for best full issue of a technology magazine (for its June and October 2012 issues), and the gold and bronze prizes for best single article in a technology magazine (for "People Power 2.0" by John Pollock [ 62 ] and "The Library of Utopia" by Nicholas Carr) [ 63 ] in the Folio Magazine Eddie Awards. [ 64 ] That same year, MIT Technology Review won the gold prize for best feature design (for "The Library of Utopia" by Nicholas Carr) [ 63 ] in the Folio Magazine Ozzie Awards. [ 65 ] In 2020, SEAL Awards recognized senior climate and energy editor James Temple with an Environmental Journalism Award. [ 66 ] Other languages MIT Technology Review has international editions in Italy , [ 67 ] Spain , [ 68 ] Germany , Brazil , China , Japan and Korea . [ 69 ] See also Citizen Science (The OED cites an article from the MIT Technology Review in January 1989 [ 70 ] as the first use of the term 'citizen science'.) References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "MIT Technology Review names Mat Honan its new editor in chief" . MIT Technology Review (Press release). July 19, 2021 . Retrieved February 7, 2022 . Honan starts at MIT Technology Review on August 17. ^ "AAM: Total Circ for Consumer Magazines" . Accessabc.com . Retrieved March 29, 2025 . ^ "Terms of Service" . MIT Technology Review . August 12, 2013 . Retrieved February 7, 2022 . MIT Technology Review is an independent media company owned by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). ^ a b c d "Atechreview" . Archived from the original on November 9, 2007 . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "MIT Technology Review" . Retrieved November 5, 2021 . ^ "Utne Independent Press Awards: 2011 Winners" . Utne . Archived from the original on April 3, 2016 . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ However, Scientific American has been published continuously since 1845, and Popular Science since 1872. In the personal communication cited above, Pontin says that the claim rests on the definition of a magazine as being perfect bound , Scientific American being in newspaper tabloid format in 1899. ^ The New York Times , January 21, 1899, page BR33. ^ Lidsky, Lawrence M. (October 1983). "The Trouble with Fusion" (PDF) . MIT Technology Review . pp. 32– 44. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015 . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ Amanda Schaffer (December 22, 2015). "Puzzle Corner's Keeper" . MIT Technology Review . Retrieved February 7, 2022 . Allan Gottlieb '67 has been serving up math challenges to alumni and friends for half a century. ^ The Boston Globe , July 17, 1982. ^ "Retrobreeding the Woolly Mammoth" . textfiles.com . Archived from the original on December 10, 2004. ^ Charles H. Ball, News Office (February 1, 1995). "Technology Review rated 'most credible' " . MIT News . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ Crum, Rex (April 13, 1998). "MIT's 'TR' undergoes revamping" . Bizjournals.com . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "MIT's 'TR' undergoes revamping" . Boston Business Journal . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ The Boston Globe , April 25, 1999, p. G1 ^ The Boston Globe , April 21, 1998, p. C1 "Gloom, Doom and Boom at MIT." Warsh analogized the old TR with beloved departed Cambridge eateries like the F&T Deli. ^ "TECHNOLOGY REVIEW, INC. Summary Screen" . The Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013. ^ Daly, Emma (November 10, 2004). "Glossy Alumni Magazines Seek More Than Graduates" . The New York Times . Retrieved February 4, 2024 . ^ "MIT – offices+services" . Mit.edu . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ The Boston Globe , April 25, 1999, p. G1 "MIT Tech Magazine, On Plateau, Finds Killer App: Commercialism" ^ "Emerging Technologies Reviews" . ^ Jason Pontin, personal email to Dpbsmith, August 27, 2005 ^ David Rapp, Technology Review (November 28, 2001). "Technology Review wins six awards" . MIT News . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "searchpdffiles.com" . Archived from the original on February 11, 2016 . Retrieved June 30, 2015 . ^ Wall Street Journal Staff (January 22, 2001). "Fortune, Cnet Enter Pact For Issues of Tech Reviews" . The Wall Street Journal . ISSN 0099-9660 . Retrieved March 11, 2021 . ^ "MIT sues Time Inc. over magazine name" . Boston Business Journal . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ Trademark registration 0668713, registered October 21, 1958, to "Alumni Association of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology" and renewed in 1999. ^ "MIT Finishes Three Lawsuits, Initiates One During Summer" . Mit.edu . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "Energy and Technology Review" . Llnl.gov . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "Educational Technology Review" . Archived from the original on October 17, 2005. ^ "Nuclear Technology Review 2004" (PDF) . Iaea.org . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ Shannon, Victoria (December 13, 2004). "M.I.T. Technology Review Adopts More Serious Tone" . The New York Times . Retrieved February 5, 2024 . ^ a b The Boston Globe , April 22, 2005, p. C3 "More of Writer's Stories Faulted—MIT Says Just 3 of 10 were Accurate" ^ Jason Pontin (2005). "A Letter to MIT Alumni" . Technology Review . Retrieved June 26, 2006 . ^ "You Get No Gotten in the New Yorker" . As for the diareses, it's just something we do: it shows you that the second vowel is pronounced as a second syllable. The New Yorker does it in this country, and it's not uncommon in the United Kingdom. There are a couple of other idiosyncratic style uses that I've been less successful in imposing on our copy desk. I'd love to insist on what's called "logical punctuation" in the English style, but the moral weight of the company insists that 'MIT Technology Review is an American publication.' (original comment on [1] before comments were disabled) ^ "MIT Technology Review Names Gideon Lichfield Editor in Chief" . Technology Review . 2017. Archived from the original on November 10, 2018 . Retrieved March 13, 2019 . ^ "MIT Technology Review Brasil" . ^ McMurray, Kelly (February 7, 2022). "Amplifying the Institution's Mission" . The Issue . 2communiqué . Retrieved February 5, 2024 . ^ "10 Breakthrough Technologies 2006" . MIT Technology Review . Retrieved September 20, 2017 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "TR 100: Computing" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on December 2, 2008 . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "TR 35" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on September 24, 2005 . Retrieved March 30, 2015 . ^ "National Magazine Award Finalists 2006" . Archived from the original on August 19, 2006 . Retrieved July 27, 2006 . ^ "Natural Gas Changes the Energy Map" . MIT Technology Review . October 15, 2009. ^ "Prescription: Networking" . MIT Technology Review . October 20, 2009. ^ "Chasing the Sun" . MIT Technology Review . June 23, 2009. ^ "2010 Folio: Award Winners Announced" . Folio . January 25, 2011. ^ "The 2007 Eddie & Ozzie Award Winners" . Folio . November 2007. ^ "MPA Press Releases--Digital Awards Winners 2006" . Archived from the original on March 10, 2007 . Retrieved March 6, 2007 . ^ Rotman, David. "The Price of Biofuels" . MIT Technology Review . ^ Singer, Emily. "Brain Trauma in Iraq" . MIT Technology Review . ^ Talbot, David. "Una Laptop por Niño" . MIT Technology Review . ^ "2008 Eddie Awards Winners" . Folio . September 23, 2008. ^ MPA Digital Awards 2008 Archived 2008-03-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ Talbot, David. "How Obama Really Did It" . MIT Technology Review . ^ Rotman, David. "Can Technology Save the Economy?" . MIT Technology Review . ^ "2009 Eddie Award Winners" . Folio . December 2009. ^ "Moore's Outlaws" . MIT Technology Review . June 22, 2010. ^ "Radical Opacity" . MIT Technology Review . ^ "The 2011 Eddie and Ozzie Award Winners" . Folio . December 8, 2011. ^ "Utne Independent Press Awards: 2011 Winners" . Utne . Archived from the original on April 3, 2016 . Retrieved June 8, 2011 . ^ "People Power 2.0" . MIT Technology Review . April 20, 2012. ^ a b "The Library of Utopia" . MIT Technology Review . April 25, 2012. ^ "Folio Magazine Eddie Awards 2012" (PDF) . technologyreview.com . ^ "Folio Magazine Ozzie Awards 2012" (PDF) . creative.red7media.com . ^ "Twelve Journalists Recognized as 2020 SEAL Environmental Journalism Award Winners" . SEAL Awards . February 17, 2021 . Retrieved December 19, 2023 . ^ www.technologyreview.it/ ^ www.technologyreview.es/ ^ "MIT Technology Review" . LinkedIn (in Italian). Archived from the original on April 14, 2025. ^ R. Kerson (1989). "Lab for the Environment". MIT Technology Review . Vol. 92, no. 1. pp. 11– 12. External links Official website .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Massachusetts Institute of Technology v t e Located in : Cambridge, Massachusetts Academics Schools Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Departments Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Schools Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Departments Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Research Centers Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratories Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Affiliates Whitehead Institute Broad Institute Centers Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratories Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Affiliates Whitehead Institute Broad Institute Whitehead Institute Broad Institute People Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Culture Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Campus Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building History Building 20 Radiation Laboratory Round Hill Building 20 Radiation Laboratory Round Hill Athletics Teams Engineers Football Sailing Venues Zesiger Sports and Fitness Center Teams Engineers Football Sailing Engineers Football Sailing Venues Zesiger Sports and Fitness Center Zesiger Sports and Fitness Center Projects MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch Tech Dinghy MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch Tech Dinghy Category Category Science and technology magazines published in the United States Bimonthly magazines published in the United States Magazines established in 1899 Magazines published in Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology publications Alumni magazines CS1: unfit URL All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2025 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking reliable references from February 2024 All articles lacking reliable references Use mdy dates from December 2023 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from June 2025 This page was last edited on 2 September 2025, at 18:31 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Technology_Review
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Biography 2 Family connections 3 Chronology 4 Historiographical readings 5 Dramatic representations 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Sextus Pompey العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Sextus Pompey Aureus of Sextus Pompeius, 42–40 BC, minted in Sicily Personal details Born c. 67 BC [ 1 ] Died 35 BC (aged around 32) Miletus , Asia , Roman Republic Nationality Roman Children Pompeia Relatives Pompey (father) Mucia Tertia (mother) Gnaeus Pompeius (brother) Pompeia Magna (sister) Military service Rank Prefect of the fleet and the coast Governor of Sicily and Sardinia Battles/wars Caesar's civil war Bellum Siculum Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius ( c. 67 – 35 BC), also known in English as Sextus Pompey , was a Roman military leader who, throughout his life, upheld the cause of his father, Pompey the Great , against Julius Caesar and his supporters during the last civil wars of the Roman Republic . Sextus Pompey formed the last organized opposition to the Second Triumvirate , in defiance of which he succeeded in establishing an independent state in Sicily for several years. Biography Sextus Pompeius was the younger son of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) [ 2 ] by his third wife, Mucia Tertia . His sister was Pompeia and his elder brother was Gnaeus Pompeius . Both boys grew up in the shadow of their father, one of Rome's greatest generals and an originally non-conservative politician who drifted to the more traditional faction when Julius Caesar became a threat. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, thus starting a civil war, Sextus' older brother Gnaeus followed their father in his escape to the East, as did most of the conservative senators . Sextus stayed in Rome in the care of his stepmother, Cornelia Metella . Pompey's army lost the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC and Pompey himself had to run for his life. Cornelia and Sextus met him in the island of Lesbos and together they fled to Egypt. [ 3 ] Upon arrival, Sextus watched his father being killed by treachery on 29 September of the same year. After the murder, Cornelia returned to Rome; in the following years, Sextus joined the resistance against Caesar in the African provinces . [ 4 ] Together with Metellus Scipio , Cato the Younger , his brother Gnaeus and other senators, they prepared to oppose Caesar and his army to the end. Caesar won the first battle at Thapsus in 46 BC against Metellus Scipio and Cato, who committed suicide. [ 5 ] In 45 BC, Caesar managed to defeat the Pompeius brothers in the Battle of Munda , in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula , comprising modern Spain and Portugal ), after what he himself described as his hardest fought victory ever. [ 6 ] Gnaeus Pompeius would soon die in a last stand at Lauro , but young Sextus escaped once more, this time to Sicily , and thereafter raised another dissident army in Spain. [ 7 ] Back in Rome, Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC by a group of senators led by Cassius and Brutus . This incident did not lead to a return to normality, but provoked yet another civil war between Caesar's political heirs and his killers. One of the latter, Decimus Brutus , wrote to M. Brutus and to Cassius that March that "we have nowhere to base ourselves, except for Sex. Pompeius". [ 8 ] In the immediate aftermath of the assassination, Cassius and Brutus advised that Sextus be recalled to Rome. [ 9 ] After Caesar's funeral, Antony also moved that Sextus be recalled to Rome, as well as be paid 50 million Attic drachmas in return for his father's stolen property and be given command of the entire Roman navy, which Sextus accepted. However, Sextus only got as far as Massilia before he returned to Sicily. [ 10 ] Early in 43, the Senate commended Marcus Aemelius Lepidus for forging an alliance with Sextus against the Caesarians; [ 11 ] but thereafter Lepidus joined the Second Triumvirate formed by Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus and Marcus Antonius , with the intention of avenging Caesar and subduing all other parties. The Triumvirs immediately began proscribing their enemies after they came to an agreement amongst themselves, and many of those who were proscribed fled to Sextus in Sicily. [ 12 ] While Octavian sent lieutenants to Sicily to try and subdue Sextus Pompeius (and he certainly remained a focus of opposition in the Western Mediterranean) the faction of Cassius and Brutus was the second triumvirate's first priority. Thus Sextus had the time and resources to develop an army, with the whole island of Sicily as his base, and (even more importantly) to establish a strong navy operated by Sicilian marines. [ 13 ] Brutus and Cassius lost the twin battles of Philippi and committed suicide in 42 BC. Many of the survivors fled to Sicily to join Sextus and continue the fight. [ 14 ] After this, the triumvirs turned their attentions to Sicily and Sextus. However, Sextus was by now prepared for strong resistance. He went about establishing a blockade around Italy, preventing any food from reaching the peninsula. [ 15 ] At one point, Antony's mother, Julia , ended up in Sicily with Sextus. He sent her along to Antony in the East as a token of good faith, and the two agreed to help one another if war broke out between Antony and Octavian. In response, Octavian also took steps to try and secure Sextus' loyalty. [ 16 ] In the following years, military confrontations failed to return a conclusive victory for either side, although in 40 BC Sextus' admiral, the freedman Menas , seized Sardinia from Octavian's governor Marcus Lurius . [ 17 ] In 39 BC, Sextus and the triumvirs signed for peace in the Pact of Misenum . [ 18 ] Pompey was given legitimate control over Sicily and Sardinia in exchange for keeping the grain supply to Rome open and keeping his pirates in check. [ 19 ] The reason for the peace treaty was to secure the West before the anticipated campaign against the Parthian Empire : Tacitus reports the view that "he [Octavian] had cheated Sextus Pompeius by a spurious peace treaty". [ 20 ] Antony, the leader of Rome's eastern provinces, needed a large number of legions for the coming campaign, which would take his army (ostensibly) through Mesopotamia , Armenia and Parthia . Thus, an armistice with Sextus' large forces on Sicily proved useful. The peace did not last for long. In Antony's absence, Octavian renewed the conflict against Sextus. Sextus and Octavian accused each other of violating the terms of the Pact of Misenum, but the final straw was the betrayal of Sardinia to Octavian by Menas. [ 21 ] Octavian was defeated in the naval battle of Messina (37 BC), so he now turned to his friends Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Titus Statilius Taurus , both very talented generals. In addition, the third triumvir, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , raised 14 legions in his African provinces to help defeat Pompey. [ 22 ] Agrippa spent the winter training a navy on land and building a fleet near Lake Avernus , from scratch. [ 23 ] Agrippa fought Sextus at Mylae in August 36 BC, and again a month later, while Lepidus and Statilius Taurus invaded Sicily. [ 24 ] In the Battle of Naulochus , Agrippa destroyed the remainder of Sextus' fleet. [ 25 ] Sextus escaped to Asia Minor and, by abandoning Sicily, lost his only base of support. [ 26 ] Sextus Pompeius was finally captured in 35 BC, and executed without trial in Miletus by Marcus Titius , whom Sextus had once spared; either by his own initiative or possibly on the orders of Antony or Plancus . [ 27 ] Although Octavian later pretended that the execution without a trial of Sextus was illegal because Sextus was a Roman citizen, Octavian himself had declared Sextus an outlaw without citizen rights. Family connections Sextus had married Scribonia , a distant relative. She was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo, consul of 34 BC and the niece of another Scribonia , the second wife of Octavian. Sextus and Scribonia had a daughter, their only child, called Pompeia Magna . As an affine to both Sextus and Octavian, Scribonius Libo had played a role in brokering peace between Sextus and the Triumviri. [ 16 ] He very reluctantly abandoned Sextus in 36/35, in return for which he had received the consulship. Chronology 48 BC – in Egypt with his father, who is assassinated 47/45 BC – resistance in Africa 45 BC – his brother, Gnaeus, is defeated at Munda, Sextus continues resistance 42 BC – controls Sicily with a powerful navy 39 BC – pact of Misenum with Octavianus and Antony 37 BC – defeats Octavian off Messina 36 BC August, defeats Octavian September, defeated by Agrippa off Naulochus (Sicily) August, defeats Octavian September, defeated by Agrippa off Naulochus (Sicily) 35 BC – captured and executed in Asia Minor (Miletus) Historiographical readings Where Plutarch gives Sextus only a minor role in the confused events surrounding the fall of the Roman Republic, Appian sees him as a more central figure, who might even have emerged as the final victor, so as to establish a dynasty of Pompeys, not Caesars. [ 28 ] Dramatic representations William Shakespeare had Sextus Pompey as a major character in his play Antony and Cleopatra (1606–07). British actor Donald Sumpter portrayed Sextus Pompey in the 1981 BBC Shakespeare television production of Antony and Cleopatra . American actor Walter Koenig portrayed Sextus Pompey in the 1983 Bard Productions television production of the play. British actor Donald Sumpter portrayed Sextus Pompey in the 1981 BBC Shakespeare television production of Antony and Cleopatra . American actor Walter Koenig portrayed Sextus Pompey in the 1983 Bard Productions television production of the play. Sesto (Italian for Sextus) appears as main character in 1682 opera titled Il Pompeo by Italian baroque composer Alessandro Scarlatti. Sextus ("Sesto" in Italian) appears in George Frideric Handel 's 1724 opera Giulio Cesare in Egitto ("Julius Caesar in Egypt"). The opera attributes to Sextus the killing of the Egyptian King Ptolemy XIII , who had killed his father Pompey. This is not historically attested. Sextus appears as a minor character in 2 episodes of the MGM+ series "Domina", portrayed by Tom Forbes. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Jones, Tom B (1976). "Pompeius Magnus, Sextus". In William D. Halsey (ed.). Collier's Encyclopedia . Vol. 19. Macmillan Educational Corporation. p. 234. ^ "Plutarch • Life of Pompey" . penelope.uchicago.edu . 13.5 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "Plutarch • Life of Pompey" . penelope.uchicago.edu . 77.1 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "Plutarch • Life of Cato the Younger" . penelope.uchicago.edu . 56.1 . Retrieved 9 March 2025 . ^ "Plutarch • Life of Cato the Younger" . penelope.uchicago.edu . 69.5–70.6 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ R Warner transl., Plutarch: Fall of the Roman Republic (Penguin 1958) p. 263 ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 2.105–106 . Retrieved 9 March 2025 . ^ D R Shakleton Bailey trans., Cicero's Letters to his Friends (Atlanta 1988) p. 489 ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 2.122 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 3.4, 3.12, 4.84 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ D R Shakleton Bailey trans., Cicero's Letters to his Friends (Atlanta 1988) p. 550 ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 4.25, 4.36 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 4.82–86 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.2 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.12–5.18 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ a b "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.52–53 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.56 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.71–73 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "Plutarch • Life of Antony" . penelope.uchicago.edu . 32.1–5 . Retrieved 9 March 2025 . ^ Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome (Penguin 1966) p. 36 ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.77–80 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.81–98 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ J Griffin ed., The Oxford History of the Classical World (Oxford 1986) p. 533 ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.103-108 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.118–122 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.133 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ "LacusCurtius • Appian's Roman History" . penelope.uchicago.edu . The Civil Wars. 5.141–144 . Retrieved 10 March 2025 . ^ B Breed, Citizens of Discord (2010) pp. 279–80 Further reading Hadas, Moses (1930). Sextus Pompey . New York: Columbia University Press. doi : 10.7312/hada92764 . ISBN 978-0231890342 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) de Méritens de Villeneuve, Guillaume (2023). Les fils de Pompée et l'opposition à César et au triumvirat: 46–35 av. J.-C . Rome: École française de Rome. ISBN 978-2728316113 . Osgood, Josiah (2006). Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521671774 . Powell, Anton; Welch, Kathryn (2002). Sextus Pompeius . Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-1-914535-19-2 . Rowan, Clare (2018). From Caesar to Augustus (c. 49 BC–AD 14): Using Coins as Sources . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-67976-3 . Schor, Bruno (1978). Beiträge zur Geschichte des Sextus Pompeius (in German). Hochschulverlag. ISBN 978-3-8107-2015-3 . Stone III, Shelley C. (January 1983). "Sextus Pompey, Octavian, and Sicily" . American Journal of Archaeology . 87 (1): 11– 22. doi : 10.2307/504662 . JSTOR 504662 . Welch, Kathryn (2012). Magnus Pius: Sextus Pompeius and the Transformation of the Roman Republic . Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-1-910589-15-1 . Zarrow, E.M. (2003). "Sicily and the Coinage of Octavian and Sextus Pompey: Aeneas or the Catanean Brothers?" . The Numismatic Chronicle . 163 : 123– 135. JSTOR 42667166 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Sextus Pompeius at Wikimedia Commons Sextus Pompey – biography at unrv.com Coins of Sextus Pompeius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Pompey v t e Military career Sulla's civil war Asio River Sena Gallica 2nd Clusium Utica Sertorian War Lauron Valentia Sucro Saguntum Osca Pirate War Coracaesium Third Mithridatic War Lycus Pelorus Abas Jerusalem Caesar's civil war Brundisium Dyrrhachium Pharsalus Sulla's civil war Asio River Sena Gallica 2nd Clusium Utica Asio River Sena Gallica 2nd Clusium Utica Sertorian War Lauron Valentia Sucro Saguntum Osca Lauron Valentia Sucro Saguntum Osca Pirate War Coracaesium Coracaesium Third Mithridatic War Lycus Pelorus Abas Jerusalem Lycus Pelorus Abas Jerusalem Caesar's civil war Brundisium Dyrrhachium Pharsalus Brundisium Dyrrhachium Pharsalus Legislative activity Lex Gellia Cornelia Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis Lex Manilia Eastern settlement Lex Trebonia Lex Pompeia de ambitu Lex Pompeia de provinciis Lex Gellia Cornelia Lex Gabinia de piratis persequendis Lex Manilia Eastern settlement Lex Trebonia Lex Pompeia de ambitu Lex Pompeia de provinciis Buildings Temple of Hercules Pompeianus Theatre of Pompey Portico of Pompey Curia of Pompey Temple of Hercules Pompeianus Theatre of Pompey Portico of Pompey Curia of Pompey Cities Pamplona Soli Pompeiopolis Samsun Pamplona Soli Pompeiopolis Samsun Family Wives Antistia Aemilia Mucia Tertia Julia Cornelia Metella Children Gnaeus Pompeia Magna Sextus Other Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father) Pompeia (aunt) Pompeia (sister) Wives Antistia Aemilia Mucia Tertia Julia Cornelia Metella Antistia Aemilia Mucia Tertia Julia Cornelia Metella Children Gnaeus Pompeia Magna Sextus Gnaeus Pompeia Magna Sextus Other Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father) Pompeia (aunt) Pompeia (sister) Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father) Pompeia (aunt) Pompeia (sister) Legacy Pharsalia Parallel Lives Caesar and Pompey The Death of Pompey Pompeo Magno The Tragedy of Pompey the Great Pharsalia Parallel Lives Caesar and Pompey The Death of Pompey Pompeo Magno The Tragedy of Pompey the Great Category Category Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 2 3 GND FAST WorldCat National United States Spain Netherlands Norway Poland 2 Vatican Israel United States Spain Netherlands Norway Poland 2 2 Vatican Israel People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 60s BC births 35 BC deaths 1st-century BC Romans Roman Republican generals Roman Republican admirals Children of Pompey Executed ancient Roman people Pompeii (Romans) Roman consuls designate Roman governors of Hispania Roman governors of Sardinia Roman governors of Sicily People of Caesar's civil war Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2024 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons link is on Wikidata Year of birth uncertain This page was last edited on 13 July 2025, at 07:43 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Pompey
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_note-Telegraph1213-121
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Policies 2 How to handle such ambiguity on Wikipedia Wikipedia : Blind men and an elephant Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:ELEPHANT WP:ELEPHANT WP:BLINDMEN WP:BLINDMEN WP:BLINDMENELEPHANT WP:BLINDMENELEPHANT WP:RASHOMONEFFECT WP:RASHOMONEFFECT WP:RASHOMON WP:RASHOMON WP:ELEPHANT WP:ELEPHANT WP:BLINDMEN WP:BLINDMEN WP:BLINDMENELEPHANT WP:BLINDMENELEPHANT WP:RASHOMONEFFECT WP:RASHOMONEFFECT WP:RASHOMON WP:RASHOMON This page in a nutshell: Reliable sources may be considered credible... until other reliable sources contradict them. The blind men and an elephant is a fable that originated in the ancient Indian subcontinent from where it has widely diffused. It is a story of a group of blind men (or men in the dark) who touch an elephant to learn what it is like. Each one feels a different part, but only one part, such as the side or the tusk. They then compare notes and learn that they are in complete disagreement. Different observers of an event providing contradictory interpretations of the same event is also known as the Rashomon effect . The phrase is derived from the title of the Japanese film Rashomon (1950), where the accounts of the witnesses, suspects, and victims of a rape and murder are all different. The blind men and the elephant story has been used to illustrate a range of truths and fallacies; broadly, the parable implies that one's subjective experience can be true, but that such experience is inherently limited by its failure to account for other truths or a totality of truth. At various times the parable has provided insight into the relativism, opaqueness or inexpressible nature of truth, the behaviour of experts in fields where there is a deficit or inaccessibility of information, the need for communication, and respect for different perspectives. Policies WP:WEIGHT : "Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represent all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint in the published, reliable sources. Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight mean that articles should not give minority views or aspects as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views or widely supported aspects. Generally, the views of tiny minorities should not be included at all, except perhaps in a "see also" to an article about those specific views." "Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represent all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint in the published, reliable sources. Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight mean that articles should not give minority views or aspects as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views or widely supported aspects. Generally, the views of tiny minorities should not be included at all, except perhaps in a "see also" to an article about those specific views." WP:BALANCE : "Neutrality assigns weight to viewpoints in proportion to their prominence. However, when reputable sources contradict one another and are relatively equal in prominence, describe both approaches and work for balance . This involves describing the opposing views clearly, drawing on secondary or tertiary sources that describe the disagreement from a disinterested viewpoint." "Neutrality assigns weight to viewpoints in proportion to their prominence. However, when reputable sources contradict one another and are relatively equal in prominence, describe both approaches and work for balance . This involves describing the opposing views clearly, drawing on secondary or tertiary sources that describe the disagreement from a disinterested viewpoint." How to handle such ambiguity on Wikipedia When two reliable sources contradict each other when providing information on the same event, choosing to believe one source's version of events instead of the other's, and deliberately omitting the latter from being used on Wikipedia in favour of the former does not show neutrality . The omitted source could actually be true, just not proven true yet . Still, it would be best advised to add the source which is more reputable . If both sources are equally reputable, it is better to include them both in the Wikipedia article, explaining in text how they contradict each other, e.g.: "This source says he was born on 21 October, while another source says he was born on 23 October." Also beware to avoid synthesis of published material , which is the combination of material from multiple sources to reach or imply a conclusion not explicitly stated by any of the sources. For example, if one source says a leaf is red and another source says it is brown, then do not say that the leaf is reddish-brown as neither source comes to that conclusion. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Wikipedia essays This page was last edited on 9 March 2025, at 15:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Blind_men_and_an_elephant
|
Page d’accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Pages spéciales Modifications récentes Faire un don Créer un compte Se connecter Faire un don Créer un compte Se connecter Sommaire Début 1 En bref 2 Relations internationales 3 Événements Afficher / masquer la sous-section Événements 3.1 Afrique 3.2 Amérique 3.3 Asie 3.4 Proche-Orient 3.5 Europe 3.1 Afrique 3.2 Amérique 3.3 Asie 3.4 Proche-Orient 3.5 Europe 4 Fondations en 1945 5 Naissances en 1945 6 Décès en 1945 7 Notes et références 8 Voir aussi Afficher / masquer la sous-section Voir aussi 8.1 Bibliographie 8.2 Articles connexes 8.3 Liens externes 8.1 Bibliographie 8.2 Articles connexes 8.3 Liens externes 1945 Аԥсшәа Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés العربية الدارجة مصرى Asturianu Авар Kotava Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Banjar বাংলা বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Dolnoserbski Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Kabɩyɛ Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Къарачай-малкъар Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Limburgs Ligure Lombard Lingála Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Papiamentu Polski پنجابی Português Runa Simi Română Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Anarâškielâ Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Tetun Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Tok Pisin Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Reo tahiti Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray მარგალური ייִדיש Vahcuengh Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Article Discussion Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Obtenir l'URL raccourcie Télécharger le code QR Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Wikimedia Commons Élément Wikidata Cette page concerne l'année 1945 (MCMXLV en chiffres romains) du calendrier grégorien . Pour les autres significations, voir 1945 (homonymie) . Jan - Fév - Mar - Avr - Mai - Juin Juil - Aoû - Sep - Oct - Nov - Déc 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 Décennies : 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Siècles : XVIII e XIX e XX e XXI e XXII e Millénaires : -I er I er II e III e .mw-parser-output div.NavFrame{background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);border:1px var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);border-style:solid;margin-bottom:1em;clear:both}.mw-parser-output div.NavFrame div.NavHead{min-height:1.6em;font-weight:bold;background-color:#efefef;color:var(--color-emphasized,#000);text-align:center}.mw-parser-output div.NavContent{display:block;margin:0;text-align:left}body:not(.mw-mf) .mw-parser-output div.NavFrame{padding:2px;text-align:center;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:95%}body:not(.mw-mf) .mw-parser-output div.NavPic{padding:2px;float:left}body:not(.mw-mf) .mw-parser-output div.NavEnd{height:0;clear:both}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div.NavFrame div.NavHead{background-color:#27292d}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table div.NavFrame a{color:#88a3e8}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table div.NavFrame a.new{color:#fd7865}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div.NavFrame div.NavHead{background-color:#27292d}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table div.NavFrame a{color:#88a3e8}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table div.NavFrame a.new{color:#fd7865}} Afrique Afrique du Sud , Algérie , Angola , Bénin , Botswana , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroun , Cap-Vert , République centrafricaine , Comores , République du Congo , République démocratique du Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Djibouti , Égypte , Érythrée , Éthiopie , Gabon , Gambie , Ghana , Guinée , Guinée-Bissau , Guinée équatoriale , Kenya , Lesotho , Liberia , Libye , Madagascar , Malawi , Mali , Mauritanie , Maurice , Maroc , Mozambique , Namibie , Niger , Nigeria , Ouganda , Rwanda , Sahara occidental , Sao Tomé-et-Principe , Sénégal , Seychelles , Sierra Leone , Somalie , Soudan , Soudan du Sud , Swaziland , Tanzanie , Tchad , Togo , Tunisie , Zambie et Zimbabwe Amérique Antigua-et-Barbuda , Argentine , Bahamas , Barbade , Belize , Bolivie , Brésil , Canada ( Alberta , Colombie-Britannique , Manitoba , Nouvelle-Écosse , Nouveau-Brunswick , Ontario , Québec , Saskatchewan , Territoires du Nord-Ouest et Yukon ) , Chili () , Colombie , Costa Rica , Cuba , République dominicaine , Dominique , Équateur , États-Unis () , Grenade , Guatemala , Guyana , Haïti , Honduras , Jamaïque , Mexique , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Pérou , Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès , Saint-Vincent-et-les-Grenadines , Sainte-Lucie , Salvador , Suriname , Trinité-et-Tobago , Uruguay et Venezuela Asie Abkhazie , Afghanistan , Arabie saoudite , Arménie , Azerbaïdjan , Bahreïn , Bangladesh , Bhoutan , Birmanie , Brunei , Cambodge , Caucase , Chine , Chypre , Corée du Nord , Corée du Sud , Émirats arabes unis , Géorgie , Inde , Indonésie , Irak , Iran , Israël , Japon , Jordanie , Kazakhstan , Kirghizistan , Kurdistan , Koweït , Laos , Liban , Malaisie , Maldives , Mongolie , Népal , Oman , Ossétie du Sud-Alanie , Ouzbékistan , Pakistan , Palestine () , Philippines , Proche-Orient , Qatar , Russie () , Singapour , Sri Lanka , Syrie , Tadjikistan , Taïwan , Thaïlande , Timor oriental , Turkménistan , Turquie , Viêt Nam et Yémen Europe Abkhazie , Allemagne , Albanie , Andorre , Arménie , Autriche , Azerbaïdjan , Belgique , Biélorussie , Bosnie-Herzégovine , Bulgarie , Caucase , Chypre , Croatie , Danemark () , Espagne , Estonie , Finlande , France ( Bretagne , Lorraine et ) , Géorgie , Grèce , Hongrie , Irlande , Islande , Italie , Kazakhstan , Kosovo , Lettonie , Liechtenstein , Lituanie , Luxembourg , Macédoine du Nord , Malte , Moldavie , Monaco , Monténégro , Norvège , Ossétie du Sud-Alanie , Pays-Bas , Pologne , Portugal , Roumanie , Royaume-Uni () , Russie () , Saint-Marin , Serbie , Slovaquie , Slovénie , Suède , Suisse , Tchéquie , Turquie , Ukraine et Vatican Océanie Australie , Îles Cook , États fédérés de Micronésie , Fidji , Indonésie , Îles Marshall , Nauru , Niue , Nouvelle-Zélande , Palaos , Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée , Kiribati , Îles Salomon , Samoa , Samoa américaines , Timor oriental , Tonga , Tuvalu et Vanuatu Mers et océans Manche , Mer Baltique , Mer des Caraïbes , Mer Caspienne , Mer Méditerranée , Mer du Nord , Mer Noire , Mer Rouge , Océan Arctique , Océan Atlantique , Océan Austral , Océan Indien et Océan Pacifique Antarctique Afrique du Sud , Algérie , Angola , Bénin , Botswana , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroun , Cap-Vert , République centrafricaine , Comores , République du Congo , République démocratique du Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Djibouti , Égypte , Érythrée , Éthiopie , Gabon , Gambie , Ghana , Guinée , Guinée-Bissau , Guinée équatoriale , Kenya , Lesotho , Liberia , Libye , Madagascar , Malawi , Mali , Mauritanie , Maurice , Maroc , Mozambique , Namibie , Niger , Nigeria , Ouganda , Rwanda , Sahara occidental , Sao Tomé-et-Principe , Sénégal , Seychelles , Sierra Leone , Somalie , Soudan , Soudan du Sud , Swaziland , Tanzanie , Tchad , Togo , Tunisie , Zambie et Zimbabwe Antigua-et-Barbuda , Argentine , Bahamas , Barbade , Belize , Bolivie , Brésil , Canada ( Alberta , Colombie-Britannique , Manitoba , Nouvelle-Écosse , Nouveau-Brunswick , Ontario , Québec , Saskatchewan , Territoires du Nord-Ouest et Yukon ) , Chili () , Colombie , Costa Rica , Cuba , République dominicaine , Dominique , Équateur , États-Unis () , Grenade , Guatemala , Guyana , Haïti , Honduras , Jamaïque , Mexique , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Pérou , Saint-Christophe-et-Niévès , Saint-Vincent-et-les-Grenadines , Sainte-Lucie , Salvador , Suriname , Trinité-et-Tobago , Uruguay et Venezuela Abkhazie , Afghanistan , Arabie saoudite , Arménie , Azerbaïdjan , Bahreïn , Bangladesh , Bhoutan , Birmanie , Brunei , Cambodge , Caucase , Chine , Chypre , Corée du Nord , Corée du Sud , Émirats arabes unis , Géorgie , Inde , Indonésie , Irak , Iran , Israël , Japon , Jordanie , Kazakhstan , Kirghizistan , Kurdistan , Koweït , Laos , Liban , Malaisie , Maldives , Mongolie , Népal , Oman , Ossétie du Sud-Alanie , Ouzbékistan , Pakistan , Palestine () , Philippines , Proche-Orient , Qatar , Russie () , Singapour , Sri Lanka , Syrie , Tadjikistan , Taïwan , Thaïlande , Timor oriental , Turkménistan , Turquie , Viêt Nam et Yémen Abkhazie , Allemagne , Albanie , Andorre , Arménie , Autriche , Azerbaïdjan , Belgique , Biélorussie , Bosnie-Herzégovine , Bulgarie , Caucase , Chypre , Croatie , Danemark () , Espagne , Estonie , Finlande , France ( Bretagne , Lorraine et ) , Géorgie , Grèce , Hongrie , Irlande , Islande , Italie , Kazakhstan , Kosovo , Lettonie , Liechtenstein , Lituanie , Luxembourg , Macédoine du Nord , Malte , Moldavie , Monaco , Monténégro , Norvège , Ossétie du Sud-Alanie , Pays-Bas , Pologne , Portugal , Roumanie , Royaume-Uni () , Russie () , Saint-Marin , Serbie , Slovaquie , Slovénie , Suède , Suisse , Tchéquie , Turquie , Ukraine et Vatican Australie , Îles Cook , États fédérés de Micronésie , Fidji , Indonésie , Îles Marshall , Nauru , Niue , Nouvelle-Zélande , Palaos , Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée , Kiribati , Îles Salomon , Samoa , Samoa américaines , Timor oriental , Tonga , Tuvalu et Vanuatu Manche , Mer Baltique , Mer des Caraïbes , Mer Caspienne , Mer Méditerranée , Mer du Nord , Mer Noire , Mer Rouge , Océan Arctique , Océan Atlantique , Océan Austral , Océan Indien et Océan Pacifique Art Architecture , Arts plastiques ( Dessin , Gravure , Lithographie , Peinture et Sculpture ) , Bande dessinée , Cinéma ( Liste des films soviétiques sortis ) , Dadaïsme et surréalisme , Danse , Disney , Échecs , Genres ( Fantasy et Science-fiction ) , () , Littérature () , Musique ( Populaire et Classique ) , Photographie , Radio , Télévision et Théâtre Ingénierie Aéronautique () , Architecture , Chemins de fer () , () et Parcs de loisirs Politique Droit , Élections , Fonction publique ( Police ) , Nations unies et Union européenne Religion Bouddhisme , Christianisme ( Catholicisme , et Protestantisme ) , Hindouisme , Islam et Judaïsme Science Archéologie , Astronomie () , Biologie , Chimie , Climatologie , Économie (discipline) , Exploration , Géologie , Histoire , Linguistique , Mathématiques , Numismatique , Paléontologie , Physique , Psychologie , Santé et médecine et Sociologie Sport Athlétisme , Aviron , Baseball , Boxe anglaise , Basket-ball , Bobsleigh , Canoë-kayak , Catch , Combiné nordique , Curling , Cyclisme , Escrime , Football ( Américain ) , Golf , Gymnastique , Haltérophilie , Handball , Hockey ( Sur gazon et Sur glace ) , Lutte , Natation , Patinage ( Artistique et De vitesse ) , Rugby ( À XIII et À XV ) , Ski , Sport automobile , Sports équestres , Sport hippique , Sports pluridisciplinaires ( Décathlon et Pentathlon moderne ) , Tennis () , Tir ( À l'arc et Sportif ) , Voile , () et Water-polo Décès Économie (activité humaine) Journalisme Naissance Philosophie Terrorisme Architecture , Arts plastiques ( Dessin , Gravure , Lithographie , Peinture et Sculpture ) , Bande dessinée , Cinéma ( Liste des films soviétiques sortis ) , Dadaïsme et surréalisme , Danse , Disney , Échecs , Genres ( Fantasy et Science-fiction ) , () , Littérature () , Musique ( Populaire et Classique ) , Photographie , Radio , Télévision et Théâtre Aéronautique () , Architecture , Chemins de fer () , () et Parcs de loisirs Droit , Élections , Fonction publique ( Police ) , Nations unies et Union européenne Bouddhisme , Christianisme ( Catholicisme , et Protestantisme ) , Hindouisme , Islam et Judaïsme Archéologie , Astronomie () , Biologie , Chimie , Climatologie , Économie (discipline) , Exploration , Géologie , Histoire , Linguistique , Mathématiques , Numismatique , Paléontologie , Physique , Psychologie , Santé et médecine et Sociologie Athlétisme , Aviron , Baseball , Boxe anglaise , Basket-ball , Bobsleigh , Canoë-kayak , Catch , Combiné nordique , Curling , Cyclisme , Escrime , Football ( Américain ) , Golf , Gymnastique , Haltérophilie , Handball , Hockey ( Sur gazon et Sur glace ) , Lutte , Natation , Patinage ( Artistique et De vitesse ) , Rugby ( À XIII et À XV ) , Ski , Sport automobile , Sports équestres , Sport hippique , Sports pluridisciplinaires ( Décathlon et Pentathlon moderne ) , Tennis () , Tir ( À l'arc et Sportif ) , Voile , () et Water-polo Décès Économie (activité humaine) Journalisme Naissance Philosophie Terrorisme Romain Chinois Grégorien Julien Hébraïque Hindou Hégirien Persan Républicain Romain Chinois Grégorien Julien Hébraïque Hindou Hégirien Persan Républicain modifier L'année 1945 est une année commune qui commence un lundi . En bref 27 janvier : Libération du camp de concentration d'Auschwitz 4 - 11 février : conférence de Yalta . 19 février : fin des massacres de Kremnička et Nemecká . 8 mai : capitulation de l’Allemagne nazie . mai - juin : massacres de Sétif, Guelma et Kherrata . mai - juillet : crise franco-britannique au Levant . 17 juillet - 2 août : conférence de Potsdam . 6 et 9 août : bombardements atomiques d'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki . 2 septembre : capitulation du Japon . 24 octobre : entrée en vigueur de la Charte de San Francisco , fondant l' Organisation des Nations unies (ONU) . 20 novembre : ouverture du procès de Nuremberg . 3 décembre : le coût de l’armement qui a été utilisé pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale est rendu public, soit plus de 1 000 milliards de dollars US. Relations internationales 25 avril : ouverture à San Francisco de la conférence des Nations unies chargée d’élaborer la charte de la nouvelle organisation internationale adoptée par les 50 États fondateurs le 26 juin [ 1 ] . La Charte des Nations unies marque la naissance de l’ ONU , qui remplace la SDN . Elle établit ses quartiers généraux à New York. 13 octobre : création de l’ UNESCO ( Organisation des Nations unies pour l’éducation, la science et la culture ) par 44 pays. 16 octobre : fondation à Québec de la FAO ( Food and Agricultural Organisation ) par l’ONU, son siège est établi à Rome en 1951 . 24 octobre : entrée en vigueur de la Charte des Nations unies (fondation de l’ ONU ) [ 1 ] avec la ratification par la Chine , les États-Unis , la France , le Royaume-Uni , l’ URSS et par la majorité des autres pays signataires. Le 24 octobre de chaque année est célébrée la Journée des Nations unies . 16 novembre : création de l’ Organisation des Nations unies pour l’éducation, la science et la culture (UNESCO). 27 décembre : fondation de la Banque mondiale par 28 nations. Événements Afrique Janvier : émeutes dans plusieurs villes de l’Ouganda contre les bas salaires et l’augmentation du coût de la vie [ 2 ] . parution de la Voix du Congolais . La revue paraît régulièrement de 1945 à 1959 sous l’autorité de son rédacteur en chef Antoine-Roger Bolamba [ 3 ] . émeutes dans plusieurs villes de l’Ouganda contre les bas salaires et l’augmentation du coût de la vie [ 2 ] . parution de la Voix du Congolais . La revue paraît régulièrement de 1945 à 1959 sous l’autorité de son rédacteur en chef Antoine-Roger Bolamba [ 3 ] . 6 mars : publication de la constitution Richards au Nigeria [ 4 ] . 8 - 13 mai , Algérie française : massacre de Sétif, Guelma et Kherrata . Émeutes nationalistes dans l’Oranais à l’occasion de la célébration de la capitulation nazie [ 4 ] . La répression menée par les autorités françaises provoque plusieurs milliers de morts. Juin , Algérie : une sécheresse inhabituelle aggravée par une invasion de sauterelles cause la crise du blé. La métropole organise une aide humanitaire envers les départements français d’Algérie [ 5 ] . 22 juin - 4 août : campagne de protestations et grève générale au Nigeria orchestrée par Nnamdi Azikiwe [ 6 ] . 31 août : communiqué final de la conférence de Paris sur Tanger qui exige l'évacuation par l' Espagne de la zone de Tanger et établit un régime provisoire [ 7 ] . 2 septembre : Colonial Development and Welfare Act [ 4 ] . 5 septembre : l’Association des colons du Cameroun (Ascocam), constituée le 15 avril à Yaoundé, réunit à Douala des états généraux de la colonisation. Ils réaffirment l’attachement des colons aux formes les plus rétrogrades de la colonisation en opposition avec les décisions de la Conférence de Brazzaville [ 8 ] . 24 - 26 septembre : grèves à Douala . Des émeutes nationalistes éclatent dans la partie française du Cameroun et sont réprimées dans le sang [ 8 ] . 15 - 21 octobre : le V e Congrès panafricain de Manchester proclame la « détermination des Africains à être libres » [ 9 ] . Kwame Nkrumah crée un Secrétariat National Ouest-Africain, activement soutenu par la WASU ( West Africa Students Union ) pour en appliquer concrètement les résolutions. Ce mouvement promeut l’idée d’une Fédération ouest-africaine, premier échelon vers la réalisation d’États-Unis d’Afrique. 20 octobre : grève des employés africains des chemins de fer de Bulawayo en Rhodésie [ 10 ] . 22 octobre : mot d’ordre de grève générale au Congo belge sur la question des pensions coloniales [ 11 ] . 5 - 7 novembre : émeutes anti-juives à Tripoli [ 12 ] . 20 décembre : création du franc CFA (Colonie française d’Afrique), avec une parité de 1 franc CFA pour 1,70 franc métropolitain, puis à partir du 17 octobre 1948 , de 100 francs CFA pour 200 francs français [ 13 ] . Décembre — janvier 1946 : agitation parmi le personnel africain du chemin de fer des Grands Lacs à Kindu , Kongolo , Albertville [ 14 ] . Premiers Africains au Conseil législatif à Zanzibar , au Tanganyika et en Ouganda [ 15 ] . Amérique 21 février - 8 mars : conférence panaméricaine extraordinaire de Chapultepec , près de Mexico , réunissant 21 États du continent américain, qui vont tenter d’établir un traité sur la solidarité interaméricaine. La déclaration finale de la conférence proclame le principe de l’égalité des droits pour tous les hommes « quelles que soient leur race ou leur religion ». L’acte de Chapultepec recommande l’élaboration d’un traité d’assistance réciproque. Il est décidé que les pays qui n’ont pas encore déclaré la guerre aux forces de l’Axe le feraient afin de pouvoir adhérer aux Nations unies et ainsi de constituer un groupe américain puissant [ 16 ] . Entrée en guerre du Paraguay , de l’ Uruguay , de l’ Équateur ( 2 février ), du Venezuela , du Chili et du Pérou ( 12 février ). L’ Argentine entre en guerre le 27 mars , un mois et trois jours avant le suicide d’ Hitler [ 17 ] . 11 mars : José Figueres Ferrer forme le parti social-démocrate au Costa Rica qui multiplie les critiques sur la corruption du régime [ 18 ] ( Acción Demócrata , qui devient le Parti Libération nationale en 1951 ). 15 mars : après plus d’un siècle de dictatures militaires, un réformiste, Juan José Arévalo , élu à la présidence en décembre 1944 , prend le pouvoir au Guatemala (fin en 1951 ). Le même jour est promulguée une nouvelle Constitution démocratique, inspirée de celle du Mexique [ 19 ] . Un nouveau code du travail est mis en place (journée de huit heures, salaire minimum, droit de grève et de syndicalisation). Un institut de sécurité sociale est créé et une campagne contre l’analphabétisme est lancée. 12 avril : décès du président Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Le vice-président Harry S. Truman ( Parti démocrate ) lui succède à la présidence des États-Unis (jusqu’en 1953 ) [ 20 ] . 28 juillet : démocratie au Pérou . José Luis Bustamante prend ses fonctions de président , à l’occasion d’une élection exceptionnellement honnête [ 21 ] . L’ Alliance populaire révolutionnaire américaine , le grand parti d’opposition de Haya de la Torre , qui n’a pas été autorisé à y participer, s’allie avec Bustamante. S’ouvre une période de réformisme de trois ans. 31 juillet : démission du président colombien Alfonso López Pumarejo qui pense promouvoir un accord avec l’opposition [ 22 ] . En 1946 le pays entre dans une période d’extrême violence. 9 octobre , Argentine : le vice-président Juan Perón est relevé de ses fonctions par une fraction de l’armée qui lui est hostile [ 23 ] . 17 octobre , Argentine : une immense foule d’ouvriers et de laissés-pour-compte envahit la place de Mai de Buenos Aires pour réclamer la réintégration de Juan Perón au gouvernement [ 23 ] . 18 octobre : au Venezuela , un coup d’État appuyé par le parti social-démocrate AD ( Acción Democrática ) destitue Isaías Medina Angarita [ 24 ] . Le leader de la junte, Rómulo Betancourt , élu président, établit la démocratie ( trieno , 1945- 1948 ) : suffrage universel, réforme agraire, révision des royalties payées par les compagnies pétrolières étrangères, lois favorables aux syndicats, arbitrage des conflits, etc. Forte de l’appui populaire, l’AD gagne toutes les élections partielles entre 1946 et 1948. 29 octobre , Brésil : le président Getúlio Vargas au Brésil est déposé par un groupe de généraux. Après la victoire des Alliés, Vargas décide l’élection d’un nouveau président et d’une assemblée constituante pour le 2 décembre . Les militaires inquiets, s’emparent du pouvoir. Vargas se retire dans le Rio Grande do Sul . Les officiers désignent José Linhares , président de la Cour suprême, pour diriger le gouvernement jusqu’aux élections. Le général Eurisco Dutra , candidat du Partido Social Democratico , fondé par Vargas, est élu avec une majorité PSD à l’Assemblée et au Sénat en décembre [ 25 ] (début de mandat le 31 janvier 1946 ). 7 novembre [ 26 ] : le Mexique devient officiellement membre de l’ ONU . Asie 1er janvier , inauguration du Tata Institute of Fundamental Research 4 janvier , Birmanie : les Britanniques prennent l'île d' Akyab [ 27 ] et la Force 136 commence à livrer des armes aux « résistants » birmans et aux guérillas AFPFL en Arakan [ 28 ] . 9 janvier , Philippines : les Américains débarquent sur l’île de Luçon avec 200 000 hommes [ 27 ] . 12 janvier : la 25 e division indienne débarque sur péninsule de Myebon, en Birmanie [ 29 ] . 21 janvier : la 26 e division indienne débarque sur l’île birmane de Ramree [ 29 ] , prend le port stratégique de Kyaukpyu et occupe désormais toute la péninsule de Myebon [ 30 ] . Le blocus japonais de la Chine est brisé, les forces chinoises font la jonction sur la route de Birmanie totalement dégagée. 28 janvier : le premier convoi parti d’ Inde et ayant pris la route de Birmanie , rebaptisée « route Stilwell » par Tchang Kaï-chek , arrive à Wanting, en Chine [ 31 ] . 30 janvier : raid de Cabanatuan ; 511 prisonniers de guerre détenus par les Japonais sont libérés par les Alliés aux Philippines [ 32 ] . Janvier - février : en Indochine française , pour fuir la terrible famine qui ravage le Tonkin , des populations entament un exode pour rejoindre les régions ayant censément connu une meilleure récolte. 50 000 personnes environ périssent durant les déplacements de population : le nombre de victimes de la famine se monte au minimum à plusieurs centaines de milliers [ 33 ] . 3 février : début de la bataille de Manille aux Philippines [ 27 ] . Plus de 100 000 civils philippins trouvent la mort, victimes aussi bien des exactions japonaises que des bombardements alliés en zone urbaine. La ville est sous le contrôle des Alliés le 3 mars : La prise de Manille fut l'une des étapes principales de la reconquête des Philippines, occupées par l' empire du Japon depuis trois ans [ 34 ] . 4 - 11 février : à la conférence de Yalta , les Alliés conviennent de placer la Corée sous le contrôle des États-Unis et de l’URSS pour veiller à la reddition et au désarmement des troupes japonaises. À Potsdam , les zones d’occupations sont fixées au niveau du 38 e parallèle [ 35 ] . 14 février , Java oriental : insurrection d’une unité de la Peta , force supplétive mise en place par l’occupant japonais [ 36 ] . 15 - 21 février : prise de Bataan par les Alliées, hautement symbolique après la lourde défaite américano-philippine de 1942 et de la marche de la mort qui s’en était suivie [ 37 ] . 15 février - 26 mars : bataille d’Iwo Jima , particulièrement meurtrière ; plus de 20 000 soldats japonais et 6 000 marines sont tués [ 38 ] . 28 février : débarquement américain sur Palawan [ 27 ] . 3 mars , Birmanie : les Britanniques ( IV e corps de Messervy ) reprennent Meiktila [ 39 ] . 9 mars : Plus de 100 000 victimes périssent en 2 jours lors des bombardements de Tokyo par 300 bombardiers B-29 américains qui lancent des bombes incendiaires [ 40 ] . Coup de force japonais contre les Français en Indochine [ 41 ] . Les Japonais renversent par surprise le pouvoir colonial français qui collaborait pourtant avec eux. Faible résistance des Français qui se solde par l’exécution de 460 prisonniers dont le général Émile Lemonnier . Des officiers français sont parachutés pour organiser des maquis. Plus de 100 000 victimes périssent en 2 jours lors des bombardements de Tokyo par 300 bombardiers B-29 américains qui lancent des bombes incendiaires [ 40 ] . Coup de force japonais contre les Français en Indochine [ 41 ] . Les Japonais renversent par surprise le pouvoir colonial français qui collaborait pourtant avec eux. Faible résistance des Français qui se solde par l’exécution de 460 prisonniers dont le général Émile Lemonnier . Des officiers français sont parachutés pour organiser des maquis. 10 mars : débarquements américains successifs sur Mindanao [ 27 ] et sur les îles de l’archipel de Sulu aux Philippines. 11 mars : l’empereur Bảo Đại proclame l’indépendance de l' Empire du Viêt Nam [ 42 ] . 12 mars : Sihanouk proclame l’indépendance du Cambodge à Phnom Penh . Les nationalistes, soutenus par les Japonais, prennent le pouvoir [ 42 ] . 16 mars , Laos : Sisavang Vong , roi de Luang Prabang , fidèle au protectorat français , invite ses compatriotes à aider les Français et à se battre contre les Japonais [ 42 ] . 18 mars et 26 mars : débarquements américains successifs dans les Visayas aux Philippines ( Opérations Victor I et II ) [ 43 ] . 20 mars , Birmanie : les Britanniques reprennent Mandalay [ 39 ] . 21 mars - 28 avril , Chine : offensive japonaise de l’Ouest du Hunan contre les aérodromes alliés au nord du Yangzi . La base majeure de Laohekou dans le Hubei est prise le 8 avril après un siège difficile. Une énorme contre-offensive chinoise sauve la base de Ankang et reprend Laohekou. Plus au sud, les Japonais atteignent Zhijiang [ 44 ] où ils capitulent le 21 août . 27 mars : les communistes de l’AIB ( Armée nationale de Birmanie ), sur les ordres de l’ex-collaborateur Aung San , se soulèvent contre les Japonais et prennent la capitale Rangoon , reprise le 3 mai par la 14 e armée britannique . En été, la Birmanie est entièrement reconquise par les Britanniques [ 45 ] . Début de l’ Opération Famine . Minage des eaux intérieures du Japon [ 46 ] . les communistes de l’AIB ( Armée nationale de Birmanie ), sur les ordres de l’ex-collaborateur Aung San , se soulèvent contre les Japonais et prennent la capitale Rangoon , reprise le 3 mai par la 14 e armée britannique . En été, la Birmanie est entièrement reconquise par les Britanniques [ 45 ] . Début de l’ Opération Famine . Minage des eaux intérieures du Japon [ 46 ] . 1 er avril : début de la bataille d’Okinawa . Les forces alliées convergent sur Okinawa . Plus de 500 000 soldats interviennent dans cette opération amphibie. L’île est conquise complètement le 21 juin (11 260 soldats américains sont tués, 34 000 sont blessés ; le Japon perd de 77 166 à 110 000 soldats ; de 40 000 à 150 000 civils sont tués) [ 40 ] . 5 avril , Japon : le gouvernement de Kuniaki Koiso décide de négocier la paix, mais ne parvient pas imposer ses vues aux militaires et démissionne. Kantarō Suzuki lui succède le 7 avril , et Shigenori Tōgō , partisan de la paix, devient ministre des Affaires étrangères [ 47 ] . 6 avril - 7 juin , Chine : contre-offensive chinoise dans la bataille de l’ouest d’Hunan . 7 avril : opération Ten-Gō . L’aéronavale américaine coule le plus gros bâtiment de la marine japonaise, le cuirassé Yamato , envoyé dans une mission suicide devant Okinawa [ 48 ] . 8 avril , Indochine française : au Laos , les Japonais obligent Sisavang Vong , roi du Luang Prabang , à proclamer l’indépendance [ 42 ] . 13 - 14 avril : des centaines de Boeing B-29 américains bombardent l’arsenal de Tokyo [ 49 ] . 27 avril : les Américains débarquent à Digos , dans le golfe de Davao à Mindanao, aux Philippines. Le 3 mai , ils entrent dans la ville de Davao , détruite par les Japonais [ 50 ] . Début de la bataille de Davao . 29 avril : les occupants japonais acceptent la formation d’une Commission d’enquête pour la préparation de l’indépendance de l’Indonésie [ 51 ] . Durant l’été, les mouvements de résistance contrôlent Java à l’exception des villes. 1 er mai : les Alliés débarquent à Bornéo , conquise en août [ 52 ] . 3 mai : fin de la campagne de Birmanie avec la prise de Rangoun par les Britanniques [ 39 ] . Le mouvement Thakin a profité de la faiblesse du gouvernement installé par les Japonais pour résister à la domination nippone à travers la Ligue anti-fasciste pour la liberté du peuple (AFPFL). Après la guerre, les Britanniques découvrent que l’AFPFL, dirigée par Aung San , a la mainmise sur le pouvoir politique indigène. 16 mai : le croiseurs lourds japonais Haguro est coulé par les Britanniques au détroit de Malacca [ 53 ] . 17 mai : début des attaques aérienne directe sur le Japon depuis Okinawa [ 54 ] . 23 et 25 mai : les bombardements redoublent sur Tokyo [ 47 ] . 29 mai : bombardement de Damas par les troupes françaises [ 55 ] . 25 juin : échec de la conférence de Simla, réunie par le vice-roi Archibald Wavell pour étudier la formation d’un gouvernement intérimaire en Inde [ 56 ] . 20 juillet - 4 août : en Birmanie , l’ armée japonaise en retraite est décimée dans la basse vallée de la Sittang (près de 8 000 morts) [ 57 ] . 23 - 24 juillet et 28 - 30 juillet : le bombardement de la base navale de Kure anéantit à peu près tout ce qui reste de la flotte japonaise [ 58 ] . 26 juillet : « déclaration de Potsdam ». Les alliés réunis à Potsdam invitent le Japon à se rendre sans conditions sous peine de destruction [ 59 ] . 28 juillet : Le croiseur de bataille Haruna est coulé par l'aéronavale américaine lors du bombardement de Kure , il était le dernier croiseur de bataille de classe Kongō encore à flot 30 juillet : le croiseur USS Indianapolis est coulé par un sous-marin japonais [ 60 ] . 6 et 9 août : bombardements atomiques d’Hiroshima et Nagasaki . Le 6 août , après le rejet de l’ultimatum de Potsdam, un bombardier américain largue Little Boy , une bombe atomique à l’uranium sur Hiroshima [ 59 ] - Bilan : 75 000 morts et 90 000 blessés sur une population de 250 000 personnes. 8 août : l’ URSS déclare la guerre au Japon , elle va occuper Sakhaline , les îles Kouriles , et envahit la Mandchourie [ 59 ] . Nuit du 8 au 9 août : le nationaliste Son Ngoc Thanh devient Premier ministre du Cambodge [ 61 ] . Il affirme sa volonté de maintenir l’indépendance, mais est arrêté le 16 octobre après le retour des Français [ 62 ] . 9 août : une seconde bombe atomique , Fat Man , est larguée sur Nagasaki [ 59 ] , faisant environ 38 000 morts. 10 août : révolution d’août . Appel à l’insurrection lancé par le comité de libération du peuple du Viêt Nam dirigé par Hô Chi Minh [ 63 ] . 11 août : le maréchal japonais Terauchi annonce aux dirigeants nationalistes indonésiens Soekarno , Hatta et Rajiman, invités à Dalat , en Indochine, que l’indépendance de l’Indonésie serait accordée le 24 août [ 51 ] . 12 août : occupation du Nord de la Corée par les Soviétiques [ 64 ] . L’URSS apporte son soutien à Kim Il-sung , qui rentre en Corée le 19 septembre avec un groupe de partisans antijaponais [ 65 ] . 14 août : Bảo Đại annonce l’annexion de la Cochinchine à son royaume [ 66 ] . Traité d’amitié et d’alliance entre l’ Union soviétique et la République chinoise ; l’accord répartit leurs pouvoirs en Mandchourie [ 67 ] . Bảo Đại annonce l’annexion de la Cochinchine à son royaume [ 66 ] . Traité d’amitié et d’alliance entre l’ Union soviétique et la République chinoise ; l’accord répartit leurs pouvoirs en Mandchourie [ 67 ] . 15 août : l’empereur Hirohito annonce la reddition sans condition du Japon à la radio [ 68 ] . Il demande dans son allocution l'arrêt des combats. C’est la capitulation officieuse du Japon [ 59 ] . 17 août : Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu est nommé Haut-commissaire de France et commandant en chef pour l’ Indochine ; il entre en fonction le 2 novembre [ 69 ] . Soekarno et Hatta proclament l’indépendance de l’Indonésie vis-à-vis des Pays-Bas à Batavia qui retrouve son nom de Jakarta [ 51 ] . Les Pays-Bas s’y opposent. Cette proclamation marque le début de la décolonisation et de la Révolution nationale indonésienne . Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu est nommé Haut-commissaire de France et commandant en chef pour l’ Indochine ; il entre en fonction le 2 novembre [ 69 ] . Soekarno et Hatta proclament l’indépendance de l’Indonésie vis-à-vis des Pays-Bas à Batavia qui retrouve son nom de Jakarta [ 51 ] . Les Pays-Bas s’y opposent. Cette proclamation marque le début de la décolonisation et de la Révolution nationale indonésienne . 18 août : une Constitution est proclamée en Indonésie. Soekarno devient président de la république d’Indonésie ; Hatta , vice-président [ 70 ] . 19 août : le Việt Minh entre dans Hanoï et prend le pouvoir [ 71 ] . en Birmanie, lors d'une réunion publique, l’Organisation anti-fasciste devient la Ligue anti-fasciste pour la liberté du peuple (LAFPL) dont le but est de lutter contre le Royaume-Uni pour obtenir l’indépendance complète du pays et la tenue d’élections au suffrage universel [ 72 ] . Le secrétaire général de cette ligue, Thakin Than Tun , est le beau-frère du président Aung San qui rompt avec le marxisme . le Việt Minh entre dans Hanoï et prend le pouvoir [ 71 ] . en Birmanie, lors d'une réunion publique, l’Organisation anti-fasciste devient la Ligue anti-fasciste pour la liberté du peuple (LAFPL) dont le but est de lutter contre le Royaume-Uni pour obtenir l’indépendance complète du pays et la tenue d’élections au suffrage universel [ 72 ] . Le secrétaire général de cette ligue, Thakin Than Tun , est le beau-frère du président Aung San qui rompt avec le marxisme . 21 août : capitulation officielle du Japon vis-à-vis de la Chine, sur l’aérodrome de Zhijiang dans le Hunan . Fin de la guerre sino-japonaise [ 73 ] . Communistes et nationalistes se retrouvent face à face. Mao Zedong domine le Nord, pénètre en Mandchourie occupée par les soviétiques. Tchang Kaï-chek regagne Nankin et récupère la plupart des grandes villes. 23 août : Joseph Staline , en tant que commissaire du peuple à la Défense, ordonne le transfert de 500 000 prisonniers de guerre japonais en Union soviétique pour effectuer des travaux forcés (ordre N° 9898) [ 74 ] . 25 août : l’empereur du Viêt Nam Bảo Đại abdique [ 63 ] . 28 août : les Alliés débarquent sur Honshu . Début de l’ occupation du Japon (fin en 1952 ) [ 75 ] . 2 septembre : L’empereur du Japon reconnaît officiellement la défaite, en signant avec le général Douglas MacArthur sur le cuirassé américain Missouri le document de sa capitulation sans condition . Cet acte met fin au dernier conflit en cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et entérine l’ occupation du Japon par les États-Unis [ 59 ] . Hô Chi Minh proclame la République démocratique du Viêt Nam à Hanoi [ 63 ] . L’empereur du Japon reconnaît officiellement la défaite, en signant avec le général Douglas MacArthur sur le cuirassé américain Missouri le document de sa capitulation sans condition . Cet acte met fin au dernier conflit en cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et entérine l’ occupation du Japon par les États-Unis [ 59 ] . Hô Chi Minh proclame la République démocratique du Viêt Nam à Hanoi [ 63 ] . 6 septembre : le « Comité pour l’indépendance » dirigée par Yo Unhyŏng réunit une assemblée constituante à Séoul qui proclame la République populaire de Corée [ 76 ] . Le lendemain , les États-Unis , par leur représentant le général Hodge , dissolvent les Comités de libération nationale [ 77 ] . Le 11 septembre , ils établissant un gouvernement militaire dirigée par Archibald Arnold , qui le 10 octobre déclare la république populaire illégale [ 78 ] . 8 septembre : le Sud de la Corée est occupé par les États-Unis ; les forces japonaises en Corée du Sud capitulent le lendemain [ 64 ] . 12 septembre : reddition des forces japonaises de Singapour. La Malaisie repasse sous contrôle britannique le 25 septembre [ 79 ] . 15 septembre : le gouvernement provisoire du prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa proclame l’indépendance du Laos [ 80 ] . 16 septembre : les forces britanniques débarquent en Indonésie pour participer au maintien de l’ordre contre les forces nationalistes indonésiennes qui essayaient d’empêcher le retour des Hollandais dans la colonie [ 51 ] . 19 septembre , Inde : de retour de Londres après trois semaines de consultations avec le gouvernement travailliste de Clement Attlee , le vice-roi Archibald Wavell annonce pour décembre les élections aux législatures centrales et provinciales , ajournées en raison de la guerre, et à leur issue la création d’un corps chargé de rédiger la Constitution. Il souhaite que la création d’un « gouvernement responsable ». Le comité du Congrès pan-indien , réuni sous la direction du Mahatma Gandhi et du Pandit Nehru , rejette les propositions du vice-roi d’autonomie interne selon la proposition Cripps de 1942 et demande au Royaume-Uni de quitter l’ Inde [ 81 ] . 23 septembre : Jean Cédile , délégué de la France en Indochine parachuté le 22 août , prend le contrôle de l’administration civile de Saïgon [ 82 ] . 5 octobre : Leclerc débarque à Saïgon . En vertu des accords de Potsdam ( 2 août ), les nationalistes chinois occupent le pays au nord du 16 e parallèle et les Britanniques le sud de cette ligne. Cependant, à partir du 3 octobre , les troupes du général Leclerc débarquent à Saigon et relèvent rapidement les Britanniques [ 83 ] . 9 octobre : Kijūrō Shidehara , Premier ministre du Japon [ 59 ] . Le gouvernement japonais reste en place à condition d’exécuter les instructions des vainqueurs ( MacArthur , 11 octobre ) : démilitarisation de la société, dissolution des zaibatsu (trusts enrichis par l’industrie de guerre), abolition de la police contrôlant l’opinion publique, réforme agraire, loi sur les unions ouvrières, suffrage universel féminin [ 84 ] . 10 octobre : conférence de Pyongyang. Le parti communiste de Corée (fondé en 1925 ) installe ses bureaux dans la zone occupée par l’ Union soviétique . Fondation du parti révolutionnaire de la classe ouvrière coréenne qui devient le 28 août 1946 le parti du travail de Corée . Kim Il-sung en devient le premier secrétaire le 18 décembre [ 65 ] . La Corée du Nord fonctionne à partir de 1945 sur un schéma stalinien : l’économie est totalement socialisée et les habitants doivent vouer un culte de la personnalité au leader communiste Kim Il-sung . 12 octobre : opposé au roi Sisavang Vong qui souhaite le rétablissement du protectorat français du Laos , le gouvernement Lao Issara ( Laos libre ) promulgue une constitution provisoire ; le roi est déchu le 20 octobre par la Chambre des représentants du peuple, désignée par les indépendantistes [ 80 ] . 14 - 19 octobre : affrontement entre les forces japonaises et de jeunes nationalistes indonésiens à Semarang [ 85 ] . 24 octobre , Indochine : le groupement Massu de la 2 e DB lance l’opération Moussac, sur le delta du Mékong , pour reprendre les capitales provinciales de My Tho et Can Tho [ 83 ] . 25 octobre : le nationaliste Syngman Rhee fonde l’Association nationale pour la réalisation rapide de l’indépendance coréenne [ 78 ] . 27 octobre - 20 novembre : bataille de Surabaya . Les troupes britanniques venues désarmer les forces d’occupation japonaise, prennent le contrôle de Surabaya, en Indonésie, malgré la résistance des soldats indépendantistes [ 85 ] . 6 novembre : mémorandum en 9 points du gouverneur général des Indes néerlandaises Van Mook accordant l’autonomie partielle à l’Indonésie. Devant la réticence de l’opinion britannique et les pressions internationales (monde musulman, Australie , États-Unis ), le gouvernement hollandais de La Haye doit se résoudre à négocier ( 15 octobre ) [ 51 ] . 7 novembre : création du Masjumi (Conseil consultatif des musulmans d’Indonésie), parti musulman conservateur rassemblant les grands propriétaires et certains éléments de la bourgeoisie (commerçants et entrepreneurs) [ 86 ] . 14 novembre : Sutan Sjahrir devient chef du gouvernement de la république d’Indonésie ; il refuse toute négociation avec les Pays-Bas sans la reconnaissance préalable de l’indépendance [ 87 ] . 27 décembre : création à l’issue de la conférence de Moscou d’une « Commission d’Extrême-Orient » et d’un « Conseil allié pour le Japon », siégeant à Tokyo [ 88 ] . Décembre : élections législatives en Inde . Le Congrès national indien obtient 91,3 % des voix des non-musulmans et 57 sièges. La Ligue musulmane , partisane de la partition des Indes, remporte les 30 sièges réservés aux musulmans [ 56 ] . Proche-Orient 9 janvier , Égypte : le Premier ministre Ahmad Mahir Pacha organise des élections qui sont boycottées par le Parti Wafd . Les partis du gouvernement remportent la majorité des sièges parlementaires [ 89 ] . Le 24 février , l’Égyptien Mahir Pacha annonce son intention de déclarer la guerre aux puissances de l’Axe, entraînant le mécontentement des forces politiques radicales [ 90 ] . 14 février : pacte du Quincy . rencontre historique à bord de l’ USS Quincy , sur le canal de Suez , entre le président américain Franklin D. Roosevelt et le roi d’ Arabie saoudite Ibn Sa’ud [ 91 ] . le Royaume-Uni décide de réduire sa subvention à l’ Arabie saoudite tandis que les États-Unis maintiennent la leur. Ils envoient une mission militaire chargée d’instruire l’armée saoudienne et obtiennent la possibilité d’établir une base militaire à Dhahran (accord du 6 août ) [ 92 ] . 23 février : la Turquie déclare la guerre à l’ Allemagne et au Japon [ 93 ] . 24 février : le Premier ministre égyptien Ahmad Mahir Pacha est assassiné par un jeune nationaliste [ 94 ] . 22 mars : à Alexandrie , Égypte , création de la Ligue arabe avec comme membres fondateurs l’ Égypte , l’ Irak , le Liban , l’ Arabie saoudite , la Syrie , la Transjordanie , rejoints par le Yémen le 10 mai [ 95 ] . Elle doit favoriser la coopération entre ses membres. Abd al-Azzam Pacha , un Égyptien, est nommé premier secrétaire général de la Ligue. 25 avril - 26 juin : l’émir Faysal se rend aux États-Unis à la tête de la délégation saoudienne à la conférence de San Francisco [ 96 ] . 29 mai : après des manifestations réclamant l’indépendance promise, une véritable révolte éclate au Liban et en Syrie . Des affrontements sanglants ont lieu à Damas entre l’armée française et la police syrienne. Les Français bombardent Damas. le Royaume-Uni menace d’intervenir militairement. Un cessez-le-feu est proclamé et les troupes françaises rentrent dans leurs casernes [ 97 ] . 21 juin : les gouvernements syrien et libanais réunis à Damas publient un communiqué commun dans lequel ils déclarent relever tous les Français de leurs services et de travailler en vue du retrait des troupes françaises (effectif en août 1946 ) [ 98 ] . 13 août : dans une lettre au Premier ministre britannique Clement Attlee , Truman demande au Royaume-Uni qu’il délivre 100 000 certificats d’immigration en Palestine pour les rescapés de la Shoah [ 99 ] . Devant le refus de Londres , Truman décide de porter la question sur la place publique. 6 octobre : agitation estudiantine sans lendemain en Égypte à l’occasion de la reprise des cours [ 100 ] . Octobre : en Irak , le soulèvement kurde mené par Mulla Mustafa Barzani est réprimé. Barzani se réfugie avec ses partisans dans le kurdistan iranien pour créer la république de Mahabad [ 101 ] . 2 novembre : le jour anniversaire de la déclaration Balfour , des manifestations antisionistes éclatent en Syrie, en Égypte, au Liban et en Irak [ 102 ] . En Égypte, les manifestations pour le retrait des troupes britanniques dégénèrent en actes de pillages et de violences ; à Alexandrie, au Caire, à Suez et à Port-Saïd , les émeutes anti-juives orchestrées par les Frères musulmans font douze morts et deux cent cinquante blessés [ 103 ] . 10 décembre , crise irano-soviétique : création de la république populaire d’Azerbaïdjan à Tabriz [ 104 ] . 13 décembre : Français et Britanniques négocient leur évacuation définitive de la Syrie et du Liban [ 105 ] . 15 décembre , crise irano-soviétique : création dans le Kurdistan iranien de la république indépendante du Kurdistan, ou république de Mahabad [ 104 ] . 20 décembre : le gouvernement égyptien demande officiellement la révision du traité de 1936 avec le Royaume-Uni [ 106 ] . Europe 1 er janvier : opération Bodenplatte , opération aérienne de la Luftwaffe dans le cadre de la bataille des Ardennes [ 107 ] . opération Nordwind dernière offensive de la Wehrmacht en Alsace du nord et en Lorraine (fin le 25 janvier ) [ 108 ] . opération Bodenplatte , opération aérienne de la Luftwaffe dans le cadre de la bataille des Ardennes [ 107 ] . opération Nordwind dernière offensive de la Wehrmacht en Alsace du nord et en Lorraine (fin le 25 janvier ) [ 108 ] . 2 janvier : Charles de Gaulle refuse l’ordre américain d’évacuer Strasbourg et donne l’ordre à la 1 re armée française de défendre la ville au plus tard le 5 janvier [ 109 ] . 4 janvier : des comités d’épuration sont mis en place en Hongrie. Le 25 janvier , un décret du Gouvernement provisoire hongrois institue des tribunaux populaires. Le 7 février , le ministre de la Justice publie une circulaire demandant d’établir des listes des criminels de guerre et des organisations fascistes. Le 21 juin , un décret confidentiel réglemente les internements administratifs et coordonne les rapports entre la police politique hongroise (l’ÁVO, puis ÁVH ) et les tribunaux populaires [ 110 ] . L’action de la police politique s’exerce d’abord contre les criminels de guerre et les fascistes, puis contre tous les « ennemis intérieurs » et autres « suspects », désignés par la direction du Parti communiste. 12 janvier : offensive Vistule-Oder [ 111 ] lancée par l’ Armée rouge qui établit une tête de pont sur l’Oder le 31 janvier , d’où elle menace directement Berlin. 13 janvier : offensive soviétique en Prusse-Orientale [ 112 ] . Elle s’achève avec la prise de Pillau le 25 avril [ 113 ] . 14 - 27 janvier : opération Blackcock . La II e armée britannique procède au nettoyage du triangle Ruremonde , Sittard et Heinsberg aux Pays-Bas [ 114 ] . 14 janvier : les derniers détenus du camp de concentration de Plaszow ( Cracovie ) sont transférés à Auschwitz avant l’arrivée des soviétiques [ 115 ] . 16 janvier : jonction à Houffalize des 1 re et 3 e armées américaines. L’ offensive allemande des Ardennes est brisée [ 116 ] . 17 janvier : entrée de l’ Armée rouge ( Joukov ) à Varsovie [ 111 ] (17 au 22 janvier ). 20 janvier : le gouvernement provisoire hongrois soutenu par les Soviétiques signe l’armistice à Moscou , qui stipule une « reddition sans condition » [ 117 ] . La Hongrie est administrée par une Commission de contrôle alliée dirigée par le maréchal Kliment Vorochilov , qui arrive à Debrecen le 3 février [ 118 ] . 23 janvier : l’armée soviétique atteint l’ Oder près de Breslau [ 119 ] . La Haute-Silésie est sous contrôle soviétique à la fin du mois pendant que Joukov au Nord entre en Poméranie . 26 janvier : la 4 e armée allemande est encerclée dans la poche d’Heiligenbeil par la 5 e armée blindée de la Garde soviétique [ 120 ] (fin en mars). 27 janvier : libération du camp d’extermination d’ Auschwitz-Birkenau par les troupes soviétiques, où il reste 7 000 prisonniers [ 121 ] . Les SS ont tenté de détruire les quatre fours crématoires avant de se retirer [ 122 ] . 30 janvier : le Wilhelm Gustloff avec plus de 10 000 réfugiés venus du port de Gotenhafen dans la baie de Dantzig est coulé par trois torpilles du sous-marin soviétique S-13 . Entre 5 300 et 9 300 personnes périssent dans la mer Baltique [ 123 ] . 30 janvier - 2 février : conférence de Malte entre Roosevelt et Churchill sur la conduite des opérations militaires en Europe occidentale et les divergences de vues anglo-américaines relatives au règlement des questions en suspens en Italie, en Grèce et en Belgique. Accord sur l’attribution des zones d’influence en Allemagne après la Guerre [ 124 ] . 31 janvier : les troupes soviétiques franchissent l’ Oder au nord de Küstrin [ 125 ] . 2 février : Mühlviertler Hasenjagd , assassinat des prisonniers soviétiques évadés du camp de Mauthausen , en Autriche, au terme d’une chasse à l’homme [ 126 ] . 4 - 11 février : conférence de Yalta réunissant les États-Unis , le Royaume-Uni et l’ URSS représentés par Roosevelt , Churchill et Staline . Les Alliés s’engagent à organiser des élections libres en Europe après la victoire. Ils délimitent des zones d’influence en Allemagne entre les puissances américaine, britannique et soviétique (l’idée du partage de l’Europe en zones d’influence est définie par Churchill à Staline en octobre 1944 , à la conférence de Moscou ). Des accords sont conclus sur l’entrée en guerre de l’URSS en Asie en contrepartie d’avantages territoriaux sur les frontières orientales de la Pologne, sur l’octroi à la France d’une zone d’occupation en Allemagne et sur le fonctionnement de la future Organisation des Nations unies [ 127 ] . L’URSS obtient que la RSS d’Ukraine et la RSS de Biélorussie deviennent membre à part entière des Nations unies à l’issue de la conférence de San Francisco [ 128 ] . 5 février - 31 mars : opération Corn Flakes , opération de propagande anti-nazie en Allemagne et en Autriche [ 129 ] . 8 février : opération Grenade . La 9 e armée américaine traverse la Roer le 23 février [ 130 ] . 8 février - 11 mars : opération Veritable lancée pour chasser les forces allemandes de la zone entre le Rhin et la Meuse, à l’est de Nimègue [ 131 ] . 10 février : le General von Steuben est coulé par le sous-marin soviétique S-13 , causant la mort de 3 408 personnes [ 132 ] . 10 février - 4 avril : offensive soviétique en Poméranie orientale [ 133 ] . 12 février , Grèce : traité de Várkiza ; les communistes acceptent que leurs forces armées soit dissoutes [ 40 ] . 13 février : prise de Budapest par les Soviétiques après 50 jours de combat [ 134 ] . 13 février - 15 février : bombardement de Dresde par les avions britanniques et américains [ 135 ] . 35 000 morts. 13 février - 6 mai : siège de Breslau par les Soviétiques [ 136 ] . 15 - 19 février : échec d’une tentative de consolidation du front allemand en Poméranie occidentale [ 137 ] . 23 février : prise de Posen par les Soviétiques [ 138 ] . 23 - 24 février : bombardement de Pforzheim par la Royal Air Force [ 135 ] . 24 février : insurrection communiste à Budapest. Des coups de feu sont tirés par l’armée, et le premier ministre Nicolae Rădescu doit démissionner le 28 février sous la pression des autorités soviétiques d’occupation. Petru Groza lui succède le 6 mars . Le Parti communiste roumain prend le contrôle de fait du Royaume de Roumanie [ 139 ] . 27 février : bombardement de Mayence [ 135 ] . 2 mars : la IX e armée américaine atteint le Rhin près de Neuss [ 130 ] . 2 - 5 mars : opération Gemse , contre-offensive allemande en Silésie, sur le front de l’Est . Goebbels se rend à Lauban le 8 mars après la reprise de la ville [ 140 ] . 3 mars : évacuation des internés de Hinzert [ 141 ] . 5 - 6 mars : Cologne est prise par les Alliés [ 142 ] . 6 mars , Roumanie : gouvernement de coalition dirigé par Petru Groza , sympathisant communiste formé sous la pression soviétique. Groza entreprend l’épuration de l’administration (90 000 personnes sont arrêtées). Les communistes occupent la plupart des postes clés, aux côtés des socialistes et des nationaux-libéraux. Dans les mois qui suivent, ils s’emploient à supprimer toute opposition [ 143 ] . 6 - 15 mars : opération Frühlingserwachen , dernière grande offensive allemande, lancée en Hongrie dans la région du lac Balaton [ 144 ] . 7 mars : franchissement du Rhin par les Alliés à Remagen [ 130 ] . gouvernement provisoire d’unité nationale du maréchal Tito en Yougoslavie. Il promulgue un programme de réformes sociales et économiques modérées [ 145 ] . franchissement du Rhin par les Alliés à Remagen [ 130 ] . gouvernement provisoire d’unité nationale du maréchal Tito en Yougoslavie. Il promulgue un programme de réformes sociales et économiques modérées [ 145 ] . 8 mars : début de l’opération « bus blancs », conduite par la Croix-Rouge suédoise pour évacuer les détenus scandinaves des camps de concentration allemands [ 146 ] . 12 mars : attaque aérienne sur Swinemünde qui est détruite en grande partie par l’ US Air Force [ 147 ] . 13 - 28 mars : destruction de la 4 e armée allemande dans la poche d’Heiligenbeil par les Soviétiques [ 148 ] . 15 - 24 mars : opération Undertone pour sécuriser la rive occidentale du Rhin au nord de la Moselle [ 149 ] . 16 - 17 mars : bombardement de Wurtzbourg par la Royal Air Force [ 150 ] . 17 mars : effondrement du pont de Remagen [ 151 ] . 18 mars : bataille de la mer Ligure [ 152 ] . 19 mars : Adolf Hitler ordonne la destruction des infrastructures allemandes pour empêcher leur utilisation par les forces alliées [ 153 ] . 22 - 23 mars : traversée du Rhin par la 2 e armée britannique (opération Plunder) [ 130 ] . 23 mars : loi 187 sur la réforme agraire en Roumanie : expropriation sans indemnités des terres des « collaborateurs et criminels de guerre » et des propriétés de plus de 50 ha. La redistribution est confiée à des commissions paysannes souvent dirigées par des ouvriers communistes venus des villes. 1,5 million d’ha sont confisqués et plus d’un million redistribués à 800 000 paysans, le reste constituant des « domaines d’État » [ 143 ] . 24 mars : opération Varsity , parachutage de deux divisions aéroportées derrière les lignes allemandes, près de Wesel [ 154 ] . 25 mars : opération Archway . Les troupes du Special Air Service (SAS) traversent le Rhin à bord de véhicules amphibies [ 155 ] . 27 mars : les Allemands tirent, à partir de La Haye leur dernier missile V2 qui tombera sur Orpington , au sud-est de Londres [ 156 ] . 29 mars : entrée des troupes soviétiques en Autriche : Le 13 avril 1945 , les garnisons allemandes, à court de munitions et dépassées numériquement, se rendent à l' Armée rouge [ 157 ] . occupation de Francfort par l’armée américaine [ 158 ] . entrée des troupes soviétiques en Autriche : Le 13 avril 1945 , les garnisons allemandes, à court de munitions et dépassées numériquement, se rendent à l' Armée rouge [ 157 ] . occupation de Francfort par l’armée américaine [ 158 ] . 30 mars : le gouvernement provisoire polonais crée la voïvodie de Gdańsk [ 117 ] . 4 avril : les troupes américaines prennent Cassel [ 159 ] . libération de Bratislava par l’ Armée rouge [ 111 ] . La Hongrie est libérée totalement de l’envahisseur allemand. le gouvernement provisoire hongrois dirigé par Béla Miklós s’installe a Budapest. Il lance de grandes réformes, notamment en confisquant les propriétés féodales et ecclésiastiques (réforme agraire limitant la propriété à 57 hectare en juin-juillet) [ 117 ] . Edvard Beneš installe un gouvernement tchécoslovaque , à forte proportion communiste, à Košice [ 160 ] . les troupes américaines prennent Cassel [ 159 ] . libération de Bratislava par l’ Armée rouge [ 111 ] . La Hongrie est libérée totalement de l’envahisseur allemand. le gouvernement provisoire hongrois dirigé par Béla Miklós s’installe a Budapest. Il lance de grandes réformes, notamment en confisquant les propriétés féodales et ecclésiastiques (réforme agraire limitant la propriété à 57 hectare en juin-juillet) [ 117 ] . Edvard Beneš installe un gouvernement tchécoslovaque , à forte proportion communiste, à Košice [ 160 ] . 4 - 12 avril : bataille de Heilbronn . L’armée américaine conquiert le Bade-Wurtemberg après avoir pilonné la ville [ 161 ] . 5 avril : Tchécoslovaquie : Le programme de Košice adopte le principe d’une république où Tchèques et Slovaques seraient traités sur un pied d’égalité, avec un programme de nationalisations, une réforme agraire et la planification de l’économie [ 160 ] . Tito signe un accord avec l’Union soviétique permettant l’« entrée temporaire de troupes soviétiques sur le territoire yougoslave » [ 163 ] . Tchécoslovaquie : Le programme de Košice adopte le principe d’une république où Tchèques et Slovaques seraient traités sur un pied d’égalité, avec un programme de nationalisations, une réforme agraire et la planification de l’économie [ 160 ] . Tito signe un accord avec l’Union soviétique permettant l’« entrée temporaire de troupes soviétiques sur le territoire yougoslave » [ 163 ] . Nuit du 5 au 6 avril : opération Radetzky . Échec d’une insurrection contre les Nazis à Vienne [ 164 ] . début de l’ insurrection géorgienne de Texel , rébellion des soldats soviétiques géorgiens capturés sur le front russe, qui avaient choisi de combattre pour les Allemands plutôt que de mourir dans les camps de prisonniers ; elle s’achève le 20 mai avec l’arrivée des Alliés [ 165 ] . opération Radetzky . Échec d’une insurrection contre les Nazis à Vienne [ 164 ] . début de l’ insurrection géorgienne de Texel , rébellion des soldats soviétiques géorgiens capturés sur le front russe, qui avaient choisi de combattre pour les Allemands plutôt que de mourir dans les camps de prisonniers ; elle s’achève le 20 mai avec l’arrivée des Alliés [ 165 ] . 6 - 10 avril : évacuations à Buchenwald [ 166 ] . 7 avril : opération Amherst contre les troupes allemandes en retraite dans la province de Drenthe , aux Pays-Bas [ 167 ] . 9 avril : capitulation de Königsberg assiégé par les Soviétiques [ 111 ] . 9 avril - 2 mai : offensive militaire alliée doublée des opérations des partisans en Italie du Nord [ 168 ] . 10 avril : entrée des troupes soviétiques dans Vienne [ 169 ] . 10 - 28 avril : combats de l’ Authion [ 170 ] ; les troupes d’infanterie alpine finissent par reprendre les forts des Alpes, dans lesquels s’étaient retranchées des troupes allemandes, mais au prix de durs combats. 14 avril : libération des Pays-Bas ; les soldats canadiens occupent Arnhem [ 171 ] , puis Groningue le 18 avril [ 172 ] . 15 avril : libération du camp de Bergen-Belsen par les troupes britanniques et canadiennes [ 166 ] . début de l’opération Vénérable. Les troupes allemandes de la poche de Royan et de la pointe de Grave se rendent les 17 et 20 avril [ 173 ] . libération du camp de Bergen-Belsen par les troupes britanniques et canadiennes [ 166 ] . début de l’opération Vénérable. Les troupes allemandes de la poche de Royan et de la pointe de Grave se rendent les 17 et 20 avril [ 173 ] . 16 avril : bataille des hauteurs de Seelow [ 174 ] . Début de l’offensive soviétique contre Berlin [ 111 ] . Nuit du 16 au 17 avril : naufrage du Goya dans la mer Baltique coulé par le sous-marin soviétique L-3 , environ 6 500 morts [ 175 ] . 17 - 20 avril : bataille de Nuremberg [ 176 ] . 18 avril : les forces allemandes encerclées dans la poche de la Ruhr capitulent [ 177 ] . 18 - 27 avril : bataille de Bautzen , dernière grande bataille de chars de la guerre, en Saxe [ 178 ] . 19 - 25 avril : évacuation partielle de Sachsenhausen et de Ravensbrück [ 179 ] . 21 avril : prise de Stuttgart par les Français du 49 e régiment d'infanterie [ 180 ] . l’ URSS signe un pacte d’amitié avec le gouvernement provisoire polonais [ 181 ] . prise de Stuttgart par les Français du 49 e régiment d'infanterie [ 180 ] . l’ URSS signe un pacte d’amitié avec le gouvernement provisoire polonais [ 181 ] . 23 avril : Molotov , reçu à la Maison-Blanche , se fait reprocher le comportement de l’ Union soviétique vis-à-vis de la Pologne [ 182 ] . 25 avril : les troupes soviétiques encerclent Berlin [ 183 ] . Elbe Day ; jonction des troupes américaines et soviétiques à Torgau sur l’ Elbe [ 183 ] . le social-démocrate Karl Renner forme un gouvernement provisoire autrichien incluant des populistes, des communistes et des socialistes [ 169 ] . les troupes soviétiques encerclent Berlin [ 183 ] . Elbe Day ; jonction des troupes américaines et soviétiques à Torgau sur l’ Elbe [ 183 ] . le social-démocrate Karl Renner forme un gouvernement provisoire autrichien incluant des populistes, des communistes et des socialistes [ 169 ] . 27 avril : proclamation de l’indépendance en Autriche [ 169 ] . 28 avril : Adolf Hitler destitue Heinrich Himmler de toutes ses fonctions après l’échec de son projet de reddition [ 184 ] . le dictateur italien Benito Mussolini et sa compagne Clara Petacci sont fusillés par des partisans communistes, leurs corps nus sont pendus par les pieds sur la place Loreto, à Milan [ 185 ] . Adolf Hitler destitue Heinrich Himmler de toutes ses fonctions après l’échec de son projet de reddition [ 184 ] . le dictateur italien Benito Mussolini et sa compagne Clara Petacci sont fusillés par des partisans communistes, leurs corps nus sont pendus par les pieds sur la place Loreto, à Milan [ 185 ] . Nuit du 28 au 29 avril : dernier gazage à Mauthausen [ 186 ] . 28 avril : la 1 re armée française franchit la frontière autrichienne et occupe le Vorarlberg [ 187 ] . 29 avril : les forces Alliées libèrent le camp de concentration de Dachau [ 179 ] ; massacre de troupes SS par des soldats américains [ 188 ] . Adolf Hitler épouse Eva Braun [ 184 ] . les forces Alliées libèrent le camp de concentration de Dachau [ 179 ] ; massacre de troupes SS par des soldats américains [ 188 ] . Adolf Hitler épouse Eva Braun [ 184 ] . 30 avril : suicides de Adolf Hitler et Eva Braun dans le bunker de la chancellerie à Berlin, alors que les troupes russes approchent de son bunker. Joseph Goebbels prend le pouvoir. Il refuse de capituler [ 184 ] . 1 er mai : suicides de Joseph Goebbels et de sa femme Magda après avoir tué leurs 6 enfants [ 184 ] . début du gouvernement de Flensbourg dirigé par Karl Dönitz (fin le 23 mai ) [ 189 ] . les partisans yougoslaves entrent dans Trieste et proclament son rattachement à la Yougoslavie [ 190 ] . suicides de Joseph Goebbels et de sa femme Magda après avoir tué leurs 6 enfants [ 184 ] . début du gouvernement de Flensbourg dirigé par Karl Dönitz (fin le 23 mai ) [ 189 ] . les partisans yougoslaves entrent dans Trieste et proclament son rattachement à la Yougoslavie [ 190 ] . 2 mai : prise de Berlin par l’ Armée rouge de Koniev et de Joukov . Le drapeau soviétique flotte sur le Reichstag [ 191 ] . la garnison allemande de Hambourg ouvre des négociations en vue de la capitulation [ 192 ] . capitulation des dernières troupes allemandes en Italie [ 192 ] . prise de Berlin par l’ Armée rouge de Koniev et de Joukov . Le drapeau soviétique flotte sur le Reichstag [ 191 ] . la garnison allemande de Hambourg ouvre des négociations en vue de la capitulation [ 192 ] . capitulation des dernières troupes allemandes en Italie [ 192 ] . 3 mai : naufrages du Cap Arcona , du Thielbek et du Deutschland coulés par la RAF dans la baie de Lübeck [ 193 ] . 3 - 6 mai : les troupes américaines occupent Innsbruck , Salzbourg et Linz en Autriche. Les Français franchissent l’ Arlberg et occupent le Tyrol [ 169 ] . 4 mai : libération par l’armée britannique du camp de Neuengamme totalement vide [ 194 ] . reddition à 18 h 20 des armées des Pays-Bas, de l’Allemagne du Nord, des îles de la Frise , d’ Heligoland et du Schleswig-Holstein au maréchal Bernard Montgomery [ 195 ] . libération par l’armée britannique du camp de Neuengamme totalement vide [ 194 ] . reddition à 18 h 20 des armées des Pays-Bas, de l’Allemagne du Nord, des îles de la Frise , d’ Heligoland et du Schleswig-Holstein au maréchal Bernard Montgomery [ 195 ] . 5 mai : libération du camp de Mauthausen par les Américains [ 179 ] . sachant l’arrivée des armées soviétiques imminente, la population de Prague se soulève contre l’occupant nazi [ 192 ] . massacre de Leskovice . 26 civils sont exécutés par les nazis en retraite [ 196 ] . libération du camp de Mauthausen par les Américains [ 179 ] . sachant l’arrivée des armées soviétiques imminente, la population de Prague se soulève contre l’occupant nazi [ 192 ] . massacre de Leskovice . 26 civils sont exécutés par les nazis en retraite [ 196 ] . 7 mai : à 2 h 41 du matin, dans une école Reims (France), le général Alfred Jodl et l’état-major des troupes allemandes du front Ouest signent la reddition sans condition de l’ Allemagne selon lequel l’ensemble des forces armées allemandes doivent cesser leurs opérations le 8 mai à 23 h 01 (le 9 mai à 00 h 01, heure de Moscou) [ 195 ] . libération des survivants du camp de concentration de Theresienstadt par les Soviétiques [ 197 ] . à 2 h 41 du matin, dans une école Reims (France), le général Alfred Jodl et l’état-major des troupes allemandes du front Ouest signent la reddition sans condition de l’ Allemagne selon lequel l’ensemble des forces armées allemandes doivent cesser leurs opérations le 8 mai à 23 h 01 (le 9 mai à 00 h 01, heure de Moscou) [ 195 ] . libération des survivants du camp de concentration de Theresienstadt par les Soviétiques [ 197 ] . 8 mai : l’ Acte définitif de capitulation du Troisième Reich est signé à Berlin vers 23 h 30 [ 131 ] par le général Stumpff , l’amiral von Friedeburg et le maréchal Keitel en présence du maréchal Joukov (URSS), du général Spaatz (États-Unis), du général Tedder (Royaume-Uni) et du général de Lattre de Tassigny (France) [ 195 ] . interruption du prêt-bail des États-Unis à la Russie pour faire pression sur elle [ 198 ] . l’ Acte définitif de capitulation du Troisième Reich est signé à Berlin vers 23 h 30 [ 131 ] par le général Stumpff , l’amiral von Friedeburg et le maréchal Keitel en présence du maréchal Joukov (URSS), du général Spaatz (États-Unis), du général Tedder (Royaume-Uni) et du général de Lattre de Tassigny (France) [ 195 ] . interruption du prêt-bail des États-Unis à la Russie pour faire pression sur elle [ 198 ] . 9 mai : les Tchèques s’étant soulevés contre les nazis , l’ Armée rouge intervient et libère Prague dans la liesse populaire [ 111 ] . début de l’ opération Doomsday , destinée à assurer la libération de la Norvège [ 199 ] . libération du camp de concentration de Theresienstadt [ 179 ] . les Tchèques s’étant soulevés contre les nazis , l’ Armée rouge intervient et libère Prague dans la liesse populaire [ 111 ] . début de l’ opération Doomsday , destinée à assurer la libération de la Norvège [ 199 ] . libération du camp de concentration de Theresienstadt [ 179 ] . 11 - 12 mai : bataille de Slivice [ 200 ] . Les Soviétiques poursuivent leur action afin de conquérir la plus grande partie de la Tchécoslovaquie [ 131 ] . 14 - 15 mai , Yougoslavie : bataille de Poljana , dernier combat de la guerre en Europe [ 201 ] . 16 mai : le gouvernement provisoire d’ Edvard Beneš s’installe à Prague [ 202 ] . 23 mai : retour des travaillistes dans l’opposition au Royaume-Uni [ 203 ] . arrêté par les Britanniques, Himmler , ministre de l’Intérieur du Reich et organisateur du système de répression, se suicide à Barnstedt (ou est liquidé par les Britanniques) [ 184 ] . l’amiral Karl Dönitz capitule à Flensbourg [ 189 ] . retour des travaillistes dans l’opposition au Royaume-Uni [ 203 ] . arrêté par les Britanniques, Himmler , ministre de l’Intérieur du Reich et organisateur du système de répression, se suicide à Barnstedt (ou est liquidé par les Britanniques) [ 184 ] . l’amiral Karl Dönitz capitule à Flensbourg [ 189 ] . 31 mai : le gouvernement en exil de Johan Nygaardsvold revient s’installer en Norvège [ 204 ] pour démissionner le 25 juin , comme il en a pris l’engagement [ 205 ] . 27 - 31 mai , Yougoslavie : 11 700 membres de la Garde nationale slovène réfugiés en Autriche sont rapatriés par les autorités militaires britanniques. Début d’une série d’exécutions massives des gardes nationaux et de leurs familles par les partisans à Kočevski Rog (en) , Hrastnik , Teharje (en) , Maribor , etc [ 206 ] . 5 juin : déclaration de Berlin sur le statut de l’ Allemagne occupée . Elle sera divisée en zones confiées aux États-Unis , à l’ Union soviétique , au Royaume-Uni et à la France , qui exercent l’autorité suprême. La région de Berlin , également découpée en zones, sera commandée par une commission de contrôle [ 207 ] . Les décisions concernant l’Allemagne entière seront prises à l’unanimité des quatre puissances. 10 juin : l’Administration militaire soviétique en Allemagne (SMAD) autorise la formation de partis politiques dans la zone d’occupation soviétique [ 208 ] . 18 - 21 juin : procès des seize , procès politique des chefs militaires de la Résistance polonaise à Moscou, accusés « d’avoir fomenté des plans visant à une action militaire contre l’URSS » [ 209 ] . 19 juin : l’ Espagne franquiste est exclue de la future ONU à la conférence de San Francisco [ 210 ] . 28 juin : après la défaite allemande, une coalition organise un gouvernement polonais d’union nationale, fusion des gouvernements de Londres et de Lublin , présidé par le socialiste Edward Osóbka-Morawski et dominé par le Parti ouvrier polonais [ 117 ] . Ce gouvernement est officiellement reconnu le mois suivant par les États-Unis et la Grande-Bretagne, qui ont obtenu des Soviétiques la promesse d’élections libres lors de la conférence de Yalta . 29 juin : traité de Moscou entre l’URSS et la Tchécoslovaquie . La Ruthénie subcarpatique , prise par les Hongrois à la Tchécoslovaquie en 1939 , est rattachée à l’ Ukraine [ 160 ] . 5 juillet : les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni reconnaissent le gouvernement communiste polonais, Staline s’étant entre-temps rallié à leur position en matière de procédure au Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies (La France reconnaît le gouvernement polonais dès le 30 juin ) [ 211 ] . 5 - 26 juillet : écrasante défaite de Winston Churchill aux élections législatives britanniques . Les travaillistes remportent 393 sièges contre 213 aux conservateurs . Clement Attlee forme un cabinet travailliste [ 212 ] . 9 juillet : les accords de Londres fixent les quatre zones d’ occupation des Alliés en Autriche . Vienne , divisée en quatre secteurs à partir du 1 er septembre , est soumise à une autorité quadripartite [ 169 ] . 17 juillet : le Fuero de los Españoles ( charte des Espagnols ) proclame les droits et les devoirs du peuple [ 213 ] . 17 juillet - 2 août : conférence de Potsdam entre Truman , le Britannique Attlee et Staline . L’ Union soviétique obtient des territoires de Prusse-Orientale , la frontière occidentale de la Pologne est fixée provisoirement par la ligne Oder-Neisse , les Allemands des territoires annexés seront expulsés [ 207 ] . L’ Autriche ne paiera pas de réparations [ 169 ] . Les traités de paix seront préparés par les ministres des Affaires étrangères des cinq pays alliés (avec la Chine ). Délimitation des quatre zones d’ occupation en Allemagne . Staline refuse l’internationalisation des voies d’eau européennes. Le démantèlement de l’industrie lourde de l’Allemagne est prévu. La question des réparations est réglée à la satisfaction de l’URSS qui obtient à Potsdam le droit de prélever non seulement ce qu’elle veut dans sa zone d’occupation, mais encore un quart de l’équipement des zones occidentales. Condamnation du franquisme [ 210 ] . 19 juillet : la question royale se pose en Belgique. Le Parlement belge adopte une loi n’autorisant pas le retour du roi sans que le Sénat et la Chambre ne se prononcent sur la fin de l’ impossibilité de régner de Léopold III . Le roi renonce à rentrer en Belgique où l’opposition à son retour est très vive. Il refuse cependant d’abdiquer [ 214 ] . 20 juillet , Espagne : l’arrivée d’ Alberto Martín-Artajo Álvarez comme ministre des Affaires étrangères inaugure une nouvelle orientation (accès de démocrates-chrétiens au gouvernement) [ 215 ] . 26 juillet : début du ministère travailliste de Clement Attlee , Premier ministre du Royaume-Uni (fin le 26 octobre 1951 ) [ 212 ] . 2 août : décret du président Beneš supprimant la citoyenneté tchécoslovaque pour les personnes d’origine ethnique allemande et magyare [ 216 ] . Les décrets du 21 juin et du 25 octobre confisquent sans indemnité tout le patrimoine des ressortissants germaniques et hongrois de Tchécoslovaquie [ 217 ] . Une série de décrets permettent l’ expulsion de 2,5 millions d’ Allemands des Sudètes (1945-1946). La majorité est dirigée vers la Bavière, une partie vers l’Autriche [ 218 ] . 6 août : les Soviétiques établissent des relations diplomatiques avec la Roumanie [ 219 ] , reconnaissant de facto le gouvernement Groza . Les 17 et 19 août , les Anglo-Saxons, qui veulent s’assurer de sa représentativité, informent le roi Michel I er qu’ils ne reconnaissent pas le gouvernement Groza [ 220 ] . 8 août : accord de Londres sur la mise en place du Tribunal militaire international [ 221 ] . 11 août : pogrom de Cracovie [ 222 ] . 17 août : première réunion à Mexico des Cortes espagnols en exil. La Junte d’union nationale et la Junte espagnole de libération se regroupent en un gouvernement en exil présidé par José Giral et se préparent à entrer en Espagne . Diego Martínez Barrio est désigné comme président de la Seconde République espagnole en exil [ 223 ] . 21 août : « Grève royale » en Roumanie. Le roi Michel I er tente de se débarrasser de Petru Groza en formant un nouveau « gouvernement démocratique », incluant les partis libéral et paysan . Groza refuse de démissionner et le roi en appelle aux Alliés (coup d’État royal). Il se retire à Sinaia et refuse de signer les décrets du gouvernement [ 220 ] . 27 août : l’ URSS et la Hongrie signent un accord économique (approuvé par le gouvernement hongrois le 12 octobre et ratifié par la Commission politique le 20 décembre ) [ 224 ] . 2 septembre : arrêt de l’ accord prêt-bail entre le Royaume-Uni les États-Unis [ 198 ] . 3 septembre : application de la réforme agraire déjà engagée en Saxe dans la zone d’occupation soviétique [ 208 ] . Les propriétés de plus de 100 ha sont expropriées. 19 septembre : création des Länder allemands de Bavière , Hesse et Bade-Wurtemberg par proclamation du gouvernement militaire américain [ 207 ] . 20 septembre : loi n° 1 du Conseil de contrôle allié portant abrogation du droit nazi [ 225 ] . 22 septembre : l’ URSS et la Hongrie rétablissent leurs relations diplomatiques [ 226 ] . 8 octobre : autorisation du Mouvement d’union démocratique ( Movimento de Unidade Democrática , MUD), parti d’opposition au Portugal [ 227 ] . Il n’aura aucun représentant à la chambre. Cette prétendue libéralisation politique permet à Salazar de surveiller les opposants. 20 - 21 octobre : le congrès national wallon se tient à Liège , en Belgique. Discours de Fernand Dehousse sur le fédéralisme [ 228 ] . 22 octobre : une loi en Espagne franquiste prévoit des consultations populaires par référendum [ 213 ] . création au Portugal du PIDE , Police internationale de défense de l’État (1945-1969) [ 229 ] . L’instruction des procès politiques est officiellement enlevée au juge pour être confiée à la police politique. Des tribunaux spéciaux (plenarios) sont créés à Lisbonne et à Porto . une loi en Espagne franquiste prévoit des consultations populaires par référendum [ 213 ] . création au Portugal du PIDE , Police internationale de défense de l’État (1945-1969) [ 229 ] . L’instruction des procès politiques est officiellement enlevée au juge pour être confiée à la police politique. Des tribunaux spéciaux (plenarios) sont créés à Lisbonne et à Porto . 24 octobre , Norvège : le chef du gouvernement collaborateur Vidkun Quisling , condamné à mort pour haute trahison le 6 septembre , est exécuté [ 230 ] . 30 octobre : élections législatives au Danemark. Les partis bourgeois remportent la majorité mais ne parviennent pas à constituer un cabinet de coalition. Knud Kristensen ( Venstre ) forme un gouvernement minoritaire homogène [ 231 ] ( 7 novembre 1945 - 4 octobre 1947 ). 4 novembre , Hongrie : le Parti des petits propriétaires, dirigé par Zoltán Tildy , remporte les élections législatives au détriment du parti communiste avec 57 % des mandats [ 117 ] . La république est proclamée en janvier 1946 et Tildy élu président. Un gouvernement de coalition est formé, avec une participation disproportionnée des communistes. 9 novembre - 21 décembre : conférence de Paris sur les réparations imposées à l’Allemagne [ 232 ] . À l’issue de la conférence, les Soviétiques ont commencé les prélèvements dans leur zone. Les occidentaux recevront un certain pourcentage de biens d’équipements industriels. 11 novembre : élection d’une Assemblée constituante en Yougoslavie [ 145 ] . Les modérés, officiellement empêchés de présenter des candidats, boycottent les élections. Les candidats du Front populaire, contrôlés par les communistes, obtiennent 80 % des voix. 13 novembre , Pologne : le communiste Władysław Gomułka est nommé Ministre des territoires libérés, un poste créé pour l’administration des territoires cédés par l’Allemagne [ 233 ] . 18 novembre : le « Front patriotique » bulgare (communiste) obtient 88,14 % des voix aux élections générales [ 234 ] . 20 novembre : ouverture du procès de Nuremberg de 24 chefs nazis (verdict le 1 er octobre 1946 [ 207 ] . 25 novembre : victoire des populistes devant les socialistes aux élections législatives en Autriche [ 169 ] . 29 novembre : l’assemblée proclame la République fédérale populaire de Yougoslavie [ 145 ] . 30 novembre : sur décision du Conseil de contrôle allié , démantèlement de l’ IG Farben , gigantesque « konzern » de l’industrie chimique allemande. Elle est scindée en trois entreprises BASF , Hoechst et Bayer [ 235 ] . 2 décembre : victoire du « Front démocratique » albanais d’ Enver Hoxha avec 93 % des voix [ 236 ] . 14 décembre : le procès de Nuremberg révèle le massacre de six millions de Juifs [ 237 ] . 27 décembre : communiqué final de la conférence de Moscou réunissant les ministres des Affaires étrangères des États-Unis, du Royaume-Uni et de l’URSS du 16 au 26 décembre . Staline fait des concessions dans sa sphère d’influence : élections libres en Hongrie et en Autriche , retrait de l’ Armée rouge de Tchécoslovaquie , élections acceptables en Bulgarie . En Roumanie , les Britanniques et les Américains exigent pour reconnaître le gouvernement Petru Groza l’inclusion de représentants du PNP et du PNL , ce qui est fait non sans réticence [ 88 ] . Fondations en 1945 Naissances en 1945 Décès en 1945 mars : Anne Frank (jeune allemande juive) 26 mars : David Lloyd George (homme politique britannique) 12 avril : Franklin Delano Roosevelt (homme politique américain) 28 avril : Benito Mussolini (homme politique italien) 30 avril : Adolf Hitler (homme politique allemand) 1er mai : Joseph Goebbels (homme politique allemand) 23 mai : Heinrich Himmler (homme politique allemand) 8 juin : Robert Desnos (poète français) 20 juillet : Paul Valéry (écrivain et poète français) 15 septembre : Anton Webern (compositeur autrichien) 26 septembre : Béla Bartok (compositeur et pianiste hongrois) 15 octobre : Pierre Laval (homme politique français) 21 décembre : George Patton (militaire américain) Notes et références ↑ a et b Christian Behrendt et Frédéric Bouhon, Introduction à la Théorie générale de l'État , vol. 1, Bruxelles, Larcier, 2009 , 617 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8044-3516-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Ali A. Mazrui, Histoire Générale de l'Afrique : L'Afrique depuis 1935 , vol. 8, UNESCO, 1998 , 1190 p. ( ISBN 978-92-3-201714-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Kadima Nzuji Mukala, La littérature zaïroise de langue française : 1945-1965 , Karthala , 1984 , 342 p. ( ISBN 978-2-86537-100-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Hélène d'Almeida-Topor, L'Afrique du XX e siècle à nos jours , Armand Colin , 2013 , 416 p. ( ISBN 978-2-200-28893-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ « Du blé pour l'Algérie », sur ina.fr . ↑ Babafemi O. Elufiede, Labor Unions and Politics. The experience of Nigerian Working Class , Xlibris Corporation, 2010 , 277 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4628-2712-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jean-Pierre Debats, « Tanger, son statut, sa zone (1923-1956) », Horizons Maghrébins - Le droit à la mémoire , vol. 31-32, 1996 , p. 17-23 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Ange Bergson Lendja Ngnemzué, Politique et émigration irrégulière en Afrique : enjeux d'une débrouille par temps de crise , Paris/Saint-Denis, Karthala , 2010 , 246 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8111-0346-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ [Ethiopiques - Revue négro-africaine de littérature et de philosophie.] ↑ Brian Raftopoulos et Alois Mlambo, Becoming Zimbabw e : A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 , African Books Collective, 2008 , 260 p. ( ISBN 978-1-77922-083-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Fernand Kikongi di Mwinsa Lekula, Le Syndicalisme congolais pendant la colonisation (1908-1960) , Centre protestant d'éditions et de diffusion, 2004 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Ronald Bruce St John, Historical Dictionary of Libya , Rowman & Littlefield, 2014 , 550 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8108-7876-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Almeida-Topor 2013 , 1947. ↑ Mutamba Makombo, Du Congo belge au Congo indépendant, 1940-1960 : émergence des "évolués" et genèse du nationalisme , Publications de l'Institut de formation et d'études politiques, 1998 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ John Fage, with William Tordoff, A History of Africa , Routledge , 2013 , 640 p. ( ISBN 978-1-317-79727-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Frank et Aglan 2015 , p. 619. ↑ Pierre Stéphany, 1944 - 1947, La guerre et après , Ixelles Éditions, 2011 , 384 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87515-374-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Guillermo Villegas Hoffmeister, La guerra de Figueres : crónica de ocho años , EUNED, 1998 , 713 p. ( ISBN 978-9977-64-968-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Lukáš Perutka, Checoslovaquia, Guatemala y México en el Período de la Revolución Guatemalteca : Ibero-Americana Pragensia : Supplementum 32/2013 , Karolinum Press, 2014 , 167 p. ( ISBN 978-80-246-2429-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ BreAnn Rumsch, Woodrow Wilson , ABDO Publishing Company, 2010 ( ISBN 978-1-61785-133-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Les Grands Articles d'Universalis. Pérou , vol. 79, Encyclopædia Universalis, 2014 , 60 p. ( ISBN 978-2-85229-854-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Gerald Martin, Gabriel García Márquez : Una vida , Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial España, 2011 , 768 p. ( ISBN 978-84-9992-081-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Alicia Dujovne Ortiz , Eva Peron , Grasset , 1997 , 352 p. ( ISBN 978-2-246-79095-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Pablo González Casanova, América Latina : América del Sur , vol. 1, Siglo XXI, 1977 , 557 p. ( ISBN 978-968-23-0280-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Union Académique Internationale, Corpus constitutionnel : recueil universel des constitutions en vigueur , vol. 1, BRILL, 1972 , 918 p. ( ISBN 978-90-04-03476-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ États membres de l'ONU ↑ a b c d et e Pierre Vallaud, La guerre au XX e siècle , EDI8, 2014 , 313 p. ( ISBN 978-2-262-04428-2 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 221-223 . ↑ Joyce Lebra, Japanese-trained Armies in Southeast Asia , Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2010 , 226 p. ( ISBN 978-981-4279-44-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Daniel Marston, Phoenix from the Ashes : The Indian Army in the Burma Campaign , Greenwood Publishing Group , 2003 , 283 p. ( ISBN 978-0-275-98003-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ James Luto, Fighting with the Fourteenth Army in Burma : Original War Summaries of the Battle Against Japan 1943-1945 , Pen and Sword, 2013 , 304 p. ( ISBN 978-1-78303-031-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jon Diamond, Stilwell and the Chindits : The Allies Campaign in Northern Burma 1943-1944 , Pen and Sword, 2014 , 176 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4738-3871-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Montagnon 2011 , p. 178. ↑ Gérard Théobald, La Liberté est ou n'est pas... , Paris, Éditions Publibook, 2014 , 843 p. ( ISBN 978-2-342-02233-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Philippines (Les Grands Articles d'Universalis) , Encyclopaedia Universalis, 2014 ( ISBN 978-2-341-00189-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Eric Nguyen, La politique étrangère des États-Unis depuis 1945 : de Yalta à Bagdad , Studyrama, 2004 , 239 p. ( ISBN 978-2-84472-498-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Shigeru Sato, War, Nationalism and Peasants : Java Under the Japanese Occupation, 1942-45 : Java Under the Japanese Occupation, 1942-45 , Routledge , 2015 , 304 p. ( ISBN 978-1-317-45236-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges : A-E , vol. 1, Westport (Conn.), Greenwood Publishing Group , 2007 , 1354 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-33537-2 et 0-313-33536-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Dominique Sarciaux, Histoire du XX e siècle : De la Première Guerre mondiale à nos jours , Éditions Eyrolles , 2011 , 200 p. ( ISBN 978-2-212-86079-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Pierre Montagnon , Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre mondiale , Éditions Flammarion , 2011 , 977 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7564-0378-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c André Kaspi et Ralph Schor, La Seconde Guerre mondiale : chronologie commentée , Éditions Complexe , 1995 , 577 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87027-591-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jacques Dalloz, Dictionnaire de la Guerre d'Indochine : 1945-1954 , Armand Colin , 2006 , 384 p. ( ISBN 978-2-200-27941-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c et d Pierre Montagnon, La France dans la guerre de 39-45 , Flammarion , 2010 , 944 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7564-0338-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Christopher Chant , The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II (Routledge Revivals) , Abingdon, Routledge , 2013 , 344 p. ( ISBN 978-1-134-64787-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges : F-O , vol. 2, Westport (Conn.), Greenwood Publishing Group , 2007 , 1354 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-33538-9 et 0-313-33536-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Chant 2013 , p. 155. ↑ Comité d'histoire de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Société de l'Histoire de la Guerre, Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains , vol. 50, Presses universitaires de France , 2000 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II : Victory in the Pacific, 1945 , vol. 14, University of Illinois Press , 2002 , 407 p. ( ISBN 978-0-252-07065-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Patrick Souty, La guerre du Pacifique, 7 juillet 1937-2 septembre 1945 : l'Asie du Sud-Est, au centre des enjeux , Presses Universitaires Lyon, 1995 , 183 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7297-0518-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Robert A. Mann, The B-29 Superfortress Chronology, 1934-1960 , McFarland , 2009 , 319 p. ( ISBN 978-0-7864-5413-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II : The liberation of the Philippines, Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas, 1944-1945 , vol. 13, University of Illinois Press , 2002 , 392 p. ( ISBN 978-0-252-07064-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d et e Henri Grimal, La Décolonisation de 1919 à nos jours , Éditions Complexe , 1985 , 349 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87027-157-5 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 156-160 . ↑ Spencer Tucker, A global chronology of conflict : from the ancient world to the modern Middle East , vol. 2, ABC-CLIO , 2009 , 2777 p. ( ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War , A&C Black, 2006 , 624 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8264-3760-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Wesley Craven et James Cate , The Pacific : Matterhorn to Nagasaki , Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, coll. « The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume V », 1953 ( OCLC 256469807 , lire en ligne ) , p. 695 . ↑ Stéphane Valter, La construction nationale syrienne , 2002 ( lire en ligne ) , p. 342 . ↑ a et b Dominique Barjot et Jacques Frémeaux, Les Sociétés coloniales à l'âge des Empires : des années 1850 aux années 1950 , Éditions Sedes, 2012 , 320 p. ( ISBN 978-2-301-00301-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ China-Burma-India Theater : Ser. 9 , vol. 3, Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1959 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ France-illustration : Le Monde Illustré , vol. 1 à 13, 1945 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d e f et g Barthélémy Courmont, Géopolitique du Japon , Artege éditions, 2010 , 264 p. ( ISBN 978-2-36040-404-9 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 115 ; 122 . ↑ Joseph Thomas, Leadership Embodied : The Secrets to Success of the Most Effective Navy , Naval Institute Press, 2014 , 256 p. ( ISBN 978-1-61251-333-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Pierre Montagnon, La France Coloniale : Retour à l'Hexagone , Éditions Flammarion , 2012 ( ISBN 978-2-7564-0938-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Achille Dauphin-Meunier, Le Cambodge , Nouvelles Éditions Latines ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Ivan Cadeau , La Guerre d'Indochine : De l'Indochine française aux adieux à Saigon 1940-1956 , Tallandier , 2015 , 624 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-1022-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Foreign relations of the United States. Korea, 1950 , vol. 7, Government Printing Office, 1976 ( ISBN 978-0-16-089920-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Jae-Cheon Lim, Kim Jong-il's Leadership of North Korea , Routledge , 2008 , 240 p. ( ISBN 978-1-134-01712-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Philippe Duplay et Guy Pedroncini, Leclerc et l'Indochine : 1945-1947 , Albin Michel , 1992 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Philippe Moreau Defarges, Relations internationales. Questions régionales , Seuil ( ISBN 978-2-02-129146-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Émission enregistrée le 14 août un peu avant minuit et diffusée le matin du 15 août. ↑ Sources de l'Histoire de l'Asie et de l'Océanie dans les Archives et Bibliothèques françaises : 1. Archives , Walter de Gruyter , 1981 , 616 p. ( ISBN 978-3-11-097038-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Dustur : aperçu sur les constitutions des États arabes et islamiques , Leyde, Brill Archive, 1965 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Christopher Goscha, Vietnam : Un État né de la guerre 1945-1954 , Armand Colin , 2011 , 400 p. ( ISBN 978-2-200-27620-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Hugh Tinker, South Asia : A Short History , University of Hawaii Press, 1990 , 290 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8248-1287-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Mike Xiong, The Stone of Hope : Martin Luther King Memorial and Master Sculptor Lei Yixin , Xlibris Corporation, 2011 , 240 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4653-3645-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ James E. Auer et Tsuneo Watanabe, From Marco Polo Bridge to Pearl Harbor : Who was responsible ? , 読売新聞東京本社, 2006 ( ISBN 978-4-643-06012-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Axel Berkofsky, A Pacifist Constitution for an Armed Empire. Past and Present of Japanese Security and Defence Policies , FrancoAngeli, 2012 , 319 p. ( ISBN 978-88-568-7205-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Patrick Souty, La guerre de Corée, 1950-1953 : guerre froide en Asie orientale , Presses universitaires de Lyon, 2002 , 255 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7297-0696-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ In-Sang Lee, La Corée et la politique des puissances , E. Droz, 1959 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b (en) Jinwung Kim, A history of Korea : from "Land of the Morning Calm" to states in conflict , Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2012 ( ISBN 978-0-253-00024-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Kaspi et Schor 1995 , p. 529. ↑ a et b Recueils de la société Jean Bodin, Gouvernés et gouvernants : civilisations archaïques, islamiques et orientales , vol. 1, Bruxelles, Editions de la Librairie encyclopédique, 1969 ( ISBN 978-2-8041-2897-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Civilisations , vol. 1, Institut international des civilisations différentes, 1951 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Văn Đôn Trần, Les Guerres du Vietnam : un quart de siècle au Vietnam du Sud , Vertiges publications, 1985 , 393 p. ( ISBN 978-2-86896-003-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Cadeau 2015 , p. 123. ↑ William M. Leary, MacArthur and the American Century : A Reader , U of Nebraska Press, 2001 , 522 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8032-8020-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b The Encyclopedia of War , Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2009 , 512 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4053-4778-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Keat Gin Ooi, Southeast Asia : a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor , vol. 1, ABC-CLIO , 2004 , 1791 p. ( ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Rémy Madinier, L'Indonésie, entre démocratie musulmane et Islam intégral. Histoire du parti Masjumi (1945-1960) , Khartala, 2011 ( ISBN 978-2-8111-5005-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Charles Irving Bevans, Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949 : Multilateral, 1931-1945 , vol. 3, Department of State, 1968 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ François Buy, Chronique internationale : 1944-1969 : 25 ans d'histoire contemporaine , Le Soleil des loups, 1969 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Francine Costet-Tardieu, Un réformiste à l'université al-Azhar. Œuvre et pensée de Mustafâ al-Marâghî (1881-1945) , Karthala , 2005 ( ISBN 978-2-8111-4007-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Hamadi Redissi, Le Pacte de Nadjd : Ou comment l'islam sectaire est devenu l'islam , Seuil , 2013 , 349 p. ( ISBN 978-2-02-112431-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Parker T. Hart, Saudi Arabia and the United States : Birth of a Security Partnership , Indiana University Press, 1998 , 283 p. ( ISBN 978-0-253-33460-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Robert Frank et Alya Aglan , 1937-1947 : la guerre-monde , Éditions Gallimard , 2015 , 1424 p. ( ISBN 978-2-07-244147-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Charles D. Smith, Islam and the Search for Social Order in Modern Egypt : A Biography of Muhammad Husayn Haykal , SUNY Press, 1983 , 249 p. ( ISBN 978-0-87395-711-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ André Kaspi et Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Histoire des relations internationales : De 1945 à nos jours , Armand Colin , 2009 ( ISBN 978-2-200-24737-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Robin Leonard Bidwell, Dictionary of Modern Arab History : An A to Z of Over 2,000 Entries from 1798 to the Present Day , Routledge , 1998 , 456 p. ( ISBN 978-0-7103-0505-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Christian Destremau, Le Moyen-Orient pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale , EDI8, 2011 , 478 p. ( ISBN 978-2-262-03880-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ D. K. Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914-1958 , OUP Oxford, 2006 , 400 p. ( ISBN 978-0-19-153696-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Françoise Ouzan, Ces Juifs dont l'Amérique ne voulait pas : 1945-1950 , Éditions Complexe , 1995 , 185 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87027-599-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jean-Pierre Thieck, Passion d'Orient , Karthala , 1992 , 240 p. ( ISBN 978-2-86537-386-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq , Cambridge University Press , 2002 , 324 p. ( ISBN 978-0-521-52900-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Benny Morris, Victimes : histoire revisitée du conflit arabo-sioniste , Éditions Complexe , 2003 , 852 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87027-938-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jeffrey Herf, Hitler, la propagande et le monde arabe , Calmann-Lévy , 2012 , 400 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7021-5214-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Jamal Jalal Abdulla, The Kurds : A Nation on the Way to Statehood , AuthorHouse, 2012 , 352 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4678-7972-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Denise Ammoun, Histoire du Liban contemporain : 1943-1990 , vol. 2, Fayard , 2005 , 1016 p. ( ISBN 978-2-213-64913-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Marc Michel, Décolonisations et émergence du tiers monde : 2e édition , Hachette Éducation , 2005 , 272 p. ( ISBN 978-2-01-181886-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ David T. Zabecki Ph.D., Germany at War : 400 Years of Military History , ABC-CLIO , 2014 ( ISBN 978-1-59884-981-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Steven J Zaloga et Adam Hook, Defense of the Rhine 1944-45 , Osprey Publishing , 2013 , 64 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4728-0379-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Gregor Dallas, 1945 : The War That Never Ended , Yale University Press , 2006 , 739 p. ( ISBN 978-0-300-11988-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Julien Papp , La Hongrie libérée : État, pouvoirs et société après la défaite du nazisme (septembre 1944-septembre 1947) , Presses universitaires de Rennes , 2015 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7535-3181-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d e et f Nigel Thomas, The German Army 1939-45 (4) : Eastern Front 1943-45 , Osprey Publishing , 2012 , 48 p. ( ISBN 978-1-78200-218-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Anne Sharp Wells , Historical Dictionary of World War II : The War against Germany and Italy , Lanham (Md.), Scarecrow Press, 2013 ( ISBN 978-0-8108-7944-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Chronology and Index of the Second World War, 1938-1945 , Greenwood Publishing Group , 1947 , 446 p. ( ISBN 978-0-88736-568-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ David R. Higgins, Roer River Battles : Germany's Stand at the Westwall, 1944–45 , Casemate Publishers, 2010 , 265 p. ( ISBN 978-1-935149-59-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Dr Robert Rozett, Dr Shmuel Spector, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust , Routledge , 2013 , 534 p. ( ISBN 978-1-135-96950-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Guillaume Piketty, La Bataille des Ardennes : 16 décembre 1944 - 31 janvier 1945 , Tallandier , 2014 , 240 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-0444-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d et e Georges Castellan, Histoire des peuples d'Europe centrale , Fayard , 1994 , 528 p. ( ISBN 978-2-213-63910-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Julien Papp , La Hongrie libérée : État, pouvoirs et société après la défaite du nazisme (septembre 1944-septembre 1947) , Presses universitaires de Rennes , 2006 , 365 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7535-0232-1 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 67-76 . ↑ Sharp Wells 2013 , p. 334. ↑ Ian Kershaw, The End : The Defiance and Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1944-1945 , Penguin, 2011 , 592 p. ( ISBN 978-1-101-56550-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jean-François Muracciole et Guillaume Piketty , Encyclopédie de la Seconde Guerre mondiale , Robert Laffont/bouquins/segher, 2015 , 2154 p. ( ISBN 978-2-221-19175-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Giovanni Busino, De l'universalisme, du relativisme et de la modernité, Numéro 106 , Librairie Droz , 1996 , 252 p. ( ISBN 978-2-600-00178-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jean-Marie Flonneau, Le Reich allemand : De Bismarck à Hitler - 1848-1945 , Armand Colin , 2003 , 318 p. ( ISBN 978-2-200-25629-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Loukas Thanasekos, Chronologie des relations internationales 1914-1971 , Mouton, 1972 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jean Lopez et Lasha Otkhmezuri, Joukov : L'homme qui a vaincu Hitler , Perrin , 2013 , 885 p. ( ISBN 978-2-262-04352-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Emmanuelle Aurenche, La Mémoire coupable : les écrivains de langue allemande des années 1970 -80 et le passé nazi , P. Lang, 1994 , 281 p. ( ISBN 978-3-906752-75-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Tramor Quemeneur, 100 fiches d'histoire du XX e siècle , Éditions Bréal , 2004 , 350 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7495-0341-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Maurice Vaïsse, Les relations internationales depuis 1945 , Armand Colin , 2015 , 336 p. ( ISBN 978-2-200-60373-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) « PsyWar.Org - OSS Morale Operations : The Story of Cornflakes, Pig Iron and Sheet Iron », sur PsyWar.Org (consulté le 9 juin 2020 ) . ↑ a b c et d Steven J Zaloga et Peter Dennis, Remagen 1945 : Endgame against the Third Reich , Osprey Publishing , 2013 , 96 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4728-0017-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Muracciole et Piketty 2015 , p. 49-51. ↑ Erik Durschmied, Unsung Heroes : The Twentieth Century's Forgotton History-Makers , Hachette UK, 2014 , 480 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4447-6969-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Nigel Thomas et Darko Pavlovic, World War II Soviet Armed Forces : 1944-45 , vol. 3, Osprey Publishing , 2013 ( ISBN 978-1-78096-428-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Julien Papp , La Hongrie libérée : État, pouvoirs et société après la défaite du nazisme (septembre 1944-septembre 1947) , Presses universitaires de Rennes , 2015 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7535-3181-9 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 92 ]. ↑ a b c et d Chris Everitt et Martin Middlebrook, The Bomber Command War Diaries : An Operational Reference Book , Pen and Sword, 2014 , 808 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4738-3488-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Yitzhak Arad ( trad. de l'hébreu), In the shadow of the red banner : Soviet Jews in the war against Nazi Gemany , Jérusalem, Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2010 , 384 p. ( ISBN 978-965-229-487-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Claude Quétel, La Seconde Guerre mondiale , EDI8, 2015 , 538 p. ( ISBN 978-2-262-05065-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges : P-Z , vol. 3, Westport (Conn.), Greenwood Publishing Group , 2007 , 1354 p. ( ISBN 978-0-313-33539-6 et 0-313-33536-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Bogdan C. Iacob, History of Communism in Europe , vol. 3, Bucarest, Zeta Books, 2012 , 207 p. ( ISBN 978-606-8266-27-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ , op. cit , p. 123. ↑ Joseph La Martinière et Jacques Delarue, Nuit et brouillard à Hinzert : les déportés NN en camp spécial SS , J. de La Martinière, 1984 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Reinhold Billstein, Working for the Enemy : Ford, General Motors, and Forced Labor in Germany During the Second World War , Berghahn Books, 2004 , 309 p. ( ISBN 978-1-84545-013-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Collectif, Communisme 91-92 : Roumanie un totalitarisme ordinaire , L'âge d'Homme, 2007 ( ISBN 978-2-8251-3807-6 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 16-66 . ↑ Muracciole et Piketty 2015 , p. 684. ↑ a b et c Éric Nguyen, Les 100 hommes du XX e siècle , Studyrama, 2005 , 261 p. ( ISBN 978-2-84472-726-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (sv) Ingrid Lomfors, Blind fläck : minne och glömska kring svenska röda korsets hjälpinsats i Nazityskland 1945 , Stockholm, Bokförlaget Atlantis, 2005 , 175 p. ( ISBN 91-7353-051-4 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 54 . ↑ (en) Nick Hodgin et Caroline Pearce, The GDR remembered : representations of the East German state since 1989 , Rochester (N.Y.), Camden House, 2011 , 300 p. ( ISBN 978-1-57113-434-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Christopher Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich : The Soviet March on Germany 1945 , Routledge , 2014 , 416 p. ( ISBN 978-1-136-36033-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Eugène Riedweg, La Libération de l'Alsace septembre 1944 - mars 1945 , Tallandier , 2014 , 352 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-0507-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Richard Overy, Sous les bombes : nouvelle histoire de la guerre aérienne (1939-1945) , Éditions Flammarion , 2014 , 1136 p. ( ISBN 978-2-08-135015-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ David T. Zabecki , World War II in Europe : An Encyclopedia , Routledge , 2015 , 1550 p. ( ISBN 978-1-135-81249-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Vincent O'Hara, The German Fleet at War, 1939-1945 , Naval Institute Press, 2013 , 342 p. ( ISBN 978-1-61251-397-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Gilbert Merlio, Les Résistances allemandes à Hitler , Tallandier , 2001 , 432 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-1676-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Zabecki 2015 , p. 1756. ↑ Steve Stone, Stirling Work : The True Story of the Original SAS , Lulu.com, 2014 , 212 p. ( ISBN 978-1-326-11088-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Michel Rival, Les Apprentis sorciers. Fritz Haber, Wernher von Braun, Edward Teller , Seuil ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Marietta Bearman, Richard Dove et Charmian Brinson, Out of Austria : The Austrian Centre in London in World War IIInternational library of twentieth century history , I.B. Tauris , 2007 , 272 p. ( ISBN 978-0-85771-544-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jonathan Friedman, The Lion and the Star : Gentile-Jewish Relations in Three Hessian Towns, 1919-1945 , University Press of Kentucky , 2015 ( ISBN 978-0-8131-4749-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Andrew Szanajda, The Restoration of Justice in Postwar Hesse, 1945-1949 , Lanham (Md.), Lexington Books, 2007 , 261 p. ( ISBN 978-0-7391-1870-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Július Bartl, Slovak history : chronology & lexicon , Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2002 , 350 p. ( ISBN 978-0-86516-444-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Karl Moersch et Reinhold Weber, Die Zeit nach dem Krieg : Städte im Wiederaufbau , W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 2008 , 420 p. ( ISBN 978-3-17-019724-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Frank et Aglan 2015 , p. 455. ↑ Angus Mansfield, Barney Barnfather : Life on a Spitfire Squadron , The History Press, 2011 , 252 p. ( ISBN 978-0-7524-6832-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Gunter Bischof, Fritz Plasser, Barbara Stelzl-Marx, New Perspectives on Austrians and World War II , Transaction Publishers, 2011 , 375 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4128-1556-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Alexander Mikaberidze, Historical Dictionary of Georgia , Lanham (Md.), Rowman & Littlefield, 2015 ( ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Stanislas Zamecnick, C'était ça, Dachau : 1933-1945 , Le Cherche midi , 2013 , 551 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7491-3296-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Montagnon 2011 , p. 44. ↑ Pier Battistelli et Peter Dennis, World War II Partisan Warfare in Italy , Osprey Publishing , 2015 , 64 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4728-0895-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d e f et g Félix Kreissler, La Prise de conscience de la nation autrichienne : 1938, 1945, 1978 , vol. 1, Publication univ. Rouen Havre, 1980 , 981 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87775-634-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Musée de la Résistance azuréenne ↑ Stephen Badsey , Arnhem 1944 : Operation 'Market Garden' , Osprey Publishing , 1993 , 96 p. ( ISBN 978-1-85532-302-5 ) , p. 88 . ↑ canadiansoldiers.com ↑ Stéphane Simonnet, Les Poches de l'Atlantique : Les batailles oubliées de la libération : Janvier 1944 - mai 1945 , Tallandier , 2015 , 320 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-0493-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Catherine Merridale, Les Guerriers du froid : Vie et mort des soldats de l'armée rouge, 1939-1945 , Fayard , 2012 , 512 p. ( ISBN 978-2-213-66572-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Evan Mawdsley, Thunder in the East : The Nazi-Soviet War 1941-1945 , Bloomsbury Publishing , 2015 , 512 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4725-1345-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Sidney Kirkpatrick, Les Reliques sacrées d'Hitler , Le Cherche Midi , 2012 , 301 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7491-2550-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ David T. Zabecki, World War Two in Europe : An Encyclopedia , vol. 1, Routledge , 2015 , 1550 p. ( ISBN 978-1-135-81242-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Norbert Peschke et Lorenz Zentgraf, Das Kriegsende in der Zwickauer Region 1945 , Sutton Verlag GmbH, 2005 , 126 p. ( ISBN 978-3-89702-816-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c et d Jean-Michel, Enseigner l'Holocauste au XXI e siècle , Council of Europe, 2001 , 133 p. ( ISBN 978-92-871-4536-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Benoît Boucard et Robert Proust, De Pichey-Mérignac à Stuttgart : de la résistance à la victoire , Éditions Publibook, 2011 , 112 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7483-6777-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Buhler 1997 , p. 135. ↑ Pierre Buhler , Histoire de la Pologne communiste: autopsie d'une imposture , Éditions Karthala , coll. « Hommes et sociétés », 1997 , 808 p. ( ISBN 2865377709 , présentation en ligne , lire en ligne ) p. 147. ↑ a et b Winston Churchill et François Kersaudy, Mémoires de guerre 1941-1945 , vol. 2, Tallandier , 2015 , 976 p. ( ISBN 979-10-210-1334-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c d et e Luc Mary et Philippe Valode, Les Derniers Jours des chefs nazis , EDI8, 2015 , 336 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7540-8224-2 , présentation en ligne ) , p. 101-117 . ↑ Bakari Kamian, Des tranchées de Verdun à l'église Saint-Bernard : 80 000 combattants maliens au secours de la France, 1914-18 et 1939-45 , Karthala , 2001 , 468 p. ( ISBN 978-2-84586-138-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Lionel Richard, Nazisme et barbarie , Éditions Complexe , 2006 , 303 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8048-0074-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ La Présence française en Autriche (1945-1946) : occupation, dénazification, action culturelle , vol. 1, Publication univ. Rouen Havre, 1998 ( ISBN 978-2-87775-907-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ John Wright, Access to History for the IB Diploma : The Second World War and the Americas 1933-45 , Hachette UK, 2013 , 240 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4441-5658-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Russell Hart et Stephen Hart, The Second World War : Northwest Europe 1944-1945 , Osprey Publishing , 2002 , 96 p. ( ISBN 978-1-84176-384-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Frank et Aglan 2015 , p. 748. ↑ Marielle Chevallier, Axelle Guillausseau, Jean-Philippe Renaud, André Ropert, Bescherelle Chronologie de l'histoire du monde contemporain : les événements majeurs de 1914 à nos jours , Hatier référence & pratique, 2015 ( ISBN 978-2-218-99853-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chronology and Index of the Second World War, 1938-1945 , Greenwood Publishing Group , 1947 , 446 p. ( ISBN 978-0-88736-568-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Gérard Piouffre, Les Grands naufrages , EDI8, 2012 , 400 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7540-4004-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Martin Winstone, The Holocaust Sites of Europe : An Historical Guide , I.B.Tauris, 2010 , 456 p. ( ISBN 978-0-85773-028-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b et c Peter Antill, Berlin 1945 : End of the Thousand Year Reich , Osprey Publishing , 2005 , 96 p. ( ISBN 978-1-84176-915-8 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Martin Čermák, « La tragédie de Leskovice (Leskovická tragédie) », Union de la jeunesse communiste (Komunistický svaz mládeže), 9 mai 2007 . ↑ (en) Helga Kraft, Dagmar C. G. Lorenz, From fin-de-siècle to Theresienstadt : the works and life of the writer Elsa Porges-Bernstein , New York, Peter Lang , 2007 , 260 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8204-8180-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Gérard Bossuat, Les aides américaines économiques et militaires à la France, 1938-1960 : Une nouvelle image des rapports de puissance , Institut de la gestion publique et du développement économique, 2013 , 406 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8218-2859-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Chris Mann, British Policy and Strategy towards Norway, 1941-45 , Palgrave Macmillan , 2012 ( ISBN 978-1-137-28434-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Vlk Václav, Krvavé dozvuky války : Konec druhé světové války na českém území , Grada Publishing a.s., 2015 ( ISBN 978-80-247-9799-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Liliane Desjardins, The Imprint Journey : A Path of Lasting Transformation Into Your Authentic Self , Loving Healing Press, 2011 , 188 p. ( ISBN 978-1-61599-087-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Alan Axelrod et Jack A. Kingston, Encyclopedia of World War II , vol. 1, H W Fowler, 2007 , 924 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8160-6022-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Philippe Chassaigne, Histoire de l'Angleterre des origines à nos jours : DES ORIGINES A NOS JOURS , Éditions Flammarion , 2010 , 609 p. ( ISBN 978-2-08-123467-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Heinrich August Winkler ( trad. de l'allemand), The Age of Catastrophe : A History of the West, 1914-1945 , New Haven (Conn.), Yale University Press , 2015 , 998 p. ( ISBN 978-0-300-20489-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Harris M. Lentz, Heads of States and Governments Since 1945 , Routledge , 2014 , 912 p. ( ISBN 978-1-134-26490-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ (en) Gregor Joseph Kranjc, To walk with the devil : Slovene collaboration and Axis occupation, 1941-1945 , Toronto (Ont.)/Buffalo (N.Y.), University of Toronto Press , 2013 , 329 p. ( ISBN 978-1-4426-1330-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a b c et d Gilbert Krebs et Gérard Schneilin, L'Allemagne, 1945-1955 : de la capitulation à la division , Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1996 , 319 p. ( ISBN 978-2-910212-05-6 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Ulrich Pfeil, RDA et l'Occident, 1949-1990 , Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle, 2000 , 536 p. ( ISBN 978-2-910212-15-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Muriel Blaive, Une déstalinisation manquée : Tchécoslovaquie 1956 , Éditions Complexe , 2005 , 281 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8048-0027-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez , vol. 24, Paris, Diffusion de Boccard, 1988 , 461 p. ( ISBN 978-84-86839-06-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ André Kaspi et Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Histoire des relations internationales : De 1945 à nos jours , Armand Colin , 2009 ( ISBN 978-2-200-24737-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Jacques Leruez, Le phénomène Thatcher , Éditions Complexe , 1991 , 336 p. ( ISBN 978-2-87027-386-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b Isabelle Renaudet, Un parlement de papier : la presse d'opposition au franquisme durant la dernière décennie de la dictature et la transition démocratique , Casa de Velázquez, 2003 , 566 p. ( ISBN 978-84-95555-35-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Michel Dumoulin , Nouvelle Histoire de Belgique : 1905-1950 , vol. 2, Éditions Complexe , 2005 , 633 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8048-0078-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Celestino del Arenal, Política exterior de España hacia Iberoamérica , Editorial Complutense, 1994 , 299 p. ( ISBN 978-84-7491-516-7 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Jeremy King, Budweisers Into Czechs and Germans : A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848-1948 , Princeton University Press , 2005 , 284 p. ( ISBN 978-0-691-12234-2 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Selected Decisions of the Human Rights Committee Under the Optional Protocol , vol. 8, United Nations Publications, 2007 , 429 p. ( ISBN 978-92-1-154180-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Krebs et Schneilin 1996 , p. 37. ↑ Robert M. Slusser et Jan F. Triska, A Calendar of Soviet Treaties, 1917-1957 , Stanford University Press , 1959 , 530 p. ( ISBN 978-0-8047-0587-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ a et b L. Leustean, Orthodoxy and the Cold War : Religion and Political Power in Romania, 1947-65 , Springer, 2016 , 273 p. ( ISBN 978-0-230-59494-4 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Site du CICR ↑ Marie-Danielle Demélas et Alain Boscus, Militantisme et histoire , Presses Univ. du Mirail, 2000 , 326 p. ( ISBN 978-2-85816-522-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ José Cubero, Les Républicains espagnols , Éditions Cairn , 2013 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-2-35068-348-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Julien Papp , La Hongrie libérée : État, pouvoirs et société après la défaite du nazisme (septembre 1944-septembre 1947) , Presses universitaires de Rennes , 2015 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7535-3181-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Fred Pfloeschner, Les Dispositions de la Constitution du 27 octobre 1946 sur la primauté du droit international et leur effet sur la situation des étrangers en France sous la IV e République , Librairie Droz , 1961 , 210 p. ( ISBN 978-2-600-04489-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Julien Papp , La Hongrie libérée : État, pouvoirs et société après la défaite du nazisme (septembre 1944-septembre 1947) , Presses universitaires de Rennes , 2015 , 368 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7535-3181-9 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ José Antônio Saraiva, Política à Portuguesa , Leya, 2011 ( ISBN 978-989-555-670-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Freddy Joris, Les Wallons et la réforme de l'État, 1890-1971 , Institut Emile Vandervelde, 1983 ( présentation en ligne ) . ↑ José Manuel Duarte de Jesus, Espionagem e Contraespionagem em Portugal. Vicissitudes e Mistérios , Leya, 2015 ( ISBN 978-972-44-1865-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Montagnon 2011 , p. 779. ↑ Jean-Claude Colliard, Les régimes parlementaires contemporains , Presses de Sciences Po , 1978 , 376 p. ( ISBN 978-2-7246-8592-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Claude Lorentz, La France et les restitutions allemandes au lendemain de la Seconde Guerre mondiale (1943-1954) , Peter Lang , 1998 , 348 p. ( ISBN 978-2-11-089157-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Karl Cordell, Poland and the European Union , Routledge , 2002 ( ISBN 978-1-134-55521-5 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Vassili Grossman, Le Komintern et le système communiste international , Éditions L'Âge d'Homme , 2001 , 290 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8251-1567-1 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Sylvie Lefèvre, Les relations économiques franco-allemandes de 1945 à 1955 : De l'occupation à la coopération , Institut de la gestion publique et du développement économique, 2013 , 527 p. ( ISBN 978-2-8218-3700-3 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Miranda Vickers, The Albanians : A Modern History , I.B. Tauris , 2011 , 296 p. ( ISBN 978-0-85773-655-0 , présentation en ligne ) . ↑ Céline Malraux, Avec une légère intimité , Larousse, 2012 , 208 p. ( ISBN 978-2-03-588806-8 , présentation en ligne ) . Voir aussi Sur les autres projets Wikimedia : 1945 , sur Wikimedia Commons 1945 , sur Wikisource Bibliographie Ian Baruma, 1945, années zéro , Barillat, 2015, 384 pages. Jean-Christophe Buisson , 1945 , Perrin, 2024. Articles connexes Années 1940 XX e siècle Seconde Guerre mondiale Après-guerre Liens externes L’année 1945 sur le site de la Bibliothèque nationale de France Portail de l'époque contemporaine Portail du XX e siècle Portail des années 1940 Portail de la Seconde Guerre mondiale 1945 Article utilisant une Infobox Article contenant un appel à traduction en anglais Catégorie Commons avec lien local identique sur Wikidata Portail:Époque contemporaine/Articles liés Portail:Histoire/Articles liés Portail:XXe siècle/Articles liés Portail:Années 1940/Articles liés Portail:Seconde Guerre mondiale/Articles liés Portail:Histoire militaire/Articles liés La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 24 septembre 2025 à 14:45. Droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques . En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence . Wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis. Politique de confidentialité À propos de Wikipédia Avertissements Contact Contacts juridiques & sécurité Code de conduite Développeurs Statistiques Déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) Version mobile
|
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} From top to bottom, left to right: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64. ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-3945-8530-7 ^ Ben-Horin 1943 , p. 169; Taylor 1979 , p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies , p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way . Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 978-0-7641-1973-6 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same " European Civil War " or " Second Thirty Years' War ": Canfora 2006 , p. 155; Prins 2002 , p. 11. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10. ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' " . Fresh Air . NPR. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War" . The International History Review . 9 (3): 368– 409. doi : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 . JSTOR 40105814 . Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4. ^ "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany" . usa.usembassy.de. 12 September 1990. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . ^ "Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty" . Asia Times . Reuters. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. ^ "Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol" . The New York Times . 20 October 1956. p. 2. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". "The state of war between the USSR and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...] ^ Mintz, Steven. "Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I" . The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Gerwarth, Robert (21 January 2019). "Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021 . ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76–78 . ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149. ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35. ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4. ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62. ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96; Record 2005 , p. 50. ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124. ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 298–299. ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104. ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458. ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28. ^ Coogan 1993 : "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131–132. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 289. ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231. ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 25. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146. ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547–551. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195–200. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9672-5 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ^ Dorn, Frank (1974). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 . Macmillan. ^ a b Wakabayashi, Bob (2007). The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture . Berghahn Books. p. 384. ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–224 ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–299. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221–230. ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566. ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150–152. ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651–687. ^ Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Paine, Sarah. The Wars for Asia . Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342. ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Neeno, Timothy. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War" . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121–122. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157. ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.). ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 461–462. ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 471. ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695– 722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . JSTOR 153322 . S2CID 144385167 . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608. ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)" . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis" . ww2db.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ "Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"!" . PolskieRadio.pl (in Polish) . Retrieved 18 March 2025 . ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1–2. ^ Zabecki, David T. (2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-1358-1242-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2019 . The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35. Cienciala 2010 , p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248–249; Roskill 1954 , p. 64. ^ "Battle of the Atlantic" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Archived from the original on 20 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80, 83. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law . 52 (1): 69– 84. doi : 10.2307/2195670 . JSTOR 2195670 . S2CID 146904066 . ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24. ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88–89. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39–40. ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.). ^ Deighton, Len (1979). Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk . Jonathan Cape. pp. 186– 187. ISBN 978-0-2240-1648-3 . Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place." ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24. ^ a b Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55–56. ^ Spring 1986 , pp. 207–226. ^ van Dyke, Carl (1997). The Soviet Invasion of Finland . Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7146-4753-1 . ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745, 975. ^ Haynes, Rebecca (2000). Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 205. ISBN 978-0-3122-3260-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 February 2022 . ^ Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327 ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367, 376, 379, 417. ^ Snyder 2010 , pp. 118ff. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSnyder2010 ( help ) ^ Koch 1983 , pp. 912–914, 917–920. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57–63. ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9. ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122–123. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59–60. ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152. ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66–67. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207. ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311. ^ Brown 2004 , p. 198. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ a b Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108–109. ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328–330. ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52. ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390. ^ a b "Major international events of 1940, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain" . US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations . Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745–746. ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986 , pp. 4–6 ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9–10. ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106. ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7–8. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263–276. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 174–175. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 184–187. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 208, 575, 604. ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80. ^ Morrisey, Will (2019). "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War". Winston Churchill . Routledge. pp. 119– 126. doi : 10.4324/9780429027642-6 . ISBN 978-0-4290-2764-2 . S2CID 189257503 . ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195. ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Förster 1998 , p. 26. ^ Förster 1998 , pp. 38–42. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 810–812. ^ a b Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 267–312 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Sella 1978 , p. 555. ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66–69. ^ Steinberg 1995 . ^ Hauner 1978 . ^ Roberts 1995 . ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. pp. 176– 180. ^ Wilt 1981 . ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114–137. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9. ^ Farrell 1993 . ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220. ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425. ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227. ^ Milward 1964 . ^ Rotundo 1986 . ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26. ^ Deighton, Len (1993). Blood, Tears and Folly . London: Pimlico. p. 479 . ISBN 978-0-7126-6226-0 . ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41–42; Evans 2008 , pp. 213–214, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941" . U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87– 97. 1983. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War . History Today. December 2000 ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289. ^ Frank 2020 , p. 161. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFrank2020 ( help ) ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224. ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33. ^ "Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 45– 66. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201. ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456. ^ Coox, Alvin (1985). Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1046– 1049. ISBN 978-0-8047-1835-6 . ^ a b "The decision for War" . US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 113– 127. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ a b "The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63– 96. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 399–414. ^ Kitano, Ryuichi (6 December 2021). "Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack" . The Asahi Shimbun . Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 8 June 2022 . ^ Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō . p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 417–420. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 418. ^ Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan . University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 29, 35. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5 . Archived from the original on 15 March 2024 . Retrieved 15 January 2024 . ^ Bix 2000 , p. 424. ^ The United States Replies Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack. ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure." ^ Wood 2007 , p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11–12. ^ a b Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341–343. ^ Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War . New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-0-3995-0434-1 ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157. According to May 1955 , p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front." ^ Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource. ^ Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. p. 310 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313–314. ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 904. ^ "The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97– 119. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266– 292. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18– 42. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126– 145. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247–267, 345. ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 (Table 11). ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71–74. ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158. ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145. ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111–112. ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186. ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28. ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19. ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot. p. 259 . ISBN 978-1-5922-8027-8 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2019 . Retrieved 26 June 2019 . ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111. ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31. ^ Read 2004 , p. 764. ^ Bellamy, Chris (2008). Absolute War . ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 (2008 ed.). ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239–265. ^ Black 2003 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383–391. ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142. ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224–228. ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91. ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380–381. ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178. ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129. ^ Neillands 2005 , p. 60. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277. ^ Smith 2002 . ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8. ^ a b c d Ross 1997 , p. 38. ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24. ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11. ^ "The Civilians" Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119–120. ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164. ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610. ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228. ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149–159. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32. ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35. ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90. ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50–55. ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362. ^ Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151. ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52. ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129. ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335–336. ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211, 235, 267–268. ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154. ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286. ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268–274. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660–661. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327–366. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367–414. ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122. ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169–184; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568–573. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500–502). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ), Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10–11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224. ^ a b Zeiler 2004 , p. 60. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555–560. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163. ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85. ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406–407: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war." ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695. ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562. ^ Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II." ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944" . Museum of the Slovak National Uprising . Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" . US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653. ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65–66. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 . Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 978-9-0411-0584-4 . ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 1085. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8. ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54. ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305. ^ Parker 2004 , pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330 ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709–722. ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 793–829. ^ Shepardson 1998 ^ Glass, Andrew (12 April 2016). "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945" . Politico . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244. ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737. ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24. ^ Selby, Scott A. (28 July 2021). The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It . Scott Andrew Selby. p. 8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7102-0718-0 . ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy" . Wired . Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57. ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" . U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . ^ Zuberi, Matin (August 2001). "Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Strategic Analysis . 25 (5): 623– 662. doi : 10.1080/09700160108458986 . S2CID 154800868 . ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90. ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201. ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203–204. ^ Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". International Security , Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179. ^ Glantz 2005 . ^ Pape 1993 "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.". ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 525–526. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 526–528. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776. ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96–100. ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41–66. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality" . Geographia Polonica . 88 (1): 77– 105. doi : 10.7163/GPol.0007 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 (PDF) . Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 978-1-5361-1035-7 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015. ^ a b Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) (PDF) . Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8-3615-9046-0 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background" . Geographia Polonica . 85 (1): 5– 21. doi : 10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794. ^ Kennedy-Pipe 1995 . ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20–21. ^ Senn 2007 , p. ?. ^ "Italy since 1945" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 October 2023 . ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39. ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2022 . ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here [1] Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ The UN Security Council . Archived from the original on 20 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2012 . ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6. ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33. ^ Applebaum 2012 . ^ Naimark 2010 . ^ Swain 1992 . ^ "Greek Civil War" . Encyclopedia Britannica . 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2023 . ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318. ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911. ^ Stueck 2010 , p. 71. ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12–13. ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589. ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441–443, 464–68. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34–55. ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207. ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263. ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208–209. ^ "The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944" . United States Department of State. 7 January 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 April 2022 . ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190–191 ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212. ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29–30, 32 ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20–21 ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23. ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117. ^ Schain 2001 . ^ Emadi-Coffin 2002 , p. 64. ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32. ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945 . Wiley. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-1188-9024-0 . ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-9631-8643-0 . ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 1. ^ Hastings 2011 , pp. 669–670. ^ Aubin, Bernard & Guillerat 2019 , p. 147. ^ Hanson 2017 , p. 470. ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 468. ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204. ^ Herf 2003 . ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology (2005). "Victims" . A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Archived from the original on 16 May 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ a b Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45–52. ^ Snyder, Timothy (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality" . The New York Review of Books . 56 (12). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others" . BBC . April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . ^ Hastings 2011 , p. 465. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158–160, 234–236. ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators" . Review of Croatian History . VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 117. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 October 2015 . ^ Massacre, Volhynia. "The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres" . Volhynia Massacre . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947" . dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 . Retrieved 10 March 2018 . ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . W.W. Norton & CO. p. 296. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . p. 381. ^ Hastings, Max (2012). Inferno . Vintage. p. 670. ^ Frank, Richard (2020). Tower of Skulls . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 576. ^ Dower, John (1999). Embracing Defeat . W.W. Norton and Company. ^ Mitter 2013 , pp. 5, 381. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMitter2013 ( help ) ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 163. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 367. ^ Hastings, Max (2007). Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–1945 . London. p. 13. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 472. ^ Hanson, Victor (2017). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won . Basic Books. p. 498. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . p. 296. ^ Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide . Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-3678-6706-5 . ^ Gold, Hal (1996). Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle. pp. 75– 77. ISBN 978-0-8048-3565-7 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320. ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74. ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69. ^ "Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence" . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011. ^ Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf, ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6 p. 391 ^ Women and War . ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. ISBN 978-1-8510-9770-8 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2023 . ^ Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs . 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914– 916. ^ Naimark, Norman (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 . Cambridge: Belknap. p. 70. ^ Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Kiel. 1999. ^ Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025 ^ Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-8454-5844-7 . ^ Dower, John (2007). "Lessons from Iwo Jima" . Perspectives . 45 (6): 54– 56. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568–569. ^ a b Marek, Michael (27 October 2005). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers" . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . ^ Pearson, Alexander (19 March 2018). "Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2023 . Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. ^ J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–1049 ^ Applebaum 2003 , pp. 389–396. ^ Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" . American Experience: the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online. Archived from the original on 27 July 2003 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2–3. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War" . Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" . Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on 30 October 2004 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148. ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232. ^ Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 "Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000" . ^ Cooke, Philip; Shepherd, Ben H. (31 January 2020). European Resistance in the Second World War . Pen and Sword. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4738-3162-9 . From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5. ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107. ^ a b Rahn 2001 , p. 266. ^ Leith, C. K. (July 1939). "The Struggle for Mineral Resources" . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 204, Democracy and the Americas: 42– 48. JSTOR 1021443 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...]. ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2. ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . Diane Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-5856-6069-8 . ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26. ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration . United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 978-9-2110-9147-2 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76. ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227. ^ Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247–251. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-8450-9079-1 . ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4027-3099-3 . ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25. ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14. ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16. ^ Burns, R. W. (September 1994). "Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943" . IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology . 141 (5): 343– 355. doi : 10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group . p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7106-0123-0 . ^ "The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War" . Imperial War Museums . Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Castaldi, Carolina; Fontana, Roberto; Nuvolari, Alessandro (1 August 2009). " 'Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945" . Journal of Evolutionary Economics . 19 (4): 545– 566. doi : 10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 . hdl : 10419/89322 . ISSN 1432-1386 . S2CID 36789517 . ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734. ^ a b Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF) . controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War I" . History Department at the University of San Diego. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times . London. p. 27. Gale IF0504159516 . ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ "The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II" . New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "World War – II" . Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation . Archived from the original on 11 July 2022 . Retrieved 17 September 2022 . ^ Gaynes, Robert (May 2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 23 (5): 849– 853. Bibcode : 2017EIDis..23..849G . doi : 10.3201/eid2305.161556 . PMC 5403050 . Sources Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (1992). The Making of the Second World War . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90716-3 . Anderson, Irvine H. Jr. (1975). "The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review . 44 (2): 201– 231. doi : 10.2307/3638003 . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9322-6 . ——— (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9868-9 . Aubin, Nicolas; Bernard, Vincent; Guillerat, Nicolas (2019). Lopez, Jean (ed.). World War II Infographics . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02292-4 . Bacon, Edwin (1992). " Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II". Soviet Studies . 44 (6): 1069– 1086. doi : 10.1080/09668139208412066 . JSTOR 152330 . Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-0-85045-921-0 . Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press . Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Ronald Grigor Suny (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia – The Twentieth Century . Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 217– 242. ISBN 978-0-521-81144-6 . Barker, A. J. (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York: Ballantine Books . ISBN 978-0-345-02462-6 . Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad . New York: Viking . ISBN 978-0-670-87095-0 . ——— (2012). The Second World War . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978-0-297-84497-6 . Belco, Victoria (2010). War, Massacre, and Recovery in Central Italy: 1943–1948 . Toronto: University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978-0-8020-9314-1 . Bellamy, Chris T. (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4 . Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History . New York: W. W. Norton. Berend, Ivan T. (1996). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-55066-6 . Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2 . Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . ISBN 978-0-7656-1821-4 . Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood . ISBN 978-0-275-96363-7 . Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York: HarperCollins . ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0 . Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-30534-1 . Blinkhorn, Martin (2006) [1984]. Mussolini and Fascist Italy (3rd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26206-4 . Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0870-7 . Borstelmann, Thomas (2005). "The United States, the Cold War, and the colour line". In Melvyn P. Leffler; David S. Painter (eds.). Origins of the Cold War: An International History (2nd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . pp. 317– 332. ISBN 978-0-415-34109-7 . Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313– 314. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Brayley, Martin J. (2002). The British Army 1939–45, Volume 3: The Far East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-238-8 . British Bombing Survey Unit (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945 . London & Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7146-4722-7 . Brody, J. Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7658-0622-2 . Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5461-4 . Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000 . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-0-631-22162-3 . Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce ; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-02546-1 . Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James L. (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress . Polity . ISBN 978-0-7456-1298-0 . Bullock, Alan (1990) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0 . Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). "Concepts in Submarine Design" . Journal of Applied Mechanics . 62 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press : 268. Bibcode : 1995JAM....62R.268B . doi : 10.1115/1.2895927 . ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3 . Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97733-7 . Canfora, Luciano (2006) [2004]. Democracy in Europe: A History . Oxford & Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-1-4051-1131-7 . Cantril, Hadley (1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". Public Opinion Quarterly . 4 (3): 387– 407. doi : 10.1086/265420 . JSTOR 2745078 . Chang, Iris (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . New York: Basic Books . ISBN 978-0-465-06835-7 . Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation . New York: Fordham University Press . ISBN 978-0-8232-2562-0 . Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras . London & New York: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-1350-5 . Ch'i, Hsi-Sheng (1992). "The Military Dimension, 1942–1945". In James C. Hsiung; Steven I. Levine (eds.). China's Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 157– 184. ISBN 978-1-56324-246-5 . Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review . 55 (1): 123– 143. doi : 10.2307/25779864 . JSTOR 25779864 . S2CID 159445902 . Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80872-9 . Coble, Parks M. (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-23268-6 . Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-539-6 . Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45 . Oxford: Heinemann . ISBN 978-0-435-32721-7 . Commager, Henry Steele (2004). The Story of the Second World War . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-741-9 . Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" . History Today . 43 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History . London: UCL Press . ISBN 978-1-85728-532-1 . Cowley, Robert ; Parker, Geoffrey , eds. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company . ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9 . Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-101022-9 . Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory . London: Macmillan . ix+544 pages . ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1 . OCLC 70401618 . Dear, I. C. B. ; Foot, M. R. D. , eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4 . DeLong, J. Bradford ; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 189– 230. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN 978-0-394-50030-0 . Drea, Edward J. (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978-0-8032-6638-4 . de Grazia, Victoria; Paggi, Leonardo (Autumn 1991). "Story of an Ordinary Massacre: Civitella della Chiana, 29 June, 1944". Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature . 3 (2): 153– 169. doi : 10.1525/lal.1991.3.2.02a00030 . JSTOR 743479 . Dunn, Dennis J. (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow . Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2023-2 . Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945". In John K. Fairbank; Denis Twitchett (eds.). The Cambridge History of China – Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2 . Vol. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-24338-4 . Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1151– 1172. doi : 10.1080/0966813022000017177 . JSTOR 826310 . S2CID 43510161 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Copy ———; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 46 (4): 671– 680. doi : 10.1080/09668139408412190 . JSTOR 152934 . PMID 12288331 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9 . Erickson, John (2001). "Moskalenko". In Shukman, Harold (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 137– 154. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . ——— (2003). The Road to Stalingrad . London: Cassell Military . ISBN 978-0-304-36541-8 . Evans, David C.; Peattie, Mark R. (2012) [1997]. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978-1-59114-244-7 . Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . Fairbank, John King ; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1994]. China: A New History (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-01828-0 . Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". Journal of Military History . 57 (4): 599– 625. doi : 10.2307/2944096 . JSTOR 2944096 . Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6 . Forrest, Glen; Evans, Anthony; Gibbons, David (2012). The Illustrated Timeline of Military History . New York: Rosen. ISBN 978-1-4488-4794-5 . Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Hitler's Decision in Favour of War". In Horst Boog; Jürgen Förster; Joachim Hoffmann; Ernst Klink; Rolf-Dieter Muller; Gerd R. Ueberschar (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Attack on the Soviet Union . Vol. IV. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 13– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-822886-8 . Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide" . In Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (eds.). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 53– 68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . Frank, Richard B. (2020). Tower of Skulls: A History of The Asia-Pacific War July 1937-May 1942 . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-324-00210-9 . Frei, Norbert (2002). Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11882-8 . Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K., eds. (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945 . London: Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978-0-85177-953-9 . Garver, John W. (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-505432-3 . Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9 . Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" . Combined Arms Research Library . CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ——— (1989). Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War . Abingdon & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3 . ——— (1998). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-0899-7 . ——— (2001). "The Soviet-German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. ——— (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1208-6 . ——— (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" . Combined Arms Research Library . Leavenworth Papers. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 78918907 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Goldstein, Margaret J. (2004). World War II: Europe . Minneapolis: Lerner Publications . ISBN 978-0-8225-0139-8 . Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched" . In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . pp. 127–144 . ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6 . Gordon, Robert S. C. (2012). The Holocaust in Italian Culture, 1944–2010 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-6346-2 . Grove, Eric J. (1995). "A Service Vindicated, 1939–1946". In J. R. Hill (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy . Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 348– 380. ISBN 978-0-19-211675-8 . Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-3756-2 . Hanhimäki, Jussi M. (1997). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press . ISBN 978-0-87338-558-9 . Harris, Sheldon H. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-93214-1 . Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World War II: an overview". In Mark Harrison (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 42. ISBN 978-0-521-62046-8 . Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-1-86227-073-2 . Hastings, Max (2011). All Hell Let Loose: the World at War 1939-1945 . London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780-00-733809-2 . Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (1): 15– 32. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300102 . JSTOR 260090 . S2CID 154865385 . Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns in the East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0 . Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4 . Hempel, Andrew (2005). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History . New York: Hippocrene Books . ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3 . Herbert, Ulrich (1994). "Labor as spoils of conquest, 1933–1945". In David F. Crew (ed.). Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 219–273 . ISBN 978-0-415-08239-6 . Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History . 4 (4): 913– 930. doi : 10.1353/kri.2003.0059 . S2CID 159958616 . Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5711-0 . Holland, James (2008). Italy's Sorrow: A Year of War 1944–45 . London: HarperPress . ISBN 978-0-00-717645-8 . Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union . Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5 . Howard, Joshua H. (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-4896-4 . Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210 . OCLC 12828898 . Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman ; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought . New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 76–78 . ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4 . Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-69580-1 . Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War . London & New York: Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 978-1-85285-417-1 . Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2339-4 . Jowett, Philip S. (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45, Volume 2: Africa 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-865-5 . ———; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-353-8 . Jukes, Geoffrey (2001). "Kuznetzov". In Harold Shukman (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 109– 116. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . Kantowicz, Edward R. (1999). The Rage of Nations . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4455-2 . ——— (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9 . Keeble, Curtis (1990). "The historical perspective". In Alex Pravda; Peter J. Duncan (eds.). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-37494-1 . Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-7348-8 . Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1 . Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 . Manchester: Manchester University Press . ISBN 978-0-7190-4201-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04994-7 . ——— (2007). Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5 . Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-913417-5 . Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues . 9 (1): 13– 361. JSTOR 40604127 . Kleinfeld, Gerald R. (1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs . 47 (3): 122– 128. doi : 10.2307/1988082 . JSTOR 1988082 . Koch, H. W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa' ". The Historical Journal . 26 (4): 891– 920. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00012747 . JSTOR 2639289 . S2CID 159671713 . Kolko, Gabriel (1990) [1968]. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945 . New York: Random House . ISBN 978-0-679-72757-6 . Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6 . Lee, En-han (2002). "The Nanking Massacre Reassessed: A Study of the Sino-Japanese Controversy over the Factual Number of Massacred Victims". In Robert Sabella; Fei Fei Li; David Liu (eds.). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 47– 74. ISBN 978-0-7656-0816-1 . Leffler, Melvyn P. ; Westad, Odd Arne , eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-83938-9 , in 3 volumes. Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6 . Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses" . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines . Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office . LCCN 53-63678 . Archived from the original on 8 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 October 2009 . Liberman, Peter (1996). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-02986-3 . Liddell Hart, Basil (1977). History of the Second World War (4th ed.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23770-3 . Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-22404-8 . Lindberg, Michael; Todd, Daniel (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-96486-3 . Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26681-9 . Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3 . Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-0437-3 . Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2241-4 . Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . Cambridge University Press . p. 96 . ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6 . Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-882-3 . Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese Relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987 . Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications . ISBN 978-0-87727-122-2 . May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review . 24 (2): 153– 174. doi : 10.2307/3634575 . JSTOR 3634575 . Mazower, Mark (2008). Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-1-59420-188-2 . Milner, Marc (1990). "The Battle of the Atlantic". In Gooch, John (ed.). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War . Abingdon: Frank Cass . pp. 45– 66. ISBN 978-0-7146-3369-5 . Milward, A. S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review . 16 (3): 499– 518. JSTOR 2592851 . ——— (1992) [1977]. War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 . Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1 . Minford, Patrick (1993). "Reconstruction and the UK Postwar Welfare State: False Start and New Beginning". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 115– 138. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-4346-4 . Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8 . Mitcham, Samuel W. (2007) [1982]. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3413-4 . Mitter, Rana (2014). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 . Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-544-33450-2 . Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84603-006-2 . Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933–1945 . Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama: Air University Press . ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ———; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-00680-5 . Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-10222-1 . Naimark, Norman (2010). "The Sovietization of Eastern Europe, 1944–1953". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 175– 197. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Neary, Ian (1992). "Japan". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 49– 70. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press . ISBN 978-0-253-34781-7 . Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe – Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939–1945 . Ramsbury, Marlborough, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press. ISBN 978-1-86126-799-3 . Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0 . Overy, Richard (1994). War and Economy in the Third Reich . New York: Clarendon Press . ISBN 978-0-19-820290-5 . ——— (1995). Why the Allies Won . London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7453-9 . ——— (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4 . ———; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7 . O'Reilly, Charles T. (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945 . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books . ISBN 978-0-7391-0195-7 . Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" . The Journal of American History . 99 (1): 24– 39. doi : 10.1093/jahist/jas073 . Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea: Submarine Conflict During World War II . New York: John Wiley . ISBN 978-0-471-24945-0 . Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security . 18 (2): 154– 201. doi : 10.2307/2539100 . JSTOR 2539100 . S2CID 153741180 . Parker, Danny S. (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945 (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press . ISBN 978-0-306-81391-7 . Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4 . Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1 . Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and Conquest: Allied Occupation Currencies in World War II . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-0530-1 . Polley, Martin (2000). An A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4 . Portelli, Alessandro (2003). The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome . Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-1-4039-8008-3 . Preston, P. W. (1998). Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978-0-631-20238-7 . Prins, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-36960-2 . Radtke, K. W. (1997). " 'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933–7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 100– 120. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6 . Rahn, Werner (2001). "The War in the Pacific". In Horst Boog; Werner Rahn; Reinhard Stumpf; Bernd Wegner (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Global War . Vol. VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 191– 298. ISBN 978-0-19-822888-2 . Ratcliff, R. A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra, and the End of Secure Ciphers . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85522-8 . Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04800-1 . Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (2002) [1992]. The Fall Of Berlin . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-0695-0 . Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF) . Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Rees, Laurence (2008). World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . London: BBC Books . ISBN 978-0-563-49335-8 . Regan, Geoffrey (2004). The Brassey's Book of Military Blunders . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-252-0 . Reinhardt, Klaus (1992). Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 . Oxford: Berg . ISBN 978-0-85496-695-0 . Reynolds, David (2006). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 . Rich, Norman (1992) [1973]. Hitler's War Aims, Volume I: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00802-9 . Ritchie, Ella (1992). "France". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 23– 48. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Roberts, Cynthia A. (1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies . 47 (8): 1293– 1326. doi : 10.1080/09668139508412322 . JSTOR 153299 . Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7 . Roberts, J. M. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3 . Ropp, Theodore (2000). War in the Modern World (Revised ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-6445-2 . Roskill, S. W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive . History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO . Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Ross, Steven T. (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-7146-4634-3 . Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0 . Rotundo, Louis (1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs . 50 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.2307/1988530 . JSTOR 1988530 . Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific . Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-049-5 . Schain, Martin A., ed. (2001). The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . London: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-0-333-92983-4 . Schmitz, David F. (2000). Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-8420-2632-1 . Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-05988-7 . Sella, Amnon (1978). " "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (3): 555– 583. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300308 . JSTOR 260209 . S2CID 220880174 . ——— (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History . 18 (4): 651– 687. JSTOR 260307 . Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above . Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi . ISBN 978-9-0420-2225-6 . Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II: Day by Day . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0939-1 . Shepardson, Donald E. (1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". Journal of Military History . 62 (1): 135– 154. doi : 10.2307/120398 . JSTOR 120398 . Shirer, William L. (1990) [1960]. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978-0-671-72868-7 . Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-518261-3 . Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory . London: Cassell. Smith, Alan (1993). Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-08924-1 . Smith, J. W. (1994). The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment . Institute for Economic Democracy. ISBN 978-0-9624423-2-2 . Smith, Peter C. (2002) [1970]. Pedestal: The Convoy That Saved Malta (5th ed.). Manchester: Goodall. ISBN 978-0-907579-19-9 . Smith, David J.; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-28580-3 . Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3 . Last Gasp. ISBN 978-0-86719-616-0 . Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . London: The Bodley Head . ISBN 978-0-224-08141-2 . Spring, D. W. (1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies . 38 (2): 207– 226. doi : 10.1080/09668138608411636 . JSTOR 151203 . S2CID 154270850 . Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The English Historical Review . 110 (437): 620– 651. doi : 10.1093/ehr/cx.437.620 . JSTOR 578338 . Steury, Donald P. (1987). "Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Campaign and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Study in the Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval Warfare". Journal of Contemporary History . 22 (2): 209– 233. doi : 10.1177/002200948702200202 . JSTOR 260931 . S2CID 159943895 . Stueck, William (2010). "The Korean War". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 266– 287. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-195-4 . Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45 . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978-1-86508-352-0 . Swain, Geoffrey (1992). "The Cominform: Tito's International?". The Historical Journal . 35 (3): 641– 663. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00026017 . S2CID 163152235 . Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4 . Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War . London: Hamish Hamilton . ——— (1979). How Wars Begin . London: Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978-0-241-10017-2 . Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 . Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom History European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Canon Media Internet Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary contemporary Philosophy Science Values Science Values Physical culture Sport Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Relativism Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Paradox Relativism Peritrope Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European European Religion Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Culture Western / Eastern Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Law Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Contemporary integration ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Islam Culture Sunni Shia Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Culture Eastern Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX World War II World wars Conflicts in 1939 Conflicts in 1940 Conflicts in 1941 Conflicts in 1942 Conflicts in 1943 Conflicts in 1944 Conflicts in 1945 Late modern Europe Nuclear warfare Wars involving Albania Wars involving Australia Wars involving Austria Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Brazil Wars involving British India Wars involving Bulgaria Wars involving Myanmar Wars involving Cambodia Wars involving Canada Wars involving Chile Wars involving Colombia Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Cuba Wars involving Czechoslovakia Wars involving Denmark Wars involving the Dominican Republic Wars involving Ecuador Wars involving Egypt Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Estonia Wars involving Ethiopia Wars involving Finland Wars involving France Wars involving Germany Wars involving Greece Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Haiti Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Hungary Wars involving Iceland Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Italy Wars involving Iran Wars involving Iraq Wars involving Japan Wars involving Kazakhstan Wars involving Laos Wars involving Latvia Wars involving Lebanon Wars involving Liberia Wars involving Lithuania Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving Mexico Wars involving Mongolia Wars involving Montenegro Wars involving Nepal Wars involving Norway Wars involving Nicaragua Wars involving Panama Wars involving Paraguay Wars involving Peru Wars involving Poland Wars involving Rhodesia Wars involving Romania Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving Serbia Wars involving Slovakia Wars involving Slovenia Wars involving South Africa Wars involving Sri Lanka Wars involving Syria Wars involving Thailand Wars involving the Netherlands Wars involving the Philippines Wars involving the Republic of China Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States Wars involving Uruguay Wars involving Venezuela Wars involving Vietnam Wars involving Yugoslavia Wars involving India Wars involving New Zealand CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia references cleanup from January 2026 All articles needing references cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from January 2026 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with duplicate citations Use British English from December 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2025 Articles containing Italian-language text Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERead2004764_225-0
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 130 results for author: Pentland, A Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CY cs.HC cs.LG cs.MA Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10567 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Authors: Laura Ferrarotti , Gian Maria Campedelli , Roberto Dessì , Andrea Baronchelli , Giovanni Iacca , Kathleen M. Carley , Alex Pentland , Joel Z. Leibo , James Evans , Bruno Lepri Abstract : In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together… ▽ More In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02371 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CY cs.AI cs.MA cs.NI Permission Manifests for Web Agents Authors: Samuele Marro , Alan Chan , Xinxing Ren , Lewis Hammond , Jesse Wright , Gurjyot Wanga , Tiziano Piccardi , Nuno Campos , Tobin South , Jialin Yu , Sunando Sengupta , Eric Sommerlade , Alex Pentland , Philip Torr , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : The rise of Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents represents a significant shift in automated interactions with the web. Unlike traditional crawlers that follow simple conventions, such as robots$.$txt, modern agents engage with websites in sophisticated ways: navigating complex interfaces, extracting structured information, and completing end-to-end tasks. Existing governance mechanisms wer… ▽ More The rise of Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents represents a significant shift in automated interactions with the web. Unlike traditional crawlers that follow simple conventions, such as robots$.$txt, modern agents engage with websites in sophisticated ways: navigating complex interfaces, extracting structured information, and completing end-to-end tasks. Existing governance mechanisms were not designed for these capabilities. Without a way to specify what interactions are and are not allowed, website owners increasingly rely on blanket blocking and CAPTCHAs, which undermine beneficial applications such as efficient automation, convenient use of e-commerce services, and accessibility tools. We introduce agent-permissions$.$json, a robots$.$txt-style lightweight manifest where websites specify allowed interactions, complemented by API references where available. This framework provides a low-friction coordination mechanism: website owners only need to write a simple JSON file, while agents can easily parse and automatically implement the manifest's provisions. Website owners can then focus on blocking non-compliant agents, rather than agents as a whole. By extending the spirit of robots$.$txt to the era of LLM-mediated interaction, and complementing data use initiatives such as AIPref, the manifest establishes a compliance framework that enables beneficial agent interactions while respecting site owners' preferences. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Authored by the Lightweight Agent Standards Working Group ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.11; H.3.5 arXiv:2601.02371 [ pdf , ps , other ] Permission Manifests for Web Agents Authors: Samuele Marro , Alan Chan , Xinxing Ren , Lewis Hammond , Jesse Wright , Gurjyot Wanga , Tiziano Piccardi , Nuno Campos , Tobin South , Jialin Yu , Sunando Sengupta , Eric Sommerlade , Alex Pentland , Philip Torr , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : The rise of Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents represents a significant shift in automated interactions with the web. Unlike traditional crawlers that follow simple conventions, such as robots$.$txt, modern agents engage with websites in sophisticated ways: navigating complex interfaces, extracting structured information, and completing end-to-end tasks. Existing governance mechanisms wer… ▽ More The rise of Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents represents a significant shift in automated interactions with the web. Unlike traditional crawlers that follow simple conventions, such as robots$.$txt, modern agents engage with websites in sophisticated ways: navigating complex interfaces, extracting structured information, and completing end-to-end tasks. Existing governance mechanisms were not designed for these capabilities. Without a way to specify what interactions are and are not allowed, website owners increasingly rely on blanket blocking and CAPTCHAs, which undermine beneficial applications such as efficient automation, convenient use of e-commerce services, and accessibility tools. We introduce agent-permissions$.$json, a robots$.$txt-style lightweight manifest where websites specify allowed interactions, complemented by API references where available. This framework provides a low-friction coordination mechanism: website owners only need to write a simple JSON file, while agents can easily parse and automatically implement the manifest's provisions. Website owners can then focus on blocking non-compliant agents, rather than agents as a whole. By extending the spirit of robots$.$txt to the era of LLM-mediated interaction, and complementing data use initiatives such as AIPref, the manifest establishes a compliance framework that enables beneficial agent interactions while respecting site owners' preferences. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Authored by the Lightweight Agent Standards Working Group ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.11; H.3.5 arXiv:2511.00267 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CY cs.GL cs.LG Advancing AI Challenges for the United States Department of the Air Force Authors: Christian Prothmann , Vijay Gadepally , Jeremy Kepner , Koley Borchard , Luca Carlone , Zachary Folcik , J. Daniel Grith , Michael Houle , Jonathan P. How , Nathan Hughes , Ifueko Igbinedion , Hayden Jananthan , Tejas Jayashankar , Michael Jones , Sertac Karaman , Binoy G. Kurien , Alejandro Lancho , Giovanni Lavezzi , Gary C. F. Lee , Charles E. Leiserson , Richard Linares , Lindsey McEvoy , Peter Michaleas , Chasen Milner , Alex Pentland , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The DAF-MIT AI Accelerator is a collaboration between the United States Department of the Air Force (DAF) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This program pioneers fundamental advances in artificial intelligence (AI) to expand the competitive advantage of the United States in the defense and civilian sectors. In recent years, AI Accelerator projects have developed and launched pub… ▽ More The DAF-MIT AI Accelerator is a collaboration between the United States Department of the Air Force (DAF) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This program pioneers fundamental advances in artificial intelligence (AI) to expand the competitive advantage of the United States in the defense and civilian sectors. In recent years, AI Accelerator projects have developed and launched public challenge problems aimed at advancing AI research in priority areas. Hallmarks of AI Accelerator challenges include large, publicly available, and AI-ready datasets to stimulate open-source solutions and engage the wider academic and private sector AI ecosystem. This article supplements our previous publication, which introduced AI Accelerator challenges. We provide an update on how ongoing and new challenges have successfully contributed to AI research and applications of AI technologies. △ Less Submitted 31 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 8 figures, 59 references. To appear in IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2511.00267 [ pdf , ps , other ] Advancing AI Challenges for the United States Department of the Air Force Authors: Christian Prothmann , Vijay Gadepally , Jeremy Kepner , Koley Borchard , Luca Carlone , Zachary Folcik , J. Daniel Grith , Michael Houle , Jonathan P. How , Nathan Hughes , Ifueko Igbinedion , Hayden Jananthan , Tejas Jayashankar , Michael Jones , Sertac Karaman , Binoy G. Kurien , Alejandro Lancho , Giovanni Lavezzi , Gary C. F. Lee , Charles E. Leiserson , Richard Linares , Lindsey McEvoy , Peter Michaleas , Chasen Milner , Alex Pentland , et al. (13 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The DAF-MIT AI Accelerator is a collaboration between the United States Department of the Air Force (DAF) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This program pioneers fundamental advances in artificial intelligence (AI) to expand the competitive advantage of the United States in the defense and civilian sectors. In recent years, AI Accelerator projects have developed and launched pub… ▽ More The DAF-MIT AI Accelerator is a collaboration between the United States Department of the Air Force (DAF) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This program pioneers fundamental advances in artificial intelligence (AI) to expand the competitive advantage of the United States in the defense and civilian sectors. In recent years, AI Accelerator projects have developed and launched public challenge problems aimed at advancing AI research in priority areas. Hallmarks of AI Accelerator challenges include large, publicly available, and AI-ready datasets to stimulate open-source solutions and engage the wider academic and private sector AI ecosystem. This article supplements our previous publication, which introduced AI Accelerator challenges. We provide an update on how ongoing and new challenges have successfully contributed to AI research and applications of AI technologies. △ Less Submitted 31 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 8 figures, 59 references. To appear in IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2510.25819 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI cs.NI Identity Management for Agentic AI: The new frontier of authorization, authentication, and security for an AI agent world Authors: Tobin South , Subramanya Nagabhushanaradhya , Ayesha Dissanayaka , Sarah Cecchetti , George Fletcher , Victor Lu , Aldo Pietropaolo , Dean H. Saxe , Jeff Lombardo , Abhishek Maligehalli Shivalingaiah , Stan Bounev , Alex Keisner , Andor Kesselman , Zack Proser , Ginny Fahs , Andrew Bunyea , Ben Moskowitz , Atul Tulshibagwale , Dazza Greenwood , Jiaxin Pei , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid rise of AI agents presents urgent challenges in authentication, authorization, and identity management. Current agent-centric protocols (like MCP) highlight the demand for clarified best practices in authentication and authorization. Looking ahead, ambitions for highly autonomous agents raise complex long-term questions regarding scalable access control, agent-centric identities, AI work… ▽ More The rapid rise of AI agents presents urgent challenges in authentication, authorization, and identity management. Current agent-centric protocols (like MCP) highlight the demand for clarified best practices in authentication and authorization. Looking ahead, ambitions for highly autonomous agents raise complex long-term questions regarding scalable access control, agent-centric identities, AI workload differentiation, and delegated authority. This OpenID Foundation whitepaper is for stakeholders at the intersection of AI agents and access management. It outlines the resources already available for securing today's agents and presents a strategic agenda to address the foundational authentication, authorization, and identity problems pivotal for tomorrow's widespread autonomous systems. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. MSC Class: 68M12 ACM Class: D.4.6; K.6.5; I.2.11 Journal ref: OpenID Foundation Whitepaper, 2025 arXiv:2510.25819 [ pdf , ps , other ] Identity Management for Agentic AI: The new frontier of authorization, authentication, and security for an AI agent world Authors: Tobin South , Subramanya Nagabhushanaradhya , Ayesha Dissanayaka , Sarah Cecchetti , George Fletcher , Victor Lu , Aldo Pietropaolo , Dean H. Saxe , Jeff Lombardo , Abhishek Maligehalli Shivalingaiah , Stan Bounev , Alex Keisner , Andor Kesselman , Zack Proser , Ginny Fahs , Andrew Bunyea , Ben Moskowitz , Atul Tulshibagwale , Dazza Greenwood , Jiaxin Pei , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid rise of AI agents presents urgent challenges in authentication, authorization, and identity management. Current agent-centric protocols (like MCP) highlight the demand for clarified best practices in authentication and authorization. Looking ahead, ambitions for highly autonomous agents raise complex long-term questions regarding scalable access control, agent-centric identities, AI work… ▽ More The rapid rise of AI agents presents urgent challenges in authentication, authorization, and identity management. Current agent-centric protocols (like MCP) highlight the demand for clarified best practices in authentication and authorization. Looking ahead, ambitions for highly autonomous agents raise complex long-term questions regarding scalable access control, agent-centric identities, AI workload differentiation, and delegated authority. This OpenID Foundation whitepaper is for stakeholders at the intersection of AI agents and access management. It outlines the resources already available for securing today's agents and presents a strategic agenda to address the foundational authentication, authorization, and identity problems pivotal for tomorrow's widespread autonomous systems. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. MSC Class: 68M12 ACM Class: D.4.6; K.6.5; I.2.11 Journal ref: OpenID Foundation Whitepaper, 2025 arXiv:2510.23822 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI ReCAP: Recursive Context-Aware Reasoning and Planning for Large Language Model Agents Authors: Zhenyu Zhang , Tianyi Chen , Weiran Xu , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : Long-horizon tasks requiring multi-step reasoning and dynamic re-planning remain challenging for large language models (LLMs). Sequential prompting methods are prone to context drift, loss of goal information, and recurrent failure cycles, while hierarchical prompting methods often weaken cross-level continuity or incur substantial runtime overhead. We introduce ReCAP (Recursive Context-Aware Reas… ▽ More Long-horizon tasks requiring multi-step reasoning and dynamic re-planning remain challenging for large language models (LLMs). Sequential prompting methods are prone to context drift, loss of goal information, and recurrent failure cycles, while hierarchical prompting methods often weaken cross-level continuity or incur substantial runtime overhead. We introduce ReCAP (Recursive Context-Aware Reasoning and Planning), a hierarchical framework with shared context for reasoning and planning in LLMs. ReCAP combines three key mechanisms: (i) plan-ahead decomposition, in which the model generates a full subtask list, executes the first item, and refines the remainder; (ii) structured re-injection of parent plans, maintaining consistent multi-level context during recursive return; and (iii) memory-efficient execution, bounding the active prompt so costs scale linearly with task depth. Together these mechanisms align high-level goals with low-level actions, reduce redundant prompting, and preserve coherent context updates across recursion. Experiments demonstrate that ReCAP substantially improves subgoal alignment and success rates on various long-horizon reasoning benchmarks, achieving a 32% gain on synchronous Robotouille and a 29% improvement on asynchronous Robotouille under the strict pass@1 protocol. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Journal ref: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) arXiv:2510.23822 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReCAP: Recursive Context-Aware Reasoning and Planning for Large Language Model Agents Authors: Zhenyu Zhang , Tianyi Chen , Weiran Xu , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : Long-horizon tasks requiring multi-step reasoning and dynamic re-planning remain challenging for large language models (LLMs). Sequential prompting methods are prone to context drift, loss of goal information, and recurrent failure cycles, while hierarchical prompting methods often weaken cross-level continuity or incur substantial runtime overhead. We introduce ReCAP (Recursive Context-Aware Reas… ▽ More Long-horizon tasks requiring multi-step reasoning and dynamic re-planning remain challenging for large language models (LLMs). Sequential prompting methods are prone to context drift, loss of goal information, and recurrent failure cycles, while hierarchical prompting methods often weaken cross-level continuity or incur substantial runtime overhead. We introduce ReCAP (Recursive Context-Aware Reasoning and Planning), a hierarchical framework with shared context for reasoning and planning in LLMs. ReCAP combines three key mechanisms: (i) plan-ahead decomposition, in which the model generates a full subtask list, executes the first item, and refines the remainder; (ii) structured re-injection of parent plans, maintaining consistent multi-level context during recursive return; and (iii) memory-efficient execution, bounding the active prompt so costs scale linearly with task depth. Together these mechanisms align high-level goals with low-level actions, reduce redundant prompting, and preserve coherent context updates across recursion. Experiments demonstrate that ReCAP substantially improves subgoal alignment and success rates on various long-horizon reasoning benchmarks, achieving a 32% gain on synchronous Robotouille and a 29% improvement on asynchronous Robotouille under the strict pass@1 protocol. △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Journal ref: 39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025) arXiv:2510.22037 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG ATLAS: Adaptive Transfer Scaling Laws for Multilingual Pretraining, Finetuning, and Decoding the Curse of Multilinguality Authors: Shayne Longpre , Sneha Kudugunta , Niklas Muennighoff , I-Hung Hsu , Isaac Caswell , Alex Pentland , Sercan Arik , Chen-Yu Lee , Sayna Ebrahimi Abstract : Scaling laws research has focused overwhelmingly on English -- yet the most prominent AI models explicitly serve billions of international users. In this work, we undertake the largest multilingual scaling laws study to date, totaling 774 multilingual training experiments, spanning 10M-8B model parameters, 400+ training languages and 48 evaluation languages. We introduce the Adaptive Transfer Scal… ▽ More Scaling laws research has focused overwhelmingly on English -- yet the most prominent AI models explicitly serve billions of international users. In this work, we undertake the largest multilingual scaling laws study to date, totaling 774 multilingual training experiments, spanning 10M-8B model parameters, 400+ training languages and 48 evaluation languages. We introduce the Adaptive Transfer Scaling Law (ATLAS) for both monolingual and multilingual pretraining, which outperforms existing scaling laws' out-of-sample generalization often by more than 0.3 R^2. Our analyses of the experiments shed light on multilingual learning dynamics, transfer properties between languages, and the curse of multilinguality. First, we derive a cross-lingual transfer matrix, empirically measuring mutual benefit scores between 38 x 38=1444 language pairs. Second, we derive a language-agnostic scaling law that reveals how to optimally scale model size and data when adding languages without sacrificing performance. Third, we identify the computational crossover points for when to pretrain from scratch versus finetune from multilingual checkpoints. We hope these findings provide the scientific foundation for democratizing scaling laws across languages, and enable practitioners to efficiently scale models -- beyond English-first AI. △ Less Submitted 24 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.22037 [ pdf , ps , other ] ATLAS: Adaptive Transfer Scaling Laws for Multilingual Pretraining, Finetuning, and Decoding the Curse of Multilinguality Authors: Shayne Longpre , Sneha Kudugunta , Niklas Muennighoff , I-Hung Hsu , Isaac Caswell , Alex Pentland , Sercan Arik , Chen-Yu Lee , Sayna Ebrahimi Abstract : Scaling laws research has focused overwhelmingly on English -- yet the most prominent AI models explicitly serve billions of international users. In this work, we undertake the largest multilingual scaling laws study to date, totaling 774 multilingual training experiments, spanning 10M-8B model parameters, 400+ training languages and 48 evaluation languages. We introduce the Adaptive Transfer Scal… ▽ More Scaling laws research has focused overwhelmingly on English -- yet the most prominent AI models explicitly serve billions of international users. In this work, we undertake the largest multilingual scaling laws study to date, totaling 774 multilingual training experiments, spanning 10M-8B model parameters, 400+ training languages and 48 evaluation languages. We introduce the Adaptive Transfer Scaling Law (ATLAS) for both monolingual and multilingual pretraining, which outperforms existing scaling laws' out-of-sample generalization often by more than 0.3 R^2. Our analyses of the experiments shed light on multilingual learning dynamics, transfer properties between languages, and the curse of multilinguality. First, we derive a cross-lingual transfer matrix, empirically measuring mutual benefit scores between 38 x 38=1444 language pairs. Second, we derive a language-agnostic scaling law that reveals how to optimally scale model size and data when adding languages without sacrificing performance. Third, we identify the computational crossover points for when to pretrain from scratch versus finetune from multilingual checkpoints. We hope these findings provide the scientific foundation for democratizing scaling laws across languages, and enable practitioners to efficiently scale models -- beyond English-first AI. △ Less Submitted 24 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.05154 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Can AI Truly Represent Your Voice in Deliberations? A Comprehensive Study of Large-Scale Opinion Aggregation with LLMs Authors: Shenzhe Zhu , Shu Yang , Michiel A. Bakker , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : Large-scale public deliberations generate thousands of free-form contributions that must be synthesized into representative and neutral summaries for policy use. While LLMs have been shown as a promising tool to generate summaries for large-scale deliberations, they also risk underrepresenting minority perspectives and exhibiting bias with respect to the input order, raising fairness concerns in h… ▽ More Large-scale public deliberations generate thousands of free-form contributions that must be synthesized into representative and neutral summaries for policy use. While LLMs have been shown as a promising tool to generate summaries for large-scale deliberations, they also risk underrepresenting minority perspectives and exhibiting bias with respect to the input order, raising fairness concerns in high-stakes contexts. Studying and fixing these issues requires a comprehensive evaluation at a large scale, yet current practice often relies on LLMs as judges, which show weak alignment with human judgments. To address this, we present DeliberationBank, a large-scale human-grounded dataset with (1) opinion data spanning ten deliberation questions created by 3,000 participants and (2) summary judgment data annotated by 4,500 participants across four dimensions (representativeness, informativeness, neutrality, policy approval). Using these datasets, we train DeliberationJudge, a fine-tuned DeBERTa model that can rate deliberation summaries from individual perspectives. DeliberationJudge is more efficient and more aligned with human judgements compared to a wide range of LLM judges. With DeliberationJudge, we evaluate 18 LLMs and reveal persistent weaknesses in deliberation summarization, especially underrepresentation of minority positions. Our framework provides a scalable and reliable way to evaluate deliberation summarization, helping ensure AI systems are more representative and equitable for policymaking. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.05154 [ pdf , ps , other ] Can AI Truly Represent Your Voice in Deliberations? A Comprehensive Study of Large-Scale Opinion Aggregation with LLMs Authors: Shenzhe Zhu , Shu Yang , Michiel A. Bakker , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : Large-scale public deliberations generate thousands of free-form contributions that must be synthesized into representative and neutral summaries for policy use. While LLMs have been shown as a promising tool to generate summaries for large-scale deliberations, they also risk underrepresenting minority perspectives and exhibiting bias with respect to the input order, raising fairness concerns in h… ▽ More Large-scale public deliberations generate thousands of free-form contributions that must be synthesized into representative and neutral summaries for policy use. While LLMs have been shown as a promising tool to generate summaries for large-scale deliberations, they also risk underrepresenting minority perspectives and exhibiting bias with respect to the input order, raising fairness concerns in high-stakes contexts. Studying and fixing these issues requires a comprehensive evaluation at a large scale, yet current practice often relies on LLMs as judges, which show weak alignment with human judgments. To address this, we present DeliberationBank, a large-scale human-grounded dataset with (1) opinion data spanning ten deliberation questions created by 3,000 participants and (2) summary judgment data annotated by 4,500 participants across four dimensions (representativeness, informativeness, neutrality, policy approval). Using these datasets, we train DeliberationJudge, a fine-tuned DeBERTa model that can rate deliberation summaries from individual perspectives. DeliberationJudge is more efficient and more aligned with human judgements compared to a wide range of LLM judges. With DeliberationJudge, we evaluate 18 LLMs and reveal persistent weaknesses in deliberation summarization, especially underrepresentation of minority positions. Our framework provides a scalable and reliable way to evaluate deliberation summarization, helping ensure AI systems are more representative and equitable for policymaking. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2509.25299 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.HC cs.MA ID-RAG: Identity Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Long-Horizon Persona Coherence in Generative Agents Authors: Daniel Platnick , Mohamed E. Bengueddache , Marjan Alirezaie , Dava J. Newman , Alex ''Sandy'' Pentland , Hossein Rahnama Abstract : Generative agents powered by language models are increasingly deployed for long-horizon tasks. However, as long-term memory context grows over time, they struggle to maintain coherence. This deficiency leads to critical failures, including identity drift, ignoring established beliefs, and the propagation of hallucinations in multi-agent systems. To mitigate these challenges, this paper introduces… ▽ More Generative agents powered by language models are increasingly deployed for long-horizon tasks. However, as long-term memory context grows over time, they struggle to maintain coherence. This deficiency leads to critical failures, including identity drift, ignoring established beliefs, and the propagation of hallucinations in multi-agent systems. To mitigate these challenges, this paper introduces Identity Retrieval-Augmented Generation (ID-RAG), a novel mechanism designed to ground an agent's persona and persistent preferences in a dynamic, structured identity model: a knowledge graph of core beliefs, traits, and values. During the agent's decision loop, this model is queried to retrieve relevant identity context, which directly informs action selection. We demonstrate this approach by introducing and implementing a new class of ID-RAG enabled agents called Human-AI Agents (HAis), where the identity model is inspired by the Chronicle structure used in Perspective-Aware AI, a dynamic knowledge graph learned from a real-world entity's digital footprint. In social simulations of a mayoral election, HAis using ID-RAG outperformed baseline agents in long-horizon persona coherence - achieving higher identity recall across all tested models by the fourth timestep - and reduced simulation convergence time by 19% (GPT-4o) and 58% (GPT-4o mini). By treating identity as an explicit, retrievable knowledge structure, ID-RAG offers a foundational approach for developing more temporally coherent, interpretable, and aligned generative agents. Our code is open-source and available at: △ Less Submitted 29 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted to LLAIS 2025: Workshop on LLM-Based Agents for Intelligent Systems, at ECAI 2025, 12 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2509.25299 [ pdf , ps , other ] ID-RAG: Identity Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Long-Horizon Persona Coherence in Generative Agents Authors: Daniel Platnick , Mohamed E. Bengueddache , Marjan Alirezaie , Dava J. Newman , Alex ''Sandy'' Pentland , Hossein Rahnama Abstract : Generative agents powered by language models are increasingly deployed for long-horizon tasks. However, as long-term memory context grows over time, they struggle to maintain coherence. This deficiency leads to critical failures, including identity drift, ignoring established beliefs, and the propagation of hallucinations in multi-agent systems. To mitigate these challenges, this paper introduces… ▽ More Generative agents powered by language models are increasingly deployed for long-horizon tasks. However, as long-term memory context grows over time, they struggle to maintain coherence. This deficiency leads to critical failures, including identity drift, ignoring established beliefs, and the propagation of hallucinations in multi-agent systems. To mitigate these challenges, this paper introduces Identity Retrieval-Augmented Generation (ID-RAG), a novel mechanism designed to ground an agent's persona and persistent preferences in a dynamic, structured identity model: a knowledge graph of core beliefs, traits, and values. During the agent's decision loop, this model is queried to retrieve relevant identity context, which directly informs action selection. We demonstrate this approach by introducing and implementing a new class of ID-RAG enabled agents called Human-AI Agents (HAis), where the identity model is inspired by the Chronicle structure used in Perspective-Aware AI, a dynamic knowledge graph learned from a real-world entity's digital footprint. In social simulations of a mayoral election, HAis using ID-RAG outperformed baseline agents in long-horizon persona coherence - achieving higher identity recall across all tested models by the fourth timestep - and reduced simulation convergence time by 19% (GPT-4o) and 58% (GPT-4o mini). By treating identity as an explicit, retrievable knowledge structure, ID-RAG offers a foundational approach for developing more temporally coherent, interpretable, and aligned generative agents. Our code is open-source and available at: △ Less Submitted 29 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted to LLAIS 2025: Workshop on LLM-Based Agents for Intelligent Systems, at ECAI 2025, 12 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2509.18984 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DS GraphBLAS Mathematical Opportunities: Parallel Hypersparse, Matrix Based Graph Streaming, and Complex-Index Matrices Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Houle , Peter Michaleas , Chasen Milner , Alex Pentland Abstract : The GraphBLAS high performance library standard has yielded capabilities beyond enabling graph algorithms to be readily expressed in the language of linear algebra. These GraphBLAS capabilities enable new performant ways of thinking about algorithms that include leveraging hypersparse matrices for parallel computation, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices. Formalizing these con… ▽ More The GraphBLAS high performance library standard has yielded capabilities beyond enabling graph algorithms to be readily expressed in the language of linear algebra. These GraphBLAS capabilities enable new performant ways of thinking about algorithms that include leveraging hypersparse matrices for parallel computation, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices. Formalizing these concepts mathematically provides additional opportunities to apply GraphBLAS to new areas. This paper formally develops parallel hypersparse matrices, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices and illustrates these concepts with various examples to demonstrate their potential merits. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: HPEC 2025 arXiv:2509.18984 [ pdf , ps , other ] GraphBLAS Mathematical Opportunities: Parallel Hypersparse, Matrix Based Graph Streaming, and Complex-Index Matrices Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Houle , Peter Michaleas , Chasen Milner , Alex Pentland Abstract : The GraphBLAS high performance library standard has yielded capabilities beyond enabling graph algorithms to be readily expressed in the language of linear algebra. These GraphBLAS capabilities enable new performant ways of thinking about algorithms that include leveraging hypersparse matrices for parallel computation, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices. Formalizing these con… ▽ More The GraphBLAS high performance library standard has yielded capabilities beyond enabling graph algorithms to be readily expressed in the language of linear algebra. These GraphBLAS capabilities enable new performant ways of thinking about algorithms that include leveraging hypersparse matrices for parallel computation, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices. Formalizing these concepts mathematically provides additional opportunities to apply GraphBLAS to new areas. This paper formally develops parallel hypersparse matrices, matrix-based graph streaming, and complex-index matrices and illustrates these concepts with various examples to demonstrate their potential merits. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: HPEC 2025 arXiv:2509.09898 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI cs.CR cs.DB cs.DC cs.OS doi 10.1109/HPEC67600.2025.11196670 DBOS Network Sensing: A Web Services Approach to Collaborative Awareness Authors: Sophia Lockton , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Stonebraker , Hayden Jananthan , LaToya Anderson , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Alex Bonn , Daniel Burrill , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Michael Jones , Piotr Luszczek , Peter Michaleas , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Julie Mullen , Michel Pelletier , Alex Poliakov , Andrew Prout , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : DBOS (DataBase Operating System) is a novel capability that integrates web services, operating system functions, and database features to significantly reduce web-deployment effort while increasing resilience. Integration of high performance network sensing enables DBOS web services to collaboratively create a shared awareness of their network environments to enhance their collective resilience an… ▽ More DBOS (DataBase Operating System) is a novel capability that integrates web services, operating system functions, and database features to significantly reduce web-deployment effort while increasing resilience. Integration of high performance network sensing enables DBOS web services to collaboratively create a shared awareness of their network environments to enhance their collective resilience and security. Network sensing is added to DBOS using GraphBLAS hypersparse traffic matrices via two approaches: (1) Python-GraphBLAS and (2) OneSparse PostgreSQL. These capabilities are demonstrated using the workflow and analytics from the IEEE/MIT/Amazon Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge. The system was parallelized using pPython and benchmarked using 64 compute nodes on the MIT SuperCloud. The web request rate sustained by a single DBOS instance was ${>}10^5$, well above the required maximum, indicating that network sensing can be added to DBOS with negligible overhead. For collaborative awareness, many DBOS instances were connected to a single DBOS aggregator. The Python-GraphBLAS and OneSparse PostgreSQL implementations scaled linearly up to 64 and 32 nodes respectively. These results suggest that DBOS collaborative network awareness can be achieved with a negligible increase in computing resources. △ Less Submitted 11 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures, 37 references, accepted to IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2509.09898 [ pdf , ps , other ] DBOS Network Sensing: A Web Services Approach to Collaborative Awareness Authors: Sophia Lockton , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Stonebraker , Hayden Jananthan , LaToya Anderson , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Alex Bonn , Daniel Burrill , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Michael Jones , Piotr Luszczek , Peter Michaleas , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Julie Mullen , Michel Pelletier , Alex Poliakov , Andrew Prout , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : DBOS (DataBase Operating System) is a novel capability that integrates web services, operating system functions, and database features to significantly reduce web-deployment effort while increasing resilience. Integration of high performance network sensing enables DBOS web services to collaboratively create a shared awareness of their network environments to enhance their collective resilience an… ▽ More DBOS (DataBase Operating System) is a novel capability that integrates web services, operating system functions, and database features to significantly reduce web-deployment effort while increasing resilience. Integration of high performance network sensing enables DBOS web services to collaboratively create a shared awareness of their network environments to enhance their collective resilience and security. Network sensing is added to DBOS using GraphBLAS hypersparse traffic matrices via two approaches: (1) Python-GraphBLAS and (2) OneSparse PostgreSQL. These capabilities are demonstrated using the workflow and analytics from the IEEE/MIT/Amazon Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge. The system was parallelized using pPython and benchmarked using 64 compute nodes on the MIT SuperCloud. The web request rate sustained by a single DBOS instance was ${>}10^5$, well above the required maximum, indicating that network sensing can be added to DBOS with negligible overhead. For collaborative awareness, many DBOS instances were connected to a single DBOS aggregator. The Python-GraphBLAS and OneSparse PostgreSQL implementations scaled linearly up to 64 and 32 nodes respectively. These results suggest that DBOS collaborative network awareness can be achieved with a negligible increase in computing resources. △ Less Submitted 11 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures, 37 references, accepted to IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2509.08200 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI cs.CY Accelerating AI Development with Cyber Arenas Authors: William Cashman , Chasen Milner , Michael Houle , Michael Jones , Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Peter Michaleas , Alex Pentland Abstract : AI development requires high fidelity testing environments to effectively transition from the laboratory to operations. The flexibility offered by cyber arenas presents a novel opportunity to test new artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities with users. Cyber arenas are designed to expose end-users to real-world situations and must rapidly incorporate evolving capabilities to meet their core obje… ▽ More AI development requires high fidelity testing environments to effectively transition from the laboratory to operations. The flexibility offered by cyber arenas presents a novel opportunity to test new artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities with users. Cyber arenas are designed to expose end-users to real-world situations and must rapidly incorporate evolving capabilities to meet their core objectives. To explore this concept the MIT/IEEE/Amazon Graph Challenge Anonymized Network Sensor was deployed in a cyber arena during a National Guard exercise. △ Less Submitted 9 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 2 pages, 1 figure, 7 references, accepted to IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2509.08200 [ pdf , ps , other ] Accelerating AI Development with Cyber Arenas Authors: William Cashman , Chasen Milner , Michael Houle , Michael Jones , Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Peter Michaleas , Alex Pentland Abstract : AI development requires high fidelity testing environments to effectively transition from the laboratory to operations. The flexibility offered by cyber arenas presents a novel opportunity to test new artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities with users. Cyber arenas are designed to expose end-users to real-world situations and must rapidly incorporate evolving capabilities to meet their core obje… ▽ More AI development requires high fidelity testing environments to effectively transition from the laboratory to operations. The flexibility offered by cyber arenas presents a novel opportunity to test new artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities with users. Cyber arenas are designed to expose end-users to real-world situations and must rapidly incorporate evolving capabilities to meet their core objectives. To explore this concept the MIT/IEEE/Amazon Graph Challenge Anonymized Network Sensor was deployed in a cyber arena during a National Guard exercise. △ Less Submitted 9 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 2 pages, 1 figure, 7 references, accepted to IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2508.16847 [ pdf , ps , other ] physics.soc-ph cs.CR cs.NI Cyber Orbits of Large Scale Network Traffic Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Hayden Jananthan , Chasen Milner , Michael Houle , Michael Jones , Peter Michaleas , Alex Pentland Abstract : The advent of high-performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, has enabled the analysis of massive network data sets and revealed new models for their behavior. Physical analogies for complicated network behavior can be a useful aid to understanding these newly discovered network phenomena. Prior work leveraged the canonical Gull's Lighthouse problem and developed a computational heuristic… ▽ More The advent of high-performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, has enabled the analysis of massive network data sets and revealed new models for their behavior. Physical analogies for complicated network behavior can be a useful aid to understanding these newly discovered network phenomena. Prior work leveraged the canonical Gull's Lighthouse problem and developed a computational heuristic for modeling large scale network traffic using this model. A general solution using this approach requires overcoming the essential mathematical singularities in the resulting differential equations. Further investigation reveals a simpler physical interpretation that alleviates the need for solving challenging differential equations. Specifically, that the probability of observing a source at a temporal ``distance'' $r(t)$ at time $t$ is $p(t) \propto 1/r(t)^2$. This analogy aligns with many physical phenomena and can be a rich source of intuition. Applying this physical analogy to the observed source correlations in the Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge data leads to an elegant cyber orbit analogy that may assist with the understanding network behavior. △ Less Submitted 22 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 2 pages, 1 figure, 10 reference, to appear at IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2508.16847 [ pdf , ps , other ] Cyber Orbits of Large Scale Network Traffic Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Hayden Jananthan , Chasen Milner , Michael Houle , Michael Jones , Peter Michaleas , Alex Pentland Abstract : The advent of high-performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, has enabled the analysis of massive network data sets and revealed new models for their behavior. Physical analogies for complicated network behavior can be a useful aid to understanding these newly discovered network phenomena. Prior work leveraged the canonical Gull's Lighthouse problem and developed a computational heuristic… ▽ More The advent of high-performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, has enabled the analysis of massive network data sets and revealed new models for their behavior. Physical analogies for complicated network behavior can be a useful aid to understanding these newly discovered network phenomena. Prior work leveraged the canonical Gull's Lighthouse problem and developed a computational heuristic for modeling large scale network traffic using this model. A general solution using this approach requires overcoming the essential mathematical singularities in the resulting differential equations. Further investigation reveals a simpler physical interpretation that alleviates the need for solving challenging differential equations. Specifically, that the probability of observing a source at a temporal ``distance'' $r(t)$ at time $t$ is $p(t) \propto 1/r(t)^2$. This analogy aligns with many physical phenomena and can be a rich source of intuition. Applying this physical analogy to the observed source correlations in the Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge data leads to an elegant cyber orbit analogy that may assist with the understanding network behavior. △ Less Submitted 22 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: 2 pages, 1 figure, 10 reference, to appear at IEEE HPEC 2025 arXiv:2506.00073 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CY cs.HC cs.MA The Automated but Risky Game: Modeling and Benchmarking Agent-to-Agent Negotiations and Transactions in Consumer Markets Authors: Shenzhe Zhu , Jiao Sun , Yi Nian , Tobin South , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : AI agents are increasingly used in consumer-facing applications to assist with tasks such as product search, negotiation, and transaction execution. In this paper, we explore a future scenario where both consumers and merchants authorize AI agents to fully automate negotiations and transactions. We aim to answer two key questions: (1) Do different LLM agents vary in their ability to secure favorab… ▽ More AI agents are increasingly used in consumer-facing applications to assist with tasks such as product search, negotiation, and transaction execution. In this paper, we explore a future scenario where both consumers and merchants authorize AI agents to fully automate negotiations and transactions. We aim to answer two key questions: (1) Do different LLM agents vary in their ability to secure favorable deals for users? (2) What risks arise from fully automating deal-making with AI agents in consumer markets? To address these questions, we develop an experimental framework that evaluates the performance of various LLM agents in real-world negotiation and transaction settings. Our findings reveal that AI-mediated deal-making is an inherently imbalanced game -- different agents achieve significantly different outcomes for their users. Moreover, behavioral anomalies in LLMs can result in financial losses for both consumers and merchants, such as overspending or accepting unreasonable deals. These results underscore that while automation can improve efficiency, it also introduces substantial risks. Users should exercise caution when delegating business decisions to AI agents. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2025; v1 submitted 29 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2506.00073 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Automated but Risky Game: Modeling and Benchmarking Agent-to-Agent Negotiations and Transactions in Consumer Markets Authors: Shenzhe Zhu , Jiao Sun , Yi Nian , Tobin South , Alex Pentland , Jiaxin Pei Abstract : AI agents are increasingly used in consumer-facing applications to assist with tasks such as product search, negotiation, and transaction execution. In this paper, we explore a future scenario where both consumers and merchants authorize AI agents to fully automate negotiations and transactions. We aim to answer two key questions: (1) Do different LLM agents vary in their ability to secure favorab… ▽ More AI agents are increasingly used in consumer-facing applications to assist with tasks such as product search, negotiation, and transaction execution. In this paper, we explore a future scenario where both consumers and merchants authorize AI agents to fully automate negotiations and transactions. We aim to answer two key questions: (1) Do different LLM agents vary in their ability to secure favorable deals for users? (2) What risks arise from fully automating deal-making with AI agents in consumer markets? To address these questions, we develop an experimental framework that evaluates the performance of various LLM agents in real-world negotiation and transaction settings. Our findings reveal that AI-mediated deal-making is an inherently imbalanced game -- different agents achieve significantly different outcomes for their users. Moreover, behavioral anomalies in LLMs can result in financial losses for both consumers and merchants, such as overspending or accepting unreasonable deals. These results underscore that while automation can improve efficiency, it also introduces substantial risks. Users should exercise caution when delegating business decisions to AI agents. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2025; v1 submitted 29 May, 2025; originally announced June 2025. arXiv:2505.19167 [ pdf ] cs.AI Amplifying Human Creativity and Problem Solving with AI Through Generative Collective Intelligence Authors: Thomas P. Kehler , Scott E. Page , Alex Pentland , Martin Reeves , John Seely Brown Abstract : We propose a general framework for human-AI collaboration that amplifies the distinct capabilities of both types of intelligence. We refer to this as Generative Collective Intelligence (GCI). GCI employs AI in dual roles: as interactive agents and as technology that accumulates, organizes, and leverages knowledge. In this second role, AI creates a cognitive bridge between human reasoning and AI mo… ▽ More We propose a general framework for human-AI collaboration that amplifies the distinct capabilities of both types of intelligence. We refer to this as Generative Collective Intelligence (GCI). GCI employs AI in dual roles: as interactive agents and as technology that accumulates, organizes, and leverages knowledge. In this second role, AI creates a cognitive bridge between human reasoning and AI models. The AI functions as a social and cultural technology that enables groups to solve complex problems through structured collaboration that transcends traditional communication barriers. We argue that GCI can overcome limitations of purely algorithmic approaches to problem-solving and decision-making. We describe the mathematical foundations of GCI, based on the law of comparative judgment and minimum regret principles, and briefly illustrate its applications across various domains, including climate adaptation, healthcare transformation, and civic participation. By combining human creativity with AI's computational capabilities, GCI offers a promising approach to addressing complex societal challenges that neither humans nor machines can solve alone. △ Less Submitted 4 June, 2025; v1 submitted 25 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2505.19167 [ pdf ] Amplifying Human Creativity and Problem Solving with AI Through Generative Collective Intelligence Authors: Thomas P. Kehler , Scott E. Page , Alex Pentland , Martin Reeves , John Seely Brown Abstract : We propose a general framework for human-AI collaboration that amplifies the distinct capabilities of both types of intelligence. We refer to this as Generative Collective Intelligence (GCI). GCI employs AI in dual roles: as interactive agents and as technology that accumulates, organizes, and leverages knowledge. In this second role, AI creates a cognitive bridge between human reasoning and AI mo… ▽ More We propose a general framework for human-AI collaboration that amplifies the distinct capabilities of both types of intelligence. We refer to this as Generative Collective Intelligence (GCI). GCI employs AI in dual roles: as interactive agents and as technology that accumulates, organizes, and leverages knowledge. In this second role, AI creates a cognitive bridge between human reasoning and AI models. The AI functions as a social and cultural technology that enables groups to solve complex problems through structured collaboration that transcends traditional communication barriers. We argue that GCI can overcome limitations of purely algorithmic approaches to problem-solving and decision-making. We describe the mathematical foundations of GCI, based on the law of comparative judgment and minimum regret principles, and briefly illustrate its applications across various domains, including climate adaptation, healthcare transformation, and civic participation. By combining human creativity with AI's computational capabilities, GCI offers a promising approach to addressing complex societal challenges that neither humans nor machines can solve alone. △ Less Submitted 4 June, 2025; v1 submitted 25 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025. arXiv:2504.02757 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI Echoes of the hidden: Uncovering coordination beyond network structure Authors: Shahar Somin , Tom Cohen , Jeremy Kepner , Alex Pentland Abstract : The study of connectivity and coordination has drawn increasing attention in recent decades due to their central role in driving markets, shaping societal dynamics, and influencing biological systems. Traditionally, observable connections, such as phone calls, financial transactions, or social media connections, have been used to infer coordination and connectivity. However, incomplete, encrypted,… ▽ More The study of connectivity and coordination has drawn increasing attention in recent decades due to their central role in driving markets, shaping societal dynamics, and influencing biological systems. Traditionally, observable connections, such as phone calls, financial transactions, or social media connections, have been used to infer coordination and connectivity. However, incomplete, encrypted, or fragmented data, alongside the ubiquity of communication platforms and deliberate obfuscation, often leave many real-world connections hidden. In this study, we demonstrate that coordinating individuals exhibit shared bursty activity patterns, enabling their detection even when observable links between them are sparse or entirely absent. We further propose a generative model based on the network of networks formalism to account for the mechanisms driving this collaborative burstiness, attributing it to shock propagation across networks rather than isolated individual behavior. Model simulations demonstrate that when observable connection density is below 70\%, burstiness significantly improves coordination detection compared to state-of-the-art temporal and structural methods. This work provides a new perspective on community and coordination dynamics, advancing both theoretical understanding and practical detection. By laying the foundation for identifying hidden connections beyond observable network structures, it enables detection across different platforms, alongside enhancing system behavior understanding, informed decision-making, and risk mitigation. △ Less Submitted 3 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2504.02757 [ pdf , other ] Echoes of the hidden: Uncovering coordination beyond network structure Authors: Shahar Somin , Tom Cohen , Jeremy Kepner , Alex Pentland Abstract : The study of connectivity and coordination has drawn increasing attention in recent decades due to their central role in driving markets, shaping societal dynamics, and influencing biological systems. Traditionally, observable connections, such as phone calls, financial transactions, or social media connections, have been used to infer coordination and connectivity. However, incomplete, encrypted,… ▽ More The study of connectivity and coordination has drawn increasing attention in recent decades due to their central role in driving markets, shaping societal dynamics, and influencing biological systems. Traditionally, observable connections, such as phone calls, financial transactions, or social media connections, have been used to infer coordination and connectivity. However, incomplete, encrypted, or fragmented data, alongside the ubiquity of communication platforms and deliberate obfuscation, often leave many real-world connections hidden. In this study, we demonstrate that coordinating individuals exhibit shared bursty activity patterns, enabling their detection even when observable links between them are sparse or entirely absent. We further propose a generative model based on the network of networks formalism to account for the mechanisms driving this collaborative burstiness, attributing it to shock propagation across networks rather than isolated individual behavior. Model simulations demonstrate that when observable connection density is below 70\%, burstiness significantly improves coordination detection compared to state-of-the-art temporal and structural methods. This work provides a new perspective on community and coordination dynamics, advancing both theoretical understanding and practical detection. By laying the foundation for identifying hidden connections beyond observable network structures, it enables detection across different platforms, alongside enhancing system behavior understanding, informed decision-making, and risk mitigation. △ Less Submitted 3 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025. arXiv:2501.15552 [ pdf , other ] physics.soc-ph cs.SI Community-centric modeling of citation dynamics explains collective citation patterns in science, law, and patents Authors: Sadamori Kojaku , Robert Mahari , Sandro Claudio Lera , Esteban Moro , Alex Pentland , Yong-Yeol Ahn Abstract : Many human knowledge systems, such as science, law, and invention, are built on documents and the citations that link them. Citations, while serving multiple purposes, primarily function as a way to explicitly document the use of prior work and thus have become central to the study of knowledge systems. Analyzing citation dynamics has revealed statistical patterns that shed light on knowledge prod… ▽ More Many human knowledge systems, such as science, law, and invention, are built on documents and the citations that link them. Citations, while serving multiple purposes, primarily function as a way to explicitly document the use of prior work and thus have become central to the study of knowledge systems. Analyzing citation dynamics has revealed statistical patterns that shed light on knowledge production, recognition, and formalization, and has helped identify key mechanisms driving these patterns. However, most quantitative findings are confined to scientific citations, raising the question of universality of these findings. Moreover, existing models of individual citation trajectories fail to explain phenomena such as delayed recognition, calling for a unifying framework. Here, we analyze a newly available corpus of U.S. case law, in addition to scientific and patent citation networks, to show that they share remarkably similar citation patterns, including a heavy-tailed distribution of sleeping beauties. We propose a holistic model that captures the three core mechanisms driving collective dynamics and replicates the elusive phenomenon of delayed recognition. We demonstrate that the model not only replicates observed citation patterns, but also better predicts future successes by considering the whole system. Our work offers insights into key mechanisms that govern large-scale patterns of collective human knowledge systems and may provide generalizable perspectives on discovery and innovation across domains. △ Less Submitted 27 January, 2025; v1 submitted 26 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. arXiv:2501.15552 [ pdf , other ] Community-centric modeling of citation dynamics explains collective citation patterns in science, law, and patents Authors: Sadamori Kojaku , Robert Mahari , Sandro Claudio Lera , Esteban Moro , Alex Pentland , Yong-Yeol Ahn Abstract : Many human knowledge systems, such as science, law, and invention, are built on documents and the citations that link them. Citations, while serving multiple purposes, primarily function as a way to explicitly document the use of prior work and thus have become central to the study of knowledge systems. Analyzing citation dynamics has revealed statistical patterns that shed light on knowledge prod… ▽ More Many human knowledge systems, such as science, law, and invention, are built on documents and the citations that link them. Citations, while serving multiple purposes, primarily function as a way to explicitly document the use of prior work and thus have become central to the study of knowledge systems. Analyzing citation dynamics has revealed statistical patterns that shed light on knowledge production, recognition, and formalization, and has helped identify key mechanisms driving these patterns. However, most quantitative findings are confined to scientific citations, raising the question of universality of these findings. Moreover, existing models of individual citation trajectories fail to explain phenomena such as delayed recognition, calling for a unifying framework. Here, we analyze a newly available corpus of U.S. case law, in addition to scientific and patent citation networks, to show that they share remarkably similar citation patterns, including a heavy-tailed distribution of sleeping beauties. We propose a holistic model that captures the three core mechanisms driving collective dynamics and replicates the elusive phenomenon of delayed recognition. We demonstrate that the model not only replicates observed citation patterns, but also better predicts future successes by considering the whole system. Our work offers insights into key mechanisms that govern large-scale patterns of collective human knowledge systems and may provide generalizable perspectives on discovery and innovation across domains. △ Less Submitted 27 January, 2025; v1 submitted 26 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. arXiv:2501.09674 [ pdf , other ] cs.CY cs.AI cs.NI Authenticated Delegation and Authorized AI Agents Authors: Tobin South , Samuele Marro , Thomas Hardjono , Robert Mahari , Cedric Deslandes Whitney , Dazza Greenwood , Alan Chan , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid deployment of autonomous AI agents creates urgent challenges around authorization, accountability, and access control in digital spaces. New standards are needed to know whom AI agents act on behalf of and guide their use appropriately, protecting online spaces while unlocking the value of task delegation to autonomous agents. We introduce a novel framework for authenticated, authorized,… ▽ More The rapid deployment of autonomous AI agents creates urgent challenges around authorization, accountability, and access control in digital spaces. New standards are needed to know whom AI agents act on behalf of and guide their use appropriately, protecting online spaces while unlocking the value of task delegation to autonomous agents. We introduce a novel framework for authenticated, authorized, and auditable delegation of authority to AI agents, where human users can securely delegate and restrict the permissions and scope of agents while maintaining clear chains of accountability. This framework builds on existing identification and access management protocols, extending OAuth 2.0 and OpenID Connect with agent-specific credentials and metadata, maintaining compatibility with established authentication and web infrastructure. Further, we propose a framework for translating flexible, natural language permissions into auditable access control configurations, enabling robust scoping of AI agent capabilities across diverse interaction modalities. Taken together, this practical approach facilitates immediate deployment of AI agents while addressing key security and accountability concerns, working toward ensuring agentic AI systems perform only appropriate actions and providing a tool for digital service providers to enable AI agent interactions without risking harm from scalable interaction. △ Less Submitted 16 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. MSC Class: 68M01; 68T01; 68U35; 94A60; 68P20 arXiv:2501.09674 [ pdf , other ] Authenticated Delegation and Authorized AI Agents Authors: Tobin South , Samuele Marro , Thomas Hardjono , Robert Mahari , Cedric Deslandes Whitney , Dazza Greenwood , Alan Chan , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid deployment of autonomous AI agents creates urgent challenges around authorization, accountability, and access control in digital spaces. New standards are needed to know whom AI agents act on behalf of and guide their use appropriately, protecting online spaces while unlocking the value of task delegation to autonomous agents. We introduce a novel framework for authenticated, authorized,… ▽ More The rapid deployment of autonomous AI agents creates urgent challenges around authorization, accountability, and access control in digital spaces. New standards are needed to know whom AI agents act on behalf of and guide their use appropriately, protecting online spaces while unlocking the value of task delegation to autonomous agents. We introduce a novel framework for authenticated, authorized, and auditable delegation of authority to AI agents, where human users can securely delegate and restrict the permissions and scope of agents while maintaining clear chains of accountability. This framework builds on existing identification and access management protocols, extending OAuth 2.0 and OpenID Connect with agent-specific credentials and metadata, maintaining compatibility with established authentication and web infrastructure. Further, we propose a framework for translating flexible, natural language permissions into auditable access control configurations, enabling robust scoping of AI agent capabilities across diverse interaction modalities. Taken together, this practical approach facilitates immediate deployment of AI agents while addressing key security and accountability concerns, working toward ensuring agentic AI systems perform only appropriate actions and providing a tool for digital service providers to enable AI agent interactions without risking harm from scalable interaction. △ Less Submitted 16 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025. MSC Class: 68M01; 68T01; 68U35; 94A60; 68P20 arXiv:2412.17847 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CY cs.LG cs.MM Bridging the Data Provenance Gap Across Text, Speech and Video Authors: Shayne Longpre , Nikhil Singh , Manuel Cherep , Kushagra Tiwary , Joanna Materzynska , William Brannon , Robert Mahari , Naana Obeng-Marnu , Manan Dey , Mohammed Hamdy , Nayan Saxena , Ahmad Mustafa Anis , Emad A. Alghamdi , Vu Minh Chien , Da Yin , Kun Qian , Yizhi Li , Minnie Liang , An Dinh , Shrestha Mohanty , Deividas Mataciunas , Tobin South , Jianguo Zhang , Ariel N. Lee , Campbell S. Lund , et al. (18 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Progress in AI is driven largely by the scale and quality of training data. Despite this, there is a deficit of empirical analysis examining the attributes of well-established datasets beyond text. In this work we conduct the largest and first-of-its-kind longitudinal audit across modalities--popular text, speech, and video datasets--from their detailed sourcing trends and use restrictions to thei… ▽ More Progress in AI is driven largely by the scale and quality of training data. Despite this, there is a deficit of empirical analysis examining the attributes of well-established datasets beyond text. In this work we conduct the largest and first-of-its-kind longitudinal audit across modalities--popular text, speech, and video datasets--from their detailed sourcing trends and use restrictions to their geographical and linguistic representation. Our manual analysis covers nearly 4000 public datasets between 1990-2024, spanning 608 languages, 798 sources, 659 organizations, and 67 countries. We find that multimodal machine learning applications have overwhelmingly turned to web-crawled, synthetic, and social media platforms, such as YouTube, for their training sets, eclipsing all other sources since 2019. Secondly, tracing the chain of dataset derivations we find that while less than 33% of datasets are restrictively licensed, over 80% of the source content in widely-used text, speech, and video datasets, carry non-commercial restrictions. Finally, counter to the rising number of languages and geographies represented in public AI training datasets, our audit demonstrates measures of relative geographical and multilingual representation have failed to significantly improve their coverage since 2013. We believe the breadth of our audit enables us to empirically examine trends in data sourcing, restrictions, and Western-centricity at an ecosystem-level, and that visibility into these questions are essential to progress in responsible AI. As a contribution to ongoing improvements in dataset transparency and responsible use, we release our entire multimodal audit, allowing practitioners to trace data provenance across text, speech, and video. △ Less Submitted 18 February, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2024; originally announced December 2024. Comments: ICLR 2025. 10 pages, 5 figures (main paper) arXiv:2412.17847 [ pdf , other ] Bridging the Data Provenance Gap Across Text, Speech and Video Authors: Shayne Longpre , Nikhil Singh , Manuel Cherep , Kushagra Tiwary , Joanna Materzynska , William Brannon , Robert Mahari , Naana Obeng-Marnu , Manan Dey , Mohammed Hamdy , Nayan Saxena , Ahmad Mustafa Anis , Emad A. Alghamdi , Vu Minh Chien , Da Yin , Kun Qian , Yizhi Li , Minnie Liang , An Dinh , Shrestha Mohanty , Deividas Mataciunas , Tobin South , Jianguo Zhang , Ariel N. Lee , Campbell S. Lund , et al. (18 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Progress in AI is driven largely by the scale and quality of training data. Despite this, there is a deficit of empirical analysis examining the attributes of well-established datasets beyond text. In this work we conduct the largest and first-of-its-kind longitudinal audit across modalities--popular text, speech, and video datasets--from their detailed sourcing trends and use restrictions to thei… ▽ More Progress in AI is driven largely by the scale and quality of training data. Despite this, there is a deficit of empirical analysis examining the attributes of well-established datasets beyond text. In this work we conduct the largest and first-of-its-kind longitudinal audit across modalities--popular text, speech, and video datasets--from their detailed sourcing trends and use restrictions to their geographical and linguistic representation. Our manual analysis covers nearly 4000 public datasets between 1990-2024, spanning 608 languages, 798 sources, 659 organizations, and 67 countries. We find that multimodal machine learning applications have overwhelmingly turned to web-crawled, synthetic, and social media platforms, such as YouTube, for their training sets, eclipsing all other sources since 2019. Secondly, tracing the chain of dataset derivations we find that while less than 33% of datasets are restrictively licensed, over 80% of the source content in widely-used text, speech, and video datasets, carry non-commercial restrictions. Finally, counter to the rising number of languages and geographies represented in public AI training datasets, our audit demonstrates measures of relative geographical and multilingual representation have failed to significantly improve their coverage since 2013. We believe the breadth of our audit enables us to empirically examine trends in data sourcing, restrictions, and Western-centricity at an ecosystem-level, and that visibility into these questions are essential to progress in responsible AI. As a contribution to ongoing improvements in dataset transparency and responsible use, we release our entire multimodal audit, allowing practitioners to trace data provenance across text, speech, and video. △ Less Submitted 18 February, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2024; originally announced December 2024. Comments: ICLR 2025. 10 pages, 5 figures (main paper) arXiv:2409.08115 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI cs.DM cs.PF cs.SE math.CO doi 10.1109/HPEC62836.2024.10938508 Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Daniel Burrill , Aydin Buluc , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Piotr Luszczek , Peter Michaleas , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The MIT/IEEE/Amazon GraphChallenge encourages community approaches to developing new solutions for analyzing graphs and sparse data derived from social media, sensor feeds, and scientific data to discover relationships between events as they unfold in the field. The anonymized network sensing Graph Challenge seeks to enable large, open, community-based approaches to protecting networks. Many large… ▽ More The MIT/IEEE/Amazon GraphChallenge encourages community approaches to developing new solutions for analyzing graphs and sparse data derived from social media, sensor feeds, and scientific data to discover relationships between events as they unfold in the field. The anonymized network sensing Graph Challenge seeks to enable large, open, community-based approaches to protecting networks. Many large-scale networking problems can only be solved with community access to very broad data sets with the highest regard for privacy and strong community buy-in. Such approaches often require community-based data sharing. In the broader networking community (commercial, federal, and academia) anonymized source-to-destination traffic matrices with standard data sharing agreements have emerged as a data product that can meet many of these requirements. This challenge provides an opportunity to highlight novel approaches for optimizing the construction and analysis of anonymized traffic matrices using over 100 billion network packets derived from the largest Internet telescope in the world (CAIDA). This challenge specifies the anonymization, construction, and analysis of these traffic matrices. A GraphBLAS reference implementation is provided, but the use of GraphBLAS is not required in this Graph Challenge. As with prior Graph Challenges the goal is to provide a well-defined context for demonstrating innovation. Graph Challenge participants are free to select (with accompanying explanation) the Graph Challenge elements that are appropriate for highlighting their innovations. △ Less Submitted 26 June, 2025; v1 submitted 12 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC 2024. Corrected legend in Fig. 7. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2309.01806, arXiv:2203.13934, arXiv:2409.03111 arXiv:2409.08115 [ pdf , ps , other ] Anonymized Network Sensing Graph Challenge Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Daniel Burrill , Aydin Buluc , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Piotr Luszczek , Peter Michaleas , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : The MIT/IEEE/Amazon GraphChallenge encourages community approaches to developing new solutions for analyzing graphs and sparse data derived from social media, sensor feeds, and scientific data to discover relationships between events as they unfold in the field. The anonymized network sensing Graph Challenge seeks to enable large, open, community-based approaches to protecting networks. Many large… ▽ More The MIT/IEEE/Amazon GraphChallenge encourages community approaches to developing new solutions for analyzing graphs and sparse data derived from social media, sensor feeds, and scientific data to discover relationships between events as they unfold in the field. The anonymized network sensing Graph Challenge seeks to enable large, open, community-based approaches to protecting networks. Many large-scale networking problems can only be solved with community access to very broad data sets with the highest regard for privacy and strong community buy-in. Such approaches often require community-based data sharing. In the broader networking community (commercial, federal, and academia) anonymized source-to-destination traffic matrices with standard data sharing agreements have emerged as a data product that can meet many of these requirements. This challenge provides an opportunity to highlight novel approaches for optimizing the construction and analysis of anonymized traffic matrices using over 100 billion network packets derived from the largest Internet telescope in the world (CAIDA). This challenge specifies the anonymization, construction, and analysis of these traffic matrices. A GraphBLAS reference implementation is provided, but the use of GraphBLAS is not required in this Graph Challenge. As with prior Graph Challenges the goal is to provide a well-defined context for demonstrating innovation. Graph Challenge participants are free to select (with accompanying explanation) the Graph Challenge elements that are appropriate for highlighting their innovations. △ Less Submitted 26 June, 2025; v1 submitted 12 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC 2024. Corrected legend in Fig. 7. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2309.01806, arXiv:2203.13934, arXiv:2409.03111 arXiv:2409.03111 [ pdf , other ] cs.NI cs.CR cs.CY cs.SI doi 10.1109/IPDPSW63119.2024.00097 What is Normal? A Big Data Observational Science Model of Anonymized Internet Traffic Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Hayden Jananthan , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Daniel Burrill , Aydin Buluc , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Piotr Luszczek , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Understanding what is normal is a key aspect of protecting a domain. Other domains invest heavily in observational science to develop models of normal behavior to better detect anomalies. Recent advances in high performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, coupled with supercomputers enables processing of the trillions of observations required. We leverage this approach to synthesize low-pa… ▽ More Understanding what is normal is a key aspect of protecting a domain. Other domains invest heavily in observational science to develop models of normal behavior to better detect anomalies. Recent advances in high performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, coupled with supercomputers enables processing of the trillions of observations required. We leverage this approach to synthesize low-parameter observational models of anonymized Internet traffic with a high regard for privacy. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC, 7 pages, 6 figures, 1 table, 41 references arXiv:2409.03111 [ pdf , other ] What is Normal? A Big Data Observational Science Model of Anonymized Internet Traffic Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Hayden Jananthan , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Daniel Burrill , Aydin Buluc , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Piotr Luszczek , Lauren Milechin , Chasen Milner , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , et al. (4 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Understanding what is normal is a key aspect of protecting a domain. Other domains invest heavily in observational science to develop models of normal behavior to better detect anomalies. Recent advances in high performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, coupled with supercomputers enables processing of the trillions of observations required. We leverage this approach to synthesize low-pa… ▽ More Understanding what is normal is a key aspect of protecting a domain. Other domains invest heavily in observational science to develop models of normal behavior to better detect anomalies. Recent advances in high performance graph libraries, such as the GraphBLAS, coupled with supercomputers enables processing of the trillions of observations required. We leverage this approach to synthesize low-parameter observational models of anonymized Internet traffic with a high regard for privacy. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC, 7 pages, 6 figures, 1 table, 41 references arXiv:2407.14981 [ pdf , other ] cs.CY Open Problems in Technical AI Governance Authors: Anka Reuel , Ben Bucknall , Stephen Casper , Tim Fist , Lisa Soder , Onni Aarne , Lewis Hammond , Lujain Ibrahim , Alan Chan , Peter Wills , Markus Anderljung , Ben Garfinkel , Lennart Heim , Andrew Trask , Gabriel Mukobi , Rylan Schaeffer , Mauricio Baker , Sara Hooker , Irene Solaiman , Alexandra Sasha Luccioni , Nitarshan Rajkumar , Nicolas Moës , Jeffrey Ladish , David Bau , Paul Bricman , et al. (8 additional authors not shown) Abstract : AI progress is creating a growing range of risks and opportunities, but it is often unclear how they should be navigated. In many cases, the barriers and uncertainties faced are at least partly technical. Technical AI governance, referring to technical analysis and tools for supporting the effective governance of AI, seeks to address such challenges. It can help to (a) identify areas where interve… ▽ More AI progress is creating a growing range of risks and opportunities, but it is often unclear how they should be navigated. In many cases, the barriers and uncertainties faced are at least partly technical. Technical AI governance, referring to technical analysis and tools for supporting the effective governance of AI, seeks to address such challenges. It can help to (a) identify areas where intervention is needed, (b) identify and assess the efficacy of potential governance actions, and (c) enhance governance options by designing mechanisms for enforcement, incentivization, or compliance. In this paper, we explain what technical AI governance is, why it is important, and present a taxonomy and incomplete catalog of its open problems. This paper is intended as a resource for technical researchers or research funders looking to contribute to AI governance. △ Less Submitted 16 April, 2025; v1 submitted 20 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Comments: Ben Bucknall and Anka Reuel contributed equally and share the first author position Journal ref: Transactions on Machine Learning Research, 2025 arXiv:2407.14981 [ pdf , other ] Open Problems in Technical AI Governance Authors: Anka Reuel , Ben Bucknall , Stephen Casper , Tim Fist , Lisa Soder , Onni Aarne , Lewis Hammond , Lujain Ibrahim , Alan Chan , Peter Wills , Markus Anderljung , Ben Garfinkel , Lennart Heim , Andrew Trask , Gabriel Mukobi , Rylan Schaeffer , Mauricio Baker , Sara Hooker , Irene Solaiman , Alexandra Sasha Luccioni , Nitarshan Rajkumar , Nicolas Moës , Jeffrey Ladish , David Bau , Paul Bricman , et al. (8 additional authors not shown) Abstract : AI progress is creating a growing range of risks and opportunities, but it is often unclear how they should be navigated. In many cases, the barriers and uncertainties faced are at least partly technical. Technical AI governance, referring to technical analysis and tools for supporting the effective governance of AI, seeks to address such challenges. It can help to (a) identify areas where interve… ▽ More AI progress is creating a growing range of risks and opportunities, but it is often unclear how they should be navigated. In many cases, the barriers and uncertainties faced are at least partly technical. Technical AI governance, referring to technical analysis and tools for supporting the effective governance of AI, seeks to address such challenges. It can help to (a) identify areas where intervention is needed, (b) identify and assess the efficacy of potential governance actions, and (c) enhance governance options by designing mechanisms for enforcement, incentivization, or compliance. In this paper, we explain what technical AI governance is, why it is important, and present a taxonomy and incomplete catalog of its open problems. This paper is intended as a resource for technical researchers or research funders looking to contribute to AI governance. △ Less Submitted 16 April, 2025; v1 submitted 20 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. Comments: Ben Bucknall and Anka Reuel contributed equally and share the first author position Journal ref: Transactions on Machine Learning Research, 2025 arXiv:2407.04350 [ pdf , other ] cs.CR Temporal fingerprints: Identity matching across fully encrypted domain Authors: Shahar Somin , Keeley Erhardt , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Technological advancements have significantly transformed communication patterns, introducing a diverse array of online platforms, thereby prompting individuals to use multiple profiles for different domains and objectives. Enhancing the understanding of cross domain identity matching capabilities is essential, not only for practical applications such as commercial strategies and cybersecurity mea… ▽ More Technological advancements have significantly transformed communication patterns, introducing a diverse array of online platforms, thereby prompting individuals to use multiple profiles for different domains and objectives. Enhancing the understanding of cross domain identity matching capabilities is essential, not only for practical applications such as commercial strategies and cybersecurity measures, but also for theoretical insights into the privacy implications of data disclosure. In this study, we demonstrate that individual temporal data, in the form of inter-event times distribution, constitutes an individual temporal fingerprint, allowing for matching profiles across different domains back to their associated real-world entity. We evaluate our methodology on encrypted digital trading platforms within the Ethereum Blockchain and present impressing results in matching identities across these privacy-preserving domains, while outperforming previously suggested models. Our findings indicate that simply knowing when an individual is active, even if information about who they talk to and what they discuss is lacking, poses risks to users' privacy, highlighting the inherent challenges in preserving privacy in today's digital landscape. △ Less Submitted 5 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2407.04350 [ pdf , other ] Temporal fingerprints: Identity matching across fully encrypted domain Authors: Shahar Somin , Keeley Erhardt , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Technological advancements have significantly transformed communication patterns, introducing a diverse array of online platforms, thereby prompting individuals to use multiple profiles for different domains and objectives. Enhancing the understanding of cross domain identity matching capabilities is essential, not only for practical applications such as commercial strategies and cybersecurity mea… ▽ More Technological advancements have significantly transformed communication patterns, introducing a diverse array of online platforms, thereby prompting individuals to use multiple profiles for different domains and objectives. Enhancing the understanding of cross domain identity matching capabilities is essential, not only for practical applications such as commercial strategies and cybersecurity measures, but also for theoretical insights into the privacy implications of data disclosure. In this study, we demonstrate that individual temporal data, in the form of inter-event times distribution, constitutes an individual temporal fingerprint, allowing for matching profiles across different domains back to their associated real-world entity. We evaluate our methodology on encrypted digital trading platforms within the Ethereum Blockchain and present impressing results in matching identities across these privacy-preserving domains, while outperforming previously suggested models. Our findings indicate that simply knowing when an individual is active, even if information about who they talk to and what they discuss is lacking, poses risks to users' privacy, highlighting the inherent challenges in preserving privacy in today's digital landscape. △ Less Submitted 5 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024. arXiv:2404.14643 [ pdf , other ] cs.CR cs.CY cs.GR cs.NI cs.SI doi 10.1109/HPEC62836.2024.10938480 Teaching Network Traffic Matrices in an Interactive Game Environment Authors: Chasen Milner , Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Jones , Peter Michaleas , Ritesh Patel , Sandeep Pisharody , Gabriel Wachman , Alex Pentland Abstract : The Internet has become a critical domain for modern society that requires ongoing efforts for its improvement and protection. Network traffic matrices are a powerful tool for understanding and analyzing networks and are broadly taught in online graph theory educational resources. Network traffic matrix concepts are rarely available in online computer network and cybersecurity educational resource… ▽ More The Internet has become a critical domain for modern society that requires ongoing efforts for its improvement and protection. Network traffic matrices are a powerful tool for understanding and analyzing networks and are broadly taught in online graph theory educational resources. Network traffic matrix concepts are rarely available in online computer network and cybersecurity educational resources. To fill this gap, an interactive game environment has been developed to teach the foundations of traffic matrices to the computer networking community. The game environment provides a convenient, broadly accessible, delivery mechanism that enables making material available rapidly to a wide audience. The core architecture of the game is a facility to add new network traffic matrix training modules via an easily editable JSON file. Using this facility an initial set of modules were rapidly created covering: basic traffic matrices, traffic patterns, security/defense/deterrence, a notional cyber attack, a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack, and a variety of graph theory concepts. The game environment enables delivery in a wide range of contexts to enable rapid feedback and improvement. The game can be used as a core unit as part of a formal course or as a simple interactive introduction in a presentation. △ Less Submitted 22 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 9 pages, 10 figures, 52 references; accepted to IEEE GrAPL arXiv:2404.14643 [ pdf , other ] Teaching Network Traffic Matrices in an Interactive Game Environment Authors: Chasen Milner , Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Vijay Gadepally , Michael Jones , Peter Michaleas , Ritesh Patel , Sandeep Pisharody , Gabriel Wachman , Alex Pentland Abstract : The Internet has become a critical domain for modern society that requires ongoing efforts for its improvement and protection. Network traffic matrices are a powerful tool for understanding and analyzing networks and are broadly taught in online graph theory educational resources. Network traffic matrix concepts are rarely available in online computer network and cybersecurity educational resource… ▽ More The Internet has become a critical domain for modern society that requires ongoing efforts for its improvement and protection. Network traffic matrices are a powerful tool for understanding and analyzing networks and are broadly taught in online graph theory educational resources. Network traffic matrix concepts are rarely available in online computer network and cybersecurity educational resources. To fill this gap, an interactive game environment has been developed to teach the foundations of traffic matrices to the computer networking community. The game environment provides a convenient, broadly accessible, delivery mechanism that enables making material available rapidly to a wide audience. The core architecture of the game is a facility to add new network traffic matrix training modules via an easily editable JSON file. Using this facility an initial set of modules were rapidly created covering: basic traffic matrices, traffic patterns, security/defense/deterrence, a notional cyber attack, a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack, and a variety of graph theory concepts. The game environment enables delivery in a wide range of contexts to enable rapid feedback and improvement. The game can be used as a core unit as part of a formal course or as a simple interactive introduction in a presentation. △ Less Submitted 22 April, 2024; originally announced April 2024. Comments: 9 pages, 10 figures, 52 references; accepted to IEEE GrAPL arXiv:2402.17019 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.HC Leveraging Large Language Models for Learning Complex Legal Concepts through Storytelling Authors: Hang Jiang , Xiajie Zhang , Robert Mahari , Daniel Kessler , Eric Ma , Tal August , Irene Li , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland , Yoon Kim , Deb Roy , Jad Kabbara Abstract : Making legal knowledge accessible to non-experts is crucial for enhancing general legal literacy and encouraging civic participation in democracy. However, legal documents are often challenging to understand for people without legal backgrounds. In this paper, we present a novel application of large language models (LLMs) in legal education to help non-experts learn intricate legal concepts throug… ▽ More Making legal knowledge accessible to non-experts is crucial for enhancing general legal literacy and encouraging civic participation in democracy. However, legal documents are often challenging to understand for people without legal backgrounds. In this paper, we present a novel application of large language models (LLMs) in legal education to help non-experts learn intricate legal concepts through storytelling, an effective pedagogical tool in conveying complex and abstract concepts. We also introduce a new dataset LegalStories, which consists of 294 complex legal doctrines, each accompanied by a story and a set of multiple-choice questions generated by LLMs. To construct the dataset, we experiment with various LLMs to generate legal stories explaining these concepts. Furthermore, we use an expert-in-the-loop approach to iteratively design multiple-choice questions. Then, we evaluate the effectiveness of storytelling with LLMs through randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with legal novices on 10 samples from the dataset. We find that LLM-generated stories enhance comprehension of legal concepts and interest in law among non-native speakers compared to only definitions. Moreover, stories consistently help participants relate legal concepts to their lives. Finally, we find that learning with stories shows a higher retention rate for non-native speakers in the follow-up assessment. Our work has strong implications for using LLMs in promoting teaching and learning in the legal field and beyond. △ Less Submitted 2 July, 2024; v1 submitted 26 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. Comments: Accepted to ACL 2024 arXiv:2402.17019 [ pdf , other ] Leveraging Large Language Models for Learning Complex Legal Concepts through Storytelling Authors: Hang Jiang , Xiajie Zhang , Robert Mahari , Daniel Kessler , Eric Ma , Tal August , Irene Li , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland , Yoon Kim , Deb Roy , Jad Kabbara Abstract : Making legal knowledge accessible to non-experts is crucial for enhancing general legal literacy and encouraging civic participation in democracy. However, legal documents are often challenging to understand for people without legal backgrounds. In this paper, we present a novel application of large language models (LLMs) in legal education to help non-experts learn intricate legal concepts throug… ▽ More Making legal knowledge accessible to non-experts is crucial for enhancing general legal literacy and encouraging civic participation in democracy. However, legal documents are often challenging to understand for people without legal backgrounds. In this paper, we present a novel application of large language models (LLMs) in legal education to help non-experts learn intricate legal concepts through storytelling, an effective pedagogical tool in conveying complex and abstract concepts. We also introduce a new dataset LegalStories, which consists of 294 complex legal doctrines, each accompanied by a story and a set of multiple-choice questions generated by LLMs. To construct the dataset, we experiment with various LLMs to generate legal stories explaining these concepts. Furthermore, we use an expert-in-the-loop approach to iteratively design multiple-choice questions. Then, we evaluate the effectiveness of storytelling with LLMs through randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with legal novices on 10 samples from the dataset. We find that LLM-generated stories enhance comprehension of legal concepts and interest in law among non-native speakers compared to only definitions. Moreover, stories consistently help participants relate legal concepts to their lives. Finally, we find that learning with stories shows a higher retention rate for non-native speakers in the follow-up assessment. Our work has strong implications for using LLMs in promoting teaching and learning in the legal field and beyond. △ Less Submitted 2 July, 2024; v1 submitted 26 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. Comments: Accepted to ACL 2024 arXiv:2402.02675 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CR Verifiable evaluations of machine learning models using zkSNARKs Authors: Tobin South , Alexander Camuto , Shrey Jain , Shayla Nguyen , Robert Mahari , Christian Paquin , Jason Morton , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : In a world of increasing closed-source commercial machine learning models, model evaluations from developers must be taken at face value. These benchmark results-whether over task accuracy, bias evaluations, or safety checks-are traditionally impossible to verify by a model end-user without the costly or impossible process of re-performing the benchmark on black-box model outputs. This work presen… ▽ More In a world of increasing closed-source commercial machine learning models, model evaluations from developers must be taken at face value. These benchmark results-whether over task accuracy, bias evaluations, or safety checks-are traditionally impossible to verify by a model end-user without the costly or impossible process of re-performing the benchmark on black-box model outputs. This work presents a method of verifiable model evaluation using model inference through zkSNARKs. The resulting zero-knowledge computational proofs of model outputs over datasets can be packaged into verifiable evaluation attestations showing that models with fixed private weights achieve stated performance or fairness metrics over public inputs. We present a flexible proving system that enables verifiable attestations to be performed on any standard neural network model with varying compute requirements. For the first time, we demonstrate this across a sample of real-world models and highlight key challenges and design solutions. This presents a new transparency paradigm in the verifiable evaluation of private models. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2024; v1 submitted 4 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. MSC Class: 68T01 arXiv:2402.02675 [ pdf , other ] Verifiable evaluations of machine learning models using zkSNARKs Authors: Tobin South , Alexander Camuto , Shrey Jain , Shayla Nguyen , Robert Mahari , Christian Paquin , Jason Morton , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : In a world of increasing closed-source commercial machine learning models, model evaluations from developers must be taken at face value. These benchmark results-whether over task accuracy, bias evaluations, or safety checks-are traditionally impossible to verify by a model end-user without the costly or impossible process of re-performing the benchmark on black-box model outputs. This work presen… ▽ More In a world of increasing closed-source commercial machine learning models, model evaluations from developers must be taken at face value. These benchmark results-whether over task accuracy, bias evaluations, or safety checks-are traditionally impossible to verify by a model end-user without the costly or impossible process of re-performing the benchmark on black-box model outputs. This work presents a method of verifiable model evaluation using model inference through zkSNARKs. The resulting zero-knowledge computational proofs of model outputs over datasets can be packaged into verifiable evaluation attestations showing that models with fixed private weights achieve stated performance or fairness metrics over public inputs. We present a flexible proving system that enables verifiable attestations to be performed on any standard neural network model with varying compute requirements. For the first time, we demonstrate this across a sample of real-world models and highlight key challenges and design solutions. This presents a new transparency paradigm in the verifiable evaluation of private models. △ Less Submitted 22 May, 2024; v1 submitted 4 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024. MSC Class: 68T01 arXiv:2312.14158 [ pdf , other ] cs.CR Data Cooperatives for Identity Attestations Authors: Thomas Hardjono , Alex Pentland Abstract : Data cooperatives with fiduciary obligations to members provide a useful source of truthful information regarding a given member whose personal data is managed by the cooperative. Since one of the main propositions the cooperative model is to protect the data privacy of members, we explore the notion of blinded attestations in which the identity of the subject is removed from the attestations issu… ▽ More Data cooperatives with fiduciary obligations to members provide a useful source of truthful information regarding a given member whose personal data is managed by the cooperative. Since one of the main propositions the cooperative model is to protect the data privacy of members, we explore the notion of blinded attestations in which the identity of the subject is removed from the attestations issued by the cooperative regarding one of its members. This is performed at the request of the individual member. We propose the use of a legal entity to countersign the blinded attestation, one that has an attorney-client relationship with the cooperative, and which can henceforth become the legal point of contact for inquiries regarding the individual related to the attribute being attested. There are several use-cases for this feature, including the Funds Travel Rule in transactions in digital assets, and the protection of privacy in decentralized social networks. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2023; originally announced December 2023. Comments: 15 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2312.14158 [ pdf , other ] Data Cooperatives for Identity Attestations Authors: Thomas Hardjono , Alex Pentland Abstract : Data cooperatives with fiduciary obligations to members provide a useful source of truthful information regarding a given member whose personal data is managed by the cooperative. Since one of the main propositions the cooperative model is to protect the data privacy of members, we explore the notion of blinded attestations in which the identity of the subject is removed from the attestations issu… ▽ More Data cooperatives with fiduciary obligations to members provide a useful source of truthful information regarding a given member whose personal data is managed by the cooperative. Since one of the main propositions the cooperative model is to protect the data privacy of members, we explore the notion of blinded attestations in which the identity of the subject is removed from the attestations issued by the cooperative regarding one of its members. This is performed at the request of the individual member. We propose the use of a legal entity to countersign the blinded attestation, one that has an attorney-client relationship with the cooperative, and which can henceforth become the legal point of contact for inquiries regarding the individual related to the attribute being attested. There are several use-cases for this feature, including the Funds Travel Rule in transactions in digital assets, and the protection of privacy in decentralized social networks. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2023; originally announced December 2023. Comments: 15 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2311.13008 [ pdf , other ] cs.CR zkTax: A pragmatic way to support zero-knowledge tax disclosures Authors: Alex Berke , Tobin South , Robert Mahari , Kent Larson , Alex Pentland Abstract : Tax returns contain key financial information of interest to third parties: public officials are asked to share financial data for transparency, companies seek to assess the financial status of business partners, and individuals need to prove their income to landlords or to receive benefits. Tax returns also contain sensitive data such that sharing them in their entirety undermines privacy. We int… ▽ More Tax returns contain key financial information of interest to third parties: public officials are asked to share financial data for transparency, companies seek to assess the financial status of business partners, and individuals need to prove their income to landlords or to receive benefits. Tax returns also contain sensitive data such that sharing them in their entirety undermines privacy. We introduce a zero-knowledge tax disclosure system (zkTax) that allows individuals and organizations to make provable claims about select information in their tax returns without revealing additional information, which can be independently verified by third parties. The system consists of three distinct services that can be distributed: a tax authority provides tax documents signed with a public key; a Redact & Prove Service enables users to produce a redacted version of the tax documents with a zero-knowledge proof attesting the provenance of the redacted data; a Verify Service enables anyone to verify the proof. We implement a prototype with a user interface, compatible with U.S. tax forms, and demonstrate how this design could be implemented with minimal changes to existing tax infrastructure. Our system is designed to be extensible to other contexts and jurisdictions. This work provides a practical example of how distributed tools leveraging cryptography can enhance existing government or financial infrastructures, providing immediate transparency alongside privacy without system overhauls. △ Less Submitted 24 March, 2024; v1 submitted 21 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.13008 [ pdf , other ] zkTax: A pragmatic way to support zero-knowledge tax disclosures Authors: Alex Berke , Tobin South , Robert Mahari , Kent Larson , Alex Pentland Abstract : Tax returns contain key financial information of interest to third parties: public officials are asked to share financial data for transparency, companies seek to assess the financial status of business partners, and individuals need to prove their income to landlords or to receive benefits. Tax returns also contain sensitive data such that sharing them in their entirety undermines privacy. We int… ▽ More Tax returns contain key financial information of interest to third parties: public officials are asked to share financial data for transparency, companies seek to assess the financial status of business partners, and individuals need to prove their income to landlords or to receive benefits. Tax returns also contain sensitive data such that sharing them in their entirety undermines privacy. We introduce a zero-knowledge tax disclosure system (zkTax) that allows individuals and organizations to make provable claims about select information in their tax returns without revealing additional information, which can be independently verified by third parties. The system consists of three distinct services that can be distributed: a tax authority provides tax documents signed with a public key; a Redact & Prove Service enables users to produce a redacted version of the tax documents with a zero-knowledge proof attesting the provenance of the redacted data; a Verify Service enables anyone to verify the proof. We implement a prototype with a user interface, compatible with U.S. tax forms, and demonstrate how this design could be implemented with minimal changes to existing tax infrastructure. Our system is designed to be extensible to other contexts and jurisdictions. This work provides a practical example of how distributed tools leveraging cryptography can enhance existing government or financial infrastructures, providing immediate transparency alongside privacy without system overhauls. △ Less Submitted 24 March, 2024; v1 submitted 21 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.12955 [ pdf , other ] cs.IR Don't forget private retrieval: distributed private similarity search for large language models Authors: Guy Zyskind , Tobin South , Alex Pentland Abstract : While the flexible capabilities of large language models (LLMs) allow them to answer a range of queries based on existing learned knowledge, information retrieval to augment generation is an important tool to allow LLMs to answer questions on information not included in pre-training data. Such private information is increasingly being generated in a wide array of distributed contexts by organizati… ▽ More While the flexible capabilities of large language models (LLMs) allow them to answer a range of queries based on existing learned knowledge, information retrieval to augment generation is an important tool to allow LLMs to answer questions on information not included in pre-training data. Such private information is increasingly being generated in a wide array of distributed contexts by organizations and individuals. Performing such information retrieval using neural embeddings of queries and documents always leaked information about queries and database content unless both were stored locally. We present Private Retrieval Augmented Generation (PRAG), an approach that uses multi-party computation (MPC) to securely transmit queries to a distributed set of servers containing a privately constructed database to return top-k and approximate top-k documents. This is a first-of-its-kind approach to dense information retrieval that ensures no server observes a client's query or can see the database content. The approach introduces a novel MPC friendly protocol for inverted file approximate search (IVF) that allows for fast document search over distributed and private data in sublinear communication complexity. This work presents new avenues through which data for use in LLMs can be accessed and used without needing to centralize or forgo privacy. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.12955 [ pdf , other ] Don't forget private retrieval: distributed private similarity search for large language models Authors: Guy Zyskind , Tobin South , Alex Pentland Abstract : While the flexible capabilities of large language models (LLMs) allow them to answer a range of queries based on existing learned knowledge, information retrieval to augment generation is an important tool to allow LLMs to answer questions on information not included in pre-training data. Such private information is increasingly being generated in a wide array of distributed contexts by organizati… ▽ More While the flexible capabilities of large language models (LLMs) allow them to answer a range of queries based on existing learned knowledge, information retrieval to augment generation is an important tool to allow LLMs to answer questions on information not included in pre-training data. Such private information is increasingly being generated in a wide array of distributed contexts by organizations and individuals. Performing such information retrieval using neural embeddings of queries and documents always leaked information about queries and database content unless both were stored locally. We present Private Retrieval Augmented Generation (PRAG), an approach that uses multi-party computation (MPC) to securely transmit queries to a distributed set of servers containing a privately constructed database to return top-k and approximate top-k documents. This is a first-of-its-kind approach to dense information retrieval that ensures no server observes a client's query or can see the database content. The approach introduces a novel MPC friendly protocol for inverted file approximate search (IVF) that allows for fast document search over distributed and private data in sublinear communication complexity. This work presents new avenues through which data for use in LLMs can be accessed and used without needing to centralize or forgo privacy. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.09356 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL LePaRD: A Large-Scale Dataset of Judges Citing Precedents Authors: Robert Mahari , Dominik Stammbach , Elliott Ash , Alex `Sandy' Pentland Abstract : We present the Legal Passage Retrieval Dataset LePaRD. LePaRD is a massive collection of U.S. federal judicial citations to precedent in context. The dataset aims to facilitate work on legal passage prediction, a challenging practice-oriented legal retrieval and reasoning task. Legal passage prediction seeks to predict relevant passages from precedential court decisions given the context of a lega… ▽ More We present the Legal Passage Retrieval Dataset LePaRD. LePaRD is a massive collection of U.S. federal judicial citations to precedent in context. The dataset aims to facilitate work on legal passage prediction, a challenging practice-oriented legal retrieval and reasoning task. Legal passage prediction seeks to predict relevant passages from precedential court decisions given the context of a legal argument. We extensively evaluate various retrieval approaches on LePaRD, and find that classification appears to work best. However, we note that legal precedent prediction is a difficult task, and there remains significant room for improvement. We hope that by publishing LePaRD, we will encourage others to engage with a legal NLP task that promises to help expand access to justice by reducing the burden associated with legal research. A subset of the LePaRD dataset is freely available and the whole dataset will be released upon publication. △ Less Submitted 1 October, 2024; v1 submitted 15 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2311.09356 [ pdf , other ] LePaRD: A Large-Scale Dataset of Judges Citing Precedents Authors: Robert Mahari , Dominik Stammbach , Elliott Ash , Alex `Sandy' Pentland Abstract : We present the Legal Passage Retrieval Dataset LePaRD. LePaRD is a massive collection of U.S. federal judicial citations to precedent in context. The dataset aims to facilitate work on legal passage prediction, a challenging practice-oriented legal retrieval and reasoning task. Legal passage prediction seeks to predict relevant passages from precedential court decisions given the context of a lega… ▽ More We present the Legal Passage Retrieval Dataset LePaRD. LePaRD is a massive collection of U.S. federal judicial citations to precedent in context. The dataset aims to facilitate work on legal passage prediction, a challenging practice-oriented legal retrieval and reasoning task. Legal passage prediction seeks to predict relevant passages from precedential court decisions given the context of a legal argument. We extensively evaluate various retrieval approaches on LePaRD, and find that classification appears to work best. However, we note that legal precedent prediction is a difficult task, and there remains significant room for improvement. We hope that by publishing LePaRD, we will encourage others to engage with a legal NLP task that promises to help expand access to justice by reducing the burden associated with legal research. A subset of the LePaRD dataset is freely available and the whole dataset will be released upon publication. △ Less Submitted 1 October, 2024; v1 submitted 15 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023. arXiv:2310.14346 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL The Law and NLP: Bridging Disciplinary Disconnects Authors: Robert Mahari , Dominik Stammbach , Elliott Ash , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Legal practice is intrinsically rooted in the fabric of language, yet legal practitioners and scholars have been slow to adopt tools from natural language processing (NLP). At the same time, the legal system is experiencing an access to justice crisis, which could be partially alleviated with NLP. In this position paper, we argue that the slow uptake of NLP in legal practice is exacerbated by a di… ▽ More Legal practice is intrinsically rooted in the fabric of language, yet legal practitioners and scholars have been slow to adopt tools from natural language processing (NLP). At the same time, the legal system is experiencing an access to justice crisis, which could be partially alleviated with NLP. In this position paper, we argue that the slow uptake of NLP in legal practice is exacerbated by a disconnect between the needs of the legal community and the focus of NLP researchers. In a review of recent trends in the legal NLP literature, we find limited overlap between the legal NLP community and legal academia. Our interpretation is that some of the most popular legal NLP tasks fail to address the needs of legal practitioners. We discuss examples of legal NLP tasks that promise to bridge disciplinary disconnects and highlight interesting areas for legal NLP research that remain underexplored. △ Less Submitted 22 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. arXiv:2310.14346 [ pdf , other ] The Law and NLP: Bridging Disciplinary Disconnects Authors: Robert Mahari , Dominik Stammbach , Elliott Ash , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Legal practice is intrinsically rooted in the fabric of language, yet legal practitioners and scholars have been slow to adopt tools from natural language processing (NLP). At the same time, the legal system is experiencing an access to justice crisis, which could be partially alleviated with NLP. In this position paper, we argue that the slow uptake of NLP in legal practice is exacerbated by a di… ▽ More Legal practice is intrinsically rooted in the fabric of language, yet legal practitioners and scholars have been slow to adopt tools from natural language processing (NLP). At the same time, the legal system is experiencing an access to justice crisis, which could be partially alleviated with NLP. In this position paper, we argue that the slow uptake of NLP in legal practice is exacerbated by a disconnect between the needs of the legal community and the focus of NLP researchers. In a review of recent trends in the legal NLP literature, we find limited overlap between the legal NLP community and legal academia. Our interpretation is that some of the most popular legal NLP tasks fail to address the needs of legal practitioners. We discuss examples of legal NLP tasks that promise to bridge disciplinary disconnects and highlight interesting areas for legal NLP research that remain underexplored. △ Less Submitted 22 October, 2023; originally announced October 2023. arXiv:2310.00522 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI Mapping of Internet "Coastlines" via Large Scale Anonymized Network Source Correlations Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Anna Klein , Lauren Milechin , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , Antonio Rosa , Siddharth Samsi , Tyler Trigg , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Expanding the scientific tools available to protect computer networks can be aided by a deeper understanding of the underlying statistical distributions of network traffic and their potential geometric interpretations. Analyses of large scale network observations provide a unique window into studying those underlying statistics. Newly developed GraphBLAS hypersparse matrices and D4M associative ar… ▽ More Expanding the scientific tools available to protect computer networks can be aided by a deeper understanding of the underlying statistical distributions of network traffic and their potential geometric interpretations. Analyses of large scale network observations provide a unique window into studying those underlying statistics. Newly developed GraphBLAS hypersparse matrices and D4M associative array technologies enable the efficient anonymized analysis of network traffic on the scale of trillions of events. This work analyzes over 100,000,000,000 anonymized packets from the largest Internet telescope (CAIDA) and over 10,000,000 anonymized sources from the largest commercial honeyfarm (GreyNoise). Neither CAIDA nor GreyNoise actively emit Internet traffic and provide distinct observations of unsolicited Internet traffic (primarily botnets and scanners). Analysis of these observations confirms the previously observed Cauchy-like distributions describing temporal correlations between Internet sources. The Gull lighthouse problem is a well-known geometric characterization of the standard Cauchy distribution and motivates a potential geometric interpretation for Internet observations. This work generalizes the Gull lighthouse problem to accommodate larger classes of coastlines, deriving a closed-form solution for the resulting probability distributions, stating and examining the inverse problem of identifying an appropriate coastline given a continuous probability distribution, identifying a geometric heuristic for solving this problem computationally, and applying that heuristic to examine the temporal geometry of different subsets of network observations. Application of this method to the CAIDA and GreyNoise data reveals a several orders of magnitude difference between known benign and other traffic which can lead to potentially novel ways to protect networks. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures, IEEE HPEC 2023 (accepted) arXiv:2310.00522 [ pdf , other ] Mapping of Internet "Coastlines" via Large Scale Anonymized Network Source Correlations Authors: Hayden Jananthan , Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Vijay Gadepally , Daniel Grant , Michael Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Anna Klein , Lauren Milechin , Guillermo Morales , Andrew Morris , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , Antonio Rosa , Siddharth Samsi , Tyler Trigg , et al. (3 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Expanding the scientific tools available to protect computer networks can be aided by a deeper understanding of the underlying statistical distributions of network traffic and their potential geometric interpretations. Analyses of large scale network observations provide a unique window into studying those underlying statistics. Newly developed GraphBLAS hypersparse matrices and D4M associative ar… ▽ More Expanding the scientific tools available to protect computer networks can be aided by a deeper understanding of the underlying statistical distributions of network traffic and their potential geometric interpretations. Analyses of large scale network observations provide a unique window into studying those underlying statistics. Newly developed GraphBLAS hypersparse matrices and D4M associative array technologies enable the efficient anonymized analysis of network traffic on the scale of trillions of events. This work analyzes over 100,000,000,000 anonymized packets from the largest Internet telescope (CAIDA) and over 10,000,000 anonymized sources from the largest commercial honeyfarm (GreyNoise). Neither CAIDA nor GreyNoise actively emit Internet traffic and provide distinct observations of unsolicited Internet traffic (primarily botnets and scanners). Analysis of these observations confirms the previously observed Cauchy-like distributions describing temporal correlations between Internet sources. The Gull lighthouse problem is a well-known geometric characterization of the standard Cauchy distribution and motivates a potential geometric interpretation for Internet observations. This work generalizes the Gull lighthouse problem to accommodate larger classes of coastlines, deriving a closed-form solution for the resulting probability distributions, stating and examining the inverse problem of identifying an appropriate coastline given a continuous probability distribution, identifying a geometric heuristic for solving this problem computationally, and applying that heuristic to examine the temporal geometry of different subsets of network observations. Application of this method to the CAIDA and GreyNoise data reveals a several orders of magnitude difference between known benign and other traffic which can lead to potentially novel ways to protect networks. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2023; originally announced October 2023. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures, IEEE HPEC 2023 (accepted) arXiv:2309.01806 [ pdf , other ] cs.NI cs.SI math.PR doi 10.1109/HPEC58863.2023.10363471 Focusing and Calibration of Large Scale Network Sensors using GraphBLAS Anonymized Hypersparse Matrices Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , Phil Dykstra , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Hayden Jananthan , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Vijay Gadepally , Micheal Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Anna Klein , Lauren Milechin , Guillermo Morales , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , Antonio Rosa , Siddharth Samsi , Tyler Trigg , Charles Yee , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Defending community-owned cyber space requires community-based efforts. Large-scale network observations that uphold the highest regard for privacy are key to protecting our shared cyberspace. Deployment of the necessary network sensors requires careful sensor placement, focusing, and calibration with significant volumes of network observations. This paper demonstrates novel focusing and calibrati… ▽ More Defending community-owned cyber space requires community-based efforts. Large-scale network observations that uphold the highest regard for privacy are key to protecting our shared cyberspace. Deployment of the necessary network sensors requires careful sensor placement, focusing, and calibration with significant volumes of network observations. This paper demonstrates novel focusing and calibration procedures on a multi-billion packet dataset using high-performance GraphBLAS anonymized hypersparse matrices. The run-time performance on a real-world data set confirms previously observed real-time processing rates for high-bandwidth links while achieving significant data compression. The output of the analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of these procedures at focusing the traffic matrix and revealing the underlying stable heavy-tail statistical distributions that are necessary for anomaly detection. A simple model of the corresponding probability of detection ($p_{\rm d}$) and probability of false alarm ($p_{\rm fa}$) for these distributions highlights the criticality of network sensor focusing and calibration. Once a sensor is properly focused and calibrated it is then in a position to carry out two of the central tenets of good cybersecurity: (1) continuous observation of the network and (2) minimizing unbrokered network connections. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2023; originally announced September 2023. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC, 9 pages, 12 figures, 1 table, 63 references, 2 appendices arXiv:2309.01806 [ pdf , other ] Focusing and Calibration of Large Scale Network Sensors using GraphBLAS Anonymized Hypersparse Matrices Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Michael Jones , Phil Dykstra , Chansup Byun , Timothy Davis , Hayden Jananthan , William Arcand , David Bestor , William Bergeron , Vijay Gadepally , Micheal Houle , Matthew Hubbell , Anna Klein , Lauren Milechin , Guillermo Morales , Julie Mullen , Ritesh Patel , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Andrew Prout , Albert Reuther , Antonio Rosa , Siddharth Samsi , Tyler Trigg , Charles Yee , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Defending community-owned cyber space requires community-based efforts. Large-scale network observations that uphold the highest regard for privacy are key to protecting our shared cyberspace. Deployment of the necessary network sensors requires careful sensor placement, focusing, and calibration with significant volumes of network observations. This paper demonstrates novel focusing and calibrati… ▽ More Defending community-owned cyber space requires community-based efforts. Large-scale network observations that uphold the highest regard for privacy are key to protecting our shared cyberspace. Deployment of the necessary network sensors requires careful sensor placement, focusing, and calibration with significant volumes of network observations. This paper demonstrates novel focusing and calibration procedures on a multi-billion packet dataset using high-performance GraphBLAS anonymized hypersparse matrices. The run-time performance on a real-world data set confirms previously observed real-time processing rates for high-bandwidth links while achieving significant data compression. The output of the analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of these procedures at focusing the traffic matrix and revealing the underlying stable heavy-tail statistical distributions that are necessary for anomaly detection. A simple model of the corresponding probability of detection ($p_{\rm d}$) and probability of false alarm ($p_{\rm fa}$) for these distributions highlights the criticality of network sensor focusing and calibration. Once a sensor is properly focused and calibrated it is then in a position to carry out two of the central tenets of good cybersecurity: (1) continuous observation of the network and (2) minimizing unbrokered network connections. △ Less Submitted 4 September, 2023; originally announced September 2023. Comments: Accepted to IEEE HPEC, 9 pages, 12 figures, 1 table, 63 references, 2 appendices arXiv:2307.03401 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI physics.soc-ph Metropolitan Scale and Longitudinal Dataset of Anonymized Human Mobility Trajectories Authors: Takahiro Yabe , Kota Tsubouchi , Toru Shimizu , Yoshihide Sekimoto , Kaoru Sezaki , Esteban Moro , Alex Pentland Abstract : Modeling and predicting human mobility trajectories in urban areas is an essential task for various applications. The recent availability of large-scale human movement data collected from mobile devices have enabled the development of complex human mobility prediction models. However, human mobility prediction methods are often trained and tested on different datasets, due to the lack of open-sour… ▽ More Modeling and predicting human mobility trajectories in urban areas is an essential task for various applications. The recent availability of large-scale human movement data collected from mobile devices have enabled the development of complex human mobility prediction models. However, human mobility prediction methods are often trained and tested on different datasets, due to the lack of open-source large-scale human mobility datasets amid privacy concerns, posing a challenge towards conducting fair performance comparisons between methods. To this end, we created an open-source, anonymized, metropolitan scale, and longitudinal (90 days) dataset of 100,000 individuals' human mobility trajectories, using mobile phone location data. The location pings are spatially and temporally discretized, and the metropolitan area is undisclosed to protect users' privacy. The 90-day period is composed of 75 days of business-as-usual and 15 days during an emergency. To promote the use of the dataset, we will host a human mobility prediction data challenge (`HuMob Challenge 2023') using the human mobility dataset, which will be held in conjunction with ACM SIGSPATIAL 2023. △ Less Submitted 7 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. Comments: Data descriptor for the Human Mobility Prediction Challenge (HuMob Challenge) 2023 arXiv:2307.03401 [ pdf , other ] Metropolitan Scale and Longitudinal Dataset of Anonymized Human Mobility Trajectories Authors: Takahiro Yabe , Kota Tsubouchi , Toru Shimizu , Yoshihide Sekimoto , Kaoru Sezaki , Esteban Moro , Alex Pentland Abstract : Modeling and predicting human mobility trajectories in urban areas is an essential task for various applications. The recent availability of large-scale human movement data collected from mobile devices have enabled the development of complex human mobility prediction models. However, human mobility prediction methods are often trained and tested on different datasets, due to the lack of open-sour… ▽ More Modeling and predicting human mobility trajectories in urban areas is an essential task for various applications. The recent availability of large-scale human movement data collected from mobile devices have enabled the development of complex human mobility prediction models. However, human mobility prediction methods are often trained and tested on different datasets, due to the lack of open-source large-scale human mobility datasets amid privacy concerns, posing a challenge towards conducting fair performance comparisons between methods. To this end, we created an open-source, anonymized, metropolitan scale, and longitudinal (90 days) dataset of 100,000 individuals' human mobility trajectories, using mobile phone location data. The location pings are spatially and temporally discretized, and the metropolitan area is undisclosed to protect users' privacy. The 90-day period is composed of 75 days of business-as-usual and 15 days during an emergency. To promote the use of the dataset, we will host a human mobility prediction data challenge (`HuMob Challenge 2023') using the human mobility dataset, which will be held in conjunction with ACM SIGSPATIAL 2023. △ Less Submitted 7 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023. Comments: Data descriptor for the Human Mobility Prediction Challenge (HuMob Challenge) 2023 arXiv:2306.13723 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI Human-AI Coevolution Authors: Dino Pedreschi , Luca Pappalardo , Emanuele Ferragina , Ricardo Baeza-Yates , Albert-Laszlo Barabasi , Frank Dignum , Virginia Dignum , Tina Eliassi-Rad , Fosca Giannotti , Janos Kertesz , Alistair Knott , Yannis Ioannidis , Paul Lukowicz , Andrea Passarella , Alex Sandy Pentland , John Shawe-Taylor , Alessandro Vespignani Abstract : Human-AI coevolution, defined as a process in which humans and AI algorithms continuously influence each other, increasingly characterises our society, but is understudied in artificial intelligence and complexity science literature. Recommender systems and assistants play a prominent role in human-AI coevolution, as they permeate many facets of daily life and influence human choices on online pla… ▽ More Human-AI coevolution, defined as a process in which humans and AI algorithms continuously influence each other, increasingly characterises our society, but is understudied in artificial intelligence and complexity science literature. Recommender systems and assistants play a prominent role in human-AI coevolution, as they permeate many facets of daily life and influence human choices on online platforms. The interaction between users and AI results in a potentially endless feedback loop, wherein users' choices generate data to train AI models, which, in turn, shape subsequent user preferences. This human-AI feedback loop has peculiar characteristics compared to traditional human-machine interaction and gives rise to complex and often ``unintended'' social outcomes. This paper introduces Coevolution AI as the cornerstone for a new field of study at the intersection between AI and complexity science focused on the theoretical, empirical, and mathematical investigation of the human-AI feedback loop. In doing so, we: (i) outline the pros and cons of existing methodologies and highlight shortcomings and potential ways for capturing feedback loop mechanisms; (ii) propose a reflection at the intersection between complexity science, AI and society; (iii) provide real-world examples for different human-AI ecosystems; and (iv) illustrate challenges to the creation of such a field of study, conceptualising them at increasing levels of abstraction, i.e., technical, epistemological, legal and socio-political. △ Less Submitted 3 May, 2024; v1 submitted 23 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. arXiv:2306.13723 [ pdf , other ] Human-AI Coevolution Authors: Dino Pedreschi , Luca Pappalardo , Emanuele Ferragina , Ricardo Baeza-Yates , Albert-Laszlo Barabasi , Frank Dignum , Virginia Dignum , Tina Eliassi-Rad , Fosca Giannotti , Janos Kertesz , Alistair Knott , Yannis Ioannidis , Paul Lukowicz , Andrea Passarella , Alex Sandy Pentland , John Shawe-Taylor , Alessandro Vespignani Abstract : Human-AI coevolution, defined as a process in which humans and AI algorithms continuously influence each other, increasingly characterises our society, but is understudied in artificial intelligence and complexity science literature. Recommender systems and assistants play a prominent role in human-AI coevolution, as they permeate many facets of daily life and influence human choices on online pla… ▽ More Human-AI coevolution, defined as a process in which humans and AI algorithms continuously influence each other, increasingly characterises our society, but is understudied in artificial intelligence and complexity science literature. Recommender systems and assistants play a prominent role in human-AI coevolution, as they permeate many facets of daily life and influence human choices on online platforms. The interaction between users and AI results in a potentially endless feedback loop, wherein users' choices generate data to train AI models, which, in turn, shape subsequent user preferences. This human-AI feedback loop has peculiar characteristics compared to traditional human-machine interaction and gives rise to complex and often ``unintended'' social outcomes. This paper introduces Coevolution AI as the cornerstone for a new field of study at the intersection between AI and complexity science focused on the theoretical, empirical, and mathematical investigation of the human-AI feedback loop. In doing so, we: (i) outline the pros and cons of existing methodologies and highlight shortcomings and potential ways for capturing feedback loop mechanisms; (ii) propose a reflection at the intersection between complexity science, AI and society; (iii) provide real-world examples for different human-AI ecosystems; and (iv) illustrate challenges to the creation of such a field of study, conceptualising them at increasing levels of abstraction, i.e., technical, epistemological, legal and socio-political. △ Less Submitted 3 May, 2024; v1 submitted 23 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. arXiv:2306.04141 [ pdf , other ] cs.AI doi 10.1126/science.adh4451 Art and the science of generative AI: A deeper dive Authors: Ziv Epstein , Aaron Hertzmann , Laura Herman , Robert Mahari , Morgan R. Frank , Matthew Groh , Hope Schroeder , Amy Smith , Memo Akten , Jessica Fjeld , Hany Farid , Neil Leach , Alex Pentland , Olga Russakovsky Abstract : A new class of tools, colloquially called generative AI, can produce high-quality artistic media for visual arts, concept art, music, fiction, literature, video, and animation. The generative capabilities of these tools are likely to fundamentally alter the creative processes by which creators formulate ideas and put them into production. As creativity is reimagined, so too may be many sectors of… ▽ More A new class of tools, colloquially called generative AI, can produce high-quality artistic media for visual arts, concept art, music, fiction, literature, video, and animation. The generative capabilities of these tools are likely to fundamentally alter the creative processes by which creators formulate ideas and put them into production. As creativity is reimagined, so too may be many sectors of society. Understanding the impact of generative AI - and making policy decisions around it - requires new interdisciplinary scientific inquiry into culture, economics, law, algorithms, and the interaction of technology and creativity. We argue that generative AI is not the harbinger of art's demise, but rather is a new medium with its own distinct affordances. In this vein, we consider the impacts of this new medium on creators across four themes: aesthetics and culture, legal questions of ownership and credit, the future of creative work, and impacts on the contemporary media ecosystem. Across these themes, we highlight key research questions and directions to inform policy and beneficial uses of the technology. △ Less Submitted 7 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: This white paper is an expanded version of Epstein et al 2023 published in Science Perspectives on July 16, 2023 which you can find at the following DOI: 10.1126/science.adh4451 arXiv:2306.04141 [ pdf , other ] Art and the science of generative AI: A deeper dive Authors: Ziv Epstein , Aaron Hertzmann , Laura Herman , Robert Mahari , Morgan R. Frank , Matthew Groh , Hope Schroeder , Amy Smith , Memo Akten , Jessica Fjeld , Hany Farid , Neil Leach , Alex Pentland , Olga Russakovsky Abstract : A new class of tools, colloquially called generative AI, can produce high-quality artistic media for visual arts, concept art, music, fiction, literature, video, and animation. The generative capabilities of these tools are likely to fundamentally alter the creative processes by which creators formulate ideas and put them into production. As creativity is reimagined, so too may be many sectors of… ▽ More A new class of tools, colloquially called generative AI, can produce high-quality artistic media for visual arts, concept art, music, fiction, literature, video, and animation. The generative capabilities of these tools are likely to fundamentally alter the creative processes by which creators formulate ideas and put them into production. As creativity is reimagined, so too may be many sectors of society. Understanding the impact of generative AI - and making policy decisions around it - requires new interdisciplinary scientific inquiry into culture, economics, law, algorithms, and the interaction of technology and creativity. We argue that generative AI is not the harbinger of art's demise, but rather is a new medium with its own distinct affordances. In this vein, we consider the impacts of this new medium on creators across four themes: aesthetics and culture, legal questions of ownership and credit, the future of creative work, and impacts on the contemporary media ecosystem. Across these themes, we highlight key research questions and directions to inform policy and beneficial uses of the technology. △ Less Submitted 7 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023. Comments: This white paper is an expanded version of Epstein et al 2023 published in Science Perspectives on July 16, 2023 which you can find at the following DOI: 10.1126/science.adh4451 arXiv:2212.00869 [ pdf , other ] cs.MA cs.CY Flexible social inference facilitates targeted social learning when rewards are not observable Authors: Robert D. Hawkins , Andrew M. Berdahl , Alex "Sandy" Pentland , Joshua B. Tenenbaum , Noah D. Goodman , P. M. Krafft Abstract : Groups coordinate more effectively when individuals are able to learn from others' successes. But acquiring such knowledge is not always easy, especially in real-world environments where success is hidden from public view. We suggest that social inference capacities may help bridge this gap, allowing individuals to update their beliefs about others' underlying knowledge and success from observable… ▽ More Groups coordinate more effectively when individuals are able to learn from others' successes. But acquiring such knowledge is not always easy, especially in real-world environments where success is hidden from public view. We suggest that social inference capacities may help bridge this gap, allowing individuals to update their beliefs about others' underlying knowledge and success from observable trajectories of behavior. We compared our social inference model against simpler heuristics in three studies of human behavior in a collective sensing task. In Experiment 1, we found that average performance improves as a function of group size at a rate greater than predicted by non-inferential models. Experiment 2 introduced artificial agents to evaluate how individuals selectively rely on social information. Experiment 3 generalized these findings to a more complex reward landscape. Taken together, our findings provide insight into the relationship between individual social cognition and the flexibility of collective behavior. △ Less Submitted 5 August, 2023; v1 submitted 1 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. Comments: Nature Human Behaviour arXiv:2212.00869 [ pdf , other ] Flexible social inference facilitates targeted social learning when rewards are not observable Authors: Robert D. Hawkins , Andrew M. Berdahl , Alex "Sandy" Pentland , Joshua B. Tenenbaum , Noah D. Goodman , P. M. Krafft Abstract : Groups coordinate more effectively when individuals are able to learn from others' successes. But acquiring such knowledge is not always easy, especially in real-world environments where success is hidden from public view. We suggest that social inference capacities may help bridge this gap, allowing individuals to update their beliefs about others' underlying knowledge and success from observable… ▽ More Groups coordinate more effectively when individuals are able to learn from others' successes. But acquiring such knowledge is not always easy, especially in real-world environments where success is hidden from public view. We suggest that social inference capacities may help bridge this gap, allowing individuals to update their beliefs about others' underlying knowledge and success from observable trajectories of behavior. We compared our social inference model against simpler heuristics in three studies of human behavior in a collective sensing task. In Experiment 1, we found that average performance improves as a function of group size at a rate greater than predicted by non-inferential models. Experiment 2 introduced artificial agents to evaluate how individuals selectively rely on social information. Experiment 3 generalized these findings to a more complex reward landscape. Taken together, our findings provide insight into the relationship between individual social cognition and the flexibility of collective behavior. △ Less Submitted 5 August, 2023; v1 submitted 1 December, 2022; originally announced December 2022. Comments: Nature Human Behaviour arXiv:2210.11053 [ pdf , other ] stat.AP cs.SI The Network Structure of Unequal Diffusion Authors: Eaman Jahani , Dean Eckles , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Social networks affect the diffusion of information, and thus have the potential to reduce or amplify inequality in access to opportunity. We show empirically that social networks often exhibit a much larger potential for unequal diffusion across groups along paths of length 2 and 3 than expected by our random graph models. We argue that homophily alone cannot not fully explain the extent of unequ… ▽ More Social networks affect the diffusion of information, and thus have the potential to reduce or amplify inequality in access to opportunity. We show empirically that social networks often exhibit a much larger potential for unequal diffusion across groups along paths of length 2 and 3 than expected by our random graph models. We argue that homophily alone cannot not fully explain the extent of unequal diffusion and attribute this mismatch to unequal distribution of cross-group links among the nodes. Based on this insight, we develop a variant of the stochastic block model that incorporates the heterogeneity in cross-group linking. The model provides an unbiased and consistent estimate of assortativity or homophily on paths of length 2 and provide a more accurate estimate along paths of length 3 than existing models. We characterize the null distribution of its log-likelihood ratio test and argue that the goodness of fit test is valid only when the network is dense. Based on our empirical observations and modeling results, we conclude that the impact of any departure from equal distribution of links to source nodes in the diffusion process is not limited to its first order effects as some nodes will have fewer direct links to the sources. More importantly, this unequal distribution will also lead to second order effects as the whole group will have fewer diffusion paths to the sources. △ Less Submitted 20 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: 47 pages arXiv:2210.11053 [ pdf , other ] The Network Structure of Unequal Diffusion Authors: Eaman Jahani , Dean Eckles , Alex 'Sandy' Pentland Abstract : Social networks affect the diffusion of information, and thus have the potential to reduce or amplify inequality in access to opportunity. We show empirically that social networks often exhibit a much larger potential for unequal diffusion across groups along paths of length 2 and 3 than expected by our random graph models. We argue that homophily alone cannot not fully explain the extent of unequ… ▽ More Social networks affect the diffusion of information, and thus have the potential to reduce or amplify inequality in access to opportunity. We show empirically that social networks often exhibit a much larger potential for unequal diffusion across groups along paths of length 2 and 3 than expected by our random graph models. We argue that homophily alone cannot not fully explain the extent of unequal diffusion and attribute this mismatch to unequal distribution of cross-group links among the nodes. Based on this insight, we develop a variant of the stochastic block model that incorporates the heterogeneity in cross-group linking. The model provides an unbiased and consistent estimate of assortativity or homophily on paths of length 2 and provide a more accurate estimate along paths of length 3 than existing models. We characterize the null distribution of its log-likelihood ratio test and argue that the goodness of fit test is valid only when the network is dense. Based on our empirical observations and modeling results, we conclude that the impact of any departure from equal distribution of links to source nodes in the diffusion process is not limited to its first order effects as some nodes will have fewer direct links to the sources. More importantly, this unequal distribution will also lead to second order effects as the whole group will have fewer diffusion paths to the sources. △ Less Submitted 20 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Comments: 47 pages arXiv:2210.01927 [ pdf , other ] cs.CY cs.SI doi 10.1007/978-3-031-43129-6_6 Building a healthier feed: Private location trace intersection driven feed recommendations Authors: Tobin South , Nick Lothian , Alex "Sandy" Pentland Abstract : The physical environment you navigate strongly determines which communities and people matter most to individuals. These effects drive both personal access to opportunities and the social capital of communities, and can often be observed in the personal mobility traces of individuals. Traditional social media feeds underutilize these mobility-based features, or do so in a privacy exploitative mann… ▽ More The physical environment you navigate strongly determines which communities and people matter most to individuals. These effects drive both personal access to opportunities and the social capital of communities, and can often be observed in the personal mobility traces of individuals. Traditional social media feeds underutilize these mobility-based features, or do so in a privacy exploitative manner. Here we propose a consent-first private information sharing paradigm for driving social feeds from users' personal private data, specifically using mobility traces. This approach designs the feed to explicitly optimize for integrating the user into the local community and for social capital building through leveraging mobility trace overlaps as a proxy for existing or potential real-world social connections, creating proportionality between whom a user sees in their feed, and whom the user is likely to see in person. These claims are validated against existing social-mobility data, and a reference implementation of the proposed algorithm is built for demonstration. In total, this work presents a novel technique for designing feeds that represent real offline social connections through private set intersections requiring no third party, or public data exposure. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2023; v1 submitted 4 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Journal ref: Social, Cultural, and Behavioral Modeling. SBP-BRiMS 2023. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 14161. Springer, Cham arXiv:2210.01927 [ pdf , other ] Building a healthier feed: Private location trace intersection driven feed recommendations Authors: Tobin South , Nick Lothian , Alex "Sandy" Pentland Abstract : The physical environment you navigate strongly determines which communities and people matter most to individuals. These effects drive both personal access to opportunities and the social capital of communities, and can often be observed in the personal mobility traces of individuals. Traditional social media feeds underutilize these mobility-based features, or do so in a privacy exploitative mann… ▽ More The physical environment you navigate strongly determines which communities and people matter most to individuals. These effects drive both personal access to opportunities and the social capital of communities, and can often be observed in the personal mobility traces of individuals. Traditional social media feeds underutilize these mobility-based features, or do so in a privacy exploitative manner. Here we propose a consent-first private information sharing paradigm for driving social feeds from users' personal private data, specifically using mobility traces. This approach designs the feed to explicitly optimize for integrating the user into the local community and for social capital building through leveraging mobility trace overlaps as a proxy for existing or potential real-world social connections, creating proportionality between whom a user sees in their feed, and whom the user is likely to see in person. These claims are validated against existing social-mobility data, and a reference implementation of the proposed algorithm is built for demonstration. In total, this work presents a novel technique for designing feeds that represent real offline social connections through private set intersections requiring no third party, or public data exposure. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2023; v1 submitted 4 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022. Journal ref: Social, Cultural, and Behavioral Modeling. SBP-BRiMS 2023. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 14161. Springer, Cham arXiv:2209.12095 [ pdf , other ] physics.soc-ph cs.LG stat.ML Identifying latent activity behaviors and lifestyles using mobility data to describe urban dynamics Authors: Yanni Yang , Alex Pentland , Esteban Moro Abstract : Urbanization and its problems require an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of urban dynamics, especially the complex and diversified lifestyles in modern cities. Digitally acquired data can accurately capture complex human activity, but it lacks the interpretability of demographic data. In this paper, we study a privacy-enhanced dataset of the mobility visitation patterns of 1.2 million peo… ▽ More Urbanization and its problems require an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of urban dynamics, especially the complex and diversified lifestyles in modern cities. Digitally acquired data can accurately capture complex human activity, but it lacks the interpretability of demographic data. In this paper, we study a privacy-enhanced dataset of the mobility visitation patterns of 1.2 million people to 1.1 million places in 11 metro areas in the U.S. to detect the latent mobility behaviors and lifestyles in the largest American cities. Despite the considerable complexity of mobility visitations, we found that lifestyles can be automatically decomposed into only 12 latent interpretable activity behaviors on how people combine shopping, eating, working, or using their free time. Rather than describing individuals with a single lifestyle, we find that city dwellers' behavior is a mixture of those behaviors. Those detected latent activity behaviors are equally present across cities and cannot be fully explained by main demographic features. Finally, we find those latent behaviors are associated with dynamics like experienced income segregation, transportation, or healthy behaviors in cities, even after controlling for demographic features. Our results signal the importance of complementing traditional census data with activity behaviors to understand urban dynamics. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022. Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2209.12095 [ pdf , other ] Identifying latent activity behaviors and lifestyles using mobility data to describe urban dynamics Authors: Yanni Yang , Alex Pentland , Esteban Moro Abstract : Urbanization and its problems require an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of urban dynamics, especially the complex and diversified lifestyles in modern cities. Digitally acquired data can accurately capture complex human activity, but it lacks the interpretability of demographic data. In this paper, we study a privacy-enhanced dataset of the mobility visitation patterns of 1.2 million peo… ▽ More Urbanization and its problems require an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of urban dynamics, especially the complex and diversified lifestyles in modern cities. Digitally acquired data can accurately capture complex human activity, but it lacks the interpretability of demographic data. In this paper, we study a privacy-enhanced dataset of the mobility visitation patterns of 1.2 million people to 1.1 million places in 11 metro areas in the U.S. to detect the latent mobility behaviors and lifestyles in the largest American cities. Despite the considerable complexity of mobility visitations, we found that lifestyles can be automatically decomposed into only 12 latent interpretable activity behaviors on how people combine shopping, eating, working, or using their free time. Rather than describing individuals with a single lifestyle, we find that city dwellers' behavior is a mixture of those behaviors. Those detected latent activity behaviors are equally present across cities and cannot be fully explained by main demographic features. Finally, we find those latent behaviors are associated with dynamics like experienced income segregation, transportation, or healthy behaviors in cities, even after controlling for demographic features. Our results signal the importance of complementing traditional census data with activity behaviors to understand urban dynamics. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022. Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2207.03652 [ pdf , other ] math.ST cs.CR cs.LG stat.ME Private independence testing across two parties Authors: Praneeth Vepakomma , Mohammad Mohammadi Amiri , Clément L. Canonne , Ramesh Raskar , Alex Pentland Abstract : We introduce $π$-test, a privacy-preserving algorithm for testing statistical independence between data distributed across multiple parties. Our algorithm relies on privately estimating the distance correlation between datasets, a quantitative measure of independence introduced in Székely et al. [2007]. We establish both additive and multiplicative error bounds on the utility of our differentially… ▽ More We introduce $π$-test, a privacy-preserving algorithm for testing statistical independence between data distributed across multiple parties. Our algorithm relies on privately estimating the distance correlation between datasets, a quantitative measure of independence introduced in Székely et al. [2007]. We establish both additive and multiplicative error bounds on the utility of our differentially private test, which we believe will find applications in a variety of distributed hypothesis testing settings involving sensitive data. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2023; v1 submitted 7 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022. arXiv:2207.03652 [ pdf , other ] Private independence testing across two parties Authors: Praneeth Vepakomma , Mohammad Mohammadi Amiri , Clément L. Canonne , Ramesh Raskar , Alex Pentland Abstract : We introduce $π$-test, a privacy-preserving algorithm for testing statistical independence between data distributed across multiple parties. Our algorithm relies on privately estimating the distance correlation between datasets, a quantitative measure of independence introduced in Székely et al. [2007]. We establish both additive and multiplicative error bounds on the utility of our differentially… ▽ More We introduce $π$-test, a privacy-preserving algorithm for testing statistical independence between data distributed across multiple parties. Our algorithm relies on privately estimating the distance correlation between datasets, a quantitative measure of independence introduced in Székely et al. [2007]. We establish both additive and multiplicative error bounds on the utility of our differentially private test, which we believe will find applications in a variety of distributed hypothesis testing settings involving sensitive data. △ Less Submitted 26 September, 2023; v1 submitted 7 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022. arXiv:2206.12915 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SI doi 10.36190/2021.51 Disambiguating Disinformation: Extending Beyond the Veracity of Online Content Authors: Keeley Erhardt , Alex Pentland Abstract : Following the 2016 US presidential election and the now overwhelming evidence of Russian interference, there has been an explosion of interest in the phenomenon of "fake news". To date, research on false news has centered around detecting content from low-credibility sources and analyzing how this content spreads across online platforms. Misinformation poses clear risks, yet research agendas that… ▽ More Following the 2016 US presidential election and the now overwhelming evidence of Russian interference, there has been an explosion of interest in the phenomenon of "fake news". To date, research on false news has centered around detecting content from low-credibility sources and analyzing how this content spreads across online platforms. Misinformation poses clear risks, yet research agendas that overemphasize veracity miss the opportunity to truly understand the Kremlin-led disinformation campaign that shook so many Americans. In this paper, we present a definition for disinformation - a set or sequence of orchestrated, agenda-driven information actions with the intent to deceive - that is useful in contextualizing Russian interference in 2016 and disinformation campaigns more broadly. We expand on our ongoing work to operationalize this definition and demonstrate how detecting disinformation must extend beyond assessing the credibility of a specific publisher, user, or story. △ Less Submitted 26 June, 2022; originally announced June 2022. Comments: In Workshop Proceedings of the 15th International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (2021) arXiv:2206.12915 [ pdf , ps , other ] Disambiguating Disinformation: Extending Beyond the Veracity of Online Content Authors: Keeley Erhardt , Alex Pentland Abstract : Following the 2016 US presidential election and the now overwhelming evidence of Russian interference, there has been an explosion of interest in the phenomenon of "fake news". To date, research on false news has centered around detecting content from low-credibility sources and analyzing how this content spreads across online platforms. Misinformation poses clear risks, yet research agendas that… ▽ More Following the 2016 US presidential election and the now overwhelming evidence of Russian interference, there has been an explosion of interest in the phenomenon of "fake news". To date, research on false news has centered around detecting content from low-credibility sources and analyzing how this content spreads across online platforms. Misinformation poses clear risks, yet research agendas that overemphasize veracity miss the opportunity to truly understand the Kremlin-led disinformation campaign that shook so many Americans. In this paper, we present a definition for disinformation - a set or sequence of orchestrated, agenda-driven information actions with the intent to deceive - that is useful in contextualizing Russian interference in 2016 and disinformation campaigns more broadly. We expand on our ongoing work to operationalize this definition and demonstrate how detecting disinformation must extend beyond assessing the credibility of a specific publisher, user, or story. △ Less Submitted 26 June, 2022; originally announced June 2022. Comments: In Workshop Proceedings of the 15th International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (2021) arXiv:2205.14174 [ pdf , other ] stat.ML cs.CR cs.LG cs.MA Private and Byzantine-Proof Cooperative Decision-Making Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : The cooperative bandit problem is a multi-agent decision problem involving a group of agents that interact simultaneously with a multi-armed bandit, while communicating over a network with delays. The central idea in this problem is to design algorithms that can efficiently leverage communication to obtain improvements over acting in isolation. In this paper, we investigate the stochastic bandit p… ▽ More The cooperative bandit problem is a multi-agent decision problem involving a group of agents that interact simultaneously with a multi-armed bandit, while communicating over a network with delays. The central idea in this problem is to design algorithms that can efficiently leverage communication to obtain improvements over acting in isolation. In this paper, we investigate the stochastic bandit problem under two settings - (a) when the agents wish to make their communication private with respect to the action sequence, and (b) when the agents can be byzantine, i.e., they provide (stochastically) incorrect information. For both these problem settings, we provide upper-confidence bound algorithms that obtain optimal regret while being (a) differentially-private and (b) tolerant to byzantine agents. Our decentralized algorithms require no information about the network of connectivity between agents, making them scalable to large dynamic systems. We test our algorithms on a competitive benchmark of random graphs and demonstrate their superior performance with respect to existing robust algorithms. We hope that our work serves as an important step towards creating distributed decision-making systems that maintain privacy. △ Less Submitted 27 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: Full version of AAMAS 2020 paper uploaded to arXiv arXiv:2205.14174 [ pdf , other ] Private and Byzantine-Proof Cooperative Decision-Making Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : The cooperative bandit problem is a multi-agent decision problem involving a group of agents that interact simultaneously with a multi-armed bandit, while communicating over a network with delays. The central idea in this problem is to design algorithms that can efficiently leverage communication to obtain improvements over acting in isolation. In this paper, we investigate the stochastic bandit p… ▽ More The cooperative bandit problem is a multi-agent decision problem involving a group of agents that interact simultaneously with a multi-armed bandit, while communicating over a network with delays. The central idea in this problem is to design algorithms that can efficiently leverage communication to obtain improvements over acting in isolation. In this paper, we investigate the stochastic bandit problem under two settings - (a) when the agents wish to make their communication private with respect to the action sequence, and (b) when the agents can be byzantine, i.e., they provide (stochastically) incorrect information. For both these problem settings, we provide upper-confidence bound algorithms that obtain optimal regret while being (a) differentially-private and (b) tolerant to byzantine agents. Our decentralized algorithms require no information about the network of connectivity between agents, making them scalable to large dynamic systems. We test our algorithms on a competitive benchmark of random graphs and demonstrate their superior performance with respect to existing robust algorithms. We hope that our work serves as an important step towards creating distributed decision-making systems that maintain privacy. △ Less Submitted 27 May, 2022; originally announced May 2022. Comments: Full version of AAMAS 2020 paper uploaded to arXiv arXiv:2201.06068 [ pdf ] cs.CR cs.CY cs.NI cs.SI Zero Botnets: An Observe-Pursue-Counter Approach Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Jonathan Bernays , Stephen Buckley , Kenjiro Cho , Cary Conrad , Leslie Daigle , Keeley Erhardt , Vijay Gadepally , Barry Greene , Michael Jones , Robert Knake , Bruce Maggs , Peter Michaleas , Chad Meiners , Andrew Morris , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Sarah Powazek , Andrew Prout , Philip Reiner , Koichi Suzuki , Kenji Takahashi , Tony Tauber , Leah Walker , Douglas Stetson Abstract : Adversarial Internet robots (botnets) represent a growing threat to the safe use and stability of the Internet. Botnets can play a role in launching adversary reconnaissance (scanning and phishing), influence operations (upvoting), and financing operations (ransomware, market manipulation, denial of service, spamming, and ad click fraud) while obfuscating tailored tactical operations. Reducing the… ▽ More Adversarial Internet robots (botnets) represent a growing threat to the safe use and stability of the Internet. Botnets can play a role in launching adversary reconnaissance (scanning and phishing), influence operations (upvoting), and financing operations (ransomware, market manipulation, denial of service, spamming, and ad click fraud) while obfuscating tailored tactical operations. Reducing the presence of botnets on the Internet, with the aspirational target of zero, is a powerful vision for galvanizing policy action. Setting a global goal, encouraging international cooperation, creating incentives for improving networks, and supporting entities for botnet takedowns are among several policies that could advance this goal. These policies raise significant questions regarding proper authorities/access that cannot be answered in the abstract. Systems analysis has been widely used in other domains to achieve sufficient detail to enable these questions to be dealt with in concrete terms. Defeating botnets using an observe-pursue-counter architecture is analyzed, the technical feasibility is affirmed, and the authorities/access questions are significantly narrowed. Recommended next steps include: supporting the international botnet takedown community, expanding network observatories, enhancing the underlying network science at scale, conducting detailed systems analysis, and developing appropriate policy frameworks. △ Less Submitted 16 January, 2022; originally announced January 2022. Comments: 26 pages, 13 figures, 2 tables, 72 references, submitted to PlosOne Report number: Harvard Belfer Center Report (2021 June) arXiv:2201.06068 [ pdf ] Zero Botnets: An Observe-Pursue-Counter Approach Authors: Jeremy Kepner , Jonathan Bernays , Stephen Buckley , Kenjiro Cho , Cary Conrad , Leslie Daigle , Keeley Erhardt , Vijay Gadepally , Barry Greene , Michael Jones , Robert Knake , Bruce Maggs , Peter Michaleas , Chad Meiners , Andrew Morris , Alex Pentland , Sandeep Pisharody , Sarah Powazek , Andrew Prout , Philip Reiner , Koichi Suzuki , Kenji Takahashi , Tony Tauber , Leah Walker , Douglas Stetson Abstract : Adversarial Internet robots (botnets) represent a growing threat to the safe use and stability of the Internet. Botnets can play a role in launching adversary reconnaissance (scanning and phishing), influence operations (upvoting), and financing operations (ransomware, market manipulation, denial of service, spamming, and ad click fraud) while obfuscating tailored tactical operations. Reducing the… ▽ More Adversarial Internet robots (botnets) represent a growing threat to the safe use and stability of the Internet. Botnets can play a role in launching adversary reconnaissance (scanning and phishing), influence operations (upvoting), and financing operations (ransomware, market manipulation, denial of service, spamming, and ad click fraud) while obfuscating tailored tactical operations. Reducing the presence of botnets on the Internet, with the aspirational target of zero, is a powerful vision for galvanizing policy action. Setting a global goal, encouraging international cooperation, creating incentives for improving networks, and supporting entities for botnet takedowns are among several policies that could advance this goal. These policies raise significant questions regarding proper authorities/access that cannot be answered in the abstract. Systems analysis has been widely used in other domains to achieve sufficient detail to enable these questions to be dealt with in concrete terms. Defeating botnets using an observe-pursue-counter architecture is analyzed, the technical feasibility is affirmed, and the authorities/access questions are significantly narrowed. Recommended next steps include: supporting the international botnet takedown community, expanding network observatories, enhancing the underlying network science at scale, conducting detailed systems analysis, and developing appropriate policy frameworks. △ Less Submitted 16 January, 2022; originally announced January 2022. Comments: 26 pages, 13 figures, 2 tables, 72 references, submitted to PlosOne Report number: Harvard Belfer Center Report (2021 June) arXiv:2112.04766 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.CV Adaptive Methods for Aggregated Domain Generalization Authors: Xavier Thomas , Dhruv Mahajan , Alex Pentland , Abhimanyu Dubey Abstract : Domain generalization involves learning a classifier from a heterogeneous collection of training sources such that it generalizes to data drawn from similar unknown target domains, with applications in large-scale learning and personalized inference. In many settings, privacy concerns prohibit obtaining domain labels for the training data samples, and instead only have an aggregated collection of… ▽ More Domain generalization involves learning a classifier from a heterogeneous collection of training sources such that it generalizes to data drawn from similar unknown target domains, with applications in large-scale learning and personalized inference. In many settings, privacy concerns prohibit obtaining domain labels for the training data samples, and instead only have an aggregated collection of training points. Existing approaches that utilize domain labels to create domain-invariant feature representations are inapplicable in this setting, requiring alternative approaches to learn generalizable classifiers. In this paper, we propose a domain-adaptive approach to this problem, which operates in two steps: (a) we cluster training data within a carefully chosen feature space to create pseudo-domains, and (b) using these pseudo-domains we learn a domain-adaptive classifier that makes predictions using information about both the input and the pseudo-domain it belongs to. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on a variety of domain generalization benchmarks without using domain labels whatsoever. Furthermore, we provide novel theoretical guarantees on domain generalization using cluster information. Our approach is amenable to ensemble-based methods and provides substantial gains even on large-scale benchmark datasets. The code can be found at: △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2021; v1 submitted 9 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. arXiv:2112.04766 [ pdf , other ] Adaptive Methods for Aggregated Domain Generalization Authors: Xavier Thomas , Dhruv Mahajan , Alex Pentland , Abhimanyu Dubey Abstract : Domain generalization involves learning a classifier from a heterogeneous collection of training sources such that it generalizes to data drawn from similar unknown target domains, with applications in large-scale learning and personalized inference. In many settings, privacy concerns prohibit obtaining domain labels for the training data samples, and instead only have an aggregated collection of… ▽ More Domain generalization involves learning a classifier from a heterogeneous collection of training sources such that it generalizes to data drawn from similar unknown target domains, with applications in large-scale learning and personalized inference. In many settings, privacy concerns prohibit obtaining domain labels for the training data samples, and instead only have an aggregated collection of training points. Existing approaches that utilize domain labels to create domain-invariant feature representations are inapplicable in this setting, requiring alternative approaches to learn generalizable classifiers. In this paper, we propose a domain-adaptive approach to this problem, which operates in two steps: (a) we cluster training data within a carefully chosen feature space to create pseudo-domains, and (b) using these pseudo-domains we learn a domain-adaptive classifier that makes predictions using information about both the input and the pseudo-domain it belongs to. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on a variety of domain generalization benchmarks without using domain labels whatsoever. Furthermore, we provide novel theoretical guarantees on domain generalization using cluster information. Our approach is amenable to ensemble-based methods and provides substantial gains even on large-scale benchmark datasets. The code can be found at: △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2021; v1 submitted 9 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021. arXiv:2111.12482 [ pdf , other ] stat.ML cs.LG One More Step Towards Reality: Cooperative Bandits with Imperfect Communication Authors: Udari Madhushani , Abhimanyu Dubey , Naomi Ehrich Leonard , Alex Pentland Abstract : The cooperative bandit problem is increasingly becoming relevant due to its applications in large-scale decision-making. However, most research for this problem focuses exclusively on the setting with perfect communication, whereas in most real-world distributed settings, communication is often over stochastic networks, with arbitrary corruptions and delays. In this paper, we study cooperative ban… ▽ More The cooperative bandit problem is increasingly becoming relevant due to its applications in large-scale decision-making. However, most research for this problem focuses exclusively on the setting with perfect communication, whereas in most real-world distributed settings, communication is often over stochastic networks, with arbitrary corruptions and delays. In this paper, we study cooperative bandit learning under three typical real-world communication scenarios, namely, (a) message-passing over stochastic time-varying networks, (b) instantaneous reward-sharing over a network with random delays, and (c) message-passing with adversarially corrupted rewards, including byzantine communication. For each of these environments, we propose decentralized algorithms that achieve competitive performance, along with near-optimal guarantees on the incurred group regret as well. Furthermore, in the setting with perfect communication, we present an improved delayed-update algorithm that outperforms the existing state-of-the-art on various network topologies. Finally, we present tight network-dependent minimax lower bounds on the group regret. Our proposed algorithms are straightforward to implement and obtain competitive empirical performance. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2021; originally announced November 2021. Journal ref: Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 2021 arXiv:2111.12482 [ pdf , other ] One More Step Towards Reality: Cooperative Bandits with Imperfect Communication Authors: Udari Madhushani , Abhimanyu Dubey , Naomi Ehrich Leonard , Alex Pentland Abstract : The cooperative bandit problem is increasingly becoming relevant due to its applications in large-scale decision-making. However, most research for this problem focuses exclusively on the setting with perfect communication, whereas in most real-world distributed settings, communication is often over stochastic networks, with arbitrary corruptions and delays. In this paper, we study cooperative ban… ▽ More The cooperative bandit problem is increasingly becoming relevant due to its applications in large-scale decision-making. However, most research for this problem focuses exclusively on the setting with perfect communication, whereas in most real-world distributed settings, communication is often over stochastic networks, with arbitrary corruptions and delays. In this paper, we study cooperative bandit learning under three typical real-world communication scenarios, namely, (a) message-passing over stochastic time-varying networks, (b) instantaneous reward-sharing over a network with random delays, and (c) message-passing with adversarially corrupted rewards, including byzantine communication. For each of these environments, we propose decentralized algorithms that achieve competitive performance, along with near-optimal guarantees on the incurred group regret as well. Furthermore, in the setting with perfect communication, we present an improved delayed-update algorithm that outperforms the existing state-of-the-art on various network topologies. Finally, we present tight network-dependent minimax lower bounds on the group regret. Our proposed algorithms are straightforward to implement and obtain competitive empirical performance. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2021; originally announced November 2021. Journal ref: Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 2021 arXiv:2109.10523 [ pdf , other ] cs.SI cs.GT cs.LG physics.soc-ph doi 10.1038/s42005-022-00863-w Investigating and Modeling the Dynamics of Long Ties Authors: Ding Lyu , Yuan Yuan , Lin Wang , Xiaofan Wang , Alex Pentland Abstract : Long ties, the social ties that bridge different communities, are widely believed to play crucial roles in spreading novel information in social networks. However, some existing network theories and prediction models indicate that long ties might dissolve quickly or eventually become redundant, thus putting into question the long-term value of long ties. Our empirical analysis of real-world dynami… ▽ More Long ties, the social ties that bridge different communities, are widely believed to play crucial roles in spreading novel information in social networks. However, some existing network theories and prediction models indicate that long ties might dissolve quickly or eventually become redundant, thus putting into question the long-term value of long ties. Our empirical analysis of real-world dynamic networks shows that contrary to such reasoning, long ties are more likely to persist than other social ties, and that many of them constantly function as social bridges without being embedded in local networks. Using a novel cost-benefit analysis model combined with machine learning, we show that long ties are highly beneficial, which instinctively motivates people to expend extra effort to maintain them. This partly explains why long ties are more persistent than what has been suggested by many existing theories and models. Overall, our study suggests the need for social interventions that can promote the formation of long ties, such as mixing people with diverse backgrounds. △ Less Submitted 2 April, 2022; v1 submitted 22 September, 2021; originally announced September 2021. Comments: Forthcoming at Communications Physics (Nature portfolio) MSC Class: 05C85; 62P25; 91B16 ACM Class: J.4 Journal ref: Commun. Phys. 5 (2022) 87 arXiv:2109.10523 [ pdf , other ] Investigating and Modeling the Dynamics of Long Ties Authors: Ding Lyu , Yuan Yuan , Lin Wang , Xiaofan Wang , Alex Pentland Abstract : Long ties, the social ties that bridge different communities, are widely believed to play crucial roles in spreading novel information in social networks. However, some existing network theories and prediction models indicate that long ties might dissolve quickly or eventually become redundant, thus putting into question the long-term value of long ties. Our empirical analysis of real-world dynami… ▽ More Long ties, the social ties that bridge different communities, are widely believed to play crucial roles in spreading novel information in social networks. However, some existing network theories and prediction models indicate that long ties might dissolve quickly or eventually become redundant, thus putting into question the long-term value of long ties. Our empirical analysis of real-world dynamic networks shows that contrary to such reasoning, long ties are more likely to persist than other social ties, and that many of them constantly function as social bridges without being embedded in local networks. Using a novel cost-benefit analysis model combined with machine learning, we show that long ties are highly beneficial, which instinctively motivates people to expend extra effort to maintain them. This partly explains why long ties are more persistent than what has been suggested by many existing theories and models. Overall, our study suggests the need for social interventions that can promote the formation of long ties, such as mixing people with diverse backgrounds. △ Less Submitted 2 April, 2022; v1 submitted 22 September, 2021; originally announced September 2021. Comments: Forthcoming at Communications Physics (Nature portfolio) MSC Class: 05C85; 62P25; 91B16 ACM Class: J.4 Journal ref: Commun. Phys. 5 (2022) 87 arXiv:2108.07437 [ pdf , other ] cs.HC cs.AI Social influence leads to the formation of diverse local trends Authors: Ziv Epstein , Matthew Groh , Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex "Sandy" Pentland Abstract : How does the visual design of digital platforms impact user behavior and the resulting environment? A body of work suggests that introducing social signals to content can increase both the inequality and unpredictability of its success, but has only been shown in the context of music listening. To further examine the effect of social influence on media popularity, we extend this research to the co… ▽ More How does the visual design of digital platforms impact user behavior and the resulting environment? A body of work suggests that introducing social signals to content can increase both the inequality and unpredictability of its success, but has only been shown in the context of music listening. To further examine the effect of social influence on media popularity, we extend this research to the context of algorithmically-generated images by re-adapting Salganik et al's Music Lab experiment. On a digital platform where participants discover and curate AI-generated hybrid animals, we randomly assign both the knowledge of other participants' behavior and the visual presentation of the information. We successfully replicate the Music Lab's findings in the context of images, whereby social influence leads to an unpredictable winner-take-all market. However, we also find that social influence can lead to the emergence of local cultural trends that diverge from the status quo and are ultimately more diverse. We discuss the implications of these results for platform designers and animal conservation efforts. △ Less Submitted 17 August, 2021; originally announced August 2021. Comments: 18 pages, to appear in CSCW October 2021 ACM Class: J.4 arXiv:2108.07437 [ pdf , other ] Social influence leads to the formation of diverse local trends Authors: Ziv Epstein , Matthew Groh , Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex "Sandy" Pentland Abstract : How does the visual design of digital platforms impact user behavior and the resulting environment? A body of work suggests that introducing social signals to content can increase both the inequality and unpredictability of its success, but has only been shown in the context of music listening. To further examine the effect of social influence on media popularity, we extend this research to the co… ▽ More How does the visual design of digital platforms impact user behavior and the resulting environment? A body of work suggests that introducing social signals to content can increase both the inequality and unpredictability of its success, but has only been shown in the context of music listening. To further examine the effect of social influence on media popularity, we extend this research to the context of algorithmically-generated images by re-adapting Salganik et al's Music Lab experiment. On a digital platform where participants discover and curate AI-generated hybrid animals, we randomly assign both the knowledge of other participants' behavior and the visual presentation of the information. We successfully replicate the Music Lab's findings in the context of images, whereby social influence leads to an unpredictable winner-take-all market. However, we also find that social influence can lead to the emergence of local cultural trends that diverge from the status quo and are ultimately more diverse. We discuss the implications of these results for platform designers and animal conservation efforts. △ Less Submitted 17 August, 2021; originally announced August 2021. Comments: 18 pages, to appear in CSCW October 2021 ACM Class: J.4 arXiv:2103.15796 [ pdf , other ] cs.CV cs.LG Adaptive Methods for Real-World Domain Generalization Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Vignesh Ramanathan , Alex Pentland , Dhruv Mahajan Abstract : Invariant approaches have been remarkably successful in tackling the problem of domain generalization, where the objective is to perform inference on data distributions different from those used in training. In our work, we investigate whether it is possible to leverage domain information from the unseen test samples themselves. We propose a domain-adaptive approach consisting of two steps: a) we… ▽ More Invariant approaches have been remarkably successful in tackling the problem of domain generalization, where the objective is to perform inference on data distributions different from those used in training. In our work, we investigate whether it is possible to leverage domain information from the unseen test samples themselves. We propose a domain-adaptive approach consisting of two steps: a) we first learn a discriminative domain embedding from unsupervised training examples, and b) use this domain embedding as supplementary information to build a domain-adaptive model, that takes both the input as well as its domain into account while making predictions. For unseen domains, our method simply uses few unlabelled test examples to construct the domain embedding. This enables adaptive classification on any unseen domain. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on various domain generalization benchmarks. In addition, we introduce the first real-world, large-scale domain generalization benchmark, Geo-YFCC, containing 1.1M samples over 40 training, 7 validation, and 15 test domains, orders of magnitude larger than prior work. We show that the existing approaches either do not scale to this dataset or underperform compared to the simple baseline of training a model on the union of data from all training domains. In contrast, our approach achieves a significant improvement. △ Less Submitted 29 March, 2021; v1 submitted 29 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. Comments: To appear as an oral presentation in IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2021. v2 corrects double printing of appendix arXiv:2103.15796 [ pdf , other ] Adaptive Methods for Real-World Domain Generalization Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Vignesh Ramanathan , Alex Pentland , Dhruv Mahajan Abstract : Invariant approaches have been remarkably successful in tackling the problem of domain generalization, where the objective is to perform inference on data distributions different from those used in training. In our work, we investigate whether it is possible to leverage domain information from the unseen test samples themselves. We propose a domain-adaptive approach consisting of two steps: a) we… ▽ More Invariant approaches have been remarkably successful in tackling the problem of domain generalization, where the objective is to perform inference on data distributions different from those used in training. In our work, we investigate whether it is possible to leverage domain information from the unseen test samples themselves. We propose a domain-adaptive approach consisting of two steps: a) we first learn a discriminative domain embedding from unsupervised training examples, and b) use this domain embedding as supplementary information to build a domain-adaptive model, that takes both the input as well as its domain into account while making predictions. For unseen domains, our method simply uses few unlabelled test examples to construct the domain embedding. This enables adaptive classification on any unseen domain. Our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance on various domain generalization benchmarks. In addition, we introduce the first real-world, large-scale domain generalization benchmark, Geo-YFCC, containing 1.1M samples over 40 training, 7 validation, and 15 test domains, orders of magnitude larger than prior work. We show that the existing approaches either do not scale to this dataset or underperform compared to the simple baseline of training a model on the union of data from all training domains. In contrast, our approach achieves a significant improvement. △ Less Submitted 29 March, 2021; v1 submitted 29 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. Comments: To appear as an oral presentation in IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2021. v2 corrects double printing of appendix arXiv:2103.04972 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.MA stat.ML Provably Efficient Cooperative Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning with Function Approximation Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : Reinforcement learning in cooperative multi-agent settings has recently advanced significantly in its scope, with applications in cooperative estimation for advertising, dynamic treatment regimes, distributed control, and federated learning. In this paper, we discuss the problem of cooperative multi-agent RL with function approximation, where a group of agents communicates with each other to joint… ▽ More Reinforcement learning in cooperative multi-agent settings has recently advanced significantly in its scope, with applications in cooperative estimation for advertising, dynamic treatment regimes, distributed control, and federated learning. In this paper, we discuss the problem of cooperative multi-agent RL with function approximation, where a group of agents communicates with each other to jointly solve an episodic MDP. We demonstrate that via careful message-passing and cooperative value iteration, it is possible to achieve near-optimal no-regret learning even with a fixed constant communication budget. Next, we demonstrate that even in heterogeneous cooperative settings, it is possible to achieve Pareto-optimal no-regret learning with limited communication. Our work generalizes several ideas from the multi-agent contextual and multi-armed bandit literature to MDPs and reinforcement learning. △ Less Submitted 8 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. Comments: 53 pages including Appendix arXiv:2103.04972 [ pdf , ps , other ] Provably Efficient Cooperative Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning with Function Approximation Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : Reinforcement learning in cooperative multi-agent settings has recently advanced significantly in its scope, with applications in cooperative estimation for advertising, dynamic treatment regimes, distributed control, and federated learning. In this paper, we discuss the problem of cooperative multi-agent RL with function approximation, where a group of agents communicates with each other to joint… ▽ More Reinforcement learning in cooperative multi-agent settings has recently advanced significantly in its scope, with applications in cooperative estimation for advertising, dynamic treatment regimes, distributed control, and federated learning. In this paper, we discuss the problem of cooperative multi-agent RL with function approximation, where a group of agents communicates with each other to jointly solve an episodic MDP. We demonstrate that via careful message-passing and cooperative value iteration, it is possible to achieve near-optimal no-regret learning even with a fixed constant communication budget. Next, we demonstrate that even in heterogeneous cooperative settings, it is possible to achieve Pareto-optimal no-regret learning with limited communication. Our work generalizes several ideas from the multi-agent contextual and multi-armed bandit literature to MDPs and reinforcement learning. △ Less Submitted 8 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021. Comments: 53 pages including Appendix arXiv:2010.11425 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.CR cs.MA stat.ML Differentially-Private Federated Linear Bandits Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid proliferation of decentralized learning systems mandates the need for differentially-private cooperative learning. In this paper, we study this in context of the contextual linear bandit: we consider a collection of agents cooperating to solve a common contextual bandit, while ensuring that their communication remains private. For this problem, we devise \textsc{FedUCB}, a multiagent pri… ▽ More The rapid proliferation of decentralized learning systems mandates the need for differentially-private cooperative learning. In this paper, we study this in context of the contextual linear bandit: we consider a collection of agents cooperating to solve a common contextual bandit, while ensuring that their communication remains private. For this problem, we devise \textsc{FedUCB}, a multiagent private algorithm for both centralized and decentralized (peer-to-peer) federated learning. We provide a rigorous technical analysis of its utility in terms of regret, improving several results in cooperative bandit learning, and provide rigorous privacy guarantees as well. Our algorithms provide competitive performance both in terms of pseudoregret bounds and empirical benchmark performance in various multi-agent settings. △ Less Submitted 21 October, 2020; originally announced October 2020. Comments: 22 pages. Camera-ready for NeurIPS 2020 arXiv:2010.11425 [ pdf , other ] Differentially-Private Federated Linear Bandits Authors: Abhimanyu Dubey , Alex Pentland Abstract : The rapid proliferation of decentralized learning systems mandates the need for differentially-private cooperative learning. In this paper, we study this in context of the contextual linear bandit: we consider a collection of agents cooperating to solve a common contextual bandit, while ensuring that their communication remains private. For this problem, we devise \textsc{FedUCB}, a multiagent pri… ▽ More The rapid proliferation of decentralized learning systems mandates the need for differentially-private cooperative learning. In this paper, we study this in context of the contextual linear bandit: we consider a collection of agents cooperating to solve a common contextual bandit, while ensuring that their communication remains private. For this problem, we devise \textsc{FedUCB}, a multiagent private algorithm for both centralized and decentralized (peer-to-peer) federated learning. We provide a rigorous technical analysis of its utility in terms of regret, improving several results in cooperative bandit learning, and provide rigorous privacy guarantees as well. Our algorithms provide competitive performance both in terms of pseudoregret bounds and empirical benchmark performance in various multi-agent settings. △ Less Submitted 21 October, 2020; originally announced October 2020. Comments: 22 pages. Camera-ready for NeurIPS 2020 1 2 3 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Pentland,+A
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Full name of denomination in first reference 2 Basic gloss 3 Denominations and recommended short forms 4 Avoidance of anachronistic terminology 5 Article naming conventions 6 Avoidance of Mormon jargon and additional recommendations 7 See also 8 References Wikipedia : Manual of Style/Latter Day Saints Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:LDSMOS WP:LDSMOS MOS:LDS MOS:LDS WP:LDSMOS WP:LDSMOS MOS:LDS MOS:LDS Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e This Wikipedia Manual of Style supplement has been created through the efforts and broad consensus of contributors to WikiProject Latter Day Saint movement . Please follow these conventions when you contribute to Latter Day Saints articles so that they are neutral and stylistically consistent for better and easier reader comprehension. Full name of denomination in first reference The first reference for any Latter Day Saints movement church (in the sense of "organization and congregation", not "building") should use the full name of that church rather than a shortened version such as "LDS Church" or "FLDS Church". The first reference should also contain a wikilink to that church's article. If you will later use a shortened name, add the shortened version in parenthesis after the first reference, e.g. "the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church)" or " The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)." (When a Latter Day Saints church is not being directly referenced, such as when an adherent's religious beliefs are given passing reference, the full denominational name can often be omitted.) Avoid linking the alternate names. The first reference will already contain the alternate names, as well as a link to that church's article. Thus, a second link is unnecessary. Basic gloss WP:MORMON WP:MORMON MOS:MORMON MOS:MORMON Generally, members of a Latter Day Saint denomination may be referred to as members , adherents , or followers of a particular church or organization. Latter-day Saint The couple were raised devout members of local Latter Day Saint churches and although subsequently they became quite secular, worshipped at hers on occasion. The couple were raised devout members of local Latter Day Saint churches and although subsequently they became quite secular, worshipped at hers on occasion. The couple were raised devoutly within Mormonism locally, she Latter-day Saint and he fundamentalist Mormon; and although both subsequently became quite secular, they worshipped with her LDS congregation on occasion. The couple were raised devoutly within Mormonism locally, she Latter-day Saint and he fundamentalist Mormon; and although both subsequently became quite secular, they worshipped with her LDS congregation on occasion. Mormon In reference to members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. However, the informal appellation Mormon church should never be used outside of directly quoted material. Members of the LDS Church may accurately be referred to as Latter-day Saints or as Mormons. It is usually best to follow the predominant form found in the sources used for a particular Wikipedia article. In reference to the culture of Latter Day Saint movement organizations originating in Utah . For example, one may refer to Mormon fundamentalism , Mormon pioneer , or ex-Mormon . When referring to common parlance before the death of Joseph Smith , when the Latter Day Saint movement was widely referred to as Mormonism . For example, one may refer to anti-Mormonism or the Mormon War . In reference to the Book of Mormon or the various people and places in the book named "Mormon". Internal links Term linked Page redirect, if any Definition Note / Style recommendation Latter Day Saint vs. Latter-day Saint Latter Day Saint List of LDS denominations "Member of any Latter Day Saint denomination" Mainly use Latter Day Saint to refer to members during Joseph Smith's lifetime (prior the movement's 1844 schism). In other contexts, consider using form(s) appropriate to distinct denomination being referenced. (See denomination table, below .) Latter-day Saint "Member of the principal Latter Day Saint denomination" (the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ) LDS / Mormon LDS — a disambiguation page — Abbreviation of " L atter- d ay S aint " Use LDS only to reference association with the LDS Church, to avoid ambiguity. The general practice on Wikipedia is to avoid the informal phrase Mormon church except in direct quotations. LDS Church "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints " Mormon church Mormon / Mormonism — themselves — "Adherent connected with Mormonism" "Religion/traditions of Latter Day Saint denominations whose developments trace through 19th-century Utah / Brigham Young " Mormon or Mormonism generally refer to the movement's primary denomination, the LDS Church, unless context indicates otherwise. Mormon may also be used for any Latter Day Saints adherent before 1844. For the more inclusive definition of Mormon, occasionally Rocky Mountain Saint (or Brighamite ) are used; and, within such a scheme, the adherent - not - a Rocky Mountain Saint would be termed [U.S. Midwestern] Prairie Saint (or, generally, Josephite ; however, for additional Movement -Ite designations, see the denomination table below ). Reorganized RLDS — a disambiguation page — " Community of Christ member or a R estorationist L atter D ay S aint" Use RLDS to reference the Community of Christ before its 2001 name change from the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. A Restoration Branch member may be referred to as conservative Restorationist or as independent RLDS to distinguish from a generally more liberal Restorationist sibling remaining in the Community of Christ after this 21st-century schism. RLDS Church Community of Christ ( Wikipedia article ) Fundamentalist Fundamentalist Latter-Day Saints " Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints " (a smallish Latter Day Saint denomination headquartered in Hildale, Utah) Within fundamentalist Mormonism, in addition to FLDS (or the Woolley group ) are the Allred group , the Kingston group , the Centennial Park group , the LeBaron group , the Blackmore group , and so on . FLDS / FLDS Church — same as above — " F undamentalist L atter- D ay S aints " (same as the above) Fundamentalist Mormon — itself — "A "Rocky Mountain Saint" believing in present-day practice of polygamy" includes FLDS and some other smallish denominations Denominations and recommended short forms Latter Day Saints denominations Home Formal name (use on first reference) Membership* As of Church abbreviation Adherent short name Utah the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 16.3 million † (approximately 98% of the Latter Day Saint movement) 2011 LDS Church (Note: only use its nickname Mormon church within direct quotations.) Latter-day Saint (note the lower-case d ) LDS member ( individual, adherent, etc.) or LDS Church member Mormon Missouri Community of Christ (prior to 2001: Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints ) 250,000 (approximately 2% of the Latter Day Saint movement) 2011 CofChrist or CofC RLDS Church or Saints in context of events prior to the 2001 name change (Note: do not follow Community of Christ with church. ) Community member in context of events after the 2001 name change RLDS member , RLDS Church member , or Saint in context of events prior to the 2001 name change Smaller denominations Pennsylvania the Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) 12,136 2007 Bickertonite Church Bickertonite Utah Apostolic United Brethren c. 10,000 1998 AUB AUB member fundamentalist Mormon Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Approximately 10,000 2011 FLDS Church FLDS Church member or FLDS member True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days 300–500 2004 TLC TLC member — Additional denominations within fundamentalist Mormonism — — — Missouri Joint Conference of Restoration Branches 6,000–7,000 2010 Restoration Branch / Restorationists independent RLDS church (Note: see entry "RLDS" in the section above.) — Additional denominations in Restoration Branch movement — Missouri Church of Christ (Temple Lot) 2,400 1998 Temple Lot church Temple Lot church member Hedrickite Latter term is generally in context of 19th-century and early-20th-century adherents. — Additional denominations lineaged through Temple Lot church — — Minuscule denominations founded in the 19th century ‡‡ Wisconsin Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) 300 1998 Strangite Church Strangite Missouri Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) Approximately 12 2010 Cutlerite Church Cutlerite Contexts across denominations — Inclusive of all the movement's denominations — Primary schism to present Latter Day Saint movement (or, denominations, religion, etc.) denominations of the Latter Day Saints Mormonism last term for all eras; not appropriate in reference to the so-called Prairie Saints (with the exception of the Strangites), except in a historical contexts, however — Select appropriate term from column above. — Note: in general, avoid Latter Day Saint, with the upper-case D, to refer to an adherent collectively (that is, in a movement context). Historical, before founder Joseph Smith's death in 1844 Missouri to Illinois Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (1838–1844) 1830 to primary schism When in doubt: Latter Day Saint church Latter Day Saint Note the upper-case D. Do not abbreviate as LDS (to avoid its confusion with abbreviation for "Latter-day Saint," with the lower-case d ). Saint Mormon Ohio to Missouri Church of the Latter Day Saints (1834–1838) New York to Ohio Church of Christ (1830–1834) * Worldwide. † Church-reported; fewer per public surveys. ‡ Once greater in size Avoidance of anachronistic terminology In writing about historical matters, editors should avoid anachronistic terminology that would be out-of-place or meaningless in the time period being discussed. The following are common examples: When referring to the church established by Joseph Smith, Jr., it is generally inappropriate to refer to it as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , since that particular name with its particular formatting was not adopted until after Smith's death. Smith's church had the following names during his lifetime: "Church of Christ" (1830–34); "Church of the Latter Day Saints" (1834–38); "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" (1838–44). It is appropriate to use the name of the church that existed at the time being referred to. If in doubt, you can always simply refer to the "Latter Day Saint church" as a common (non-proper) noun . In each case, the name of the church should be pipe linked to Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints) when it first occurs in the article. When referring to the Community of Christ prior to 2001, it is appropriate to refer to it as the "Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", and it may be abbreviated "RLDS Church". However, that name should be pipe linked to Community of Christ when it first occurs in an article. In most contexts, it is appropriate to refer to Joseph Smith simply as the "founder of the Latter Day Saint movement " or, in Mormon contexts, the "founder of Mormonism ". However, this practice may be departed from if an article or template deals exclusively with an issue in a specific church. In such cases, it may be appropriate to refer to Smith as the founder or first president of that particular church. For example, it would be appropriate in Russell M. Nelson to state that Nelson is Smith's modern successor as president of the LDS Church. Similarly, it is appropriate to list Smith in Template:CofCpresidents as the first president of the Community of Christ. Smith and other early church leaders may appropriately appear in categories of leaders of both the LDS Church and the Community of Christ. From 1850 to 1896, the LDS Church was based in Utah Territory ; Utah did not exist until 1896. Any time these guidelines are violated when being used as parts of quotations from church leaders or members and the context is clear, they should not be altered . It may be best for reduction of both confusion and potential inter-faith strife to follow these guidelines on talk pages as well. Article naming conventions Summary of naming conventions: Articles wholly pertaining to the Latter Day Saint movement should be parenthesized "(Latter Day Saints)", unless the article name is unambiguous without the parenthetical. Articles should not be limited to a single Latter Day Saint denomination, unless including the entire Latter Day Saint movement is impractical or awkward. For example, instead naming an article " Restoration (Community of Christ) " or " Restoration (LDS Church) ", the article should be called Restoration (Latter Day Saints) . Mid-sentence and mid-article-title references to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints should not capitalize the initial the [ 1 ] and should include a hyphen and a lower-case "d". Example: History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints not History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints When a leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has the same name as people outside the Latter Day Saint movement , the person may be disambiguated with the parenthetical (Mormon) . See, for example, John W. Taylor (Mormon) and George Reynolds (Mormon) . Avoidance of Mormon jargon and additional recommendations WP:LDSJARGON WP:LDSJARGON MOS:LDSJARGON MOS:LDSJARGON Editors should always avoid use of Mormon jargon, which includes any terms used by many adherents to the Latter Day Saint movement that the general public might not understand, might misinterpret, or might find offensive. For example: Never refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas by the term Lamanites , as this implies the controversial belief that such peoples have a historical connection to the nation of Lamanites described in the Book of Mormon . Never use the term the Gospel or the Restored Gospel to refer to Latter Day Saint theology, because it implies agreement with Latter Day Saint principle of restoration and is inconsistent with a neutral point of view . Alternatives that may be used include Mormonism , teachings of the church , and Latter Day Saint teachings . Avoid the use of controversial capitalizations such as "the Church" or "The Church" when referring to any specific Latter Day Saint church, since there is general disagreement concerning its appropriateness. For all such churches, "the church" is acceptable when the word church is an uncapitalized common noun , but capitalized "Church" should be used only when it is part of a longer reference to a specific church (as in "LDS Church"). Use "The Church of Jesus Christ" only when it is the full name of a church (as in the case with the group commonly known as the " Bickertonites "). Also be aware that the full official name of other churches within the movement is the "Church of Jesus Christ" (omitting the article "The"). Though the LDS Church's style guide recommends referring to it as the "Church of Jesus Christ" or the "restored Church of Jesus Christ", this usage is not appropriate due to the potential ambiguity and resultant confusion. Do not capitalize priesthood offices ( apostle , elder , bishop , high priest , seventy , etc.) or leadership positions in the church ( general authority , mission president , regional representative , etc.), unless they are being used to specify a particular organizational group, such as the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles or the First Quorum of the Seventy , or in front of a person's name (but see next item) . Do not use ecclesiastical titles such as "Elder", "President", "Brother" or "Sister" when referring to leaders of a church, except in the lead section at first occurrence of the name. For example, write "McConkie published a book entitled Mormon Doctrine ..." not "Elder McConkie published a book entitled Mormon Doctrine ..." After first occurrence, the use of an article subject's surname is sufficient and conforms to general encyclopedic style. These recommendations apply mainly to article text. When these terms are used as part of quotations from church leaders or members and the context is clear, they should not be altered . It may be best for reduction of both confusion and potential inter-faith strife to follow these guidelines on talk pages as well. See also Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Latter Day Saints) WikiProject Latter Day Saint movement – for more information or to contribute to this Manual of Style supplement Wikipedia:LDS/RS – a list of the reliability of various Latter Day Saint movement sources References .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Niebuhr, Gustav (February 19, 2001), "Adapting 'Mormon' to Emphasize Christianity" , The New York Times Taylor, Scott (April 2, 2011), "LDS or Mormon? It Depends: Church Prefers Full Name But Is Accepting More Mormon Uses" , Deseret News , retrieved 2012-11-29 "Style Guide — The Name of the Church" , Newsroom , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , retrieved 2021-12-01 — lists preferred naming conventions and word usages. Note that the Wikipedia style guide does not always coincide with these preferences. Note that the Wikipedia style guide does not always coincide with these preferences. Community of Christ Multimedia Publishing Style Guidelines (PDF) , Herald House , Community of Christ , September 23, 2011, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-10 , retrieved 2012-11-29 ^ See this RfC discussion. Wikipedia Manual of Style (religion) Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 19 March 2025, at 19:04 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Latter_Day_Saints
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 Classification Toggle Classification subsection 2.1 Exoskeletons 2.2 Endoskeletons 2.3 Rigidity 2.4 Hydrostatic skeletons 2.5 Cytoskeleton 2.1 Exoskeletons 2.2 Endoskeletons 2.3 Rigidity 2.4 Hydrostatic skeletons 2.5 Cytoskeleton 3 Vertebrate skeletons Toggle Vertebrate skeletons subsection 3.1 Amphibians and reptiles 3.2 Birds 3.3 Fish 3.4 Mammals 3.4.1 Marine mammals 3.4.2 Humans 3.1 Amphibians and reptiles 3.2 Birds 3.3 Fish 3.4 Mammals 3.4.1 Marine mammals 3.4.2 Humans 3.4.1 Marine mammals 3.4.2 Humans 4 Invertebrate skeletons Toggle Invertebrate skeletons subsection 4.1 Arthropods 4.2 Echinoderms 4.3 Molluscs 4.4 Sponges 4.1 Arthropods 4.2 Echinoderms 4.3 Molluscs 4.4 Sponges 5 Cartilage 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Skeleton Afrikaans Alemannisch अंगिका العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego ГӀалгӀай ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Мокшень မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Patois Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย ತುಳು Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Yerwa Kanuri Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Skeleton A horse and human skeleton placed in a display at Australian Museum in Sydney Details Identifiers Greek σκελετός MeSH D012863 Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata ] A skeleton is the structural frame that supports the body of most animals . There are several types of skeletons, including the exoskeleton , which is a rigid outer shell that holds up an organism's shape; the endoskeleton , a rigid internal frame to which the organs and soft tissues attach; and the hydroskeleton , a flexible internal structure supported by the hydrostatic pressure of body fluids . Vertebrates are animals with an endoskeleton centered around an axial vertebral column , and their skeletons are typically composed of bones and cartilages . Invertebrates are other animals that lack a vertebral column, and their skeletons vary, including hard-shelled exoskeleton ( arthropods and most molluscs ), plated internal shells (e.g. cuttlebones in some cephalopods ) or rods (e.g. ossicles in echinoderms ), hydrostatically supported body cavities (most), and spicules ( sponges ). Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue that is found in the skeletal systems of vertebrates and invertebrates. Etymology The term skeleton comes from Ancient Greek σκελετός ( skeletós ) ' dried up ' . [ 1 ] Sceleton is an archaic form of the word. [ 2 ] Classification Skeletons can be defined by several attributes. Solid skeletons consist of hard substances, such as bone , cartilage , or cuticle . These can be further divided by location; internal skeletons are endoskeletons, and external skeletons are exoskeletons. Skeletons may also be defined by rigidity, where pliant skeletons are more elastic than rigid skeletons. [ 3 ] Fluid or hydrostatic skeletons do not have hard structures like solid skeletons, instead functioning via pressurized fluids. Hydrostatic skeletons are always internal. [ 4 ] Exoskeletons An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that covers the body of an animal, serving as armor to protect an animal from predators. Arthropods have exoskeletons that encase their bodies, and have to undergo periodic moulting or ecdysis as the animals grow. The shells of molluscs are another form of exoskeleton. [ 4 ] Exoskeletons provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and specialized appendanges of the exoskeleton can assist with movement and defense. In arthropods, the exoskeleton also assists with sensory perception . [ 5 ] An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The southern giant clam , a species of extremely large saltwater clam in the Pacific Ocean , has a shell that is massive in both size and weight. Syrinx aruanus is a species of sea snail with a very large shell. Endoskeletons Endoskeletons are the internal support structure of an animal, composed of mineralized tissues , such as the bone skeletons found in most vertebrates. [ 6 ] Endoskeletons are highly specialized and vary significantly between animals. [ 4 ] They vary in complexity from functioning purely for support (as in the case of sponges ), to serving as an attachment site for muscles and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue. Endoskeletons occur in chordates , echinoderms, and sponges. Rigidity Pliant skeletons are capable of movement; thus, when stress is applied to the skeletal structure, it deforms and then regains its original shape. This skeletal structure is used in some invertebrates, for instance in the hinge of bivalve shells or the mesoglea of cnidarians such as jellyfish . Pliant skeletons are beneficial because only muscle contractions are needed to bend the skeleton; upon muscle relaxation, the skeleton will return to its original shape. Cartilage is one material that a pliant skeleton may be composed of, but most pliant skeletons are formed from a mixture of proteins , polysaccharides , and water. [ 3 ] For additional structure or protection, pliant skeletons may be supported by rigid skeletons. Organisms that have pliant skeletons typically live in water, which supports body structure in the absence of a rigid skeleton. [ 7 ] Rigid skeletons are not capable of movement when stressed, creating a strong support system most common in terrestrial animals . Such a skeleton type used by animals that live in water are more for protection (such as barnacle and snail shells) or for fast-moving animals that require additional support of musculature needed for swimming through water. Rigid skeletons are formed from materials including chitin (in arthropods), calcium compounds such as calcium carbonate (in stony corals and mollusks ) and silicate (for diatoms and radiolarians ). Hydrostatic skeletons Hydrostatic skeletons are flexible cavities within an animal that provide structure through fluid pressure, occurring in some types of soft-bodied organisms , including jellyfish, flatworms , nematodes , and earthworms. The walls of these cavities are made of muscle and connective tissue. [ 4 ] In addition to providing structure for an animal's body, hydrostatic skeletons transmit the forces of muscle contraction, allowing an animal to move by alternating contractions and expansions of muscles along the animal's length. [ 8 ] Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton ( cyto- meaning 'cell' [ 9 ] ) is used to stabilize and preserve the form of the cells. It is a dynamic structure that maintains cell shape, protects the cell, enables cellular motion using structures such as flagella , cilia and lamellipodia , and transport within cells such as the movement of vesicles and organelles , and plays a role in cellular division. The cytoskeleton is not a skeleton in the sense that it provides the structural system for the body of an animal; rather, it serves a similar function at the cellular level. [ 10 ] Vertebrate skeletons Vertebrate skeletons are endoskeletons, and the main skeletal component is bone. [ 6 ] Bones compose a unique skeletal system for each type of animal. Another important component is cartilage which in mammals is found mainly in the joint areas. In other animals, such as the cartilaginous fishes , which include the sharks , the skeleton is composed entirely of cartilage . The segmental pattern of the skeleton is present in all vertebrates, with basic units being repeated, such as in the vertebral column and the ribcage. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Bones are rigid organs providing structural support for the body, assistance in movement by opposing muscle contraction , and the forming of a protective wall around internal organs. Bones are primarily made of inorganic minerals, such as hydroxyapatite , while the remainder is made of an organic matrix and water. The hollow tubular structure of bones provide considerable resistance against compression while staying lightweight. Most cells in bones are osteoblasts , osteoclasts , or osteocytes . [ 13 ] Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue , a type of mineralized tissue that gives rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Bones also produce red and white blood cells and serve as calcium and phosphate storage at the cellular level. Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow , endosteum and periosteum , nerves , blood vessels and cartilage. During embryonic development , bones are developed individually from skeletogenic cells in the ectoderm and mesoderm. Most of these cells develop into separate bone, cartilage, and joint cells, and they are then articulated with one another. Specialized skeletal tissues are unique to vertebrates. Cartilage grows more quickly than bone, causing it to be more prominent earlier in an animal's life before it is overtaken by bone. [ 14 ] Cartilage is also used in vertebrates to resist stress at points of articulation in the skeleton. Cartilage in vertebrates is usually encased in perichondrium tissue. [ 15 ] Ligaments are elastic tissues that connect bones to other bones, and tendons are elastic tissues that connect muscles to bones. [ 16 ] Amphibians and reptiles The skeletons of turtles have evolved to develop a shell from the ribcage, forming an exoskeleton. [ 17 ] The skeletons of snakes and caecilians have significantly more vertebrae than other animals. Snakes often have over 300, compared to the 65 that is typical in lizards. [ 18 ] Birds The skeletons of birds are adapted for flight . The bones in bird skeletons are hollow and lightweight to reduce the metabolic cost of flight. Several attributes of the shape and structure of the bones are optimized to endure the physical stress associated with flight, including a round and thin humeral shaft and the fusion of skeletal elements into single ossifications . [ 19 ] Because of this, birds usually have a smaller number of bones than other terrestrial vertebrates. Birds also lack teeth or even a true jaw , instead having evolved a beak , which is far more lightweight. The beaks of many baby birds have a projection called an egg tooth , which facilitates their exit from the amniotic egg. Fish The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish is either made of cartilage as in the Chondrichthyes , or bones as in the Osteichthyes . The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. They are supported only by the muscles. The main external features of the fish, the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays which, with the exception of the caudal fin (tail fin), have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, rays, skates, and chimeras, have skeletons made entirely of cartilage. The lighter weight of cartilage allows these fish to expend less energy when swimming. [ 4 ] Mammals Marine mammals To facilitate the movement of marine mammals in water, the hind legs were either lost altogether, as in the whales and manatees , or united in a single tail fin as in the pinnipeds (seals). In the whale, the cervical vertebrae are typically fused, an adaptation trading flexibility for stability during swimming. [ 20 ] Humans The skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs , heart and spinal cord . [ 21 ] The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear . In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 13.1% of the total body weight, [ 22 ] and half of this weight is water. Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium . Not all bones are interconnected directly: There are three bones in each middle ear called the ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone , which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue , does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, although this number depends on whether the pelvic bones (the hip bones on each side) are counted as one or three bones on each side (ilium, ischium, and pubis), whether the coccyx or tail bone is counted as one or four separate bones, and does not count the variable wormian bones between skull sutures. Similarly, the sacrum is usually counted as a single bone, rather than five fused vertebrae. There is also a variable number of small sesamoid bones, commonly found in tendons. The patella or kneecap on each side is an example of a larger sesamoid bone. The patellae are counted in the total, as they are constant. The number of bones varies between individuals and with age – newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse together. [ citation needed ] These bones are organized into a longitudinal axis, the axial skeleton , to which the appendicular skeleton is attached. [ 23 ] The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed, and the bones contain marrow , which produces blood cells. There exist several general differences between the male and female skeletons. The male skeleton, for example, is generally larger and heavier than the female skeleton. In the female skeleton, the bones of the skull are generally less angular. The female skeleton also has wider and shorter breastbone and slimmer wrists. There exist significant differences between the male and female pelvis which are related to the female's pregnancy and childbirth capabilities. The female pelvis is wider and shallower than the male pelvis. Female pelvises also have an enlarged pelvic outlet and a wider and more circular pelvic inlet. The angle between the pubic bones is known to be sharper in males, which results in a more circular, narrower, and near heart-shaped pelvis. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Invertebrate skeletons Invertebrates are defined by a lack of vertebral column, and they do not have bone skeletons. Arthropods have exoskeletons and echinoderms have endoskeletons. Some soft-bodied organisms, such as jellyfish and earthworms , have hydrostatic skeletons. [ 26 ] Arthropods The skeletons of arthropods , including insects , crustaceans , and arachnids , are cuticle exoskeletons. They are composed of chitin secreted by the epidermis . [ 27 ] The cuticle covers the animal's body and lines several internal organs, including parts of the digestive system. Arthropods molt as they grow through a process of ecdysis , developing a new exoskeleton, digesting part of the previous skeleton, and leaving the remainder behind. An arthropod's skeleton serves many functions, working as an integument to provide a barrier and support the body, providing appendages for movement and defense, and assisting in sensory perception. Some arthropods, such as crustaceans, absorb biominerals like calcium carbonate from the environment to strengthen the cuticle. [ 5 ] Echinoderms The skeletons of echinoderms , such as starfish and sea urchins , are endoskeletons that consist of large, well-developed sclerite plates that adjoin or overlap to cover the animal's body. The skeletons of sea cucumbers are an exception, having a reduced size to assist in feeding and movement. Echinoderm skeletons are composed of stereom , made up of calcite with a monocrystal structure. They also have a significant magnesium content, forming up to 15% of the skeleton's composition. The stereome structure is porous, and the pores fill with connective stromal tissue as the animal ages. Sea urchins have as many as ten variants of stereome structure. Among extant animals, such skeletons are unique to echinoderms, though similar skeletons were used by some Paleozoic animals. [ 28 ] The skeletons of echinoderms are mesodermal , as they are mostly encased by soft tissue. Plates of the skeleton may be interlocked or connected through muscles and ligaments. Skeletal elements in echinoderms are highly specialized and take many forms, though they usually retain some form of symmetry. The spines of sea urchins are the largest type of echinoderm skeletal structure. [ 29 ] Molluscs Some molluscs, such as conchs, scallops, and snails, have shells that serve as exoskeletons. They are produced by proteins and minerals secreted from the animal's mantle . [ 4 ] Sponges The skeleton of sponges consists of microscopic calcareous or siliceous spicules . The demosponges include 90% of all species of sponges. Their "skeletons" are made of spicules consisting of fibers of the protein spongin , the mineral silica , or both. Where spicules of silica are present, they have a different shape from those in the otherwise similar glass sponges . [ 30 ] Cartilage Cartilage is a connective skeletal tissue composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that in an extracellular matrix . This matrix is typically composed of Type II collagen fibers, proteoglycans , and water. There are many types of cartilage, including elastic cartilage , hyaline cartilage , fibrocartilage , and lipohyaline cartilage. [ 15 ] Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. The chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion, helped by the pumping action generated by compression of the articular cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage. Thus, compared to other connective tissues, cartilage grows and repairs more slowly. See also Bonesetter Endochondral ossification Intramembranous ossification Exoskeleton Osteoblast Osteometric points Skeletal system of the horse Skeleton (undead) Skeletonization Stolon References ^ "skeleton". Mish 2003 , p. 1167. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Definition of SCELETON" . www.merriam-webster.com . Retrieved 31 July 2022 . ^ a b Ruppert, Fox & Barnes 2003 , p. 102. ^ a b c d e f "Why animals developed four types of skeletons" . National Geographic . 19 October 2021. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021 . Retrieved 31 July 2022 . ^ a b Politi, Yael; Bar-On, Benny; Fabritius, Helge-Otto (2019), Estrin, Yuri; Bréchet, Yves; Dunlop, John; Fratzl, Peter (eds.), "Mechanics of Arthropod Cuticle-Versatility by Structural and Compositional Variation" , Architectured Materials in Nature and Engineering: Archimats , Springer Series in Materials Science, vol. 282, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 287– 327, doi : 10.1007/978-3-030-11942-3_10 , ISBN 978-3-030-11942-3 , S2CID 109418804 ^ a b de Buffrénil, Vivian; de Ricqlès, Armand J; Zylberberg, Louise; Padian, Kevin; Laurin, Michel; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021). Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology . Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. xii + 825. ISBN 978-1351189576 . ^ Pechenik 2015 . [ page needed ] ^ Kier, William M. (15 April 2012). "The diversity of hydrostatic skeletons" . Journal of Experimental Biology . 215 (8): 1247– 1257. Bibcode : 2012JExpB.215.1247K . doi : 10.1242/jeb.056549 . ISSN 0022-0949 . PMID 22442361 . S2CID 1177498 . ^ "cyt- or cyto-". Mish 2003 , p. 312. ^ Fletcher, Daniel A.; Mullins, R. Dyche (2010). "Cell mechanics and the cytoskeleton" . Nature . 463 (7280): 485– 492. Bibcode : 2010Natur.463..485F . doi : 10.1038/nature08908 . ISSN 1476-4687 . PMC 2851742 . PMID 20110992 . ^ Billet, Guillaume; Bardin, Jérémie (13 October 2021). "Segmental Series and Size: Clade-Wide Investigation of Molar Proportions Reveals a Major Evolutionary Allometry in the Dentition of Placental Mammals" . Systematic Biology . 70 (6): 1101– 1109. doi : 10.1093/sysbio/syab007 . PMID 33560370 . ^ Buffrénil, Vivian de; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021). "An Overview of the Embryonic Development of the Bony Skeleton" . Vertebrate Skeletal Histology and Paleohistology . CRC Press: 29– 38. doi : 10.1201/9781351189590-2 . ISBN 978-1351189590 . S2CID 236422314 . ^ Sommerfeldt, D.; Rubin, C. (1 October 2001). "Biology of bone and how it orchestrates the form and function of the skeleton" . European Spine Journal . 10 (2): S86 – S95 . doi : 10.1007/s005860100283 . ISSN 1432-0932 . PMC 3611544 . PMID 11716022 . ^ Lefebvre, Véronique; Bhattaram, Pallavi (1 January 2010), Koopman, Peter (ed.), "Chapter Eight - Vertebrate Skeletogenesis", Current Topics in Developmental Biology , Organogenesis in Development, 90 , Academic Press: 291– 317, doi : 10.1016/S0070-2153(10)90008-2 , PMC 3077680 , PMID 20691853 ^ a b Gillis, J. Andrew (2019), "The Development and Evolution of Cartilage" , Reference Module in Life Sciences , Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-12-809633-8 ^ Vorvick, Linda J. (13 August 2020). "Tendon vs. Ligament" . A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia . Ebix . Retrieved 6 August 2021 – via MedLinePlus. ^ Nagashima, Hiroshi; Kuraku, Shigehiro; Uchida, Katsuhisa; Kawashima-Ohya, Yoshie; Narita, Yuichi; Kuratani, Shigeru (1 March 2012). "Body plan of turtles: an anatomical, developmental and evolutionary perspective" . Anatomical Science International . 87 (1): 1– 13. doi : 10.1007/s12565-011-0121-y . ISSN 1447-073X . PMID 22131042 . S2CID 41803725 . ^ M. Woltering, Joost (1 June 2012). "From Lizard to Snake; Behind the Evolution of an Extreme Body Plan" . Current Genomics . 13 (4): 289– 299. doi : 10.2174/138920212800793302 . PMC 3394116 . PMID 23204918 . ^ Dumont, Elizabeth R. (22 July 2010). "Bone density and the lightweight skeletons of birds" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 277 (1691): 2193– 2198. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2010.0117 . PMC 2880151 . PMID 20236981 . ^ Bebej, Ryan M; Smith, Kathlyn M (17 March 2018). "Lumbar mobility in archaeocetes (Mammalia: Cetacea) and the evolution of aquatic locomotion in the earliest whales" . Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society . 182 (3): 695– 721. doi : 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx058 . ISSN 0024-4082 . Retrieved 7 March 2022 . ^ "Skeletal System: Facts, Function & Diseases" . Live Science . Archived from the original on 7 March 2017 . Retrieved 7 March 2017 . ^ Reynolds & Karlotski 1977 , p. 161 ^ Tözeren 2000 , pp. 6–10. ^ Balaban 2008 , p. 61 ^ Stein 2007 , p. 73. ^ Langley, Liz (19 October 2021). "Why animals developed four types of skeletons" . National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021 . Retrieved 1 November 2022 . ^ Vincent, Julian F. V. (1 October 2002). "Arthropod cuticle: a natural composite shell system" . Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing . 33 (10): 1311– 1315. doi : 10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00167-7 . ISSN 1359-835X . ^ Kokorin, A. I.; Mirantsev, G. V.; Rozhnov, S. V. (1 December 2014). "General features of echinoderm skeleton formation" . Paleontological Journal . 48 (14): 1532– 1539. Bibcode : 2014PalJ...48.1532K . doi : 10.1134/S0031030114140056 . ISSN 1555-6174 . S2CID 84336543 . ^ Nebelsick, James H.; Dynowski, Janina F.; Grossmann, Jan Nils; Tötzke, Christian (2015), Hamm, Christian (ed.), "Echinoderms: Hierarchically Organized Light Weight Skeletons" , Evolution of Lightweight Structures: Analyses and Technical Applications , Biologically-Inspired Systems, vol. 6, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 141– 155, doi : 10.1007/978-94-017-9398-8_8 , ISBN 978-94-017-9398-8 , retrieved 31 July 2022 ^ Barnes, Fox & Barnes 2003 , pp. 105–106. Bibliography Balaban, Naomi (2008). The Handy Anatomy Answer Book . Visible Ink Press. ISBN 978-1-57859-190-9 . Barnes, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2003). Invertebrate zoology : a functional evolutionary approach (7. ed.). Belmont, Calif. [u.a.]: Thomson, Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-03-025982-7 . Forbes, R. M.; Mitchell, H. H.; Cooper, A. R. (1956). "Further studies on the gross composition and mineral elements of the adult human body" . Journal of Biological Chemistry . 223 (2). American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: 969– 975. doi : 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)65095-1 . PMID 13385244 . Mish, Frederick C., ed. (2003). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-807-1 . Nasoori, Alireza (2020). "Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals" . Biological Reviews . 95 (4). Cambridge Philosophical Society: 986– 1019. doi : 10.1111/brv.12597 . PMID 32338826 . S2CID 216556342 . Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the Invertebrates (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-352418-4 . Reynolds, William W.; Karlotski, William J. (1977). "The Allometric Relationship of Skeleton Weight to Body Weight in Teleost Fishes: A Preliminary Comparison with Birds and Mammals". Copeia . 1977 (1). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 160– 163. doi : 10.2307/1443520 . JSTOR 1443520 . Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2003). Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Thomson, Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-03-025982-1 . Stein, Lisa (2007). Body: The Complete Human . National Geographic Society . ISBN 978-1-4262-0128-8 . Tözeren, Aydın (2000). Human Body Dynamics: Classical Mechanics and Human Movement . Springer. ISBN 0-387-98801-7 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Skeletons at Wikimedia Commons 3-D Viewer of a male American mastodon skeleton, with bones labelled, at the University of Michigan Mammutidae digital fossil repository Interactive views of various primate skeletons at eSkeletons.org (associated with the University of Texas at Austin ) Authority control databases International GND GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic 2 Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic 2 2 Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Skeletons Animal anatomy Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 December 2025, at 10:02 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-ListOfWikipedias-185
|
An official website of the United States government Here’s how you know Here’s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. An official website of the United States government Here’s how you know Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Products and Services All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) All Products and Services ClinicalTrials.gov Digital Collections LocatorPlus Catalog Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MedlinePlus PubMed/MEDLINE Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) Resources for You For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public For Researchers For Publishers For Librarians For Educators/Trainers For Health care Professionals For the Public Explore NLM About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events About the Library Visit the Library History of Medicine NLM by Organization Spotlights and Events Grants and Research NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications NLM Extramural Programs NLM Division of Intramural Research National Center for Biotechnology Information Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications Home NLM Data Distribution List of All Journals Cited in PubMed ® Approximately 30,000 records are included in the PubMed journal list which is updated daily and includes all MEDLINE® titles as well as other non-MEDLINE titles in PubMed . The PubMed journal list covers the entire span of MEDLINE, not just currently indexed journals. The non-MEDLINE journals include those whose content is deposited in PMC (PubMed Central) . PMC is also the repository for author manuscripts that are required under the NIH Public Access Policy to be deposited when the research is funded by NIH. Certain other government agencies or funding organizations use PMC for their Public Access Policy requirements as well. NLM creates a cataloging record for every journal with a full text article in PMC. Therefore, while most MEDLINE journals over the years have citations for all substantive content published, some of the non-MEDLINE journals may contribute far fewer citations over the years. A few notes about the PubMed journal list: The list is offered in different formats; see: How do I know if my journal is indexed in MEDLINE/PubMed? The records are not in alphabetical order. The JrId is a sequential identifier number for the journals that appear in various NCBI databases; therefore, the PubMed journal list has gaps in the JrID range. The bottom JrID number does not equal the total number of records in the file. Full journal title names may contain initial grammar articles (e.g., The, An, A) which may affect use of these data for searching and filing purposes. The NlmId is the accession number for the journal cataloging record in the NLM bibliographic database. LocatorPlus and the NLM Catalog on the NCBI Entrez system are public interfaces to NLM bibliographic data. MedAbbr is a short form of the full journal title; it is assigned whether the title is a MEDLINE journal or not. ISO Abbreviations are constructed at NLM to assist NCBI in linking from GenBank to PubMed. Sample Entries: See also: Number of Titles Currently Indexed for Index Medicus® and MEDLINE® on PubMed® FAQ: Finding NLM Serials Data and MEDLINE Indexed Journals Other FTP journal lists offered by NCBI: How do I know if my journal is indexed in MEDLINE/PubMed? MEDLINE, PubMed, and PMC (PubMed Central): How are they different? MEDLINE/PubMed Resources Guide: Journals Last Reviewed: June 10, 2021 Connect with NLM National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894 Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure NLM Support Center Accessibility Careers NLM | NIH | HHS | USA.gov
|
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/serfile_addedinfo.html
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Meteorological history 2 Preparations 3 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 3.1 Caribbean 3.2 Bermuda 3.3 Atlantic coast 3.1 Caribbean 3.2 Bermuda 3.3 Atlantic coast 4 Aftermath Toggle Aftermath subsection 4.1 Retirement 4.1 Retirement 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Hurricane Fabian Català Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Português Simple English Suomi Tagalog Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Fabian at peak intensity on September 1 Meteorological history Formed August 27, 2003 Extratropical September 8, 2003 Dissipated September 10, 2003 Category 4 major hurricane 1-minute sustained ( SSHWS / NWS ) Highest winds 145 mph (230 km/h) Lowest pressure 939 mbar ( hPa ); 27.73 inHg Overall effects Fatalities 8 direct Damage $300 million (2003 USD ) Areas affected .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Leeward Islands Southeastern United States Northern America Eastern Canada Iceland Leeward Islands Southeastern United States Northern America Eastern Canada Iceland IBTrACS Part of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Fabian was a powerful tropical cyclone that impacted Bermuda in early September during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the sixth named storm, fourth hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season, developed from a tropical wave in the tropical Atlantic Ocean on August 25. It moved west-northwestward under the influence of the subtropical ridge to its north, and steadily strengthened in an area of warm sea surface temperatures and light wind shear . The hurricane attained a peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h) on September 1, and it slowly weakened as it turned northward. On September 5, Fabian made a direct hit on Bermuda with wind speeds of over 120 mph (190 km/h). After passing the island, the hurricane turned to the northeast, and became extratropical on September 8, before dissipating two days later. [ 1 ] Fabian was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since Hurricane Arlene in 1963. [ 2 ] It was both the most damaging and the first hurricane to cause a death on the island since 1926. [ 3 ] The hurricane's powerful winds resulted in moderate damage and destroyed roofs throughout the island. A strong storm surge associated with the hurricane killed four people crossing a causeway on Bermuda, temporarily closing the only link between two islands. The endangered Bermuda petrel , better known as the cahow, was threatened by the hurricane, which destroyed ten nests, although volunteer work transported the species to a safer location. Strong swells resulted in damage in northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic , and also caused four people to drown along the United States' Atlantic coast . In all, Fabian caused around US$300 million in damage and eight deaths. [ 1 ] Meteorological history On August 25, a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa. [ 1 ] Tracking westward, the wave developed convection over its center, and conducive conditions allowed it to develop further. [ 4 ] The system passed through the Cape Verde islands later that day as convection steadily weakened. [ 1 ] [ 5 ] Early on August 27, convection again increased and consolidated near the center, and later that day the wave developed into Tropical Depression Ten while located 420 miles (680 km) west of the Cape Verde islands. Moving westward into an area of warm waters and low vertical shear, the depression steadily intensified, and was named Tropical Storm Fabian on August 28 as convection increased and banding features became more prominent. [ 1 ] [ 6 ] Banding features and outflow continued to develop as a ring of convection formed around the center of Fabian, [ 7 ] and on August 30, the storm intensified into a hurricane while gradually slowing its motion to the west-northwest. [ 1 ] As banding features and outflow became better defined, an eye developed in the center of the deepest convection. [ 8 ] Fabian quickly strengthened and attained major hurricane status late that day. [ 1 ] Deep convection became very concentric around the 11.5 miles (18.5 km) wide eye, and the hurricane reached winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) early on August 31. [ 9 ] At this time, the deepest convection near the eye degraded in appearance, and Fabian temporarily stopped its strengthening trend. [ 10 ] Later that day, the eye became distinct again within a perfectly round area of deep convection. Outflow continued to expand in all directions, and Fabian intensified into a Category 4 hurricane late on August 31. [ 11 ] Thunderstorm activity near the eyewall became more intense, and the cloud tops in the eyewall became much cooler; simultaneously, outflow away from the eye became much more symmetrical, both signs of an intensifying tropical cyclone. Fabian reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h) on September 1 while located 345 miles (555 km) east of the northern Lesser Antilles . [ 12 ] After maintaining its peak intensity for 12 hours Fabian degraded due to internal fluctuations, and began to weaken. [ 13 ] The hurricane turned to the northwest on September 2 in response to a weakness in the subtropical ridge , a break caused by a mid-level circulation over the southwest Atlantic Ocean. After fading back to a Category 3 hurricane, Fabian re-intensified on September 4, and regained Category 4 status for a short time. The hurricane weakened again as it accelerated northward towards Bermuda , a motion due to an approaching mid-level trough . [ 1 ] As small pockets of dry air became entrained in the eyewall, Fabian weakened slightly, [ 14 ] passing just 14 miles (23 km) west of Bermuda on September 5 as a 120 mph (190 km/h) Category 3 hurricane . [ 1 ] The eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island, resulting in a direct hit ; the center did not move over the island, so Fabian did not make landfall . After passing the island, the hurricane accelerated northeastward, and weakened to a 105 mph (169 km/h) Category 2 hurricane on September 7. [ 1 ] Steady weakening occurred as the hurricane moved into an area of increasing wind shear, drier air, and progressively cooler waters. [ 15 ] On September 8, while located 680 miles (1,090 km) east-northeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland , Fabian transitioned into an extratropical storm , with no deep convection remaining near the center. [ 16 ] Fabian's extratropical remnant turned to the north on September 9, and on September 10, Fabian's remnant merged with another extratropical storm while located between southern Greenland and Iceland . [ 1 ] Preparations Several days prior to Fabian striking Bermuda, computer models forecast a ridge of high pressure forcing the hurricane to the west of the island by 200 miles (320 km). [ 17 ] Not expected to be a direct threat, a meteorologist at the Bermuda Weather Service expected gusty winds and potentially heavy rainfall. [ 18 ] Each successive advisory was issued as the hurricane steadily moved closer to Bermuda, [ 17 ] and 35 hours before Fabian made its closest approach, the Bermuda Weather Service issued a hurricane watch for the island. When a track near Bermuda became more certain, a hurricane warning was issued for the island, approximately 29 hours before Fabian made a direct hit on the island. [ 1 ] The Bermuda Electric Light Company Limited recommended Bermuda residents to buy hurricane supplies such as candles, batteries, and non-perishable foods, to fill bathtubs and extra containers with water, and fill gasoline tanks for automobiles. [ 19 ] In preparation, residents formed long lines at gas stations, banks, [ 20 ] and supermarkets. [ 21 ] All government offices and many businesses closed on the day prior to the hurricane hitting. [ 20 ] All schools were closed, while all flights in and out of the island were canceled. Officials opened emergency shelters , and recommended 2,000 low-lying residents to evacuate; [ 21 ] a hotel on the south shore of the island was evacuated as well. [ 22 ] Several cruise ships expected to remain on the island departed early to avoid the hurricane. [ 21 ] Local insurance companies on Bermuda experienced a great increase in business, as residents renewed lapsed policies or signed up for new policies for homes or businesses, though marine policies were stopped several days before the hurricane struck. [ 23 ] The arrival of Fabian forced the cancellation or delay of several sports events, including a cricket match, a football game, and a dinghy race. [ 24 ] Impact Region Direct deaths Bermuda 4 Grand Banks 3 North Carolina 1 Total 8 [ 1 ] Fabian killed eight people and caused US$300 million in damages, primarily in Bermuda. Caribbean The hurricane produced storm surge damage in Antigua and Barbuda , where some boats were lightly damaged. [ 25 ] Strong swells and high tides produced large waves on the north coast of Puerto Rico , washing out beaches in various locations. Waves knocked out a 10 ft (3.0 m) portion of a construction site in Ocean Park , resulting in US $30,000 in damage. [ 26 ] In the Dominican Republic , the hurricane produced waves of up to 8 ft (2.4 m) in height. Due to the waves and gusty winds, boats were advised to stay at port. Several families had to be evacuated in Nagua when rough seas flooded their homes. [ 25 ] Bermuda Hurricane Fabian struck Bermuda on Friday, 5 September 2003, with sustained winds having reached 39 mph (63 km/h) by 0800, 74 mph (119 km/h) by 1400, and 150 mph (240 km/h) by 1755. The eye did not pass directly over the archipelago, instead passing to the west (placing Bermuda in the northeast quarter where the winds were particularly powerful) with the eyewall dragging over Bermuda for three hours. This prolonged the damaging winds the island was subjected to. [ 27 ] The storm produced a 10-minute average wind speed of 120 mph (190 km/h), while a peak wind gust of 164 mph (264 km/h) occurred at Bermuda Harbour Radio. [ 1 ] The strongest of the winds lasted approximately three to four hours, [ 17 ] and while the eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island, winds decreased to 60 mph (97 km/h). [ 1 ] Large waves battered the southern portion of the island for several days, reaching heights of 25 to 35 feet (7.6 to 10.7 m) at the worst of the hurricane, and upon passing the island, the hurricane produced a storm surge exceeding 11 feet (3.4 m) in height. Due to its fast motion, rainfall totals rose to only 1.82 inches (46 mm). There were also several unofficial reports of tornadoes. [ 17 ] Strong rip currents from the hurricane persisted for several days prior to Fabian passing the island; two swimmers were caught in the currents and relied on lifeguard assistance to return to shore. As a result, rip tide warnings were posted for the island. [ 28 ] Strong waves caused extensive damage to the coastline, especially on the southern portion of Bermuda. [ 17 ] The strong waves broke a boat from its moorings at Spanish Point . Five charter boats capsized from the waves, while several others crashed against reefs. [ 29 ] Strong waves collapsed a sea wall in Hamilton , causing traffic jams for one day until it was fixed. [ 30 ] The winds downed numerous power lines, causing 78% of the island's 32,031 power customers to experience power outages . [ 17 ] The strong winds damaged or destroyed the roofs of numerous buildings on Bermuda. One of the areas lightest hit was around a hotel outside of Hamilton, which experienced no power outages or blown out windows, [ 31 ] while one of the harder hit areas was Warwick . There, one resident noted, "Too many homes have lost roofs to count". One house was entirely destroyed on Rec View Hill, while an unconfirmed tornado destroyed much of the roof of a house in Devonshire . [ 32 ] The hurricane destroyed a restaurant in Southampton and also damaged stands and roofs at sports facilities. [ 31 ] Strong winds from the hurricane damaged several landmark buildings, including the House of Assembly and the City Hall, [ 22 ] both in Hamilton, and the former military headquarters in St. George's. Bermuda International Airport sustained US$15 million in damages, [ 33 ] primarily to buildings and roadways which were washed away by the storm surge. The runway escaped major damage, however, and the airport re-opened the following day for emergency relief flights. [ 34 ] Confronting the damages in the storm's aftermath, Airport General Manager James G. Howes was quoted by the news media as saying, "My heart sank when I first saw the Airport that morning. There was tons of debris everywhere and all the fire alarms and security alarms were going off. There was this din of bells and horns – it was like a war zone". [ 35 ] Commercial airline service was suspended for three days due to heavy damage to the Terminal Building, which was flooded with 3 ft (0.91 m) of seawater. [ 36 ] The airport's ILS and radar were also damaged. The hurricane also affected the Bermuda Weather Service, as 8 ft (2.4 m) waves destroyed recording equipment. [ 30 ] The winds severely damaged the island's major hotels, closing five for extended periods to repair damage. One hotel that remained open experienced damage to 25% of its rooms. [ 37 ] The strong winds uprooted hundreds of trees along the island's golf courses , though little damage was reported at most courses. One course experienced significant damage at its club house, temporarily closing it. [ 38 ] Government Conservation Officer Dr. David B. Wingate reported the damage to the South Shore of Bermuda was the worst in a thousand years. [ 39 ] The strong winds blew down hundreds of trees, caused severe damage to vegetation, [ 17 ] and destroyed many of the island's indigenous plants . [ 40 ] The hurricane washed away large sections of the nesting island for the endangered Bermuda petrel and destroyed 10 of the 70 active nests. The endangered birds were not on the island, though local residents quickly gathered to restore their habitat. [ 41 ] Strong waves resulted in severe coastal erosion , and at one beach, the lack of sand destroyed a natural cove. The Natural Arches, a set of eroded stones resembling an arch that was popular in photographs, was destroyed by the waves. [ 42 ] The powerful winds knocked coconuts off several trees and scattered them across the ground. [ 32 ] The storm surge from the hurricane stranded one vehicle with three police officers and another with a resident on the causeway between St. George's Parish and St. David's Island . After a fire truck failed in its attempt to rescue them, powerful waves washed the vehicles into Castle Harbour . The United States Coast Guard and Bermuda police divers mounted a full-scale search for the missing people during the worst of the storm. The strong winds and emotional issues of searching for colleagues made the search difficult. [ 43 ] Ultimately, the vehicles [ 22 ] and one dead body were recovered, [ 17 ] with the others remaining missing, presumably dead. [ 22 ] Another vehicle was on the causeway as the two cars became stranded, though the driver was able to safely cross. [ 43 ] High winds and surf tore off the causeway's side walls and greatly damaged the structure, [ 22 ] temporarily closing it to automobile traffic. [ 30 ] As most people were well-prepared, these were the only four deaths on the island. [ 17 ] In addition, nine people sought medical attention for minor injuries. [ 44 ] Damage on Bermuda totaled to US$300 million, reportedly the worst to affect the area since 1926. [ 1 ] Atlantic coast Swells from the hurricane produced rip currents and heavy surf along the eastern North Carolina coastline. One man drowned near Cape Hatteras from the rip currents. [ 45 ] Fabian produced moderate surfing conditions along the East Coast of the United States , primarily from Georgia to North Carolina. [ 46 ] Three deaths were reported in the north Atlantic when a ship, The Pacific Attitude , sank south of Newfoundland in the Grand Banks due to strong waves of over 60 feet (18 m) in height. [ 1 ] [ 47 ] Aftermath Blocked roads initially caused delays to crews from the Bermuda Electric Light Company Limited (BELCO), which were attempting to restore power to the island. Of high priority among the places to be restored were the hospital, as well as hotels to accommodate tourists who remained on the island through the storm. [ 22 ] By the second day after the storm passed the island, power was restored to 11,000 residents. [ 48 ] Power on Bermuda was restored to all customers within three weeks of the hurricane, but the electricity supply distribution system was greatly weakened. This resulted in a rehabilitation plan implemented in October 2003. Days after the hurricane passed, moisture from Tropical Storm Henri resulted in thunderstorms and heavy rainfall; this hindered recovery efforts, but did not cause any reported damage. [ 17 ] Lack of power caused interruptions to communications. While an emergency broadcast station was installed and tested prior the hurricane, the hurricane caused a problem to the system's back-up generator. [ 49 ] The causeway in Bermuda remained closed for several days after the hurricane as road crews made temporary repairs. [ 30 ] Upon being opened three days after the storm, [ 48 ] traffic was limited to one lane of the original two. However, the causeway had to be closed in the event of rain, winds exceeding 30 mph (48 km/h), and at night. [ 42 ] The bridge was fully repaired by early November 2003. [ 30 ] In the days after the storm, people provided assistance for each other, especially for the elderly. [ 31 ] Three days after the storm, for example, a radio station DJ announced a name for an elderly person in need, and within minutes someone would call to provide for their needs. [ 42 ] Residents cleared smaller roads from debris with chainsaws , [ 31 ] which in turn helped the power companies to make repairs quickly. [ 22 ] As a result of damage on their homes, dozens of people stayed in five shelters or undamaged hotels. [ 44 ] Residents purchased large quantities of gasoline in the days after Fabian, some of whom bought over US$500 worth. Officials assured there was no shortage, but requested drivers to conserve gas. [ 50 ] XL Capital Ltd. shipped 250 tarpaulins , 10 electric generators , and rope supply to the island. [ 48 ] The UK government offered help to the island with two Royal Navy ships with supplies such as tents, dried foods, and blankets. Premier Alex Scott declined the offer, believing the island could withstand on its own. World Vision also offered assistance with blankets, tents, and other supplies, while two United States companies offered to send generators. Bermuda Electric Light Company received aid from the Caribbean Electric Organization, which sent over 20 electricians to repair power lines. [ 51 ] Initially, the time for the destroyed vegetation on Bermuda to regrow was estimated to take decades. To help, the South Carolina Maritime Heritage Foundation, with support from a Boy Scout troop and nearby nurseries, delivered 1,000 boxwood plants to the island. [ 40 ] Following the damage to the Bermuda petrel's habitat, Bermuda's Department of Conservation carried out a translocation program, which involved moving the habitat to Nonsuch Island . That island, a long-standing nature preserve, was much higher and safer for the birds, and by two years after the hurricane the population numbers were higher than before the storm. [ 52 ] Shortly after the hurricane, the American home improvement franchise This Old House , unaware of the limited extent of damage, decided to do a hurricane repair story. Upon realising that there would be little to nothing available for the Ask This Old House to repair, it was decided instead to do a renovation of an 1805 home in St. George's . It was only the second time that the franchise had worked outside of the United States. [ 53 ] A memorial to the four Bermudians whose lives were claimed by Hurricane Fabian was erected near the Causeway's east end by the airport, where the 10th anniversary of their deaths was remembered by government officials in September 2013. [ 54 ] The onslaught of Hurricane Gonzalo in October 2014 prompted a catastrophe modeller to revisit Fabian's destruction, concluding that had it struck in 2014, it would have caused around US$650 million in damage. [ 55 ] Retirement Due to the storm damage and deaths in Bermuda, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Fabian in the spring of 2004, and it will never again be used for a North Atlantic tropical cyclone. It was replaced with Fred for the 2009 season . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] The Bermuda Weather Service allowed residents to suggest a replacement name, with the only rule being the name had to be a male name beginning with the letter "F", able to be easily pronounced, and not currently in use by the National Hurricane Center. The service received a list of over 30 names, including Forrest and Frodo , after the character in The Lord of the Rings . [ 58 ] The Bermuda Weather Service sent three names to the World Meteorological Organization: Fred , Ford , and Flynn . [ 59 ] See also Tropical cyclones portal Tropical cyclones in 2003 Weather of 2003 List of Bermuda hurricanes List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Richard J. Pasch; Eric S. Blake; Daniel P. Brown (2003-11-19). "Hurricane Fabian Tropical Cyclone Report" (PDF) . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved May 22, 2015 . ^ Jessica Blunden (2006-10-17). "Global Hazards and Significant Events September 2003" . National Climatic Data Center. Archived from the original on 2010-04-17 . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Patrick Thiele (2003-09-15). "PartnerRe Weathers Hurricane Fabian" . PartnerRE Ltd. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012 . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Stewart (2003). "August 26 Tropical Weather Outlook" . NHC ( FTP ) . Retrieved 2006-10-14 . [ dead ftp link ] (To view documents see Help:FTP ) ^ Franklin (2003). "August 26 Tropical Weather Outlook" . NHC ( FTP ) . Retrieved 2006-10-14 . [ dead ftp link ] (To view documents see Help:FTP ) ^ Richard J. Pasch (2003-08-28). "Tropical Storm Fabian Discussion Five" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Lixion A. Avila (2003-08-29). "Tropical Storm Fabian Discussion Eight" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2006-10-14 . ^ Lixion A. Avila (2003-08-30). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Twelve" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Eric Holweg; Brian Jarvinen (2003-08-30). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Fourteen" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Brian Jarvinen (2003-08-31). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Fifteen" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Lixion A. Avila; Michelle Mainelli (2003-08-31). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Seventeen" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ James L. Franklin; Michelle Mainelli (2003-09-01). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Twenty-One" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Richard J. Pasch; Jamie R. Rhome (2003-09-02). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Twenty-Three" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Stacy R. Stewart (2003-09-04). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Thirty-Four" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Brian Jarvinen (2003-09-07). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Forty-Three" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ Eric S. Blake; Richard J. Pasch (2003-09-08). "Hurricane Fabian Discussion Forty-Eight" . National Hurricane Center . Retrieved 2010-04-13 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mike Guishard; Roger Williams (2004). "2003 Hurricane Season in Bermuda" (PDF) . Final Report of the Twenty-Sixth Session . World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-12-04 . Retrieved 2006-10-15 . ^ Karen Smith (2003). "Weather experts keep wary eye on Fabian". The Royal Gazette . ^ Bermuda Electric Light Company (2003). "What to do before and after Fabian hits". The Royal Gazette . ^ a b Matthew Taylor (2003-05-09). "Bermuda prepares for Fabian's worst" . The Boston Globe . Associated Press . Retrieved 2006-10-15 . ^ a b c Stephen Breen (2003-04-09). "Bermuda braces for powerful Hurricane Fabian" . Reuters . Retrieved 2006-10-15 . ^ a b c d e f g Stephen Breen (2003). "Four feared dead". The Royal Gazette . ^ Lilla Zuill; Mairi Mallon (2003). "Fabian unleashes insurance surge". The Royal Gazette . ^ Gayle Alleyne (2003). "Sport faces weekend blow-out". The Royal Gazette . ^ a b Oficina Nacional de Meteorología; Centro de Información Huracanes (2004). "Reports of hurricanes, tropical storms, tropical disturbances and related flooding during 2003" (PDF) . Final Report of the Twenty-Sixth Session . World Meteorological Organization . Retrieved 2006-10-16 . ^ National Climatic Data Center (2003). "Puerto Rico Event Report" . Archived from the original on March 26, 2007 . Retrieved 2006-10-16 . ^ [ dead link ] Fabian: A blow-by-blow account . By Stephen Breen. The Royal Gazette. Published 9 September, 2003 ^ Matthew Taylor (2003). "Rip tide warning issued after bathers have to be rescued". The Royal Gazette. ^ Dan Rutstein (2003). "My life flashed before my eyes". The Royal Gazette. ^ a b c d e Robyn Bardgett (2003). "Bermuda Year End: The year that Fabian struck". The Royal Gazette. ^ a b c d The Royal Gazette (2003). "Bermuda Shorts—Fabian". ^ a b Tania Theriault (2003). "Clean-up begins as Islanders assess damage". The Royal Gazette. ^ Bermuda Government Budget Statement, May 24, 2004 ^ "Bermuda Mops Up After Fabian, Thousands Without Power", Reuters News Service , Sept. 9, 2003. ^ Rutstein, Dan (October 2, 2003). "It was like a war zone" . The Royal Gazette . Retrieved 2013-09-02 . ^ "Airport Soldiers On" and "Flying to the Rescue", Bermuda Sun , September 10, 2003. ^ Stephen Breen (2003). "Bermuda hotels closed indefinitely by Fabian damage" . CYBER DIVER News Network. Archived from the original on November 18, 2006 . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ Sam Stevens (2003). "Mid Ocean counts cost of storm". The Royal Gazette. ^ [ dead link ] Fabian's brutal South Shore legacy . By Matthew Taylor. The Royal Gazette. Published 9 September, 2003 ^ a b South Carolina Maritime Heritage Foundation (2004). "South Carolina Maritime Heritage Foundation Restores Lost Plants in Bermuda" . Archived from the original on October 8, 2006 . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ Environment News Service (2003). "Bermuda's National Bird Blown Away" . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ a b c Stormcarib.net (2003). "Unofficial Reports from Bermuda" . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ a b Karen Smith; Dan Rutstein (2003). "Search for the missing a difficult job". The Royal Gazette. ^ a b "Fabian moves on; 4 missing". Associated Press. 2003-09-07. ^ National Climatic Data Center (2003). "Event Report for North Carolina" . Archived from the original on March 28, 2007 . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ Sean Collins; the Surfline Forecast Team (2003). "Wavetraks September 2003 Newsletter" . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ Canadian Hurricane Centre (2004). "2003 Tropical Cyclone Season Summary" . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ a b c Stephen Breen (2003). "First body recovered". The Royal Gazette. ^ The Royal Gazette (2003). "Communication Breakdown". ^ Ayo Johnson (2003). "Shoppers urged not to panic buy for essentials". ^ Dan Rutstein (2003). "Premier turns down UK offer to help". The Royal Gazette. ^ BirdLife International (2005). "Cahows bounce back as Bermudans build burrows" . Archived from the original on 2012-10-03 . Retrieved 2006-10-17 . ^ Terceira, Amy: What's old is new in Harbour View , The Royal Gazette , March 13, 2004 ^ "Minister lays wreath to Fabian victims" . The Royal Gazette . September 1, 2013 . Retrieved 2013-09-02 . ^ "Modellers estimate $200m-$400m in insured losses from Gonzalo" . The Royal Gazette . October 22, 2014 . Retrieved May 15, 2015 . ^ "Worldwide Tropical Cyclone Names" . Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. May 19, 2008. Archived from the original on August 4, 2008 . Retrieved April 11, 2024 . ^ National Hurricane Operations Plan (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 2004. p. 3-9 . Retrieved April 11, 2024 . ^ Sarah Titterson (2004). "Fabian's out ... Frodo's in?" . The Royal Gazette. ^ World Meteorological Organization (2004). "Replacement Names for 2003 Atlantic Hurricanes (Fabian, Isabel, and Juan) and 2002 Hurricane Lili" (DOC) . Retrieved 2007-02-11 . [ dead link ] External links NHC's archive on Hurricane Fabian NHC's Tropical Cyclone Report on Hurricane Fabian Bermuda Weather Service .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Retired Atlantic hurricane names v t e 1950s Carol (1954) Edna (1954) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Diane (1955) Ione (1955) Janet (1955) Audrey (1957) Carol (1954) Edna (1954) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Diane (1955) Ione (1955) Janet (1955) Audrey (1957) 1960s Donna (1960) Carla (1961) Hattie (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) Inez (1966) Beulah (1967) Camille (1969) Donna (1960) Carla (1961) Hattie (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) Inez (1966) Beulah (1967) Camille (1969) 1970s Celia (1970) Agnes (1972) Carmen (1974) Fifi (1974) Eloise (1975) Anita (1977) Greta (1978) David (1979) Frederic (1979) Celia (1970) Agnes (1972) Carmen (1974) Fifi (1974) Eloise (1975) Anita (1977) Greta (1978) David (1979) Frederic (1979) 1980s Allen (1980) Alicia (1983) Elena (1985) Gloria (1985) Gilbert (1988) Joan (1988) Hugo (1989) Allen (1980) Alicia (1983) Elena (1985) Gloria (1985) Gilbert (1988) Joan (1988) Hugo (1989) 1990s Diana (1990) Klaus (1990) Bob (1991) Andrew (1992) Luis (1995) Marilyn (1995) Opal (1995) Roxanne (1995) Cesar (1996) Fran (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Mitch (1998) Floyd (1999) Lenny (1999) Diana (1990) Klaus (1990) Bob (1991) Andrew (1992) Luis (1995) Marilyn (1995) Opal (1995) Roxanne (1995) Cesar (1996) Fran (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Mitch (1998) Floyd (1999) Lenny (1999) 2000s Keith (2000) Allison (2001) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Isidore (2002) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Isabel (2003) Juan (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Ivan (2004) Jeanne (2004) Dennis (2005) Katrina (2005) Rita (2005) Stan (2005) Wilma (2005) Dean (2007) Felix (2007) Noel (2007) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Paloma (2008) Keith (2000) Allison (2001) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Isidore (2002) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Isabel (2003) Juan (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Ivan (2004) Jeanne (2004) Dennis (2005) Katrina (2005) Rita (2005) Stan (2005) Wilma (2005) Dean (2007) Felix (2007) Noel (2007) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Paloma (2008) 2010s Igor (2010) Tomas (2010) Irene (2011) Sandy (2012) Ingrid (2013) Erika (2015) Joaquin (2015) Matthew (2016) Otto (2016) Harvey (2017) Irma (2017) Maria (2017) Nate (2017) Florence (2018) Michael (2018) Dorian (2019) Igor (2010) Tomas (2010) Irene (2011) Sandy (2012) Ingrid (2013) Erika (2015) Joaquin (2015) Matthew (2016) Otto (2016) Harvey (2017) Irma (2017) Maria (2017) Nate (2017) Florence (2018) Michael (2018) Dorian (2019) 2020s Laura (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Fiona (2022) Ian (2022) Beryl (2024) Helene (2024) Milton (2024) Laura (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Fiona (2022) Ian (2022) Beryl (2024) Helene (2024) Milton (2024) Category Portal Category Portal v t e Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes v t e 1853–1949 1850s Three (1853) "Last Island" (1856) 1860s "Great Nassau" (1866) 1870s Seven (1878) 1880s Two (1880) Eight (1880) "Cuba" (1882) "Indianola" (1886) 1890s "Chenière Caminada" (1893) Six (1894) "Georgia" (1898) "San Ciriaco" (1899) 1900s "Galveston" (1900) Four (1906) 1910s "Cuba" (1910) "Galveston" (1915) "New Orleans" (1915) "Texas" (1916) "Nueva Gerona" (1917) "Florida Keys" (1919) 1920s "Tampa Bay" (1921) "Nassau" (1926) Four (1926) "Miami" (1926) "Havana–Bermuda" (1926) "Bahamas" (1929) 1930s "San Zenón" (1930) "British Honduras" (1931) "Freeport" (1932) "San Ciprián" (1932) 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane (1933) "Treasure Coast" (1933) "Outer Banks" (1933) Two (1935) "Cuba" (1935) Five (1939) 1940s "Nicaragua" (1941) Three (1943) "Cuba–Florida" (1944) "Homestead" (1945) George (1947) Dog (1948) Easy (1948) "Florida" (1949) 1853–1949 1850s Three (1853) "Last Island" (1856) 1860s "Great Nassau" (1866) 1870s Seven (1878) 1880s Two (1880) Eight (1880) "Cuba" (1882) "Indianola" (1886) 1890s "Chenière Caminada" (1893) Six (1894) "Georgia" (1898) "San Ciriaco" (1899) 1900s "Galveston" (1900) Four (1906) 1910s "Cuba" (1910) "Galveston" (1915) "New Orleans" (1915) "Texas" (1916) "Nueva Gerona" (1917) "Florida Keys" (1919) 1920s "Tampa Bay" (1921) "Nassau" (1926) Four (1926) "Miami" (1926) "Havana–Bermuda" (1926) "Bahamas" (1929) 1930s "San Zenón" (1930) "British Honduras" (1931) "Freeport" (1932) "San Ciprián" (1932) 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane (1933) "Treasure Coast" (1933) "Outer Banks" (1933) Two (1935) "Cuba" (1935) Five (1939) 1940s "Nicaragua" (1941) Three (1943) "Cuba–Florida" (1944) "Homestead" (1945) George (1947) Dog (1948) Easy (1948) "Florida" (1949) 1850s Three (1853) "Last Island" (1856) Three (1853) "Last Island" (1856) 1860s "Great Nassau" (1866) "Great Nassau" (1866) 1870s Seven (1878) Seven (1878) 1880s Two (1880) Eight (1880) "Cuba" (1882) "Indianola" (1886) Two (1880) Eight (1880) "Cuba" (1882) "Indianola" (1886) 1890s "Chenière Caminada" (1893) Six (1894) "Georgia" (1898) "San Ciriaco" (1899) "Chenière Caminada" (1893) Six (1894) "Georgia" (1898) "San Ciriaco" (1899) 1900s "Galveston" (1900) Four (1906) "Galveston" (1900) Four (1906) 1910s "Cuba" (1910) "Galveston" (1915) "New Orleans" (1915) "Texas" (1916) "Nueva Gerona" (1917) "Florida Keys" (1919) "Cuba" (1910) "Galveston" (1915) "New Orleans" (1915) "Texas" (1916) "Nueva Gerona" (1917) "Florida Keys" (1919) 1920s "Tampa Bay" (1921) "Nassau" (1926) Four (1926) "Miami" (1926) "Havana–Bermuda" (1926) "Bahamas" (1929) "Tampa Bay" (1921) "Nassau" (1926) Four (1926) "Miami" (1926) "Havana–Bermuda" (1926) "Bahamas" (1929) 1930s "San Zenón" (1930) "British Honduras" (1931) "Freeport" (1932) "San Ciprián" (1932) 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane (1933) "Treasure Coast" (1933) "Outer Banks" (1933) Two (1935) "Cuba" (1935) Five (1939) "San Zenón" (1930) "British Honduras" (1931) "Freeport" (1932) "San Ciprián" (1932) 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane (1933) "Treasure Coast" (1933) "Outer Banks" (1933) Two (1935) "Cuba" (1935) Five (1939) 1940s "Nicaragua" (1941) Three (1943) "Cuba–Florida" (1944) "Homestead" (1945) George (1947) Dog (1948) Easy (1948) "Florida" (1949) "Nicaragua" (1941) Three (1943) "Cuba–Florida" (1944) "Homestead" (1945) George (1947) Dog (1948) Easy (1948) "Florida" (1949) 1950–present 1950s Dog (1950) Fox (1950) King (1950) Charlie (1951) Easy (1951) Fox (1952) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Ione (1955) Carrie (1957) Cleo (1958) Daisy (1958) Helene (1958) Gracie (1959) 1960s Donna (1960) Betsy (1961) Carla (1961) Frances (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Gladys (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) 1970s Celia (1970) Carmen (1974) Gladys (1975) Greta (1978) Ella (1978) Frederic (1979) 1980s Harvey (1981) Debby (1982) Diana (1984) Gloria (1985) Helene (1988) Joan (1988) Gabrielle (1989) 1990s Claudette (1991) Felix (1995) Luis (1995) Opal (1995) Edouard (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Bret (1999) Cindy (1999) Floyd (1999) Gert (1999) Lenny (1999) 2000s Isaac (2000) Keith (2000) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Karl (2004) Dennis (2005) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Omar (2008) Paloma (2008) Bill (2009) 2010s Danielle (2010) Earl (2010) Igor (2010) Julia (2010) Katia (2011) Ophelia (2011) Gonzalo (2014) Joaquin (2015) Nicole (2016) Harvey (2017) Jose (2017) Florence (2018) 2020s Laura (2020) Teddy (2020) Delta (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Sam (2021) Fiona (2022) Franklin (2023) Idalia (2023) Helene (2024) Kirk (2024) Gabrielle (2025) 1950–present 1950s Dog (1950) Fox (1950) King (1950) Charlie (1951) Easy (1951) Fox (1952) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Ione (1955) Carrie (1957) Cleo (1958) Daisy (1958) Helene (1958) Gracie (1959) 1960s Donna (1960) Betsy (1961) Carla (1961) Frances (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Gladys (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) 1970s Celia (1970) Carmen (1974) Gladys (1975) Greta (1978) Ella (1978) Frederic (1979) 1980s Harvey (1981) Debby (1982) Diana (1984) Gloria (1985) Helene (1988) Joan (1988) Gabrielle (1989) 1990s Claudette (1991) Felix (1995) Luis (1995) Opal (1995) Edouard (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Bret (1999) Cindy (1999) Floyd (1999) Gert (1999) Lenny (1999) 2000s Isaac (2000) Keith (2000) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Karl (2004) Dennis (2005) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Omar (2008) Paloma (2008) Bill (2009) 2010s Danielle (2010) Earl (2010) Igor (2010) Julia (2010) Katia (2011) Ophelia (2011) Gonzalo (2014) Joaquin (2015) Nicole (2016) Harvey (2017) Jose (2017) Florence (2018) 2020s Laura (2020) Teddy (2020) Delta (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Sam (2021) Fiona (2022) Franklin (2023) Idalia (2023) Helene (2024) Kirk (2024) Gabrielle (2025) 1950s Dog (1950) Fox (1950) King (1950) Charlie (1951) Easy (1951) Fox (1952) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Ione (1955) Carrie (1957) Cleo (1958) Daisy (1958) Helene (1958) Gracie (1959) Dog (1950) Fox (1950) King (1950) Charlie (1951) Easy (1951) Fox (1952) Hazel (1954) Connie (1955) Ione (1955) Carrie (1957) Cleo (1958) Daisy (1958) Helene (1958) Gracie (1959) 1960s Donna (1960) Betsy (1961) Carla (1961) Frances (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Gladys (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) Donna (1960) Betsy (1961) Carla (1961) Frances (1961) Flora (1963) Cleo (1964) Dora (1964) Gladys (1964) Hilda (1964) Betsy (1965) 1970s Celia (1970) Carmen (1974) Gladys (1975) Greta (1978) Ella (1978) Frederic (1979) Celia (1970) Carmen (1974) Gladys (1975) Greta (1978) Ella (1978) Frederic (1979) 1980s Harvey (1981) Debby (1982) Diana (1984) Gloria (1985) Helene (1988) Joan (1988) Gabrielle (1989) Harvey (1981) Debby (1982) Diana (1984) Gloria (1985) Helene (1988) Joan (1988) Gabrielle (1989) 1990s Claudette (1991) Felix (1995) Luis (1995) Opal (1995) Edouard (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Bret (1999) Cindy (1999) Floyd (1999) Gert (1999) Lenny (1999) Claudette (1991) Felix (1995) Luis (1995) Opal (1995) Edouard (1996) Hortense (1996) Georges (1998) Bret (1999) Cindy (1999) Floyd (1999) Gert (1999) Lenny (1999) 2000s Isaac (2000) Keith (2000) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Karl (2004) Dennis (2005) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Omar (2008) Paloma (2008) Bill (2009) Isaac (2000) Keith (2000) Iris (2001) Michelle (2001) Lili (2002) Fabian (2003) Charley (2004) Frances (2004) Karl (2004) Dennis (2005) Gustav (2008) Ike (2008) Omar (2008) Paloma (2008) Bill (2009) 2010s Danielle (2010) Earl (2010) Igor (2010) Julia (2010) Katia (2011) Ophelia (2011) Gonzalo (2014) Joaquin (2015) Nicole (2016) Harvey (2017) Jose (2017) Florence (2018) Danielle (2010) Earl (2010) Igor (2010) Julia (2010) Katia (2011) Ophelia (2011) Gonzalo (2014) Joaquin (2015) Nicole (2016) Harvey (2017) Jose (2017) Florence (2018) 2020s Laura (2020) Teddy (2020) Delta (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Sam (2021) Fiona (2022) Franklin (2023) Idalia (2023) Helene (2024) Kirk (2024) Gabrielle (2025) Laura (2020) Teddy (2020) Delta (2020) Eta (2020) Iota (2020) Ida (2021) Sam (2021) Fiona (2022) Franklin (2023) Idalia (2023) Helene (2024) Kirk (2024) Gabrielle (2025) Category Tropical cyclones portal Category Tropical cyclones portal v t e Tropical cyclones of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season v t e Timeline Timeline TS Ana TD Two TS Bill 1 Claudette 1 Danny TD Six TD Seven 1 Erika TD Nine 4 Fabian TS Grace TS Henri 5 Isabel TD Fourteen 2 Juan 3 Kate TS Larry TS Mindy TS Nicholas TS Odette TS Peter Category Category 2003 Atlantic hurricane season Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes Cape Verde hurricanes Retired Atlantic hurricanes Hurricanes in Bermuda 2003 natural disasters Meteorological events in 2003 History of Bermuda 2003 in North America 2003 in the Caribbean Tropical cyclones in 2003 Articles with dead FTP links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2020 Articles with dead external links from February 2014 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Featured articles This page was last edited on 6 January 2026, at 01:22 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Fabian
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 374 results for author: Cheng, W Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV cs.LG A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10343 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI OctoBench: Benchmarking Scaffold-Aware Instruction Following in Repository-Grounded Agentic Coding Authors: Deming Ding , Shichun Liu , Enhui Yang , Jiahang Lin , Ziying Chen , Shihan Dou , Honglin Guo , Weiyu Cheng , Pengyu Zhao , Chengjun Xiao , Qunhong Zeng , Qi Zhang , Xuanjing Huang , Qidi Xu , Tao Gui Abstract : Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and… ▽ More Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and 217 tasks instantiated under three scaffold types, and is paired with 7,098 objective checklist items. To disentangle solving the task from following the rules, we provide an automated observation-and-scoring toolkit that captures full trajectories and performs fine-grained checks. Experiments on eight representative models reveal a systematic gap between task-solving and scaffold-aware compliance, underscoring the need for training and evaluation that explicitly targets heterogeneous instruction following. We release the benchmark to support reproducible benchmarking and to accelerate the development of more scaffold-aware coding agents. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10343 [ pdf , ps , other ] OctoBench: Benchmarking Scaffold-Aware Instruction Following in Repository-Grounded Agentic Coding Authors: Deming Ding , Shichun Liu , Enhui Yang , Jiahang Lin , Ziying Chen , Shihan Dou , Honglin Guo , Weiyu Cheng , Pengyu Zhao , Chengjun Xiao , Qunhong Zeng , Qi Zhang , Xuanjing Huang , Qidi Xu , Tao Gui Abstract : Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and… ▽ More Modern coding scaffolds turn LLMs into capable software agents, but their ability to follow scaffold-specified instructions remains under-examined, especially when constraints are heterogeneous and persist across interactions. To fill this gap, we introduce OctoBench, which benchmarks scaffold-aware instruction following in repository-grounded agentic coding. OctoBench includes 34 environments and 217 tasks instantiated under three scaffold types, and is paired with 7,098 objective checklist items. To disentangle solving the task from following the rules, we provide an automated observation-and-scoring toolkit that captures full trajectories and performs fine-grained checks. Experiments on eight representative models reveal a systematic gap between task-solving and scaffold-aware compliance, underscoring the need for training and evaluation that explicitly targets heterogeneous instruction following. We release the benchmark to support reproducible benchmarking and to accelerate the development of more scaffold-aware coding agents. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09467 [ pdf ] cs.LG cs.AI physics.ao-ph Searth Transformer: A Transformer Architecture Incorporating Earth's Geospheric Physical Priors for Global Mid-Range Weather Forecasting Authors: Tianye Li , Qi Liu , Hao Li , Lei Chen , Wencong Cheng , Fei Zheng , Xiangao Xia , Ya Wang , Gang Huang , Weiwei Wang , Xuan Tong , Ziqing Zu , Yi Fang , Shenming Fu , Jiang Jiang , Haochen Li , Mingxing Li , Jiangjiang Xia Abstract : Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challe… ▽ More Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challenges, we propose the Shifted Earth Transformer (Searth Transformer), a physics-informed architecture that incorporates zonal periodicity and meridional boundaries into window-based self-attention for physically consistent global information exchange. We further introduce a Relay Autoregressive (RAR) fine-tuning strategy that enables learning long-range atmospheric evolution under constrained memory and computational budgets. Based on these methods, we develop YanTian, a global medium-range weather forecasting model. YanTian achieves higher accuracy than the high-resolution forecast of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts and performs competitively with state-of-the-art AI models at one-degree resolution, while requiring roughly 200 times lower computational cost than standard autoregressive fine-tuning. Furthermore, YanTian attains a longer skillful forecast lead time for Z500 (10.3 days) than HRES (9 days). Beyond weather forecasting, this work establishes a robust algorithmic foundation for predictive modeling of complex global-scale geophysical circulation systems, offering new pathways for Earth system science. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09467 [ pdf ] Searth Transformer: A Transformer Architecture Incorporating Earth's Geospheric Physical Priors for Global Mid-Range Weather Forecasting Authors: Tianye Li , Qi Liu , Hao Li , Lei Chen , Wencong Cheng , Fei Zheng , Xiangao Xia , Ya Wang , Gang Huang , Weiwei Wang , Xuan Tong , Ziqing Zu , Yi Fang , Shenming Fu , Jiang Jiang , Haochen Li , Mingxing Li , Jiangjiang Xia Abstract : Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challe… ▽ More Accurate global medium-range weather forecasting is fundamental to Earth system science. Most existing Transformer-based forecasting models adopt vision-centric architectures that neglect the Earth's spherical geometry and zonal periodicity. In addition, conventional autoregressive training is computationally expensive and limits forecast horizons due to error accumulation. To address these challenges, we propose the Shifted Earth Transformer (Searth Transformer), a physics-informed architecture that incorporates zonal periodicity and meridional boundaries into window-based self-attention for physically consistent global information exchange. We further introduce a Relay Autoregressive (RAR) fine-tuning strategy that enables learning long-range atmospheric evolution under constrained memory and computational budgets. Based on these methods, we develop YanTian, a global medium-range weather forecasting model. YanTian achieves higher accuracy than the high-resolution forecast of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts and performs competitively with state-of-the-art AI models at one-degree resolution, while requiring roughly 200 times lower computational cost than standard autoregressive fine-tuning. Furthermore, YanTian attains a longer skillful forecast lead time for Z500 (10.3 days) than HRES (9 days). Beyond weather forecasting, this work establishes a robust algorithmic foundation for predictive modeling of complex global-scale geophysical circulation systems, offering new pathways for Earth system science. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04754 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ProFuse: Efficient Cross-View Context Fusion for Open-Vocabulary 3D Gaussian Splatting Authors: Yen-Jen Chiou , Wei-Tse Cheng , Yuan-Fu Yang Abstract : We present ProFuse, an efficient context-aware framework for open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding with 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). The pipeline enhances cross-view consistency and intra-mask cohesion within a direct registration setup, adding minimal overhead and requiring no render-supervised fine-tuning. Instead of relying on a pretrained 3DGS scene, we introduce a dense correspondence-guide… ▽ More We present ProFuse, an efficient context-aware framework for open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding with 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). The pipeline enhances cross-view consistency and intra-mask cohesion within a direct registration setup, adding minimal overhead and requiring no render-supervised fine-tuning. Instead of relying on a pretrained 3DGS scene, we introduce a dense correspondence-guided pre-registration phase that initializes Gaussians with accurate geometry while jointly constructing 3D Context Proposals via cross-view clustering. Each proposal carries a global feature obtained through weighted aggregation of member embeddings, and this feature is fused onto Gaussians during direct registration to maintain per-primitive language coherence across views. With associations established in advance, semantic fusion requires no additional optimization beyond standard reconstruction, and the model retains geometric refinement without densification. ProFuse achieves strong open-vocabulary 3DGS understanding while completing semantic attachment in about five minutes per scene, which is two times faster than SOTA. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.04754 [ pdf , ps , other ] ProFuse: Efficient Cross-View Context Fusion for Open-Vocabulary 3D Gaussian Splatting Authors: Yen-Jen Chiou , Wei-Tse Cheng , Yuan-Fu Yang Abstract : We present ProFuse, an efficient context-aware framework for open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding with 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). The pipeline enhances cross-view consistency and intra-mask cohesion within a direct registration setup, adding minimal overhead and requiring no render-supervised fine-tuning. Instead of relying on a pretrained 3DGS scene, we introduce a dense correspondence-guide… ▽ More We present ProFuse, an efficient context-aware framework for open-vocabulary 3D scene understanding with 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). The pipeline enhances cross-view consistency and intra-mask cohesion within a direct registration setup, adding minimal overhead and requiring no render-supervised fine-tuning. Instead of relying on a pretrained 3DGS scene, we introduce a dense correspondence-guided pre-registration phase that initializes Gaussians with accurate geometry while jointly constructing 3D Context Proposals via cross-view clustering. Each proposal carries a global feature obtained through weighted aggregation of member embeddings, and this feature is fused onto Gaussians during direct registration to maintain per-primitive language coherence across views. With associations established in advance, semantic fusion requires no additional optimization beyond standard reconstruction, and the model retains geometric refinement without densification. ProFuse achieves strong open-vocabulary 3DGS understanding while completing semantic attachment in about five minutes per scene, which is two times faster than SOTA. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.03512 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.AI Bootstrapping Code Translation with Weighted Multilanguage Exploration Authors: Yuhan Wu , Huan Zhang , Wei Cheng , Chen Shen , Jingyue Yang , Wei Hu Abstract : Code translation across multiple programming languages is essential yet challenging due to two vital obstacles: scarcity of parallel data paired with executable test oracles, and optimization imbalance when handling diverse language pairs. We propose BootTrans, a bootstrapping method that resolves both obstacles. Its key idea is to leverage the functional invariance and cross-lingual portability o… ▽ More Code translation across multiple programming languages is essential yet challenging due to two vital obstacles: scarcity of parallel data paired with executable test oracles, and optimization imbalance when handling diverse language pairs. We propose BootTrans, a bootstrapping method that resolves both obstacles. Its key idea is to leverage the functional invariance and cross-lingual portability of test suites, adapting abundant pivot-language unit tests to serve as universal verification oracles for multilingual RL training. Our method introduces a dual-pool architecture with seed and exploration pools to progressively expand training data via execution-guided experience collection. Furthermore, we design a language-aware weighting mechanism that dynamically prioritizes harder translation directions based on relative performance across sibling languages, mitigating optimization imbalance. Extensive experiments on the HumanEval-X and TransCoder-Test benchmarks demonstrate substantial improvements over baseline LLMs across all translation directions, with ablations validating the effectiveness of both bootstrapping and weighting components. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03512 [ pdf , ps , other ] Bootstrapping Code Translation with Weighted Multilanguage Exploration Authors: Yuhan Wu , Huan Zhang , Wei Cheng , Chen Shen , Jingyue Yang , Wei Hu Abstract : Code translation across multiple programming languages is essential yet challenging due to two vital obstacles: scarcity of parallel data paired with executable test oracles, and optimization imbalance when handling diverse language pairs. We propose BootTrans, a bootstrapping method that resolves both obstacles. Its key idea is to leverage the functional invariance and cross-lingual portability o… ▽ More Code translation across multiple programming languages is essential yet challenging due to two vital obstacles: scarcity of parallel data paired with executable test oracles, and optimization imbalance when handling diverse language pairs. We propose BootTrans, a bootstrapping method that resolves both obstacles. Its key idea is to leverage the functional invariance and cross-lingual portability of test suites, adapting abundant pivot-language unit tests to serve as universal verification oracles for multilingual RL training. Our method introduces a dual-pool architecture with seed and exploration pools to progressively expand training data via execution-guided experience collection. Furthermore, we design a language-aware weighting mechanism that dynamically prioritizes harder translation directions based on relative performance across sibling languages, mitigating optimization imbalance. Extensive experiments on the HumanEval-X and TransCoder-Test benchmarks demonstrate substantial improvements over baseline LLMs across all translation directions, with ablations validating the effectiveness of both bootstrapping and weighting components. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02908 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG TA-Prompting: Enhancing Video Large Language Models for Dense Video Captioning via Temporal Anchors Authors: Wei-Yuan Cheng , Kai-Po Chang , Chi-Pin Huang , Fu-En Yang , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang Abstract : Dense video captioning aims to interpret and describe all temporally localized events throughout an input video. Recent state-of-the-art methods leverage large language models (LLMs) to provide detailed moment descriptions for video data. However, existing VideoLLMs remain challenging in identifying precise event boundaries in untrimmed videos, causing the generated captions to be not properly gro… ▽ More Dense video captioning aims to interpret and describe all temporally localized events throughout an input video. Recent state-of-the-art methods leverage large language models (LLMs) to provide detailed moment descriptions for video data. However, existing VideoLLMs remain challenging in identifying precise event boundaries in untrimmed videos, causing the generated captions to be not properly grounded. In this paper, we propose TA-Prompting, which enhances VideoLLMs via Temporal Anchors that learn to precisely localize events and prompt the VideoLLMs to perform temporal-aware video event understanding. During inference, in order to properly determine the output caption sequence from an arbitrary number of events presented within a video, we introduce an event coherent sampling strategy to select event captions with sufficient coherence across temporal events and cross-modal similarity with the given video. Through extensive experiments on benchmark datasets, we show that our TA-Prompting is favorable against state-of-the-art VideoLLMs, yielding superior performance on dense video captioning and temporal understanding tasks including moment retrieval and temporalQA. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages for main paper (exclude citation pages), 6 pages for appendix, totally 10 figures 7 tables and 2 algorithms. The paper is accepted by WACV 2026 Journal ref: IEEE/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) 2026 arXiv:2601.02908 [ pdf , ps , other ] TA-Prompting: Enhancing Video Large Language Models for Dense Video Captioning via Temporal Anchors Authors: Wei-Yuan Cheng , Kai-Po Chang , Chi-Pin Huang , Fu-En Yang , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang Abstract : Dense video captioning aims to interpret and describe all temporally localized events throughout an input video. Recent state-of-the-art methods leverage large language models (LLMs) to provide detailed moment descriptions for video data. However, existing VideoLLMs remain challenging in identifying precise event boundaries in untrimmed videos, causing the generated captions to be not properly gro… ▽ More Dense video captioning aims to interpret and describe all temporally localized events throughout an input video. Recent state-of-the-art methods leverage large language models (LLMs) to provide detailed moment descriptions for video data. However, existing VideoLLMs remain challenging in identifying precise event boundaries in untrimmed videos, causing the generated captions to be not properly grounded. In this paper, we propose TA-Prompting, which enhances VideoLLMs via Temporal Anchors that learn to precisely localize events and prompt the VideoLLMs to perform temporal-aware video event understanding. During inference, in order to properly determine the output caption sequence from an arbitrary number of events presented within a video, we introduce an event coherent sampling strategy to select event captions with sufficient coherence across temporal events and cross-modal similarity with the given video. Through extensive experiments on benchmark datasets, we show that our TA-Prompting is favorable against state-of-the-art VideoLLMs, yielding superior performance on dense video captioning and temporal understanding tasks including moment retrieval and temporalQA. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages for main paper (exclude citation pages), 6 pages for appendix, totally 10 figures 7 tables and 2 algorithms. The paper is accepted by WACV 2026 Journal ref: IEEE/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) 2026 arXiv:2601.00705 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO RGS-SLAM: Robust Gaussian Splatting SLAM with One-Shot Dense Initialization Authors: Wei-Tse Cheng , Yen-Jen Chiou , Yuan-Fu Yang Abstract : We introduce RGS-SLAM, a robust Gaussian-splatting SLAM framework that replaces the residual-driven densification stage of GS-SLAM with a training-free correspondence-to-Gaussian initialization. Instead of progressively adding Gaussians as residuals reveal missing geometry, RGS-SLAM performs a one-shot triangulation of dense multi-view correspondences derived from DINOv3 descriptors refined throug… ▽ More We introduce RGS-SLAM, a robust Gaussian-splatting SLAM framework that replaces the residual-driven densification stage of GS-SLAM with a training-free correspondence-to-Gaussian initialization. Instead of progressively adding Gaussians as residuals reveal missing geometry, RGS-SLAM performs a one-shot triangulation of dense multi-view correspondences derived from DINOv3 descriptors refined through a confidence-aware inlier classifier, generating a well-distributed and structure-aware Gaussian seed prior to optimization. This initialization stabilizes early mapping and accelerates convergence by roughly 20\%, yielding higher rendering fidelity in texture-rich and cluttered scenes while remaining fully compatible with existing GS-SLAM pipelines. Evaluated on the TUM RGB-D and Replica datasets, RGS-SLAM achieves competitive or superior localization and reconstruction accuracy compared with state-of-the-art Gaussian and point-based SLAM systems, sustaining real-time mapping performance at up to 925 FPS. Additional details and resources are available at this URL: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 10 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2601.00705 [ pdf , ps , other ] RGS-SLAM: Robust Gaussian Splatting SLAM with One-Shot Dense Initialization Authors: Wei-Tse Cheng , Yen-Jen Chiou , Yuan-Fu Yang Abstract : We introduce RGS-SLAM, a robust Gaussian-splatting SLAM framework that replaces the residual-driven densification stage of GS-SLAM with a training-free correspondence-to-Gaussian initialization. Instead of progressively adding Gaussians as residuals reveal missing geometry, RGS-SLAM performs a one-shot triangulation of dense multi-view correspondences derived from DINOv3 descriptors refined throug… ▽ More We introduce RGS-SLAM, a robust Gaussian-splatting SLAM framework that replaces the residual-driven densification stage of GS-SLAM with a training-free correspondence-to-Gaussian initialization. Instead of progressively adding Gaussians as residuals reveal missing geometry, RGS-SLAM performs a one-shot triangulation of dense multi-view correspondences derived from DINOv3 descriptors refined through a confidence-aware inlier classifier, generating a well-distributed and structure-aware Gaussian seed prior to optimization. This initialization stabilizes early mapping and accelerates convergence by roughly 20\%, yielding higher rendering fidelity in texture-rich and cluttered scenes while remaining fully compatible with existing GS-SLAM pipelines. Evaluated on the TUM RGB-D and Replica datasets, RGS-SLAM achieves competitive or superior localization and reconstruction accuracy compared with state-of-the-art Gaussian and point-based SLAM systems, sustaining real-time mapping performance at up to 925 FPS. Additional details and resources are available at this URL: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 10 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2512.24286 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC Data Heterogeneity-Aware Client Selection for Federated Learning in Wireless Networks Authors: Yanbing Yang , Huiling Zhu , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Changrun Chen , Jiangzhou Wang Abstract : Federated Learning (FL) enables mobile edge devices, functioning as clients, to collaboratively train a decentralized model while ensuring local data privacy. However, the efficiency of FL in wireless networks is limited not only by constraints on communication and computational resources but also by significant data heterogeneity among clients, particularly in large-scale networks. This paper fir… ▽ More Federated Learning (FL) enables mobile edge devices, functioning as clients, to collaboratively train a decentralized model while ensuring local data privacy. However, the efficiency of FL in wireless networks is limited not only by constraints on communication and computational resources but also by significant data heterogeneity among clients, particularly in large-scale networks. This paper first presents a theoretical analysis of the impact of client data heterogeneity on global model generalization error, which can result in repeated training cycles, increased energy consumption, and prolonged latency. Based on the theoretical insights, an optimization problem is formulated to jointly minimize learning latency and energy consumption while constraining generalization error. A joint client selection and resource allocation (CSRA) approach is then proposed, employing a series of convex optimization and relaxation techniques. Extensive simulation results demonstrate that the proposed CSRA scheme yields higher test accuracy, reduced learning latency, and lower energy consumption compared to baseline methods that do not account for data heterogeneity. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24286 [ pdf , ps , other ] Data Heterogeneity-Aware Client Selection for Federated Learning in Wireless Networks Authors: Yanbing Yang , Huiling Zhu , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Changrun Chen , Jiangzhou Wang Abstract : Federated Learning (FL) enables mobile edge devices, functioning as clients, to collaboratively train a decentralized model while ensuring local data privacy. However, the efficiency of FL in wireless networks is limited not only by constraints on communication and computational resources but also by significant data heterogeneity among clients, particularly in large-scale networks. This paper fir… ▽ More Federated Learning (FL) enables mobile edge devices, functioning as clients, to collaboratively train a decentralized model while ensuring local data privacy. However, the efficiency of FL in wireless networks is limited not only by constraints on communication and computational resources but also by significant data heterogeneity among clients, particularly in large-scale networks. This paper first presents a theoretical analysis of the impact of client data heterogeneity on global model generalization error, which can result in repeated training cycles, increased energy consumption, and prolonged latency. Based on the theoretical insights, an optimization problem is formulated to jointly minimize learning latency and energy consumption while constraining generalization error. A joint client selection and resource allocation (CSRA) approach is then proposed, employing a series of convex optimization and relaxation techniques. Extensive simulation results demonstrate that the proposed CSRA scheme yields higher test accuracy, reduced learning latency, and lower energy consumption compared to baseline methods that do not account for data heterogeneity. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21529 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Hierarchy-Aware Fine-Tuning of Vision-Language Models Authors: Jiayu Li , Rajesh Gangireddy , Samet Akcay , Wei Cheng , Juhua Hu Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) learn powerful multimodal representations through large-scale image-text pretraining, but adapting them to hierarchical classification is underexplored. Standard approaches treat labels as flat categories and require full fine-tuning, which is expensive and produces inconsistent predictions across taxonomy levels. We propose an efficient hierarchy-aware fine-tuning fr… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) learn powerful multimodal representations through large-scale image-text pretraining, but adapting them to hierarchical classification is underexplored. Standard approaches treat labels as flat categories and require full fine-tuning, which is expensive and produces inconsistent predictions across taxonomy levels. We propose an efficient hierarchy-aware fine-tuning framework that updates a few parameters while enforcing structural consistency. We combine two objectives: Tree-Path KL Divergence (TP-KL) aligns predictions along the ground-truth label path for vertical coherence, while Hierarchy-Sibling Smoothed Cross-Entropy (HiSCE) encourages consistent predictions among sibling classes. Both losses work in the VLM's shared embedding space and integrate with lightweight LoRA adaptation. Experiments across multiple benchmarks show consistent improvements in Full-Path Accuracy and Tree-based Inconsistency Error with minimal parameter overhead. Our approach provides an efficient strategy for adapting VLMs to structured taxonomies. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21529 [ pdf , ps , other ] Hierarchy-Aware Fine-Tuning of Vision-Language Models Authors: Jiayu Li , Rajesh Gangireddy , Samet Akcay , Wei Cheng , Juhua Hu Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) learn powerful multimodal representations through large-scale image-text pretraining, but adapting them to hierarchical classification is underexplored. Standard approaches treat labels as flat categories and require full fine-tuning, which is expensive and produces inconsistent predictions across taxonomy levels. We propose an efficient hierarchy-aware fine-tuning fr… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) learn powerful multimodal representations through large-scale image-text pretraining, but adapting them to hierarchical classification is underexplored. Standard approaches treat labels as flat categories and require full fine-tuning, which is expensive and produces inconsistent predictions across taxonomy levels. We propose an efficient hierarchy-aware fine-tuning framework that updates a few parameters while enforcing structural consistency. We combine two objectives: Tree-Path KL Divergence (TP-KL) aligns predictions along the ground-truth label path for vertical coherence, while Hierarchy-Sibling Smoothed Cross-Entropy (HiSCE) encourages consistent predictions among sibling classes. Both losses work in the VLM's shared embedding space and integrate with lightweight LoRA adaptation. Experiments across multiple benchmarks show consistent improvements in Full-Path Accuracy and Tree-based Inconsistency Error with minimal parameter overhead. Our approach provides an efficient strategy for adapting VLMs to structured taxonomies. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.14499 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Native Intelligence Emerges from Large-Scale Clinical Practice: A Retinal Foundation Model with Deployment Efficiency Authors: Jia Guo , Jiawei Du , Shengzhu Yang , Shuai Lu , Wenquan Cheng , Kaiwen Zhang , Yihua Sun , Chuhong Yang , Weihang Zhang , Fang Chen , Yilan Wu , Lie Ju , Guochen Ning , Longfei Ma , Huiping Yao , Jinyuan Wang , Peilun Shi , Yukun Zhou , Jie Xu , Pearse A. Keane , Hanruo Liu , Hongen Liao , Ningli Wang , Huiqi Li Abstract : Current retinal foundation models remain constrained by curated research datasets that lack authentic clinical context, and require extensive task-specific optimization for each application, limiting their deployment efficiency in low-resource settings. Here, we show that these barriers can be overcome by building clinical native intelligence directly from real-world medical practice. Our key insi… ▽ More Current retinal foundation models remain constrained by curated research datasets that lack authentic clinical context, and require extensive task-specific optimization for each application, limiting their deployment efficiency in low-resource settings. Here, we show that these barriers can be overcome by building clinical native intelligence directly from real-world medical practice. Our key insight is that large-scale telemedicine programs, where expert centers provide remote consultations across distributed facilities, represent a natural reservoir for learning clinical image interpretation. We present ReVision, a retinal foundation model that learns from the natural alignment between 485,980 color fundus photographs and their corresponding diagnostic reports, accumulated through a decade-long telemedicine program spanning 162 medical institutions across China. Through extensive evaluation across 27 ophthalmic benchmarks, we demonstrate that ReVison enables deployment efficiency with minimal local resources. Without any task-specific training, ReVision achieves zero-shot disease detection with an average AUROC of 0.946 across 12 public benchmarks and 0.952 on 3 independent clinical cohorts. When minimal adaptation is feasible, ReVision matches extensively fine-tuned alternatives while requiring orders of magnitude fewer trainable parameters and labeled examples. The learned representations also transfer effectively to new clinical sites, imaging domains, imaging modalities, and systemic health prediction tasks. In a prospective reader study with 33 ophthalmologists, ReVision's zero-shot assistance improved diagnostic accuracy by 14.8% across all experience levels. These results demonstrate that clinical native intelligence can be directly extracted from clinical archives without any further annotation to build medical AI systems suited to various low-resource settings. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.14499 [ pdf , ps , other ] Native Intelligence Emerges from Large-Scale Clinical Practice: A Retinal Foundation Model with Deployment Efficiency Authors: Jia Guo , Jiawei Du , Shengzhu Yang , Shuai Lu , Wenquan Cheng , Kaiwen Zhang , Yihua Sun , Chuhong Yang , Weihang Zhang , Fang Chen , Yilan Wu , Lie Ju , Guochen Ning , Longfei Ma , Huiping Yao , Jinyuan Wang , Peilun Shi , Yukun Zhou , Jie Xu , Pearse A. Keane , Hanruo Liu , Hongen Liao , Ningli Wang , Huiqi Li Abstract : Current retinal foundation models remain constrained by curated research datasets that lack authentic clinical context, and require extensive task-specific optimization for each application, limiting their deployment efficiency in low-resource settings. Here, we show that these barriers can be overcome by building clinical native intelligence directly from real-world medical practice. Our key insi… ▽ More Current retinal foundation models remain constrained by curated research datasets that lack authentic clinical context, and require extensive task-specific optimization for each application, limiting their deployment efficiency in low-resource settings. Here, we show that these barriers can be overcome by building clinical native intelligence directly from real-world medical practice. Our key insight is that large-scale telemedicine programs, where expert centers provide remote consultations across distributed facilities, represent a natural reservoir for learning clinical image interpretation. We present ReVision, a retinal foundation model that learns from the natural alignment between 485,980 color fundus photographs and their corresponding diagnostic reports, accumulated through a decade-long telemedicine program spanning 162 medical institutions across China. Through extensive evaluation across 27 ophthalmic benchmarks, we demonstrate that ReVison enables deployment efficiency with minimal local resources. Without any task-specific training, ReVision achieves zero-shot disease detection with an average AUROC of 0.946 across 12 public benchmarks and 0.952 on 3 independent clinical cohorts. When minimal adaptation is feasible, ReVision matches extensively fine-tuned alternatives while requiring orders of magnitude fewer trainable parameters and labeled examples. The learned representations also transfer effectively to new clinical sites, imaging domains, imaging modalities, and systemic health prediction tasks. In a prospective reader study with 33 ophthalmologists, ReVision's zero-shot assistance improved diagnostic accuracy by 14.8% across all experience levels. These results demonstrate that clinical native intelligence can be directly extracted from clinical archives without any further annotation to build medical AI systems suited to various low-resource settings. △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10652 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.CR TriDF: Evaluating Perception, Detection, and Hallucination for Interpretable DeepFake Detection Authors: Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Kang-Yang Huang , Ling Zou , Ling Lo , Sheng-Ping Yang , Yu-Wen Tseng , Kun-Hsiang Lin , Chia-Ling Chen , Yu-Ting Ta , Yan-Tsung Wang , Po-Ching Chen , Hongxia Xie , Hong-Han Shuai , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Advances in generative modeling have made it increasingly easy to fabricate realistic portrayals of individuals, creating serious risks for security, communication, and public trust. Detecting such person-driven manipulations requires systems that not only distinguish altered content from authentic media but also provide clear and reliable reasoning. In this paper, we introduce TriDF, a comprehens… ▽ More Advances in generative modeling have made it increasingly easy to fabricate realistic portrayals of individuals, creating serious risks for security, communication, and public trust. Detecting such person-driven manipulations requires systems that not only distinguish altered content from authentic media but also provide clear and reliable reasoning. In this paper, we introduce TriDF, a comprehensive benchmark for interpretable DeepFake detection. TriDF contains high-quality forgeries from advanced synthesis models, covering 16 DeepFake types across image, video, and audio modalities. The benchmark evaluates three key aspects: Perception, which measures the ability of a model to identify fine-grained manipulation artifacts using human-annotated evidence; Detection, which assesses classification performance across diverse forgery families and generators; and Hallucination, which quantifies the reliability of model-generated explanations. Experiments on state-of-the-art multimodal large language models show that accurate perception is essential for reliable detection, but hallucination can severely disrupt decision-making, revealing the interdependence of these three aspects. TriDF provides a unified framework for understanding the interaction between detection accuracy, evidence identification, and explanation reliability, offering a foundation for building trustworthy systems that address real-world synthetic media threats. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10652 [ pdf , ps , other ] TriDF: Evaluating Perception, Detection, and Hallucination for Interpretable DeepFake Detection Authors: Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Kang-Yang Huang , Ling Zou , Ling Lo , Sheng-Ping Yang , Yu-Wen Tseng , Kun-Hsiang Lin , Chia-Ling Chen , Yu-Ting Ta , Yan-Tsung Wang , Po-Ching Chen , Hongxia Xie , Hong-Han Shuai , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Advances in generative modeling have made it increasingly easy to fabricate realistic portrayals of individuals, creating serious risks for security, communication, and public trust. Detecting such person-driven manipulations requires systems that not only distinguish altered content from authentic media but also provide clear and reliable reasoning. In this paper, we introduce TriDF, a comprehens… ▽ More Advances in generative modeling have made it increasingly easy to fabricate realistic portrayals of individuals, creating serious risks for security, communication, and public trust. Detecting such person-driven manipulations requires systems that not only distinguish altered content from authentic media but also provide clear and reliable reasoning. In this paper, we introduce TriDF, a comprehensive benchmark for interpretable DeepFake detection. TriDF contains high-quality forgeries from advanced synthesis models, covering 16 DeepFake types across image, video, and audio modalities. The benchmark evaluates three key aspects: Perception, which measures the ability of a model to identify fine-grained manipulation artifacts using human-annotated evidence; Detection, which assesses classification performance across diverse forgery families and generators; and Hallucination, which quantifies the reliability of model-generated explanations. Experiments on state-of-the-art multimodal large language models show that accurate perception is essential for reliable detection, but hallucination can severely disrupt decision-making, revealing the interdependence of these three aspects. TriDF provides a unified framework for understanding the interaction between detection accuracy, evidence identification, and explanation reliability, offering a foundation for building trustworthy systems that address real-world synthetic media threats. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.09335 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.MM doi 10.1145/3746027.3754851 Relightable and Dynamic Gaussian Avatar Reconstruction from Monocular Video Authors: Seonghwa Choi , Moonkyeong Choi , Mingyu Jang , Jaekyung Kim , Jianfei Cai , Wen-Huang Cheng , Sanghoon Lee Abstract : Modeling relightable and animatable human avatars from monocular video is a long-standing and challenging task. Recently, Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) methods have been employed to reconstruct the avatars. However, they often produce unsatisfactory photo-realistic results because of insufficient geometrical details related to body motion, such as clothing wrinkles.… ▽ More Modeling relightable and animatable human avatars from monocular video is a long-standing and challenging task. Recently, Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) methods have been employed to reconstruct the avatars. However, they often produce unsatisfactory photo-realistic results because of insufficient geometrical details related to body motion, such as clothing wrinkles. In this paper, we propose a 3DGS-based human avatar modeling framework, termed as Relightable and Dynamic Gaussian Avatar (RnD-Avatar), that presents accurate pose-variant deformation for high-fidelity geometrical details. To achieve this, we introduce dynamic skinning weights that define the human avatar's articulation based on pose while also learning additional deformations induced by body motion. We also introduce a novel regularization to capture fine geometric details under sparse visual cues. Furthermore, we present a new multi-view dataset with varied lighting conditions to evaluate relight. Our framework enables realistic rendering of novel poses and views while supporting photo-realistic lighting effects under arbitrary lighting conditions. Our method achieves state-of-the-art performance in novel view synthesis, novel pose rendering, and relighting. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 9 figures, published in ACM MM 2025 MSC Class: 68U10 ACM Class: I.4.5; I.4.5; I.4.9 Journal ref: In Proceedings of the 33rd ACM International Conference on Multimedia. 2025. p. 7405-7414 arXiv:2512.09335 [ pdf , ps , other ] Relightable and Dynamic Gaussian Avatar Reconstruction from Monocular Video Authors: Seonghwa Choi , Moonkyeong Choi , Mingyu Jang , Jaekyung Kim , Jianfei Cai , Wen-Huang Cheng , Sanghoon Lee Abstract : Modeling relightable and animatable human avatars from monocular video is a long-standing and challenging task. Recently, Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) methods have been employed to reconstruct the avatars. However, they often produce unsatisfactory photo-realistic results because of insufficient geometrical details related to body motion, such as clothing wrinkles.… ▽ More Modeling relightable and animatable human avatars from monocular video is a long-standing and challenging task. Recently, Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) methods have been employed to reconstruct the avatars. However, they often produce unsatisfactory photo-realistic results because of insufficient geometrical details related to body motion, such as clothing wrinkles. In this paper, we propose a 3DGS-based human avatar modeling framework, termed as Relightable and Dynamic Gaussian Avatar (RnD-Avatar), that presents accurate pose-variant deformation for high-fidelity geometrical details. To achieve this, we introduce dynamic skinning weights that define the human avatar's articulation based on pose while also learning additional deformations induced by body motion. We also introduce a novel regularization to capture fine geometric details under sparse visual cues. Furthermore, we present a new multi-view dataset with varied lighting conditions to evaluate relight. Our framework enables realistic rendering of novel poses and views while supporting photo-realistic lighting effects under arbitrary lighting conditions. Our method achieves state-of-the-art performance in novel view synthesis, novel pose rendering, and relighting. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 9 figures, published in ACM MM 2025 MSC Class: 68U10 ACM Class: I.4.5; I.4.5; I.4.9 Journal ref: In Proceedings of the 33rd ACM International Conference on Multimedia. 2025. p. 7405-7414 arXiv:2512.04746 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI SignRoundV2: Closing the Performance Gap in Extremely Low-Bit Post-Training Quantization for LLMs Authors: Wenhua Cheng , Weiwei Zhang , Heng Guo , Haihao Shen Abstract : Extreme low-bit quantization is critical for efficiently deploying Large Language Models (LLMs), yet it often leads to severe performance degradation at 2-bits and even 4-bits (e.g., MXFP4). We present SignRoundV2, a post-training quantization framework that is highly effective even without mixed-precision. SignRoundV2 introduces (1) a fast sensitivity metric that combines gradient information wit… ▽ More Extreme low-bit quantization is critical for efficiently deploying Large Language Models (LLMs), yet it often leads to severe performance degradation at 2-bits and even 4-bits (e.g., MXFP4). We present SignRoundV2, a post-training quantization framework that is highly effective even without mixed-precision. SignRoundV2 introduces (1) a fast sensitivity metric that combines gradient information with quantization-induced deviations to guide layer-wise bit allocation, and (2) a lightweight pre-tuning search for quantization scales to improve extremely low-bit quantization. These components allow SignRoundV2 to close the gap with full-precision models. Extensive experiments indicate that our method sustains competitive accuracy for LLMs, achieving production-grade performance with about 1 percent variance at 4-5 bits and strong results even at 2 bits. The implementation is available at △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04746 [ pdf , ps , other ] SignRoundV2: Closing the Performance Gap in Extremely Low-Bit Post-Training Quantization for LLMs Authors: Wenhua Cheng , Weiwei Zhang , Heng Guo , Haihao Shen Abstract : Extreme low-bit quantization is critical for efficiently deploying Large Language Models (LLMs), yet it often leads to severe performance degradation at 2-bits and even 4-bits (e.g., MXFP4). We present SignRoundV2, a post-training quantization framework that is highly effective even without mixed-precision. SignRoundV2 introduces (1) a fast sensitivity metric that combines gradient information wit… ▽ More Extreme low-bit quantization is critical for efficiently deploying Large Language Models (LLMs), yet it often leads to severe performance degradation at 2-bits and even 4-bits (e.g., MXFP4). We present SignRoundV2, a post-training quantization framework that is highly effective even without mixed-precision. SignRoundV2 introduces (1) a fast sensitivity metric that combines gradient information with quantization-induced deviations to guide layer-wise bit allocation, and (2) a lightweight pre-tuning search for quantization scales to improve extremely low-bit quantization. These components allow SignRoundV2 to close the gap with full-precision models. Extensive experiments indicate that our method sustains competitive accuracy for LLMs, achieving production-grade performance with about 1 percent variance at 4-5 bits and strong results even at 2 bits. The implementation is available at △ Less Submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04356 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG Mitigating Object and Action Hallucinations in Multimodal LLMs via Self-Augmented Contrastive Alignment Authors: Kai-Po Chang , Wei-Yuan Cheng , Chi-Pin Huang , Fu-En Yang , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang Abstract : Recent advancement in multimodal LLMs (MLLMs) has demonstrated their remarkable capability to generate descriptive captions for input videos. However, these models suffer from factual inaccuracies in the generated descriptions, causing severe hallucination issues. While prior works have explored alleviating hallucinations for static images, jointly mitigating visual object and temporal action hall… ▽ More Recent advancement in multimodal LLMs (MLLMs) has demonstrated their remarkable capability to generate descriptive captions for input videos. However, these models suffer from factual inaccuracies in the generated descriptions, causing severe hallucination issues. While prior works have explored alleviating hallucinations for static images, jointly mitigating visual object and temporal action hallucinations for dynamic videos remains a challenging and unsolved task. To tackle this challenge, we propose a Self-Augmented Contrastive Alignment (SANTA) framework for enabling object and action faithfulness by exempting the spurious correlations and enforcing the emphasis on visual facts. SANTA employs a hallucinative self-augmentation scheme to identify the potential hallucinations that lie in the MLLM and transform the original captions to the contrasted negatives. Furthermore, we develop a tracklet-phrase contrastive alignment to match the regional objects and relation-guided actions with their corresponding visual and temporal phrases. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SANTA outperforms existing methods in alleviating object and action hallucinations, yielding superior performance on the hallucination examination benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: IEEE/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) 2026. Project page: arXiv:2512.04356 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mitigating Object and Action Hallucinations in Multimodal LLMs via Self-Augmented Contrastive Alignment Authors: Kai-Po Chang , Wei-Yuan Cheng , Chi-Pin Huang , Fu-En Yang , Yu-Chiang Frank Wang Abstract : Recent advancement in multimodal LLMs (MLLMs) has demonstrated their remarkable capability to generate descriptive captions for input videos. However, these models suffer from factual inaccuracies in the generated descriptions, causing severe hallucination issues. While prior works have explored alleviating hallucinations for static images, jointly mitigating visual object and temporal action hall… ▽ More Recent advancement in multimodal LLMs (MLLMs) has demonstrated their remarkable capability to generate descriptive captions for input videos. However, these models suffer from factual inaccuracies in the generated descriptions, causing severe hallucination issues. While prior works have explored alleviating hallucinations for static images, jointly mitigating visual object and temporal action hallucinations for dynamic videos remains a challenging and unsolved task. To tackle this challenge, we propose a Self-Augmented Contrastive Alignment (SANTA) framework for enabling object and action faithfulness by exempting the spurious correlations and enforcing the emphasis on visual facts. SANTA employs a hallucinative self-augmentation scheme to identify the potential hallucinations that lie in the MLLM and transform the original captions to the contrasted negatives. Furthermore, we develop a tracklet-phrase contrastive alignment to match the regional objects and relation-guided actions with their corresponding visual and temporal phrases. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SANTA outperforms existing methods in alleviating object and action hallucinations, yielding superior performance on the hallucination examination benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: IEEE/CVF Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) 2026. Project page: arXiv:2512.03981 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV DirectDrag: High-Fidelity, Mask-Free, Prompt-Free Drag-based Image Editing via Readout-Guided Feature Alignment Authors: Sheng-Hao Liao , Shang-Fu Chen , Tai-Ming Huang , Wen-Huang Cheng , Kai-Lung Hua Abstract : Drag-based image editing using generative models provides intuitive control over image structures. However, existing methods rely heavily on manually provided masks and textual prompts to preserve semantic fidelity and motion precision. Removing these constraints creates a fundamental trade-off: visual artifacts without masks and poor spatial control without prompts. To address these limitations,… ▽ More Drag-based image editing using generative models provides intuitive control over image structures. However, existing methods rely heavily on manually provided masks and textual prompts to preserve semantic fidelity and motion precision. Removing these constraints creates a fundamental trade-off: visual artifacts without masks and poor spatial control without prompts. To address these limitations, we propose DirectDrag, a novel mask- and prompt-free editing framework. DirectDrag enables precise and efficient manipulation with minimal user input while maintaining high image fidelity and accurate point alignment. DirectDrag introduces two key innovations. First, we design an Auto Soft Mask Generation module that intelligently infers editable regions from point displacement, automatically localizing deformation along movement paths while preserving contextual integrity through the generative model's inherent capacity. Second, we develop a Readout-Guided Feature Alignment mechanism that leverages intermediate diffusion activations to maintain structural consistency during point-based edits, substantially improving visual fidelity. Despite operating without manual mask or prompt, DirectDrag achieves superior image quality compared to existing methods while maintaining competitive drag accuracy. Extensive experiments on DragBench and real-world scenarios demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of DirectDrag for high-quality, interactive image manipulation. Project Page: Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.03981 [ pdf , ps , other ] DirectDrag: High-Fidelity, Mask-Free, Prompt-Free Drag-based Image Editing via Readout-Guided Feature Alignment Authors: Sheng-Hao Liao , Shang-Fu Chen , Tai-Ming Huang , Wen-Huang Cheng , Kai-Lung Hua Abstract : Drag-based image editing using generative models provides intuitive control over image structures. However, existing methods rely heavily on manually provided masks and textual prompts to preserve semantic fidelity and motion precision. Removing these constraints creates a fundamental trade-off: visual artifacts without masks and poor spatial control without prompts. To address these limitations,… ▽ More Drag-based image editing using generative models provides intuitive control over image structures. However, existing methods rely heavily on manually provided masks and textual prompts to preserve semantic fidelity and motion precision. Removing these constraints creates a fundamental trade-off: visual artifacts without masks and poor spatial control without prompts. To address these limitations, we propose DirectDrag, a novel mask- and prompt-free editing framework. DirectDrag enables precise and efficient manipulation with minimal user input while maintaining high image fidelity and accurate point alignment. DirectDrag introduces two key innovations. First, we design an Auto Soft Mask Generation module that intelligently infers editable regions from point displacement, automatically localizing deformation along movement paths while preserving contextual integrity through the generative model's inherent capacity. Second, we develop a Readout-Guided Feature Alignment mechanism that leverages intermediate diffusion activations to maintain structural consistency during point-based edits, substantially improving visual fidelity. Despite operating without manual mask or prompt, DirectDrag achieves superior image quality compared to existing methods while maintaining competitive drag accuracy. Extensive experiments on DragBench and real-world scenarios demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of DirectDrag for high-quality, interactive image manipulation. Project Page: Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.03627 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MemVerse: Multimodal Memory for Lifelong Learning Agents Authors: Junming Liu , Yifei Sun , Weihua Cheng , Haodong Lei , Yirong Chen , Licheng Wen , Xuemeng Yang , Daocheng Fu , Pinlong Cai , Nianchen Deng , Yi Yu , Shuyue Hu , Botian Shi , Ding Wang Abstract : Despite rapid progress in large-scale language and vision models, AI agents still suffer from a fundamental limitation: they cannot remember. Without reliable memory, agents catastrophically forget past experiences, struggle with long-horizon reasoning, and fail to operate coherently in multimodal or interactive environments. We introduce MemVerse, a model-agnostic, plug-and-play memory framework… ▽ More Despite rapid progress in large-scale language and vision models, AI agents still suffer from a fundamental limitation: they cannot remember. Without reliable memory, agents catastrophically forget past experiences, struggle with long-horizon reasoning, and fail to operate coherently in multimodal or interactive environments. We introduce MemVerse, a model-agnostic, plug-and-play memory framework that bridges fast parametric recall with hierarchical retrieval-based memory, enabling scalable and adaptive multimodal intelligence. MemVerse maintains short-term memory for recent context while transforming raw multimodal experiences into structured long-term memories organized as hierarchical knowledge graphs. This design supports continual consolidation, adaptive forgetting, and bounded memory growth. To handle real-time demands, MemVerse introduces a periodic distillation mechanism that compresses essential knowledge from long-term memory into the parametric model, allowing fast, differentiable recall while preserving interpretability. Extensive experiments demonstrate that MemVerse significantly improves multimodal reasoning and continual learning efficiency, empowering agents to remember, adapt, and reason coherently across extended interactions. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 11 pages, 2 figures, 2 tables arXiv:2512.03627 [ pdf , ps , other ] MemVerse: Multimodal Memory for Lifelong Learning Agents Authors: Junming Liu , Yifei Sun , Weihua Cheng , Haodong Lei , Yirong Chen , Licheng Wen , Xuemeng Yang , Daocheng Fu , Pinlong Cai , Nianchen Deng , Yi Yu , Shuyue Hu , Botian Shi , Ding Wang Abstract : Despite rapid progress in large-scale language and vision models, AI agents still suffer from a fundamental limitation: they cannot remember. Without reliable memory, agents catastrophically forget past experiences, struggle with long-horizon reasoning, and fail to operate coherently in multimodal or interactive environments. We introduce MemVerse, a model-agnostic, plug-and-play memory framework… ▽ More Despite rapid progress in large-scale language and vision models, AI agents still suffer from a fundamental limitation: they cannot remember. Without reliable memory, agents catastrophically forget past experiences, struggle with long-horizon reasoning, and fail to operate coherently in multimodal or interactive environments. We introduce MemVerse, a model-agnostic, plug-and-play memory framework that bridges fast parametric recall with hierarchical retrieval-based memory, enabling scalable and adaptive multimodal intelligence. MemVerse maintains short-term memory for recent context while transforming raw multimodal experiences into structured long-term memories organized as hierarchical knowledge graphs. This design supports continual consolidation, adaptive forgetting, and bounded memory growth. To handle real-time demands, MemVerse introduces a periodic distillation mechanism that compresses essential knowledge from long-term memory into the parametric model, allowing fast, differentiable recall while preserving interpretability. Extensive experiments demonstrate that MemVerse significantly improves multimodal reasoning and continual learning efficiency, empowering agents to remember, adapt, and reason coherently across extended interactions. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 11 pages, 2 figures, 2 tables arXiv:2512.03540 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI doi 10.1145/3746027.3755174 CookAnything: A Framework for Flexible and Consistent Multi-Step Recipe Image Generation Authors: Ruoxuan Zhang , Bin Wen , Hongxia Xie , Yi Yao , Songhan Zuo , Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Hong-Han Shuai , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Cooking is a sequential and visually grounded activity, where each step such as chopping, mixing, or frying carries both procedural logic and visual semantics. While recent diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in text-to-image generation, they struggle to handle structured multi-step scenarios like recipe illustration. Additionally, current recipe illustration methods are unable to adju… ▽ More Cooking is a sequential and visually grounded activity, where each step such as chopping, mixing, or frying carries both procedural logic and visual semantics. While recent diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in text-to-image generation, they struggle to handle structured multi-step scenarios like recipe illustration. Additionally, current recipe illustration methods are unable to adjust to the natural variability in recipe length, generating a fixed number of images regardless of the actual instructions structure. To address these limitations, we present CookAnything, a flexible and consistent diffusion-based framework that generates coherent, semantically distinct image sequences from textual cooking instructions of arbitrary length. The framework introduces three key components: (1) Step-wise Regional Control (SRC), which aligns textual steps with corresponding image regions within a single denoising process; (2) Flexible RoPE, a step-aware positional encoding mechanism that enhances both temporal coherence and spatial diversity; and (3) Cross-Step Consistency Control (CSCC), which maintains fine-grained ingredient consistency across steps. Experimental results on recipe illustration benchmarks show that CookAnything performs better than existing methods in training-based and training-free settings. The proposed framework supports scalable, high-quality visual synthesis of complex multi-step instructions and holds significant potential for broad applications in instructional media, and procedural content creation. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by ACM Multimedia 2025 arXiv:2512.03540 [ pdf , ps , other ] CookAnything: A Framework for Flexible and Consistent Multi-Step Recipe Image Generation Authors: Ruoxuan Zhang , Bin Wen , Hongxia Xie , Yi Yao , Songhan Zuo , Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Hong-Han Shuai , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Cooking is a sequential and visually grounded activity, where each step such as chopping, mixing, or frying carries both procedural logic and visual semantics. While recent diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in text-to-image generation, they struggle to handle structured multi-step scenarios like recipe illustration. Additionally, current recipe illustration methods are unable to adju… ▽ More Cooking is a sequential and visually grounded activity, where each step such as chopping, mixing, or frying carries both procedural logic and visual semantics. While recent diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in text-to-image generation, they struggle to handle structured multi-step scenarios like recipe illustration. Additionally, current recipe illustration methods are unable to adjust to the natural variability in recipe length, generating a fixed number of images regardless of the actual instructions structure. To address these limitations, we present CookAnything, a flexible and consistent diffusion-based framework that generates coherent, semantically distinct image sequences from textual cooking instructions of arbitrary length. The framework introduces three key components: (1) Step-wise Regional Control (SRC), which aligns textual steps with corresponding image regions within a single denoising process; (2) Flexible RoPE, a step-aware positional encoding mechanism that enhances both temporal coherence and spatial diversity; and (3) Cross-Step Consistency Control (CSCC), which maintains fine-grained ingredient consistency across steps. Experimental results on recipe illustration benchmarks show that CookAnything performs better than existing methods in training-based and training-free settings. The proposed framework supports scalable, high-quality visual synthesis of complex multi-step instructions and holds significant potential for broad applications in instructional media, and procedural content creation. △ Less Submitted 5 December, 2025; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by ACM Multimedia 2025 arXiv:2511.23055 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MindPower: Enabling Theory-of-Mind Reasoning in VLM-based Embodied Agents Authors: Ruoxuan Zhang , Qiyun Zheng , Zhiyu Zhou , Ziqi Liao , Siyu Wu , Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Bin Wen , Hongxia Xie , Jianlong Fu , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to infer others' mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions. Current vision-language embodied agents lack ToM-based decision-making, and existing benchmarks focus solely on human mental states while ignoring the agent's own perspective, hindering coherent decision and action generation. To address this, we propose MindPower, a Robot-Centric f… ▽ More Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to infer others' mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions. Current vision-language embodied agents lack ToM-based decision-making, and existing benchmarks focus solely on human mental states while ignoring the agent's own perspective, hindering coherent decision and action generation. To address this, we propose MindPower, a Robot-Centric framework integrating Perception, Mental Reasoning, Decision Making and Action. Given multimodal inputs, MindPower first perceives the environment and human states, then performs ToM Reasoning to model both self and others, and finally generates decisions and actions guided by inferred mental states. Furthermore, we introduce Mind-Reward, a novel optimization objective that encourages VLMs to produce consistent ToM Reasoning and behavior. Our model outperforms GPT-4o by 12.77% in decision making and 12.49% in action generation. △ Less Submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.23055 [ pdf , ps , other ] MindPower: Enabling Theory-of-Mind Reasoning in VLM-based Embodied Agents Authors: Ruoxuan Zhang , Qiyun Zheng , Zhiyu Zhou , Ziqi Liao , Siyu Wu , Jian-Yu Jiang-Lin , Bin Wen , Hongxia Xie , Jianlong Fu , Wen-Huang Cheng Abstract : Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to infer others' mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions. Current vision-language embodied agents lack ToM-based decision-making, and existing benchmarks focus solely on human mental states while ignoring the agent's own perspective, hindering coherent decision and action generation. To address this, we propose MindPower, a Robot-Centric f… ▽ More Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to infer others' mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions. Current vision-language embodied agents lack ToM-based decision-making, and existing benchmarks focus solely on human mental states while ignoring the agent's own perspective, hindering coherent decision and action generation. To address this, we propose MindPower, a Robot-Centric framework integrating Perception, Mental Reasoning, Decision Making and Action. Given multimodal inputs, MindPower first perceives the environment and human states, then performs ToM Reasoning to model both self and others, and finally generates decisions and actions guided by inferred mental states. Furthermore, we introduce Mind-Reward, a novel optimization objective that encourages VLMs to produce consistent ToM Reasoning and behavior. Our model outperforms GPT-4o by 12.77% in decision making and 12.49% in action generation. △ Less Submitted 28 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.22625 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ReasonEdit: Towards Reasoning-Enhanced Image Editing Models Authors: Fukun Yin , Shiyu Liu , Yucheng Han , Zhibo Wang , Peng Xing , Rui Wang , Wei Cheng , Yingming Wang , Aojie Li , Zixin Yin , Pengtao Chen , Xiangyu Zhang , Daxin Jiang , Xianfang Zeng , Gang Yu Abstract : Recent advances in image editing models have shown remarkable progress. A common architectural design couples a multimodal large language model (MLLM) encoder with a diffusion decoder, as seen in systems such as Step1X-Edit and Qwen-Image-Edit, where the MLLM encodes both the reference image and the instruction but remains frozen during training. In this work, we demonstrate that unlocking the rea… ▽ More Recent advances in image editing models have shown remarkable progress. A common architectural design couples a multimodal large language model (MLLM) encoder with a diffusion decoder, as seen in systems such as Step1X-Edit and Qwen-Image-Edit, where the MLLM encodes both the reference image and the instruction but remains frozen during training. In this work, we demonstrate that unlocking the reasoning capabilities of MLLM can further push the boundaries of editing models. Specifically, we explore two reasoning mechanisms, thinking and reflection, which enhance instruction understanding and editing accuracy. Based on that, our proposed framework enables image editing in a thinking-editing-reflection loop: the thinking mechanism leverages the world knowledge of MLLM to interpret abstract instructions, while the reflection reviews editing results, automatically corrects unintended manipulations, and identifies the stopping round. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our reasoning approach achieves significant performance gains, with improvements of ImgEdit (+4.3%), GEdit (+4.7%), and Kris (+8.2%) when initializing our DiT from the Step1X-Edit (ReasonEdit-S), and also outperforms previous open-source methods on both GEdit and Kris when integrated with Qwen-Image-Edit (ReasonEdit-Q). △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: code: arXiv:2511.22625 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReasonEdit: Towards Reasoning-Enhanced Image Editing Models Authors: Fukun Yin , Shiyu Liu , Yucheng Han , Zhibo Wang , Peng Xing , Rui Wang , Wei Cheng , Yingming Wang , Aojie Li , Zixin Yin , Pengtao Chen , Xiangyu Zhang , Daxin Jiang , Xianfang Zeng , Gang Yu Abstract : Recent advances in image editing models have shown remarkable progress. A common architectural design couples a multimodal large language model (MLLM) encoder with a diffusion decoder, as seen in systems such as Step1X-Edit and Qwen-Image-Edit, where the MLLM encodes both the reference image and the instruction but remains frozen during training. In this work, we demonstrate that unlocking the rea… ▽ More Recent advances in image editing models have shown remarkable progress. A common architectural design couples a multimodal large language model (MLLM) encoder with a diffusion decoder, as seen in systems such as Step1X-Edit and Qwen-Image-Edit, where the MLLM encodes both the reference image and the instruction but remains frozen during training. In this work, we demonstrate that unlocking the reasoning capabilities of MLLM can further push the boundaries of editing models. Specifically, we explore two reasoning mechanisms, thinking and reflection, which enhance instruction understanding and editing accuracy. Based on that, our proposed framework enables image editing in a thinking-editing-reflection loop: the thinking mechanism leverages the world knowledge of MLLM to interpret abstract instructions, while the reflection reviews editing results, automatically corrects unintended manipulations, and identifies the stopping round. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our reasoning approach achieves significant performance gains, with improvements of ImgEdit (+4.3%), GEdit (+4.7%), and Kris (+8.2%) when initializing our DiT from the Step1X-Edit (ReasonEdit-S), and also outperforms previous open-source methods on both GEdit and Kris when integrated with Qwen-Image-Edit (ReasonEdit-Q). △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: code: arXiv:2511.20635 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV iMontage: Unified, Versatile, Highly Dynamic Many-to-many Image Generation Authors: Zhoujie Fu , Xianfang Zeng , Jinghong Lan , Xinyao Liao , Cheng Chen , Junyi Chen , Jiacheng Wei , Wei Cheng , Shiyu Liu , Yunuo Chen , Gang Yu , Guosheng Lin Abstract : Pre-trained video models learn powerful priors for generating high-quality, temporally coherent content. While these models excel at temporal coherence, their dynamics are often constrained by the continuous nature of their training data. We hypothesize that by injecting the rich and unconstrained content diversity from image data into this coherent temporal framework, we can generate image sets t… ▽ More Pre-trained video models learn powerful priors for generating high-quality, temporally coherent content. While these models excel at temporal coherence, their dynamics are often constrained by the continuous nature of their training data. We hypothesize that by injecting the rich and unconstrained content diversity from image data into this coherent temporal framework, we can generate image sets that feature both natural transitions and a far more expansive dynamic range. To this end, we introduce iMontage, a unified framework designed to repurpose a powerful video model into an all-in-one image generator. The framework consumes and produces variable-length image sets, unifying a wide array of image generation and editing tasks. To achieve this, we propose an elegant and minimally invasive adaptation strategy, complemented by a tailored data curation process and training paradigm. This approach allows the model to acquire broad image manipulation capabilities without corrupting its invaluable original motion priors. iMontage excels across several mainstream many-in-many-out tasks, not only maintaining strong cross-image contextual consistency but also generating scenes with extraordinary dynamics that surpass conventional scopes. Find our homepage at: △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Our homepage: arXiv:2511.20635 [ pdf , ps , other ] iMontage: Unified, Versatile, Highly Dynamic Many-to-many Image Generation Authors: Zhoujie Fu , Xianfang Zeng , Jinghong Lan , Xinyao Liao , Cheng Chen , Junyi Chen , Jiacheng Wei , Wei Cheng , Shiyu Liu , Yunuo Chen , Gang Yu , Guosheng Lin Abstract : Pre-trained video models learn powerful priors for generating high-quality, temporally coherent content. While these models excel at temporal coherence, their dynamics are often constrained by the continuous nature of their training data. We hypothesize that by injecting the rich and unconstrained content diversity from image data into this coherent temporal framework, we can generate image sets t… ▽ More Pre-trained video models learn powerful priors for generating high-quality, temporally coherent content. While these models excel at temporal coherence, their dynamics are often constrained by the continuous nature of their training data. We hypothesize that by injecting the rich and unconstrained content diversity from image data into this coherent temporal framework, we can generate image sets that feature both natural transitions and a far more expansive dynamic range. To this end, we introduce iMontage, a unified framework designed to repurpose a powerful video model into an all-in-one image generator. The framework consumes and produces variable-length image sets, unifying a wide array of image generation and editing tasks. To achieve this, we propose an elegant and minimally invasive adaptation strategy, complemented by a tailored data curation process and training paradigm. This approach allows the model to acquire broad image manipulation capabilities without corrupting its invaluable original motion priors. iMontage excels across several mainstream many-in-many-out tasks, not only maintaining strong cross-image contextual consistency but also generating scenes with extraordinary dynamics that surpass conventional scopes. Find our homepage at: △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; v1 submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Our homepage: arXiv:2511.17501 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.GR Native 3D Editing with Full Attention Authors: Weiwei Cai , Shuangkang Fang , Weicai Ye , Xin Dong , Yunhan Yang , Xuanyang Zhang , Wei Cheng , Yanpei Cao , Gang Yu , Tao Chen Abstract : Instruction-guided 3D editing is a rapidly emerging field with the potential to broaden access to 3D content creation. However, existing methods face critical limitations: optimization-based approaches are prohibitively slow, while feed-forward approaches relying on multi-view 2D editing often suffer from inconsistent geometry and degraded visual quality. To address these issues, we propose a nove… ▽ More Instruction-guided 3D editing is a rapidly emerging field with the potential to broaden access to 3D content creation. However, existing methods face critical limitations: optimization-based approaches are prohibitively slow, while feed-forward approaches relying on multi-view 2D editing often suffer from inconsistent geometry and degraded visual quality. To address these issues, we propose a novel native 3D editing framework that directly manipulates 3D representations in a single, efficient feed-forward pass. Specifically, we create a large-scale, multi-modal dataset for instruction-guided 3D editing, covering diverse addition, deletion, and modification tasks. This dataset is meticulously curated to ensure that edited objects faithfully adhere to the instructional changes while preserving the consistency of unedited regions with the source object. Building upon this dataset, we explore two distinct conditioning strategies for our model: a conventional cross-attention mechanism and a novel 3D token concatenation approach. Our results demonstrate that token concatenation is more parameter-efficient and achieves superior performance. Extensive evaluations show that our method outperforms existing 2D-lifting approaches, setting a new benchmark in generation quality, 3D consistency, and instruction fidelity. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17501 [ pdf , ps , other ] Native 3D Editing with Full Attention Authors: Weiwei Cai , Shuangkang Fang , Weicai Ye , Xin Dong , Yunhan Yang , Xuanyang Zhang , Wei Cheng , Yanpei Cao , Gang Yu , Tao Chen Abstract : Instruction-guided 3D editing is a rapidly emerging field with the potential to broaden access to 3D content creation. However, existing methods face critical limitations: optimization-based approaches are prohibitively slow, while feed-forward approaches relying on multi-view 2D editing often suffer from inconsistent geometry and degraded visual quality. To address these issues, we propose a nove… ▽ More Instruction-guided 3D editing is a rapidly emerging field with the potential to broaden access to 3D content creation. However, existing methods face critical limitations: optimization-based approaches are prohibitively slow, while feed-forward approaches relying on multi-view 2D editing often suffer from inconsistent geometry and degraded visual quality. To address these issues, we propose a novel native 3D editing framework that directly manipulates 3D representations in a single, efficient feed-forward pass. Specifically, we create a large-scale, multi-modal dataset for instruction-guided 3D editing, covering diverse addition, deletion, and modification tasks. This dataset is meticulously curated to ensure that edited objects faithfully adhere to the instructional changes while preserving the consistency of unedited regions with the source object. Building upon this dataset, we explore two distinct conditioning strategies for our model: a conventional cross-attention mechanism and a novel 3D token concatenation approach. Our results demonstrate that token concatenation is more parameter-efficient and achieves superior performance. Extensive evaluations show that our method outperforms existing 2D-lifting approaches, setting a new benchmark in generation quality, 3D consistency, and instruction fidelity. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17068 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI ReBrain: Brain MRI Reconstruction from Sparse CT Slice via Retrieval-Augmented Diffusion Authors: Junming Liu , Yifei Sun , Weihua Cheng , Yujin Kang , Yirong Chen , Ding Wang , Guosun Zeng Abstract : Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays a crucial role in brain disease diagnosis, but it is not always feasible for certain patients due to physical or clinical constraints. Recent studies attempt to synthesize MRI from Computed Tomography (CT) scans; however, low-dose protocols often result in highly sparse CT volumes with poor through-plane resolution, making accurate reconstruction of the full… ▽ More Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays a crucial role in brain disease diagnosis, but it is not always feasible for certain patients due to physical or clinical constraints. Recent studies attempt to synthesize MRI from Computed Tomography (CT) scans; however, low-dose protocols often result in highly sparse CT volumes with poor through-plane resolution, making accurate reconstruction of the full brain MRI volume particularly challenging. To address this, we propose ReBrain, a retrieval-augmented diffusion framework for brain MRI reconstruction. Given any 3D CT scan with limited slices, we first employ a Brownian Bridge Diffusion Model (BBDM) to synthesize MRI slices along the 2D dimension. Simultaneously, we retrieve structurally and pathologically similar CT slices from a comprehensive prior database via a fine-tuned retrieval model. These retrieved slices are used as references, incorporated through a ControlNet branch to guide the generation of intermediate MRI slices and ensure structural continuity. We further account for rare retrieval failures when the database lacks suitable references and apply spherical linear interpolation to provide supplementary guidance. Extensive experiments on SynthRAD2023 and BraTS demonstrate that ReBrain achieves state-of-the-art performance in cross-modal reconstruction under sparse conditions. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 12 figures, 7 tables; Accepted by WACV 2026 arXiv:2511.17068 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReBrain: Brain MRI Reconstruction from Sparse CT Slice via Retrieval-Augmented Diffusion Authors: Junming Liu , Yifei Sun , Weihua Cheng , Yujin Kang , Yirong Chen , Ding Wang , Guosun Zeng Abstract : Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays a crucial role in brain disease diagnosis, but it is not always feasible for certain patients due to physical or clinical constraints. Recent studies attempt to synthesize MRI from Computed Tomography (CT) scans; however, low-dose protocols often result in highly sparse CT volumes with poor through-plane resolution, making accurate reconstruction of the full… ▽ More Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays a crucial role in brain disease diagnosis, but it is not always feasible for certain patients due to physical or clinical constraints. Recent studies attempt to synthesize MRI from Computed Tomography (CT) scans; however, low-dose protocols often result in highly sparse CT volumes with poor through-plane resolution, making accurate reconstruction of the full brain MRI volume particularly challenging. To address this, we propose ReBrain, a retrieval-augmented diffusion framework for brain MRI reconstruction. Given any 3D CT scan with limited slices, we first employ a Brownian Bridge Diffusion Model (BBDM) to synthesize MRI slices along the 2D dimension. Simultaneously, we retrieve structurally and pathologically similar CT slices from a comprehensive prior database via a fine-tuned retrieval model. These retrieved slices are used as references, incorporated through a ControlNet branch to guide the generation of intermediate MRI slices and ensure structural continuity. We further account for rare retrieval failures when the database lacks suitable references and apply spherical linear interpolation to provide supplementary guidance. Extensive experiments on SynthRAD2023 and BraTS demonstrate that ReBrain achieves state-of-the-art performance in cross-modal reconstruction under sparse conditions. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 16 pages, 12 figures, 7 tables; Accepted by WACV 2026 arXiv:2511.16343 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1109/ICIP51287.2024.10647662 Aerial View River Landform Video segmentation: A Weakly Supervised Context-aware Temporal Consistency Distillation Approach Authors: Chi-Han Chen , Chieh-Ming Chen , Wen-Huang Cheng , Ching-Chun Huang Abstract : The study of terrain and landform classification through UAV remote sensing diverges significantly from ground vehicle patrol tasks. Besides grappling with the complexity of data annotation and ensuring temporal consistency, it also confronts the scarcity of relevant data and the limitations imposed by the effective range of many technologies. This research substantiates that, in aerial positionin… ▽ More The study of terrain and landform classification through UAV remote sensing diverges significantly from ground vehicle patrol tasks. Besides grappling with the complexity of data annotation and ensuring temporal consistency, it also confronts the scarcity of relevant data and the limitations imposed by the effective range of many technologies. This research substantiates that, in aerial positioning tasks, both the mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) and temporal consistency (TC) metrics are of paramount importance. It is demonstrated that fully labeled data is not the optimal choice, as selecting only key data lacks the enhancement in TC, leading to failures. Hence, a teacher-student architecture, coupled with key frame selection and key frame updating algorithms, is proposed. This framework successfully performs weakly supervised learning and TC knowledge distillation, overcoming the deficiencies of traditional TC training in aerial tasks. The experimental results reveal that our method utilizing merely 30\% of labeled data, concurrently elevates mIoU and temporal consistency ensuring stable localization of terrain objects. Result demo : △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16343 [ pdf , ps , other ] Aerial View River Landform Video segmentation: A Weakly Supervised Context-aware Temporal Consistency Distillation Approach Authors: Chi-Han Chen , Chieh-Ming Chen , Wen-Huang Cheng , Ching-Chun Huang Abstract : The study of terrain and landform classification through UAV remote sensing diverges significantly from ground vehicle patrol tasks. Besides grappling with the complexity of data annotation and ensuring temporal consistency, it also confronts the scarcity of relevant data and the limitations imposed by the effective range of many technologies. This research substantiates that, in aerial positionin… ▽ More The study of terrain and landform classification through UAV remote sensing diverges significantly from ground vehicle patrol tasks. Besides grappling with the complexity of data annotation and ensuring temporal consistency, it also confronts the scarcity of relevant data and the limitations imposed by the effective range of many technologies. This research substantiates that, in aerial positioning tasks, both the mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) and temporal consistency (TC) metrics are of paramount importance. It is demonstrated that fully labeled data is not the optimal choice, as selecting only key data lacks the enhancement in TC, leading to failures. Hence, a teacher-student architecture, coupled with key frame selection and key frame updating algorithms, is proposed. This framework successfully performs weakly supervised learning and TC knowledge distillation, overcoming the deficiencies of traditional TC training in aerial tasks. The experimental results reveal that our method utilizing merely 30\% of labeled data, concurrently elevates mIoU and temporal consistency ensuring stable localization of terrain objects. Result demo : △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14670 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI SkillGen: Learning Domain Skills for In-Context Sequential Decision Making Authors: Ruomeng Ding , Wei Cheng , Minglai Shao , Chen Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly applied to sequential decision-making through in-context learning (ICL), yet their effectiveness is highly sensitive to prompt quality. Effective prompts should meet three principles: focus on decision-critical information, provide step-level granularity, and minimize reliance on expert annotations through label efficiency. However, existing ICL method… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly applied to sequential decision-making through in-context learning (ICL), yet their effectiveness is highly sensitive to prompt quality. Effective prompts should meet three principles: focus on decision-critical information, provide step-level granularity, and minimize reliance on expert annotations through label efficiency. However, existing ICL methods often fail to satisfy all three criteria simultaneously. Motivated by these challenges, we introduce SkillGen, a skill-based ICL framework for structured sequential reasoning. It constructs an action-centric, domain-level graph from sampled trajectories, identifies high-utility actions via temporal-difference credit assignment, and retrieves step-wise skills to generate fine-grained, context-aware prompts. We further present a theoretical analysis showing that focusing on high-utility segments supports task identifiability and informs more effective ICL prompt design. Experiments on ALFWorld, BabyAI, and ScienceWorld, using both open-source and proprietary LLMs, show that SkillGen achieves consistent gains, improving progress rate by 5.9%-16.5% on average across models. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14670 [ pdf , ps , other ] SkillGen: Learning Domain Skills for In-Context Sequential Decision Making Authors: Ruomeng Ding , Wei Cheng , Minglai Shao , Chen Zhao Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly applied to sequential decision-making through in-context learning (ICL), yet their effectiveness is highly sensitive to prompt quality. Effective prompts should meet three principles: focus on decision-critical information, provide step-level granularity, and minimize reliance on expert annotations through label efficiency. However, existing ICL method… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly applied to sequential decision-making through in-context learning (ICL), yet their effectiveness is highly sensitive to prompt quality. Effective prompts should meet three principles: focus on decision-critical information, provide step-level granularity, and minimize reliance on expert annotations through label efficiency. However, existing ICL methods often fail to satisfy all three criteria simultaneously. Motivated by these challenges, we introduce SkillGen, a skill-based ICL framework for structured sequential reasoning. It constructs an action-centric, domain-level graph from sampled trajectories, identifies high-utility actions via temporal-difference credit assignment, and retrieves step-wise skills to generate fine-grained, context-aware prompts. We further present a theoretical analysis showing that focusing on high-utility segments supports task identifiability and informs more effective ICL prompt design. Experiments on ALFWorld, BabyAI, and ScienceWorld, using both open-source and proprietary LLMs, show that SkillGen achieves consistent gains, improving progress rate by 5.9%-16.5% on average across models. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13704 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV TiViBench: Benchmarking Think-in-Video Reasoning for Video Generative Models Authors: Harold Haodong Chen , Disen Lan , Wen-Jie Shu , Qingyang Liu , Zihan Wang , Sirui Chen , Wenkai Cheng , Kanghao Chen , Hongfei Zhang , Zixin Zhang , Rongjin Guo , Yu Cheng , Ying-Cong Chen Abstract : The rapid evolution of video generative models has shifted their focus from producing visually plausible outputs to tackling tasks requiring physical plausibility and logical consistency. However, despite recent breakthroughs such as Veo 3's chain-of-frames reasoning, it remains unclear whether these models can exhibit reasoning capabilities similar to large language models (LLMs). Existing benchm… ▽ More The rapid evolution of video generative models has shifted their focus from producing visually plausible outputs to tackling tasks requiring physical plausibility and logical consistency. However, despite recent breakthroughs such as Veo 3's chain-of-frames reasoning, it remains unclear whether these models can exhibit reasoning capabilities similar to large language models (LLMs). Existing benchmarks predominantly evaluate visual fidelity and temporal coherence, failing to capture higher-order reasoning abilities. To bridge this gap, we propose TiViBench, a hierarchical benchmark specifically designed to evaluate the reasoning capabilities of image-to-video (I2V) generation models. TiViBench systematically assesses reasoning across four dimensions: i) Structural Reasoning & Search, ii) Spatial & Visual Pattern Reasoning, iii) Symbolic & Logical Reasoning, and iv) Action Planning & Task Execution, spanning 24 diverse task scenarios across 3 difficulty levels. Through extensive evaluations, we show that commercial models (e.g., Sora 2, Veo 3.1) demonstrate stronger reasoning potential, while open-source models reveal untapped potential that remains hindered by limited training scale and data diversity. To further unlock this potential, we introduce VideoTPO, a simple yet effective test-time strategy inspired by preference optimization. By performing LLM self-analysis on generated candidates to identify strengths and weaknesses, VideoTPO significantly enhances reasoning performance without requiring additional training, data, or reward models. Together, TiViBench and VideoTPO pave the way for evaluating and advancing reasoning in video generation models, setting a foundation for future research in this emerging field. △ Less Submitted 20 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Project: arXiv:2511.13704 [ pdf , ps , other ] TiViBench: Benchmarking Think-in-Video Reasoning for Video Generative Models Authors: Harold Haodong Chen , Disen Lan , Wen-Jie Shu , Qingyang Liu , Zihan Wang , Sirui Chen , Wenkai Cheng , Kanghao Chen , Hongfei Zhang , Zixin Zhang , Rongjin Guo , Yu Cheng , Ying-Cong Chen Abstract : The rapid evolution of video generative models has shifted their focus from producing visually plausible outputs to tackling tasks requiring physical plausibility and logical consistency. However, despite recent breakthroughs such as Veo 3's chain-of-frames reasoning, it remains unclear whether these models can exhibit reasoning capabilities similar to large language models (LLMs). Existing benchm… ▽ More The rapid evolution of video generative models has shifted their focus from producing visually plausible outputs to tackling tasks requiring physical plausibility and logical consistency. However, despite recent breakthroughs such as Veo 3's chain-of-frames reasoning, it remains unclear whether these models can exhibit reasoning capabilities similar to large language models (LLMs). Existing benchmarks predominantly evaluate visual fidelity and temporal coherence, failing to capture higher-order reasoning abilities. To bridge this gap, we propose TiViBench, a hierarchical benchmark specifically designed to evaluate the reasoning capabilities of image-to-video (I2V) generation models. TiViBench systematically assesses reasoning across four dimensions: i) Structural Reasoning & Search, ii) Spatial & Visual Pattern Reasoning, iii) Symbolic & Logical Reasoning, and iv) Action Planning & Task Execution, spanning 24 diverse task scenarios across 3 difficulty levels. Through extensive evaluations, we show that commercial models (e.g., Sora 2, Veo 3.1) demonstrate stronger reasoning potential, while open-source models reveal untapped potential that remains hindered by limited training scale and data diversity. To further unlock this potential, we introduce VideoTPO, a simple yet effective test-time strategy inspired by preference optimization. By performing LLM self-analysis on generated candidates to identify strengths and weaknesses, VideoTPO significantly enhances reasoning performance without requiring additional training, data, or reward models. Together, TiViBench and VideoTPO pave the way for evaluating and advancing reasoning in video generation models, setting a foundation for future research in this emerging field. △ Less Submitted 20 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Project: arXiv:2511.13020 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI SpectralAdapt: Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation with Spectral Priors for Human-Centered Hyperspectral Image Reconstruction Authors: Yufei Wen , Yuting Zhang , Jingdan Kang , Hao Ren , Weibin Cheng , Jintai Chen , Kaishun Wu Abstract : Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) holds great potential for healthcare due to its rich spectral information. However, acquiring HSI data remains costly and technically demanding. Hyperspectral image reconstruction offers a practical solution by recovering HSI data from accessible modalities, such as RGB. While general domain datasets are abundant, the scarcity of human HSI data limits progress in medica… ▽ More Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) holds great potential for healthcare due to its rich spectral information. However, acquiring HSI data remains costly and technically demanding. Hyperspectral image reconstruction offers a practical solution by recovering HSI data from accessible modalities, such as RGB. While general domain datasets are abundant, the scarcity of human HSI data limits progress in medical applications. To tackle this, we propose SpectralAdapt, a semi-supervised domain adaptation (SSDA) framework that bridges the domain gap between general and human-centered HSI datasets. To fully exploit limited labels and abundant unlabeled data, we enhance spectral reasoning by introducing Spectral Density Masking (SDM), which adaptively masks RGB channels based on their spectral complexity, encouraging recovery of informative regions from complementary cues during consistency training. Furthermore, we introduce Spectral Endmember Representation Alignment (SERA), which derives physically interpretable endmembers from valuable labeled pixels and employs them as domain-invariant anchors to guide unlabeled predictions, with momentum updates ensuring adaptability and stability. These components are seamlessly integrated into SpectralAdapt, a spectral prior-guided framework that effectively mitigates domain shift, spectral degradation, and data scarcity in HSI reconstruction. Experiments on benchmark datasets demonstrate consistent improvements in spectral fidelity, cross-domain generalization, and training stability, highlighting the promise of SSDA as an efficient solution for hyperspectral imaging in healthcare. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13020 [ pdf , ps , other ] SpectralAdapt: Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation with Spectral Priors for Human-Centered Hyperspectral Image Reconstruction Authors: Yufei Wen , Yuting Zhang , Jingdan Kang , Hao Ren , Weibin Cheng , Jintai Chen , Kaishun Wu Abstract : Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) holds great potential for healthcare due to its rich spectral information. However, acquiring HSI data remains costly and technically demanding. Hyperspectral image reconstruction offers a practical solution by recovering HSI data from accessible modalities, such as RGB. While general domain datasets are abundant, the scarcity of human HSI data limits progress in medica… ▽ More Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) holds great potential for healthcare due to its rich spectral information. However, acquiring HSI data remains costly and technically demanding. Hyperspectral image reconstruction offers a practical solution by recovering HSI data from accessible modalities, such as RGB. While general domain datasets are abundant, the scarcity of human HSI data limits progress in medical applications. To tackle this, we propose SpectralAdapt, a semi-supervised domain adaptation (SSDA) framework that bridges the domain gap between general and human-centered HSI datasets. To fully exploit limited labels and abundant unlabeled data, we enhance spectral reasoning by introducing Spectral Density Masking (SDM), which adaptively masks RGB channels based on their spectral complexity, encouraging recovery of informative regions from complementary cues during consistency training. Furthermore, we introduce Spectral Endmember Representation Alignment (SERA), which derives physically interpretable endmembers from valuable labeled pixels and employs them as domain-invariant anchors to guide unlabeled predictions, with momentum updates ensuring adaptability and stability. These components are seamlessly integrated into SpectralAdapt, a spectral prior-guided framework that effectively mitigates domain shift, spectral degradation, and data scarcity in HSI reconstruction. Experiments on benchmark datasets demonstrate consistent improvements in spectral fidelity, cross-domain generalization, and training stability, highlighting the promise of SSDA as an efficient solution for hyperspectral imaging in healthcare. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.07145 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT A Copula-based Semantics-Structure Minimization Framework for QoS Guaranteed Wireless Communications Authors: Xinke Jian , Zhiyuan Ren , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this probl… ▽ More Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this problem. We propose four axioms and rigorously prove that the family of pairwise rank-Copulas is the minimal sufficient representation for minimal structural semantics. Based on this, we construct a semantic distortion metric, centered on the Jensen-Shannon divergence. We then establish the core theoretical boundaries of the framework: sample complexity bounds; rate-distortion bounds; an end-to-end Service Level Agreements theorem; and a semantic source-channel separation theorem, which provides a provable Quality of Service guarantee. Finally, we validate our framework through decoupled experiments, empirically demonstrating that our core metric strictly adheres to our foundational axioms while standard perceptual metrics fail to do so. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.07145 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Copula-based Semantics-Structure Minimization Framework for QoS Guaranteed Wireless Communications Authors: Xinke Jian , Zhiyuan Ren , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this probl… ▽ More Current empirically driven research on semantic communication lacks a unified theoretical foundation, preventing quantifiable Quality of Service guarantees, particularly for transmitting minimal structural semantics in emergency scenarios. This deficiency limits its evolution into a predictable engineering science. To address this, we establish a complete theoretical axiomatic basis for this problem. We propose four axioms and rigorously prove that the family of pairwise rank-Copulas is the minimal sufficient representation for minimal structural semantics. Based on this, we construct a semantic distortion metric, centered on the Jensen-Shannon divergence. We then establish the core theoretical boundaries of the framework: sample complexity bounds; rate-distortion bounds; an end-to-end Service Level Agreements theorem; and a semantic source-channel separation theorem, which provides a provable Quality of Service guarantee. Finally, we validate our framework through decoupled experiments, empirically demonstrating that our core metric strictly adheres to our foundational axioms while standard perceptual metrics fail to do so. △ Less Submitted 10 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2510.25590 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI RegionE: Adaptive Region-Aware Generation for Efficient Image Editing Authors: Pengtao Chen , Xianfang Zeng , Maosen Zhao , Mingzhu Shen , Peng Ye , Bangyin Xiang , Zhibo Wang , Wei Cheng , Gang Yu , Tao Chen Abstract : Recently, instruction-based image editing (IIE) has received widespread attention. In practice, IIE often modifies only specific regions of an image, while the remaining areas largely remain unchanged. Although these two types of regions differ significantly in generation difficulty and computational redundancy, existing IIE models do not account for this distinction, instead applying a uniform ge… ▽ More Recently, instruction-based image editing (IIE) has received widespread attention. In practice, IIE often modifies only specific regions of an image, while the remaining areas largely remain unchanged. Although these two types of regions differ significantly in generation difficulty and computational redundancy, existing IIE models do not account for this distinction, instead applying a uniform generation process across the entire image. This motivates us to propose RegionE, an adaptive, region-aware generation framework that accelerates IIE tasks without additional training. Specifically, the RegionE framework consists of three main components: 1) Adaptive Region Partition. We observed that the trajectory of unedited regions is straight, allowing for multi-step denoised predictions to be inferred in a single step. Therefore, in the early denoising stages, we partition the image into edited and unedited regions based on the difference between the final estimated result and the reference image. 2) Region-Aware Generation. After distinguishing the regions, we replace multi-step denoising with one-step prediction for unedited areas. For edited regions, the trajectory is curved, requiring local iterative denoising. To improve the efficiency and quality of local iterative generation, we propose the Region-Instruction KV Cache, which reduces computational cost while incorporating global information. 3) Adaptive Velocity Decay Cache. Observing that adjacent timesteps in edited regions exhibit strong velocity similarity, we further propose an adaptive velocity decay cache to accelerate the local denoising process. We applied RegionE to state-of-the-art IIE base models, including Step1X-Edit, FLUX.1 Kontext, and Qwen-Image-Edit. RegionE achieved acceleration factors of 2.57, 2.41, and 2.06. Evaluations by GPT-4o confirmed that semantic and perceptual fidelity were well preserved. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 26 pages, 10 figures, 18 tables arXiv:2510.25590 [ pdf , ps , other ] RegionE: Adaptive Region-Aware Generation for Efficient Image Editing Authors: Pengtao Chen , Xianfang Zeng , Maosen Zhao , Mingzhu Shen , Peng Ye , Bangyin Xiang , Zhibo Wang , Wei Cheng , Gang Yu , Tao Chen Abstract : Recently, instruction-based image editing (IIE) has received widespread attention. In practice, IIE often modifies only specific regions of an image, while the remaining areas largely remain unchanged. Although these two types of regions differ significantly in generation difficulty and computational redundancy, existing IIE models do not account for this distinction, instead applying a uniform ge… ▽ More Recently, instruction-based image editing (IIE) has received widespread attention. In practice, IIE often modifies only specific regions of an image, while the remaining areas largely remain unchanged. Although these two types of regions differ significantly in generation difficulty and computational redundancy, existing IIE models do not account for this distinction, instead applying a uniform generation process across the entire image. This motivates us to propose RegionE, an adaptive, region-aware generation framework that accelerates IIE tasks without additional training. Specifically, the RegionE framework consists of three main components: 1) Adaptive Region Partition. We observed that the trajectory of unedited regions is straight, allowing for multi-step denoised predictions to be inferred in a single step. Therefore, in the early denoising stages, we partition the image into edited and unedited regions based on the difference between the final estimated result and the reference image. 2) Region-Aware Generation. After distinguishing the regions, we replace multi-step denoising with one-step prediction for unedited areas. For edited regions, the trajectory is curved, requiring local iterative denoising. To improve the efficiency and quality of local iterative generation, we propose the Region-Instruction KV Cache, which reduces computational cost while incorporating global information. 3) Adaptive Velocity Decay Cache. Observing that adjacent timesteps in edited regions exhibit strong velocity similarity, we further propose an adaptive velocity decay cache to accelerate the local denoising process. We applied RegionE to state-of-the-art IIE base models, including Step1X-Edit, FLUX.1 Kontext, and Qwen-Image-Edit. RegionE achieved acceleration factors of 2.57, 2.41, and 2.06. Evaluations by GPT-4o confirmed that semantic and perceptual fidelity were well preserved. △ Less Submitted 29 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 26 pages, 10 figures, 18 tables arXiv:2510.24168 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MGA: Memory-Driven GUI Agent for Observation-Centric Interaction Authors: Weihua Cheng , Ersheng Ni , Wenlong Wang , Yifei Sun , Junming Liu , Wangyu Shen , Yirong Chen , Botian Shi , Ding Wang Abstract : The rapid progress of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their multimodal extensions (MLLMs) has enabled agentic systems capable of perceiving and acting across diverse environments. A challenging yet impactful frontier is the development of GUI agents, which must navigate complex desktop and web interfaces while maintaining robustness and generalization. Existing paradigms typically model tasks as… ▽ More The rapid progress of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their multimodal extensions (MLLMs) has enabled agentic systems capable of perceiving and acting across diverse environments. A challenging yet impactful frontier is the development of GUI agents, which must navigate complex desktop and web interfaces while maintaining robustness and generalization. Existing paradigms typically model tasks as long-chain executions, concatenating historical trajectories into the context. While approaches such as Mirage and GTA1 refine planning or introduce multi-branch action selection, they remain constrained by two persistent issues: Dependence on historical trajectories, which amplifies error propagation. And Local exploration bias, where "decision-first, observation-later" mechanisms overlook critical interface cues. We introduce the Memory-Driven GUI Agent (MGA), which reframes GUI interaction around the principle of observe first, then decide. MGA models each step as an independent, context-rich environment state represented by a triad: current screenshot, task-agnostic spatial information, and a dynamically updated structured memory. Experiments on OSworld benchmarks, real desktop applications (Chrome, VSCode, VLC), and cross-task transfer demonstrate that MGA achieves substantial gains in robustness, generalization, and efficiency compared to state-of-the-art baselines. The code is publicly available at: { △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Submitted to WWW2025 arXiv:2510.24168 [ pdf , ps , other ] MGA: Memory-Driven GUI Agent for Observation-Centric Interaction Authors: Weihua Cheng , Ersheng Ni , Wenlong Wang , Yifei Sun , Junming Liu , Wangyu Shen , Yirong Chen , Botian Shi , Ding Wang Abstract : The rapid progress of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their multimodal extensions (MLLMs) has enabled agentic systems capable of perceiving and acting across diverse environments. A challenging yet impactful frontier is the development of GUI agents, which must navigate complex desktop and web interfaces while maintaining robustness and generalization. Existing paradigms typically model tasks as… ▽ More The rapid progress of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their multimodal extensions (MLLMs) has enabled agentic systems capable of perceiving and acting across diverse environments. A challenging yet impactful frontier is the development of GUI agents, which must navigate complex desktop and web interfaces while maintaining robustness and generalization. Existing paradigms typically model tasks as long-chain executions, concatenating historical trajectories into the context. While approaches such as Mirage and GTA1 refine planning or introduce multi-branch action selection, they remain constrained by two persistent issues: Dependence on historical trajectories, which amplifies error propagation. And Local exploration bias, where "decision-first, observation-later" mechanisms overlook critical interface cues. We introduce the Memory-Driven GUI Agent (MGA), which reframes GUI interaction around the principle of observe first, then decide. MGA models each step as an independent, context-rich environment state represented by a triad: current screenshot, task-agnostic spatial information, and a dynamically updated structured memory. Experiments on OSworld benchmarks, real desktop applications (Chrome, VSCode, VLC), and cross-task transfer demonstrate that MGA achieves substantial gains in robustness, generalization, and efficiency compared to state-of-the-art baselines. The code is publicly available at: { △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Submitted to WWW2025 arXiv:2510.20651 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG xTime: Extreme Event Prediction with Hierarchical Knowledge Distillation and Expert Fusion Authors: Quan Li , Wenchao Yu , Suhang Wang , Minhua Lin , Lingwei Chen , Wei Cheng , Haifeng Chen Abstract : Extreme events frequently occur in real-world time series and often carry significant practical implications. In domains such as climate and healthcare, these events, such as floods, heatwaves, or acute medical episodes, can lead to serious consequences. Accurate forecasting of such events is therefore of substantial importance. Most existing time series forecasting models are optimized for overal… ▽ More Extreme events frequently occur in real-world time series and often carry significant practical implications. In domains such as climate and healthcare, these events, such as floods, heatwaves, or acute medical episodes, can lead to serious consequences. Accurate forecasting of such events is therefore of substantial importance. Most existing time series forecasting models are optimized for overall performance within the prediction window, but often struggle to accurately predict extreme events, such as high temperatures or heart rate spikes. The main challenges are data imbalance and the neglect of valuable information contained in intermediate events that precede extreme events. In this paper, we propose xTime, a novel framework for extreme event forecasting in time series. xTime leverages knowledge distillation to transfer information from models trained on lower-rarity events, thereby improving prediction performance on rarer ones. In addition, we introduce a mixture of experts (MoE) mechanism that dynamically selects and fuses outputs from expert models across different rarity levels, which further improves the forecasting performance for extreme events. Experiments on multiple datasets show that xTime achieves consistent improvements, with forecasting accuracy on extreme events improving from 3% to 78%. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.20651 [ pdf , ps , other ] xTime: Extreme Event Prediction with Hierarchical Knowledge Distillation and Expert Fusion Authors: Quan Li , Wenchao Yu , Suhang Wang , Minhua Lin , Lingwei Chen , Wei Cheng , Haifeng Chen Abstract : Extreme events frequently occur in real-world time series and often carry significant practical implications. In domains such as climate and healthcare, these events, such as floods, heatwaves, or acute medical episodes, can lead to serious consequences. Accurate forecasting of such events is therefore of substantial importance. Most existing time series forecasting models are optimized for overal… ▽ More Extreme events frequently occur in real-world time series and often carry significant practical implications. In domains such as climate and healthcare, these events, such as floods, heatwaves, or acute medical episodes, can lead to serious consequences. Accurate forecasting of such events is therefore of substantial importance. Most existing time series forecasting models are optimized for overall performance within the prediction window, but often struggle to accurately predict extreme events, such as high temperatures or heart rate spikes. The main challenges are data imbalance and the neglect of valuable information contained in intermediate events that precede extreme events. In this paper, we propose xTime, a novel framework for extreme event forecasting in time series. xTime leverages knowledge distillation to transfer information from models trained on lower-rarity events, thereby improving prediction performance on rarer ones. In addition, we introduce a mixture of experts (MoE) mechanism that dynamically selects and fuses outputs from expert models across different rarity levels, which further improves the forecasting performance for extreme events. Experiments on multiple datasets show that xTime achieves consistent improvements, with forecasting accuracy on extreme events improving from 3% to 78%. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.20550 [ pdf ] cs.CV From Cheap to Pro: A Learning-based Adaptive Camera Parameter Network for Professional-Style Imaging Authors: Fuchen Li , Yansong Du , Wenbo Cheng , Xiaoxia Zhou , Sen Yin Abstract : Consumer-grade camera systems often struggle to maintain stable image quality under complex illumination conditions such as low light, high dynamic range, and backlighting, as well as spatial color temperature variation. These issues lead to underexposure, color casts, and tonal inconsistency, which degrade the performance of downstream vision tasks. To address this, we propose ACamera-Net, a ligh… ▽ More Consumer-grade camera systems often struggle to maintain stable image quality under complex illumination conditions such as low light, high dynamic range, and backlighting, as well as spatial color temperature variation. These issues lead to underexposure, color casts, and tonal inconsistency, which degrade the performance of downstream vision tasks. To address this, we propose ACamera-Net, a lightweight and scene-adaptive camera parameter adjustment network that directly predicts optimal exposure and white balance from RAW inputs. The framework consists of two modules: ACamera-Exposure, which estimates ISO to alleviate underexposure and contrast loss, and ACamera-Color, which predicts correlated color temperature and gain factors for improved color consistency. Optimized for real-time inference on edge devices, ACamera-Net can be seamlessly integrated into imaging pipelines. Trained on diverse real-world data with annotated references, the model generalizes well across lighting conditions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ACamera-Net consistently enhances image quality and stabilizes perception outputs, outperforming conventional auto modes and lightweight baselines without relying on additional image enhancement modules. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 13 pages. Code and project page will be released MSC Class: cs.CV ACM Class: I.4.3; I.4.8; I.2.10 arXiv:2510.20550 [ pdf ] From Cheap to Pro: A Learning-based Adaptive Camera Parameter Network for Professional-Style Imaging Authors: Fuchen Li , Yansong Du , Wenbo Cheng , Xiaoxia Zhou , Sen Yin Abstract : Consumer-grade camera systems often struggle to maintain stable image quality under complex illumination conditions such as low light, high dynamic range, and backlighting, as well as spatial color temperature variation. These issues lead to underexposure, color casts, and tonal inconsistency, which degrade the performance of downstream vision tasks. To address this, we propose ACamera-Net, a ligh… ▽ More Consumer-grade camera systems often struggle to maintain stable image quality under complex illumination conditions such as low light, high dynamic range, and backlighting, as well as spatial color temperature variation. These issues lead to underexposure, color casts, and tonal inconsistency, which degrade the performance of downstream vision tasks. To address this, we propose ACamera-Net, a lightweight and scene-adaptive camera parameter adjustment network that directly predicts optimal exposure and white balance from RAW inputs. The framework consists of two modules: ACamera-Exposure, which estimates ISO to alleviate underexposure and contrast loss, and ACamera-Color, which predicts correlated color temperature and gain factors for improved color consistency. Optimized for real-time inference on edge devices, ACamera-Net can be seamlessly integrated into imaging pipelines. Trained on diverse real-world data with annotated references, the model generalizes well across lighting conditions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ACamera-Net consistently enhances image quality and stabilizes perception outputs, outperforming conventional auto modes and lightweight baselines without relying on additional image enhancement modules. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 13 pages. Code and project page will be released MSC Class: cs.CV ACM Class: I.4.3; I.4.8; I.2.10 arXiv:2510.20214 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Towards Objective Obstetric Ultrasound Assessment: Contrastive Representation Learning for Fetal Movement Detection Authors: Talha Ilyas , Duong Nhu , Allison Thomas , Arie Levin , Lim Wei Yap , Shu Gong , David Vera Anaya , Yiwen Jiang , Deval Mehta , Ritesh Warty , Vinayak Smith , Maya Reddy , Euan Wallace , Wenlong Cheng , Zongyuan Ge , Faezeh Marzbanrad Abstract : Accurate fetal movement (FM) detection is essential for assessing prenatal health, as abnormal movement patterns can indicate underlying complications such as placental dysfunction or fetal distress. Traditional methods, including maternal perception and cardiotocography (CTG), suffer from subjectivity and limited accuracy. To address these challenges, we propose Contrastive Ultrasound Video Repre… ▽ More Accurate fetal movement (FM) detection is essential for assessing prenatal health, as abnormal movement patterns can indicate underlying complications such as placental dysfunction or fetal distress. Traditional methods, including maternal perception and cardiotocography (CTG), suffer from subjectivity and limited accuracy. To address these challenges, we propose Contrastive Ultrasound Video Representation Learning (CURL), a novel self-supervised learning framework for FM detection from extended fetal ultrasound video recordings. Our approach leverages a dual-contrastive loss, incorporating both spatial and temporal contrastive learning, to learn robust motion representations. Additionally, we introduce a task-specific sampling strategy, ensuring the effective separation of movement and non-movement segments during self-supervised training, while enabling flexible inference on arbitrarily long ultrasound recordings through a probabilistic fine-tuning approach. Evaluated on an in-house dataset of 92 subjects, each with 30-minute ultrasound sessions, CURL achieves a sensitivity of 78.01% and an AUROC of 81.60%, demonstrating its potential for reliable and objective FM analysis. These results highlight the potential of self-supervised contrastive learning for fetal movement analysis, paving the way for improved prenatal monitoring and clinical decision-making. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: This is the preprint version of the manuscript submitted to IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics (JBHI) for review arXiv:2510.20214 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Objective Obstetric Ultrasound Assessment: Contrastive Representation Learning for Fetal Movement Detection Authors: Talha Ilyas , Duong Nhu , Allison Thomas , Arie Levin , Lim Wei Yap , Shu Gong , David Vera Anaya , Yiwen Jiang , Deval Mehta , Ritesh Warty , Vinayak Smith , Maya Reddy , Euan Wallace , Wenlong Cheng , Zongyuan Ge , Faezeh Marzbanrad Abstract : Accurate fetal movement (FM) detection is essential for assessing prenatal health, as abnormal movement patterns can indicate underlying complications such as placental dysfunction or fetal distress. Traditional methods, including maternal perception and cardiotocography (CTG), suffer from subjectivity and limited accuracy. To address these challenges, we propose Contrastive Ultrasound Video Repre… ▽ More Accurate fetal movement (FM) detection is essential for assessing prenatal health, as abnormal movement patterns can indicate underlying complications such as placental dysfunction or fetal distress. Traditional methods, including maternal perception and cardiotocography (CTG), suffer from subjectivity and limited accuracy. To address these challenges, we propose Contrastive Ultrasound Video Representation Learning (CURL), a novel self-supervised learning framework for FM detection from extended fetal ultrasound video recordings. Our approach leverages a dual-contrastive loss, incorporating both spatial and temporal contrastive learning, to learn robust motion representations. Additionally, we introduce a task-specific sampling strategy, ensuring the effective separation of movement and non-movement segments during self-supervised training, while enabling flexible inference on arbitrarily long ultrasound recordings through a probabilistic fine-tuning approach. Evaluated on an in-house dataset of 92 subjects, each with 30-minute ultrasound sessions, CURL achieves a sensitivity of 78.01% and an AUROC of 81.60%, demonstrating its potential for reliable and objective FM analysis. These results highlight the potential of self-supervised contrastive learning for fetal movement analysis, paving the way for improved prenatal monitoring and clinical decision-making. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: This is the preprint version of the manuscript submitted to IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics (JBHI) for review arXiv:2510.19262 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.NI RailS: Load Balancing for All-to-All Communication in Distributed Mixture-of-Experts Training Authors: Heng Xu , Zhiwei Yu , Chengze Du , Ying Zhou , Letian Li , Haojie Wang , Weiqiang Cheng , Jialong Li Abstract : Training Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models introduces sparse and highly imbalanced all-to-all communication that dominates iteration time. Conventional load-balancing methods fail to exploit the deterministic topology of Rail architectures, leaving multi-NIC bandwidth underutilized. We present RailS, a distributed load-balancing framework that minimizes all-to-all completion time in MoE training. Ra… ▽ More Training Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models introduces sparse and highly imbalanced all-to-all communication that dominates iteration time. Conventional load-balancing methods fail to exploit the deterministic topology of Rail architectures, leaving multi-NIC bandwidth underutilized. We present RailS, a distributed load-balancing framework that minimizes all-to-all completion time in MoE training. RailS leverages the Rail topology's symmetry to prove that uniform sending ensures uniform receiving, transforming global coordination into local scheduling. Each node independently executes a Longest Processing Time First (LPT) spraying scheduler to proactively balance traffic using local information. RailS activates N parallel rails for fine-grained, topology-aware multipath transmission. Across synthetic and real-world MoE workloads, RailS improves bus bandwidth by 20%--78% and reduces completion time by 17%--78%. For Mixtral workloads, it shortens iteration time by 18%--40% and achieves near-optimal load balance, fully exploiting architectural parallelism in distributed training. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; v1 submitted 22 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.19262 [ pdf , ps , other ] RailS: Load Balancing for All-to-All Communication in Distributed Mixture-of-Experts Training Authors: Heng Xu , Zhiwei Yu , Chengze Du , Ying Zhou , Letian Li , Haojie Wang , Weiqiang Cheng , Jialong Li Abstract : Training Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models introduces sparse and highly imbalanced all-to-all communication that dominates iteration time. Conventional load-balancing methods fail to exploit the deterministic topology of Rail architectures, leaving multi-NIC bandwidth underutilized. We present RailS, a distributed load-balancing framework that minimizes all-to-all completion time in MoE training. Ra… ▽ More Training Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models introduces sparse and highly imbalanced all-to-all communication that dominates iteration time. Conventional load-balancing methods fail to exploit the deterministic topology of Rail architectures, leaving multi-NIC bandwidth underutilized. We present RailS, a distributed load-balancing framework that minimizes all-to-all completion time in MoE training. RailS leverages the Rail topology's symmetry to prove that uniform sending ensures uniform receiving, transforming global coordination into local scheduling. Each node independently executes a Longest Processing Time First (LPT) spraying scheduler to proactively balance traffic using local information. RailS activates N parallel rails for fine-grained, topology-aware multipath transmission. Across synthetic and real-world MoE workloads, RailS improves bus bandwidth by 20%--78% and reduces completion time by 17%--78%. For Mixtral workloads, it shortens iteration time by 18%--40% and achieves near-optimal load balance, fully exploiting architectural parallelism in distributed training. △ Less Submitted 23 October, 2025; v1 submitted 22 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.16916 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG SolverLLM: Leveraging Test-Time Scaling for Optimization Problem via LLM-Guided Search Authors: Dong Li , Xujiang Zhao , Linlin Yu , Yanchi Liu , Wei Cheng , Zhengzhang Chen , Zhong Chen , Feng Chen , Chen Zhao , Haifeng Chen Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) offer promising capabilities for tackling complex reasoning tasks, including optimization problems. However, existing methods either rely on prompt engineering, which leads to poor generalization across problem types, or require costly supervised training. We introduce SolverLLM, a training-free framework that leverages test-time scaling to solve diverse optimization p… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) offer promising capabilities for tackling complex reasoning tasks, including optimization problems. However, existing methods either rely on prompt engineering, which leads to poor generalization across problem types, or require costly supervised training. We introduce SolverLLM, a training-free framework that leverages test-time scaling to solve diverse optimization problems. Rather than solving directly, SolverLLM generates mathematical formulations and translates them into solver-ready code, guided by a novel Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) strategy. To enhance the search process, we modify classical MCTS with (1) dynamic expansion for adaptive formulation generation, (2) prompt backpropagation to guide exploration via outcome-driven feedback, and (3) uncertainty backpropagation to incorporate reward reliability into decision-making. Experiments on six standard benchmark datasets demonstrate that SolverLLM outperforms both prompt-based and learning-based baselines, achieving strong generalization without additional training. △ Less Submitted 21 October, 2025; v1 submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.16916 [ pdf , ps , other ] SolverLLM: Leveraging Test-Time Scaling for Optimization Problem via LLM-Guided Search Authors: Dong Li , Xujiang Zhao , Linlin Yu , Yanchi Liu , Wei Cheng , Zhengzhang Chen , Zhong Chen , Feng Chen , Chen Zhao , Haifeng Chen Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) offer promising capabilities for tackling complex reasoning tasks, including optimization problems. However, existing methods either rely on prompt engineering, which leads to poor generalization across problem types, or require costly supervised training. We introduce SolverLLM, a training-free framework that leverages test-time scaling to solve diverse optimization p… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) offer promising capabilities for tackling complex reasoning tasks, including optimization problems. However, existing methods either rely on prompt engineering, which leads to poor generalization across problem types, or require costly supervised training. We introduce SolverLLM, a training-free framework that leverages test-time scaling to solve diverse optimization problems. Rather than solving directly, SolverLLM generates mathematical formulations and translates them into solver-ready code, guided by a novel Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) strategy. To enhance the search process, we modify classical MCTS with (1) dynamic expansion for adaptive formulation generation, (2) prompt backpropagation to guide exploration via outcome-driven feedback, and (3) uncertainty backpropagation to incorporate reward reliability into decision-making. Experiments on six standard benchmark datasets demonstrate that SolverLLM outperforms both prompt-based and learning-based baselines, achieving strong generalization without additional training. △ Less Submitted 21 October, 2025; v1 submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.14975 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI WithAnyone: Towards Controllable and ID Consistent Image Generation Authors: Hengyuan Xu , Wei Cheng , Peng Xing , Yixiao Fang , Shuhan Wu , Rui Wang , Xianfang Zeng , Daxin Jiang , Gang Yu , Xingjun Ma , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Identity-consistent generation has become an important focus in text-to-image research, with recent models achieving notable success in producing images aligned with a reference identity. Yet, the scarcity of large-scale paired datasets containing multiple images of the same individual forces most approaches to adopt reconstruction-based training. This reliance often leads to a failure mode we ter… ▽ More Identity-consistent generation has become an important focus in text-to-image research, with recent models achieving notable success in producing images aligned with a reference identity. Yet, the scarcity of large-scale paired datasets containing multiple images of the same individual forces most approaches to adopt reconstruction-based training. This reliance often leads to a failure mode we term copy-paste, where the model directly replicates the reference face rather than preserving identity across natural variations in pose, expression, or lighting. Such over-similarity undermines controllability and limits the expressive power of generation. To address these limitations, we (1) construct a large-scale paired dataset MultiID-2M, tailored for multi-person scenarios, providing diverse references for each identity; (2) introduce a benchmark that quantifies both copy-paste artifacts and the trade-off between identity fidelity and variation; and (3) propose a novel training paradigm with a contrastive identity loss that leverages paired data to balance fidelity with diversity. These contributions culminate in WithAnyone, a diffusion-based model that effectively mitigates copy-paste while preserving high identity similarity. Extensive qualitative and quantitative experiments demonstrate that WithAnyone significantly reduces copy-paste artifacts, improves controllability over pose and expression, and maintains strong perceptual quality. User studies further validate that our method achieves high identity fidelity while enabling expressive controllable generation. △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 23 Pages; Project Page: Code: arXiv:2510.14975 [ pdf , ps , other ] WithAnyone: Towards Controllable and ID Consistent Image Generation Authors: Hengyuan Xu , Wei Cheng , Peng Xing , Yixiao Fang , Shuhan Wu , Rui Wang , Xianfang Zeng , Daxin Jiang , Gang Yu , Xingjun Ma , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Identity-consistent generation has become an important focus in text-to-image research, with recent models achieving notable success in producing images aligned with a reference identity. Yet, the scarcity of large-scale paired datasets containing multiple images of the same individual forces most approaches to adopt reconstruction-based training. This reliance often leads to a failure mode we ter… ▽ More Identity-consistent generation has become an important focus in text-to-image research, with recent models achieving notable success in producing images aligned with a reference identity. Yet, the scarcity of large-scale paired datasets containing multiple images of the same individual forces most approaches to adopt reconstruction-based training. This reliance often leads to a failure mode we term copy-paste, where the model directly replicates the reference face rather than preserving identity across natural variations in pose, expression, or lighting. Such over-similarity undermines controllability and limits the expressive power of generation. To address these limitations, we (1) construct a large-scale paired dataset MultiID-2M, tailored for multi-person scenarios, providing diverse references for each identity; (2) introduce a benchmark that quantifies both copy-paste artifacts and the trade-off between identity fidelity and variation; and (3) propose a novel training paradigm with a contrastive identity loss that leverages paired data to balance fidelity with diversity. These contributions culminate in WithAnyone, a diffusion-based model that effectively mitigates copy-paste while preserving high identity similarity. Extensive qualitative and quantitative experiments demonstrate that WithAnyone significantly reduces copy-paste artifacts, improves controllability over pose and expression, and maintains strong perceptual quality. User studies further validate that our method achieves high identity fidelity while enabling expressive controllable generation. △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 23 Pages; Project Page: Code: arXiv:2510.14226 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT Location-Aided Distributed Beamforming for Near-Field Communications with Element-Wise RIS Authors: Xiao Zheng , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Zhuohui Yao , Jiangzhou Wang Abstract : Active reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) emerges as an effective technique to resist the double-fading attenuation of passive RIS. By embedding with power harvesting function, it further evolves to zero-power active RIS, which can effectively enhance the flexibility of RIS deployment without external power demand. Nevertheless, existing works neglected the inherent difficulty of channel est… ▽ More Active reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) emerges as an effective technique to resist the double-fading attenuation of passive RIS. By embedding with power harvesting function, it further evolves to zero-power active RIS, which can effectively enhance the flexibility of RIS deployment without external power demand. Nevertheless, existing works neglected the inherent difficulty of channel estimation (CE) for RIS-assisted systems, and the discrete phase shift constraint in practical deployment. In this paper we design a new element-wise RIS architecture and propose a distributed location-aided transmission scheme with low complexity to enhance the reflected gain for channel state information (CSI)-limited RIS-assisted near-field communications. Specifically, the new element-wise RIS provides dynamic element selection capability with low hardware resources. Based on Fresnel diffraction theory, we construct the mapping from locations in space-domain to phase distributions of waves in phase-domain and reveal the priority of elements for harvesting and reflecting. {Then, the distributed beamforming design with the phase of determine-then-align is proposed, where the estimation overhead reduction stems from exempted requirements of RIS-associated CE at base station (BS).} The asymptotic analysis indicates that the proposed scheme can achieve the optimal gain with a fixed proportion of reflective elements when RIS is large, followed by simulations to verify its superiority to other protocols. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 17 Pages arXiv:2510.14226 [ pdf , ps , other ] Location-Aided Distributed Beamforming for Near-Field Communications with Element-Wise RIS Authors: Xiao Zheng , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Zhuohui Yao , Jiangzhou Wang Abstract : Active reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) emerges as an effective technique to resist the double-fading attenuation of passive RIS. By embedding with power harvesting function, it further evolves to zero-power active RIS, which can effectively enhance the flexibility of RIS deployment without external power demand. Nevertheless, existing works neglected the inherent difficulty of channel est… ▽ More Active reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) emerges as an effective technique to resist the double-fading attenuation of passive RIS. By embedding with power harvesting function, it further evolves to zero-power active RIS, which can effectively enhance the flexibility of RIS deployment without external power demand. Nevertheless, existing works neglected the inherent difficulty of channel estimation (CE) for RIS-assisted systems, and the discrete phase shift constraint in practical deployment. In this paper we design a new element-wise RIS architecture and propose a distributed location-aided transmission scheme with low complexity to enhance the reflected gain for channel state information (CSI)-limited RIS-assisted near-field communications. Specifically, the new element-wise RIS provides dynamic element selection capability with low hardware resources. Based on Fresnel diffraction theory, we construct the mapping from locations in space-domain to phase distributions of waves in phase-domain and reveal the priority of elements for harvesting and reflecting. {Then, the distributed beamforming design with the phase of determine-then-align is proposed, where the estimation overhead reduction stems from exempted requirements of RIS-associated CE at base station (BS).} The asymptotic analysis indicates that the proposed scheme can achieve the optimal gain with a fixed proportion of reflective elements when RIS is large, followed by simulations to verify its superiority to other protocols. △ Less Submitted 15 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 17 Pages arXiv:2510.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Stop When Enough: Adaptive Early-Stopping for Chain-of-Thought Reasoning Authors: Renliang Sun , Wei Cheng , Dawei Li , Haifeng Chen , Wei Wang Abstract : Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has driven recent gains of large language models (LLMs) on reasoning-intensive tasks by externalizing intermediate steps. However, excessive or redundant reasoning -- so-called overthinking -- can increase inference costs and lead LLMs toward incorrect conclusions. In this paper, we present REFRAIN ($\underline{REF}$lective-$\underline{R}$edundancy for… ▽ More Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has driven recent gains of large language models (LLMs) on reasoning-intensive tasks by externalizing intermediate steps. However, excessive or redundant reasoning -- so-called overthinking -- can increase inference costs and lead LLMs toward incorrect conclusions. In this paper, we present REFRAIN ($\underline{REF}$lective-$\underline{R}$edundancy for $\underline{A}$daptive $\underline{IN}$ference), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when to stop reasoning to mitigate overthinking. REFRAIN integrates a two-stage stop discriminator to identify reflective yet redundant reasoning and a sliding-window Upper Confidence Bound (SW-UCB) multi-armed bandit controller to dynamically adjust stopping thresholds according to problem difficulty without supervision or fine-tuning. Across four representative benchmarks and two model families, REFRAIN reduces token usage by 20-55% while maintaining or improving accuracy compared to standard CoT prompting. Extensive ablation and robustness analyses demonstrate its stability across models, scorers, and prompt variations. In summary, our findings highlight when-to-stop as a new and practical axis of test-time scaling -- enabling models to reason not just more, but just enough. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] Stop When Enough: Adaptive Early-Stopping for Chain-of-Thought Reasoning Authors: Renliang Sun , Wei Cheng , Dawei Li , Haifeng Chen , Wei Wang Abstract : Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has driven recent gains of large language models (LLMs) on reasoning-intensive tasks by externalizing intermediate steps. However, excessive or redundant reasoning -- so-called overthinking -- can increase inference costs and lead LLMs toward incorrect conclusions. In this paper, we present REFRAIN ($\underline{REF}$lective-$\underline{R}$edundancy for… ▽ More Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has driven recent gains of large language models (LLMs) on reasoning-intensive tasks by externalizing intermediate steps. However, excessive or redundant reasoning -- so-called overthinking -- can increase inference costs and lead LLMs toward incorrect conclusions. In this paper, we present REFRAIN ($\underline{REF}$lective-$\underline{R}$edundancy for $\underline{A}$daptive $\underline{IN}$ference), a training-free framework that adaptively determines when to stop reasoning to mitigate overthinking. REFRAIN integrates a two-stage stop discriminator to identify reflective yet redundant reasoning and a sliding-window Upper Confidence Bound (SW-UCB) multi-armed bandit controller to dynamically adjust stopping thresholds according to problem difficulty without supervision or fine-tuning. Across four representative benchmarks and two model families, REFRAIN reduces token usage by 20-55% while maintaining or improving accuracy compared to standard CoT prompting. Extensive ablation and robustness analyses demonstrate its stability across models, scorers, and prompt variations. In summary, our findings highlight when-to-stop as a new and practical axis of test-time scaling -- enabling models to reason not just more, but just enough. △ Less Submitted 11 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.08602 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.LG Human Texts Are Outliers: Detecting LLM-generated Texts via Out-of-distribution Detection Authors: Cong Zeng , Shengkun Tang , Yuanzhou Chen , Zhiqiang Shen , Wenchao Yu , Xujiang Zhao , Haifeng Chen , Wei Cheng , Zhiqiang Xu Abstract : The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, and Claude has significantly increased the presence of AI-generated text in digital communication. This trend has heightened the need for reliable detection methods to distinguish between human-authored and machine-generated content. Existing approaches both zero-shot methods and supervised classifiers largely concept… ▽ More The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, and Claude has significantly increased the presence of AI-generated text in digital communication. This trend has heightened the need for reliable detection methods to distinguish between human-authored and machine-generated content. Existing approaches both zero-shot methods and supervised classifiers largely conceptualize this task as a binary classification problem, often leading to poor generalization across domains and models. In this paper, we argue that such a binary formulation fundamentally mischaracterizes the detection task by assuming a coherent representation of human-written texts. In reality, human texts do not constitute a unified distribution, and their diversity cannot be effectively captured through limited sampling. This causes previous classifiers to memorize observed OOD characteristics rather than learn the essence of `non-ID' behavior, limiting generalization to unseen human-authored inputs. Based on this observation, we propose reframing the detection task as an out-of-distribution (OOD) detection problem, treating human-written texts as distributional outliers while machine-generated texts are in-distribution (ID) samples. To this end, we develop a detection framework using one-class learning method including DeepSVDD and HRN, and score-based learning techniques such as energy-based method, enabling robust and generalizable performance. Extensive experiments across multiple datasets validate the effectiveness of our OOD-based approach. Specifically, the OOD-based method achieves 98.3% AUROC and AUPR with only 8.9% FPR95 on DeepFake dataset. Moreover, we test our detection framework on multilingual, attacked, and unseen-model and -domain text settings, demonstrating the robustness and generalizability of our framework. Code, pretrained weights, and demo will be released. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Journal ref: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.08602 [ pdf , ps , other ] Human Texts Are Outliers: Detecting LLM-generated Texts via Out-of-distribution Detection Authors: Cong Zeng , Shengkun Tang , Yuanzhou Chen , Zhiqiang Shen , Wenchao Yu , Xujiang Zhao , Haifeng Chen , Wei Cheng , Zhiqiang Xu Abstract : The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, and Claude has significantly increased the presence of AI-generated text in digital communication. This trend has heightened the need for reliable detection methods to distinguish between human-authored and machine-generated content. Existing approaches both zero-shot methods and supervised classifiers largely concept… ▽ More The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, and Claude has significantly increased the presence of AI-generated text in digital communication. This trend has heightened the need for reliable detection methods to distinguish between human-authored and machine-generated content. Existing approaches both zero-shot methods and supervised classifiers largely conceptualize this task as a binary classification problem, often leading to poor generalization across domains and models. In this paper, we argue that such a binary formulation fundamentally mischaracterizes the detection task by assuming a coherent representation of human-written texts. In reality, human texts do not constitute a unified distribution, and their diversity cannot be effectively captured through limited sampling. This causes previous classifiers to memorize observed OOD characteristics rather than learn the essence of `non-ID' behavior, limiting generalization to unseen human-authored inputs. Based on this observation, we propose reframing the detection task as an out-of-distribution (OOD) detection problem, treating human-written texts as distributional outliers while machine-generated texts are in-distribution (ID) samples. To this end, we develop a detection framework using one-class learning method including DeepSVDD and HRN, and score-based learning techniques such as energy-based method, enabling robust and generalizable performance. Extensive experiments across multiple datasets validate the effectiveness of our OOD-based approach. Specifically, the OOD-based method achieves 98.3% AUROC and AUPR with only 8.9% FPR95 on DeepFake dataset. Moreover, we test our detection framework on multilingual, attacked, and unseen-model and -domain text settings, demonstrating the robustness and generalizability of our framework. Code, pretrained weights, and demo will be released. △ Less Submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Journal ref: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2510.02388 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Learning to Route: A Rule-Driven Agent Framework for Hybrid-Source Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Haoyue Bai , Haoyu Wang , Shengyu Chen , Zhengzhang Chen , Lu-An Tang , Wei Cheng , Haifeng Chen , Yanjie Fu Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable performance on general Question Answering (QA), yet they often struggle in domain-specific scenarios where accurate and up-to-date information is required. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) addresses this limitation by enriching LLMs with external knowledge, but existing systems primarily rely on unstructured documents, while largely overlookin… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable performance on general Question Answering (QA), yet they often struggle in domain-specific scenarios where accurate and up-to-date information is required. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) addresses this limitation by enriching LLMs with external knowledge, but existing systems primarily rely on unstructured documents, while largely overlooking relational databases, which provide precise, timely, and efficiently queryable factual information, serving as indispensable infrastructure in domains such as finance, healthcare, and scientific research. Motivated by this gap, we conduct a systematic analysis that reveals three central observations: (i) databases and documents offer complementary strengths across queries, (ii) naively combining both sources introduces noise and cost without consistent accuracy gains, and (iii) selecting the most suitable source for each query is crucial to balance effectiveness and efficiency. We further observe that query types show consistent regularities in their alignment with retrieval paths, suggesting that routing decisions can be effectively guided by systematic rules that capture these patterns. Building on these insights, we propose a rule-driven routing framework. A routing agent scores candidate augmentation paths based on explicit rules and selects the most suitable one; a rule-making expert agent refines the rules over time using QA feedback to maintain adaptability; and a path-level meta-cache reuses past routing decisions for semantically similar queries to reduce latency and cost. Experiments on three QA benchmarks demonstrate that our framework consistently outperforms static strategies and learned routing baselines, achieving higher accuracy while maintaining moderate computational cost. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.02388 [ pdf , ps , other ] Learning to Route: A Rule-Driven Agent Framework for Hybrid-Source Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Haoyue Bai , Haoyu Wang , Shengyu Chen , Zhengzhang Chen , Lu-An Tang , Wei Cheng , Haifeng Chen , Yanjie Fu Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable performance on general Question Answering (QA), yet they often struggle in domain-specific scenarios where accurate and up-to-date information is required. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) addresses this limitation by enriching LLMs with external knowledge, but existing systems primarily rely on unstructured documents, while largely overlookin… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable performance on general Question Answering (QA), yet they often struggle in domain-specific scenarios where accurate and up-to-date information is required. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) addresses this limitation by enriching LLMs with external knowledge, but existing systems primarily rely on unstructured documents, while largely overlooking relational databases, which provide precise, timely, and efficiently queryable factual information, serving as indispensable infrastructure in domains such as finance, healthcare, and scientific research. Motivated by this gap, we conduct a systematic analysis that reveals three central observations: (i) databases and documents offer complementary strengths across queries, (ii) naively combining both sources introduces noise and cost without consistent accuracy gains, and (iii) selecting the most suitable source for each query is crucial to balance effectiveness and efficiency. We further observe that query types show consistent regularities in their alignment with retrieval paths, suggesting that routing decisions can be effectively guided by systematic rules that capture these patterns. Building on these insights, we propose a rule-driven routing framework. A routing agent scores candidate augmentation paths based on explicit rules and selects the most suitable one; a rule-making expert agent refines the rules over time using QA feedback to maintain adaptability; and a path-level meta-cache reuses past routing decisions for semantically similar queries to reduce latency and cost. Experiments on three QA benchmarks demonstrate that our framework consistently outperforms static strategies and learned routing baselines, achieving higher accuracy while maintaining moderate computational cost. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2509.25855 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI eess.SY Intelligent Multi-link EDCA Optimization for Delay-Bounded QoS in Wi-Fi 7 Authors: Peini Yi , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Jinzhe Pan , Yuehui Ouyang , Wei Zhang Abstract : IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) introduces Multi-Link Operation (MLO) as a While MLO offers significant parallelism and capacity, realizing its full potential in guaranteeing strict delay bounds and optimizing Quality of Service (QoS) for diverse, heterogeneous traffic streams in complex multi-link scenarios remain a significant challenge. This is largely due to the limitations of static Enhanced Distribu… ▽ More IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) introduces Multi-Link Operation (MLO) as a While MLO offers significant parallelism and capacity, realizing its full potential in guaranteeing strict delay bounds and optimizing Quality of Service (QoS) for diverse, heterogeneous traffic streams in complex multi-link scenarios remain a significant challenge. This is largely due to the limitations of static Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) parameters and the complexity inherent in cross-link traffic management. To address this, this paper investigates the correlation between overall MLO QoS indicators and the configuration of EDCA parameters and Acess Catagory (AC) traffic allocation among links. Based on this analysis, we formulate a constrained optimization problem aiming to minimize the sum of overall packet loss rates for all access categories while satisfying their respective overall delay violation probability constraints. A Genetic Algorithm (GA)-based MLO EDCA QoS optimization algorithm is designed to efficiently search the complex configuration space of AC assignments and EDCA parameters. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed approach's efficacy in generating adaptive MLO configuration strategies that align with diverse service requirements. The proposed solution significantly improves delay distribution characteristics, and enhance QoS robustness and resource utilization efficiency in high-load MLO environments. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.25855 [ pdf , ps , other ] Intelligent Multi-link EDCA Optimization for Delay-Bounded QoS in Wi-Fi 7 Authors: Peini Yi , Wenchi Cheng , Jingqing Wang , Jinzhe Pan , Yuehui Ouyang , Wei Zhang Abstract : IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) introduces Multi-Link Operation (MLO) as a While MLO offers significant parallelism and capacity, realizing its full potential in guaranteeing strict delay bounds and optimizing Quality of Service (QoS) for diverse, heterogeneous traffic streams in complex multi-link scenarios remain a significant challenge. This is largely due to the limitations of static Enhanced Distribu… ▽ More IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) introduces Multi-Link Operation (MLO) as a While MLO offers significant parallelism and capacity, realizing its full potential in guaranteeing strict delay bounds and optimizing Quality of Service (QoS) for diverse, heterogeneous traffic streams in complex multi-link scenarios remain a significant challenge. This is largely due to the limitations of static Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) parameters and the complexity inherent in cross-link traffic management. To address this, this paper investigates the correlation between overall MLO QoS indicators and the configuration of EDCA parameters and Acess Catagory (AC) traffic allocation among links. Based on this analysis, we formulate a constrained optimization problem aiming to minimize the sum of overall packet loss rates for all access categories while satisfying their respective overall delay violation probability constraints. A Genetic Algorithm (GA)-based MLO EDCA QoS optimization algorithm is designed to efficiently search the complex configuration space of AC assignments and EDCA parameters. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed approach's efficacy in generating adaptive MLO configuration strategies that align with diverse service requirements. The proposed solution significantly improves delay distribution characteristics, and enhance QoS robustness and resource utilization efficiency in high-load MLO environments. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.23908 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT Post-disaster Max-Min Rate Optimization for Multi-UAV RSMA Network in Obstacle Environments Authors: Qingyang Wang , Zhuohui Yao , Wenchi Cheng , Xiao Zheng Abstract : This paper proposes a rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA) transmission scheme to maximize the minimum achievable rate among ground users for emergency communications in post-disaster scenarios with obstacles, with which the optimal positioning of multiple unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-enabled base stations can be achieved timely.To address the resulting non-convex and intractable optimization pr… ▽ More This paper proposes a rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA) transmission scheme to maximize the minimum achievable rate among ground users for emergency communications in post-disaster scenarios with obstacles, with which the optimal positioning of multiple unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-enabled base stations can be achieved timely.To address the resulting non-convex and intractable optimization problem, we design an alternating optimization approach. Specifically, we relax obstacle-related constraints using penalty terms. In each iteration, block coordinate descent (BCD) and successive convex approximation (SCA) are applied alternately to obtain locally optimal solutions, and penalty multipliers are updated to ensure convergence of the relaxed problem to the original one. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed scheme significantly outperforms benchmark methods in terms of the minimum achievable rate, verifying its effectiveness and superiority. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.23908 [ pdf , ps , other ] Post-disaster Max-Min Rate Optimization for Multi-UAV RSMA Network in Obstacle Environments Authors: Qingyang Wang , Zhuohui Yao , Wenchi Cheng , Xiao Zheng Abstract : This paper proposes a rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA) transmission scheme to maximize the minimum achievable rate among ground users for emergency communications in post-disaster scenarios with obstacles, with which the optimal positioning of multiple unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-enabled base stations can be achieved timely.To address the resulting non-convex and intractable optimization pr… ▽ More This paper proposes a rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA) transmission scheme to maximize the minimum achievable rate among ground users for emergency communications in post-disaster scenarios with obstacles, with which the optimal positioning of multiple unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-enabled base stations can be achieved timely.To address the resulting non-convex and intractable optimization problem, we design an alternating optimization approach. Specifically, we relax obstacle-related constraints using penalty terms. In each iteration, block coordinate descent (BCD) and successive convex approximation (SCA) are applied alternately to obtain locally optimal solutions, and penalty multipliers are updated to ensure convergence of the relaxed problem to the original one. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed scheme significantly outperforms benchmark methods in terms of the minimum achievable rate, verifying its effectiveness and superiority. △ Less Submitted 28 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.23154 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG cs.NI AI-Enhanced Distributed Channel Access for Collision Avoidance in Future Wi-Fi 8 Authors: Jinzhe Pan , Jingqing Wang , Yuehui Ouyang , Wenchi Cheng , Wei Zhang Abstract : The exponential growth of wireless devices and stringent reliability requirements of emerging applications demand fundamental improvements in distributed channel access mechanisms for unlicensed bands. Current Wi-Fi systems, which rely on binary exponential backoff (BEB), suffer from suboptimal collision resolution in dense deployments and persistent fairness challenges due to inherent randomness.… ▽ More The exponential growth of wireless devices and stringent reliability requirements of emerging applications demand fundamental improvements in distributed channel access mechanisms for unlicensed bands. Current Wi-Fi systems, which rely on binary exponential backoff (BEB), suffer from suboptimal collision resolution in dense deployments and persistent fairness challenges due to inherent randomness. This paper introduces a multi-agent reinforcement learning framework that integrates artificial intelligence (AI) optimization with legacy device coexistence. We first develop a dynamic backoff selection mechanism that adapts to real-time channel conditions through access deferral events while maintaining full compatibility with conventional CSMA/CA operations. Second, we introduce a fairness quantification metric aligned with enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA) principles to ensure equitable medium access opportunities. Finally, we propose a centralized training decentralized execution (CTDE) architecture incorporating neighborhood activity patterns as observational inputs, optimized via constrained multi-agent proximal policy optimization (MAPPO) to jointly minimize collisions and guarantee fairness. Experimental results demonstrate that our solution significantly reduces collision probability compared to conventional BEB while preserving backward compatibility with commercial Wi-Fi devices. The proposed fairness metric effectively eliminates starvation risks in heterogeneous scenarios. △ Less Submitted 27 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 6 pages,6 figures, accepted by Globalcom 2025 arXiv:2509.23154 [ pdf , ps , other ] AI-Enhanced Distributed Channel Access for Collision Avoidance in Future Wi-Fi 8 Authors: Jinzhe Pan , Jingqing Wang , Yuehui Ouyang , Wenchi Cheng , Wei Zhang Abstract : The exponential growth of wireless devices and stringent reliability requirements of emerging applications demand fundamental improvements in distributed channel access mechanisms for unlicensed bands. Current Wi-Fi systems, which rely on binary exponential backoff (BEB), suffer from suboptimal collision resolution in dense deployments and persistent fairness challenges due to inherent randomness.… ▽ More The exponential growth of wireless devices and stringent reliability requirements of emerging applications demand fundamental improvements in distributed channel access mechanisms for unlicensed bands. Current Wi-Fi systems, which rely on binary exponential backoff (BEB), suffer from suboptimal collision resolution in dense deployments and persistent fairness challenges due to inherent randomness. This paper introduces a multi-agent reinforcement learning framework that integrates artificial intelligence (AI) optimization with legacy device coexistence. We first develop a dynamic backoff selection mechanism that adapts to real-time channel conditions through access deferral events while maintaining full compatibility with conventional CSMA/CA operations. Second, we introduce a fairness quantification metric aligned with enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA) principles to ensure equitable medium access opportunities. Finally, we propose a centralized training decentralized execution (CTDE) architecture incorporating neighborhood activity patterns as observational inputs, optimized via constrained multi-agent proximal policy optimization (MAPPO) to jointly minimize collisions and guarantee fairness. Experimental results demonstrate that our solution significantly reduces collision probability compared to conventional BEB while preserving backward compatibility with commercial Wi-Fi devices. The proposed fairness metric effectively eliminates starvation risks in heterogeneous scenarios. △ Less Submitted 27 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 6 pages,6 figures, accepted by Globalcom 2025 arXiv:2509.19841 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ThinkFake: Reasoning in Multimodal Large Language Models for AI-Generated Image Detection Authors: Tai-Ming Huang , Wei-Tung Lin , Kai-Lung Hua , Wen-Huang Cheng , Junichi Yamagishi , Jun-Cheng Chen Abstract : The increasing realism of AI-generated images has raised serious concerns about misinformation and privacy violations, highlighting the urgent need for accurate and interpretable detection methods. While existing approaches have made progress, most rely on binary classification without explanations or depend heavily on supervised fine-tuning, resulting in limited generalization. In this paper, we… ▽ More The increasing realism of AI-generated images has raised serious concerns about misinformation and privacy violations, highlighting the urgent need for accurate and interpretable detection methods. While existing approaches have made progress, most rely on binary classification without explanations or depend heavily on supervised fine-tuning, resulting in limited generalization. In this paper, we propose ThinkFake, a novel reasoning-based and generalizable framework for AI-generated image detection. Our method leverages a Multimodal Large Language Model (MLLM) equipped with a forgery reasoning prompt and is trained using Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) reinforcement learning with carefully designed reward functions. This design enables the model to perform step-by-step reasoning and produce interpretable, structured outputs. We further introduce a structured detection pipeline to enhance reasoning quality and adaptability. Extensive experiments show that ThinkFake outperforms state-of-the-art methods on the GenImage benchmark and demonstrates strong zero-shot generalization on the challenging LOKI benchmark. These results validate our framework's effectiveness and robustness. Code will be released upon acceptance. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.19841 [ pdf , ps , other ] ThinkFake: Reasoning in Multimodal Large Language Models for AI-Generated Image Detection Authors: Tai-Ming Huang , Wei-Tung Lin , Kai-Lung Hua , Wen-Huang Cheng , Junichi Yamagishi , Jun-Cheng Chen Abstract : The increasing realism of AI-generated images has raised serious concerns about misinformation and privacy violations, highlighting the urgent need for accurate and interpretable detection methods. While existing approaches have made progress, most rely on binary classification without explanations or depend heavily on supervised fine-tuning, resulting in limited generalization. In this paper, we… ▽ More The increasing realism of AI-generated images has raised serious concerns about misinformation and privacy violations, highlighting the urgent need for accurate and interpretable detection methods. While existing approaches have made progress, most rely on binary classification without explanations or depend heavily on supervised fine-tuning, resulting in limited generalization. In this paper, we propose ThinkFake, a novel reasoning-based and generalizable framework for AI-generated image detection. Our method leverages a Multimodal Large Language Model (MLLM) equipped with a forgery reasoning prompt and is trained using Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) reinforcement learning with carefully designed reward functions. This design enables the model to perform step-by-step reasoning and produce interpretable, structured outputs. We further introduce a structured detection pipeline to enhance reasoning quality and adaptability. Extensive experiments show that ThinkFake outperforms state-of-the-art methods on the GenImage benchmark and demonstrates strong zero-shot generalization on the challenging LOKI benchmark. These results validate our framework's effectiveness and robustness. Code will be released upon acceptance. △ Less Submitted 24 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.19690 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV From Prompt to Progression: Taming Video Diffusion Models for Seamless Attribute Transition Authors: Ling Lo , Kelvin C. K. Chan , Wen-Huang Cheng , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Existing models often struggle with complex temporal changes, particularly when generating videos with gradual attribute transitions. The most common prompt interpolation approach for motion transitions often fails to handle gradual attribute transitions, where inconsistencies tend to become more pronounced. In this work, we propose a simple yet effective method to extend existing models for smoot… ▽ More Existing models often struggle with complex temporal changes, particularly when generating videos with gradual attribute transitions. The most common prompt interpolation approach for motion transitions often fails to handle gradual attribute transitions, where inconsistencies tend to become more pronounced. In this work, we propose a simple yet effective method to extend existing models for smooth and consistent attribute transitions, through introducing frame-wise guidance during the denoising process. Our approach constructs a data-specific transitional direction for each noisy latent, guiding the gradual shift from initial to final attributes frame by frame while preserving the motion dynamics of the video. Moreover, we present the Controlled-Attribute-Transition Benchmark (CAT-Bench), which integrates both attribute and motion dynamics, to comprehensively evaluate the performance of different models. We further propose two metrics to assess the accuracy and smoothness of attribute transitions. Experimental results demonstrate that our approach performs favorably against existing baselines, achieving visual fidelity, maintaining alignment with text prompts, and delivering seamless attribute transitions. Code and CATBench are released: △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: ICCV 2025 arXiv:2509.19690 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Prompt to Progression: Taming Video Diffusion Models for Seamless Attribute Transition Authors: Ling Lo , Kelvin C. K. Chan , Wen-Huang Cheng , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Existing models often struggle with complex temporal changes, particularly when generating videos with gradual attribute transitions. The most common prompt interpolation approach for motion transitions often fails to handle gradual attribute transitions, where inconsistencies tend to become more pronounced. In this work, we propose a simple yet effective method to extend existing models for smoot… ▽ More Existing models often struggle with complex temporal changes, particularly when generating videos with gradual attribute transitions. The most common prompt interpolation approach for motion transitions often fails to handle gradual attribute transitions, where inconsistencies tend to become more pronounced. In this work, we propose a simple yet effective method to extend existing models for smooth and consistent attribute transitions, through introducing frame-wise guidance during the denoising process. Our approach constructs a data-specific transitional direction for each noisy latent, guiding the gradual shift from initial to final attributes frame by frame while preserving the motion dynamics of the video. Moreover, we present the Controlled-Attribute-Transition Benchmark (CAT-Bench), which integrates both attribute and motion dynamics, to comprehensively evaluate the performance of different models. We further propose two metrics to assess the accuracy and smoothness of attribute transitions. Experimental results demonstrate that our approach performs favorably against existing baselines, achieving visual fidelity, maintaining alignment with text prompts, and delivering seamless attribute transitions. Code and CATBench are released: △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: ICCV 2025 arXiv:2509.17832 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR AEAS: Actionable Exploit Assessment System Authors: Xiangmin Shen , Wenyuan Cheng , Yan Chen , Zhenyuan Li , Yuqiao Gu , Lingzhi Wang , Wencheng Zhao , Dawei Sun , Jiashui Wang Abstract : Security practitioners face growing challenges in exploit assessment, as public vulnerability repositories are increasingly populated with inconsistent and low-quality exploit artifacts. Existing scoring systems, such as CVSS and EPSS, offer limited support for this task. They either rely on theoretical metrics or produce opaque probability estimates without assessing whether usable exploit code e… ▽ More Security practitioners face growing challenges in exploit assessment, as public vulnerability repositories are increasingly populated with inconsistent and low-quality exploit artifacts. Existing scoring systems, such as CVSS and EPSS, offer limited support for this task. They either rely on theoretical metrics or produce opaque probability estimates without assessing whether usable exploit code exists. In practice, security teams often resort to manual triage of exploit repositories, which is time-consuming, error-prone, and difficult to scale. We present AEAS, an automated system designed to assess and prioritize actionable exploits through static analysis. AEAS analyzes both exploit code and associated documentation to extract a structured set of features reflecting exploit availability, functionality, and setup complexity. It then computes an actionability score for each exploit and produces ranked exploit recommendations. We evaluate AEAS on a dataset of over 5,000 vulnerabilities derived from 600+ real-world applications frequently encountered by red teams. Manual validation and expert review on representative subsets show that AEAS achieves a 100% top-3 success rate in recommending functional exploits and shows strong alignment with expert-validated rankings. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of AEAS in supporting exploit-driven vulnerability prioritization. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: AEAS has been implemented in the planning agent of PentestAgent, our LLM-driven automated penetration testing framework. Check out our repository: arXiv:2509.17832 [ pdf , ps , other ] AEAS: Actionable Exploit Assessment System Authors: Xiangmin Shen , Wenyuan Cheng , Yan Chen , Zhenyuan Li , Yuqiao Gu , Lingzhi Wang , Wencheng Zhao , Dawei Sun , Jiashui Wang Abstract : Security practitioners face growing challenges in exploit assessment, as public vulnerability repositories are increasingly populated with inconsistent and low-quality exploit artifacts. Existing scoring systems, such as CVSS and EPSS, offer limited support for this task. They either rely on theoretical metrics or produce opaque probability estimates without assessing whether usable exploit code e… ▽ More Security practitioners face growing challenges in exploit assessment, as public vulnerability repositories are increasingly populated with inconsistent and low-quality exploit artifacts. Existing scoring systems, such as CVSS and EPSS, offer limited support for this task. They either rely on theoretical metrics or produce opaque probability estimates without assessing whether usable exploit code exists. In practice, security teams often resort to manual triage of exploit repositories, which is time-consuming, error-prone, and difficult to scale. We present AEAS, an automated system designed to assess and prioritize actionable exploits through static analysis. AEAS analyzes both exploit code and associated documentation to extract a structured set of features reflecting exploit availability, functionality, and setup complexity. It then computes an actionability score for each exploit and produces ranked exploit recommendations. We evaluate AEAS on a dataset of over 5,000 vulnerabilities derived from 600+ real-world applications frequently encountered by red teams. Manual validation and expert review on representative subsets show that AEAS achieves a 100% top-3 success rate in recommending functional exploits and shows strong alignment with expert-validated rankings. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of AEAS in supporting exploit-driven vulnerability prioritization. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: AEAS has been implemented in the planning agent of PentestAgent, our LLM-driven automated penetration testing framework. Check out our repository: arXiv:2509.16984 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.NI eess.SY System Relaxation for Interpretable and Adaptive Network Control Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Zhiliang Shuai , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Prevailing network control strategies, which rely on static shortest-path logic, suffer from catastrophic "stress concentration" on critical nodes. This paper introduces the System Relaxation Algorithm (SRA), a new control paradigm inspired by physical relaxation that guides a network toward an emergent equilibrium of load balance. SRA is an interpretable, 'white-box' dynamical system whose behavi… ▽ More Prevailing network control strategies, which rely on static shortest-path logic, suffer from catastrophic "stress concentration" on critical nodes. This paper introduces the System Relaxation Algorithm (SRA), a new control paradigm inspired by physical relaxation that guides a network toward an emergent equilibrium of load balance. SRA is an interpretable, 'white-box' dynamical system whose behavior is profoundly topology-dependent: in heterogeneous networks, it acts as a proactive performance optimizer, reducing peak centrality by over 80\% and increasing high-load throughput by more than 45\%; in homogeneous topologies, its objective intelligently shifts to resilience enhancement. We rigorously prove its global convergence and practical stability using the theory of non-smooth dynamical systems, establishing a predictable paradigm for network governance that intelligently trades off performance and resilience. △ Less Submitted 21 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.16984 [ pdf , ps , other ] System Relaxation for Interpretable and Adaptive Network Control Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Zhiliang Shuai , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Prevailing network control strategies, which rely on static shortest-path logic, suffer from catastrophic "stress concentration" on critical nodes. This paper introduces the System Relaxation Algorithm (SRA), a new control paradigm inspired by physical relaxation that guides a network toward an emergent equilibrium of load balance. SRA is an interpretable, 'white-box' dynamical system whose behavi… ▽ More Prevailing network control strategies, which rely on static shortest-path logic, suffer from catastrophic "stress concentration" on critical nodes. This paper introduces the System Relaxation Algorithm (SRA), a new control paradigm inspired by physical relaxation that guides a network toward an emergent equilibrium of load balance. SRA is an interpretable, 'white-box' dynamical system whose behavior is profoundly topology-dependent: in heterogeneous networks, it acts as a proactive performance optimizer, reducing peak centrality by over 80\% and increasing high-load throughput by more than 45\%; in homogeneous topologies, its objective intelligently shifts to resilience enhancement. We rigorously prove its global convergence and practical stability using the theory of non-smooth dynamical systems, establishing a predictable paradigm for network governance that intelligently trades off performance and resilience. △ Less Submitted 21 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.14788 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI q-bio.BM Structure-Aware Contrastive Learning with Fine-Grained Binding Representations for Drug Discovery Authors: Jing Lan , Hexiao Ding , Hongzhao Chen , Yufeng Jiang , Nga-Chun Ng , Gwing Kei Yip , Gerald W. Y. Cheng , Yunlin Mao , Jing Cai , Liang-ting Lin , Jung Sun Yoo Abstract : Accurate identification of drug-target interactions (DTI) remains a central challenge in computational pharmacology, where sequence-based methods offer scalability. This work introduces a sequence-based drug-target interaction framework that integrates structural priors into protein representations while maintaining high-throughput screening capability. Evaluated across multiple benchmarks, the mo… ▽ More Accurate identification of drug-target interactions (DTI) remains a central challenge in computational pharmacology, where sequence-based methods offer scalability. This work introduces a sequence-based drug-target interaction framework that integrates structural priors into protein representations while maintaining high-throughput screening capability. Evaluated across multiple benchmarks, the model achieves state-of-the-art performance on Human and BioSNAP datasets and remains competitive on BindingDB. In virtual screening tasks, it surpasses prior methods on LIT-PCBA, yielding substantial gains in AUROC and BEDROC. Ablation studies confirm the critical role of learned aggregation, bilinear attention, and contrastive alignment in enhancing predictive robustness. Embedding visualizations reveal improved spatial correspondence with known binding pockets and highlight interpretable attention patterns over ligand-residue contacts. These results validate the framework's utility for scalable and structure-aware DTI prediction. △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.14788 [ pdf , ps , other ] Structure-Aware Contrastive Learning with Fine-Grained Binding Representations for Drug Discovery Authors: Jing Lan , Hexiao Ding , Hongzhao Chen , Yufeng Jiang , Nga-Chun Ng , Gwing Kei Yip , Gerald W. Y. Cheng , Yunlin Mao , Jing Cai , Liang-ting Lin , Jung Sun Yoo Abstract : Accurate identification of drug-target interactions (DTI) remains a central challenge in computational pharmacology, where sequence-based methods offer scalability. This work introduces a sequence-based drug-target interaction framework that integrates structural priors into protein representations while maintaining high-throughput screening capability. Evaluated across multiple benchmarks, the mo… ▽ More Accurate identification of drug-target interactions (DTI) remains a central challenge in computational pharmacology, where sequence-based methods offer scalability. This work introduces a sequence-based drug-target interaction framework that integrates structural priors into protein representations while maintaining high-throughput screening capability. Evaluated across multiple benchmarks, the model achieves state-of-the-art performance on Human and BioSNAP datasets and remains competitive on BindingDB. In virtual screening tasks, it surpasses prior methods on LIT-PCBA, yielding substantial gains in AUROC and BEDROC. Ablation studies confirm the critical role of learned aggregation, bilinear attention, and contrastive alignment in enhancing predictive robustness. Embedding visualizations reveal improved spatial correspondence with known binding pockets and highlight interpretable attention patterns over ligand-residue contacts. These results validate the framework's utility for scalable and structure-aware DTI prediction. △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.13747 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1109/TPAMI.2025.3607387 Improving Generalized Visual Grounding with Instance-aware Joint Learning Authors: Ming Dai , Wenxuan Cheng , Jiang-Jiang Liu , Lingfeng Yang , Zhenhua Feng , Wankou Yang , Jingdong Wang Abstract : Generalized visual grounding tasks, including Generalized Referring Expression Comprehension (GREC) and Segmentation (GRES), extend the classical visual grounding paradigm by accommodating multi-target and non-target scenarios. Specifically, GREC focuses on accurately identifying all referential objects at the coarse bounding box level, while GRES aims for achieve fine-grained pixel-level percepti… ▽ More Generalized visual grounding tasks, including Generalized Referring Expression Comprehension (GREC) and Segmentation (GRES), extend the classical visual grounding paradigm by accommodating multi-target and non-target scenarios. Specifically, GREC focuses on accurately identifying all referential objects at the coarse bounding box level, while GRES aims for achieve fine-grained pixel-level perception. However, existing approaches typically treat these tasks independently, overlooking the benefits of jointly training GREC and GRES to ensure consistent multi-granularity predictions and streamline the overall process. Moreover, current methods often treat GRES as a semantic segmentation task, neglecting the crucial role of instance-aware capabilities and the necessity of ensuring consistent predictions between instance-level boxes and masks. To address these limitations, we propose InstanceVG, a multi-task generalized visual grounding framework equipped with instance-aware capabilities, which leverages instance queries to unify the joint and consistency predictions of instance-level boxes and masks. To the best of our knowledge, InstanceVG is the first framework to simultaneously tackle both GREC and GRES while incorporating instance-aware capabilities into generalized visual grounding. To instantiate the framework, we assign each instance query a prior reference point, which also serves as an additional basis for target matching. This design facilitates consistent predictions of points, boxes, and masks for the same instance. Extensive experiments obtained on ten datasets across four tasks demonstrate that InstanceVG achieves state-of-the-art performance, significantly surpassing the existing methods in various evaluation metrics. The code and model will be publicly available at △ Less Submitted 17 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted by IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI) in September 2025 Journal ref: IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI2025) arXiv:2509.13747 [ pdf , ps , other ] Improving Generalized Visual Grounding with Instance-aware Joint Learning Authors: Ming Dai , Wenxuan Cheng , Jiang-Jiang Liu , Lingfeng Yang , Zhenhua Feng , Wankou Yang , Jingdong Wang Abstract : Generalized visual grounding tasks, including Generalized Referring Expression Comprehension (GREC) and Segmentation (GRES), extend the classical visual grounding paradigm by accommodating multi-target and non-target scenarios. Specifically, GREC focuses on accurately identifying all referential objects at the coarse bounding box level, while GRES aims for achieve fine-grained pixel-level percepti… ▽ More Generalized visual grounding tasks, including Generalized Referring Expression Comprehension (GREC) and Segmentation (GRES), extend the classical visual grounding paradigm by accommodating multi-target and non-target scenarios. Specifically, GREC focuses on accurately identifying all referential objects at the coarse bounding box level, while GRES aims for achieve fine-grained pixel-level perception. However, existing approaches typically treat these tasks independently, overlooking the benefits of jointly training GREC and GRES to ensure consistent multi-granularity predictions and streamline the overall process. Moreover, current methods often treat GRES as a semantic segmentation task, neglecting the crucial role of instance-aware capabilities and the necessity of ensuring consistent predictions between instance-level boxes and masks. To address these limitations, we propose InstanceVG, a multi-task generalized visual grounding framework equipped with instance-aware capabilities, which leverages instance queries to unify the joint and consistency predictions of instance-level boxes and masks. To the best of our knowledge, InstanceVG is the first framework to simultaneously tackle both GREC and GRES while incorporating instance-aware capabilities into generalized visual grounding. To instantiate the framework, we assign each instance query a prior reference point, which also serves as an additional basis for target matching. This design facilitates consistent predictions of points, boxes, and masks for the same instance. Extensive experiments obtained on ten datasets across four tasks demonstrate that InstanceVG achieves state-of-the-art performance, significantly surpassing the existing methods in various evaluation metrics. The code and model will be publicly available at △ Less Submitted 17 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted by IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI) in September 2025 Journal ref: IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI2025) arXiv:2509.11754 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.NI A Uniqueness Theorem for Distributed Computation under Physical Constraint Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Mingxuan Lu , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Foundational models of computation often abstract away physical hardware limitations. However, in extreme environments like In-Network Computing (INC), these limitations become inviolable laws, creating an acute trilemma among communication efficiency, bounded memory, and robust scalability. Prevailing distributed paradigms, while powerful in their intended domains, were not designed for this stri… ▽ More Foundational models of computation often abstract away physical hardware limitations. However, in extreme environments like In-Network Computing (INC), these limitations become inviolable laws, creating an acute trilemma among communication efficiency, bounded memory, and robust scalability. Prevailing distributed paradigms, while powerful in their intended domains, were not designed for this stringent regime and thus face fundamental challenges. This paper demonstrates that resolving this trilemma requires a shift in perspective - from seeking engineering trade-offs to deriving solutions from logical necessity. We establish a rigorous axiomatic system that formalizes these physical constraints and prove that for the broad class of computations admitting an idempotent merge operator, there exists a unique, optimal paradigm. Any system satisfying these axioms must converge to a single normal form: Self-Describing Parallel Flows (SDPF), a purely data-centric model where stateless executors process flows that carry their own control logic. We further prove this unique paradigm is convergent, Turing-complete, and minimal. In the same way that the CAP theorem established a boundary for what is impossible in distributed state management, our work provides a constructive dual: a uniqueness theorem that reveals what is \textit{inevitable} for distributed computation flows under physical law. △ Less Submitted 15 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.11754 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Uniqueness Theorem for Distributed Computation under Physical Constraint Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Mingxuan Lu , Wenchi Cheng Abstract : Foundational models of computation often abstract away physical hardware limitations. However, in extreme environments like In-Network Computing (INC), these limitations become inviolable laws, creating an acute trilemma among communication efficiency, bounded memory, and robust scalability. Prevailing distributed paradigms, while powerful in their intended domains, were not designed for this stri… ▽ More Foundational models of computation often abstract away physical hardware limitations. However, in extreme environments like In-Network Computing (INC), these limitations become inviolable laws, creating an acute trilemma among communication efficiency, bounded memory, and robust scalability. Prevailing distributed paradigms, while powerful in their intended domains, were not designed for this stringent regime and thus face fundamental challenges. This paper demonstrates that resolving this trilemma requires a shift in perspective - from seeking engineering trade-offs to deriving solutions from logical necessity. We establish a rigorous axiomatic system that formalizes these physical constraints and prove that for the broad class of computations admitting an idempotent merge operator, there exists a unique, optimal paradigm. Any system satisfying these axioms must converge to a single normal form: Self-Describing Parallel Flows (SDPF), a purely data-centric model where stateless executors process flows that carry their own control logic. We further prove this unique paradigm is convergent, Turing-complete, and minimal. In the same way that the CAP theorem established a boundary for what is impossible in distributed state management, our work provides a constructive dual: a uniqueness theorem that reveals what is \textit{inevitable} for distributed computation flows under physical law. △ Less Submitted 15 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.08551 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT The Landscape of Fairness: An Axiomatic and Predictive Framework for Network QoE Sensitivity Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Xinke Jian , Wenchi Cheng , Kun Yang Abstract : Evaluating network-wide fairness is challenging because it is not a static property but one highly sensitive to Service Level Agreement (SLA) parameters. This paper introduces a complete analytical framework to transform fairness evaluation from a single-point measurement into a proactive engineering discipline centered on a predictable sensitivity landscape. Our framework is built upon a QoE-Imba… ▽ More Evaluating network-wide fairness is challenging because it is not a static property but one highly sensitive to Service Level Agreement (SLA) parameters. This paper introduces a complete analytical framework to transform fairness evaluation from a single-point measurement into a proactive engineering discipline centered on a predictable sensitivity landscape. Our framework is built upon a QoE-Imbalance metric whose form is not an ad-hoc choice, but is uniquely determined by a set of fundamental axioms of fairness, ensuring its theoretical soundness. To navigate the fairness landscape across the full spectrum of service demands, we first derive a closed-form covariance rule. This rule provides an interpretable, local compass, expressing the fairness gradient as the covariance between a path's information-theoretic importance and its parameter sensitivity. We then construct phase diagrams to map the global landscape, revealing critical topological features such as robust "stable belts" and high-risk "dangerous wedges". Finally, an analysis of the landscape's curvature yields actionable, topology-aware design rules, including an optimal "Threshold-First" tuning strategy. Ultimately, our framework provides the tools to map, interpret, and navigate the landscape of system sensitivity, enabling the design of more robust and resilient networks. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2025; v1 submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.08551 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Landscape of Fairness: An Axiomatic and Predictive Framework for Network QoE Sensitivity Authors: Zhiyuan Ren , Xinke Jian , Wenchi Cheng , Kun Yang Abstract : Evaluating network-wide fairness is challenging because it is not a static property but one highly sensitive to Service Level Agreement (SLA) parameters. This paper introduces a complete analytical framework to transform fairness evaluation from a single-point measurement into a proactive engineering discipline centered on a predictable sensitivity landscape. Our framework is built upon a QoE-Imba… ▽ More Evaluating network-wide fairness is challenging because it is not a static property but one highly sensitive to Service Level Agreement (SLA) parameters. This paper introduces a complete analytical framework to transform fairness evaluation from a single-point measurement into a proactive engineering discipline centered on a predictable sensitivity landscape. Our framework is built upon a QoE-Imbalance metric whose form is not an ad-hoc choice, but is uniquely determined by a set of fundamental axioms of fairness, ensuring its theoretical soundness. To navigate the fairness landscape across the full spectrum of service demands, we first derive a closed-form covariance rule. This rule provides an interpretable, local compass, expressing the fairness gradient as the covariance between a path's information-theoretic importance and its parameter sensitivity. We then construct phase diagrams to map the global landscape, revealing critical topological features such as robust "stable belts" and high-risk "dangerous wedges". Finally, an analysis of the landscape's curvature yields actionable, topology-aware design rules, including an optimal "Threshold-First" tuning strategy. Ultimately, our framework provides the tools to map, interpret, and navigate the landscape of system sensitivity, enabling the design of more robust and resilient networks. △ Less Submitted 20 September, 2025; v1 submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Cheng,+W
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Analysis 2 Control Toggle Control subsection 2.1 Limiting access 2.1 Limiting access 3 Sources Toggle Sources subsection 3.1 From search engines 3.2 Increasing traffic 3.1 From search engines 3.2 Increasing traffic 4 Traffic overload Toggle Traffic overload subsection 4.1 Denial of service attacks 4.2 Sudden popularity 4.1 Denial of service attacks 4.2 Sudden popularity 5 Fake traffic 6 Traffic encryption 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography Web traffic العربية Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Lingua Franca Nova Português Türkçe 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Page version status This is an accepted version of this page This article includes a list of general references , but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. ( April 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Web traffic is the data sent and received by visitors to a website . Since the mid-1990s, web traffic has been the largest portion of Internet traffic . [ 1 ] Sites monitor the incoming and outgoing traffic to see which parts or pages of their site are popular and if there are any apparent trends, such as one specific page being viewed mostly by people in a particular country. There are many ways to monitor this traffic, and the gathered data is used to help structure sites, highlight security problems or indicate a potential lack of bandwidth . Not all web traffic is welcomed. Some companies offer advertising schemes that, in return for increased web traffic (visitors), pay for screen space on the site. Sites also often aim to increase their web traffic through inclusion on search engines and through search engine optimization . Analysis Web analytics is the measurement of the behavior of visitors to a website. In a commercial context, it especially refers to the measurement of which aspects of the website work towards the business objectives of Internet marketing initiatives; for example, which landing pages encourage people to make a purchase. Control The amount of traffic seen by a website is a measure of its popularity. By analyzing the statistics of visitors, it is possible to see shortcomings of the site and look to improve those areas. It is also possible to increase the popularity of a site and the number of people that visit it. Limiting access It is sometimes important to protect some parts of a site by password, allowing only authorized people to visit particular sections or pages. Some site administrators have chosen to block their page to specific traffic, such as by geographic location. The re-election campaign site for U.S. President George W. Bush ( GeorgeWBush.com ) was blocked to all internet users outside of the U.S. on 25 October 2004 after a reported attack on the site. [ 2 ] It is also possible to limit access to a web server both based on the number of connections and the bandwidth expended by each connection. Sources From search engines The majority of website traffic is driven by search engines . [ citation needed ] Millions of people use search engines every day to research various topics, buy products, and go about their daily surfing activities. Search engines use keywords to help users find relevant information, and each of the major search engines has developed a unique algorithm to determine where websites are placed within the search results. When a user clicks on one of the listings in the search results, they are directed to the corresponding website and data is transferred from the website's server, thus counting the visitors towards the overall flow of traffic to that website. Search engine optimization (SEO), is the ongoing practice of optimizing a website to help improve its rankings in the search engines. Several internal and external factors are involved which can help improve a site's listing within the search engines. The higher a site ranks within the search engines for a particular keyword, the more traffic it will receive. Increasing traffic Web traffic can be increased by the placement of a site in search engines and the purchase of advertising , including bulk e-mail , pop-up ads , and in-page advertisements. Web traffic can also be purchased through web traffic providers that can deliver targeted traffic. However, buying traffic may negatively affect a site’s search engine rank. [ citation needed ] Web traffic can be increased not only by attracting more visitors to a site, but also by encouraging individual visitors to "linger" on the site, viewing many pages in a visit. ( see Outbrain for an example of this practice ) If a web page is not listed in the first pages of any search, the odds of someone finding it diminishes greatly (especially if there is other competition on the first page). Very few people go past the first page, and the percentage that go to subsequent pages is substantially lower. Consequently, getting proper placement on search engines, a practice known as SEO, is as important as the website itself. [ citation needed ] Traffic overload Too much web traffic can dramatically slow down or prevent all access to a website. This is caused by more file requests going to the server than it can handle and may be an intentional attack on the site or simply caused by over-popularity. Large-scale websites with numerous servers can often cope with the traffic required, and it is more likely that smaller services are affected by traffic overload. Sudden traffic load may also hang your server or may result in a shutdown of your services. Denial of service attacks Denial-of-service attacks (DoS attacks) have forced websites to close after a malicious attack, flooding the site with more requests than it could cope with. Viruses have also been used to coordinate large-scale distributed denial-of-service attacks. [ 3 ] Sudden popularity A sudden burst of publicity may accidentally cause a web traffic overload. A news item in the media , a quickly propagating email , or a link from a popular site may cause such a boost in visitors (sometimes called a flash crowd or the Slashdot effect). Fake traffic Interactive Advertising Bureau estimated in 2014 that around one third of Web traffic is generated by Internet bots and malware . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Traffic encryption According to Mozilla since January 2017, more than half of the Web traffic is encrypted with HTTPS . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP , and it secures information and data transfer between a user's browser and a website. [ 8 ] See also Data mining Internet traffic Pageview Unique user References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Jeffay, Kevin. "Tracking the Evolution of Web Traffic: 1995-2003*" (PDF) . UNC DiRT Group's Publications . University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-05-13 . Retrieved 2012-02-20 . ^ Miller, Rich (2004-10-26). "Bush Campaign Web Site Rejects Non-US Visitors" . Archived from the original on 2011-02-19 . Retrieved 2004-10-28 . ^ "Denial of Service" . Cert.org. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012 . Retrieved 28 May 2012 . ^ Vranica, Suzanne (23 March 2014). "A 'Crisis' in Online Ads: One-Third of Traffic Is Bogus" . Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017 . Retrieved 3 May 2017 . ^ "36% Of All Web Traffic Is Fake" . Business Insider. Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 . Retrieved 3 May 2017 . ^ "We're Halfway to Encrypting the Entire Web" . Electronic Frontier Foundation. 21 February 2017. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021 . Retrieved 3 May 2017 . ^ Finley, Klint (31 January 2017). "Half the Web Is Now Encrypted. That Makes Everyone Safer" . WIRED . Archived from the original on 3 March 2021 . Retrieved 1 May 2017 . ^ "What is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)?" . SearchSoftwareQuality . Archived from the original on 2022-08-08 . Retrieved 2022-08-08 . Bibliography Machlis, Sharon (17 June 2002). "Measuring Web Site Traffic" Archived 2009-04-18 at the Wayback Machine at ComputerWorld.com – retrieved 1 January 2005 Matt Johnson (5 May 2011). A BBC News look at the case of freelance journalist Glenn Fleishman after his site was linked to from MacCentral – retrieved 7 July 2005 Computer network analysis Web analytics Digital marketing Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2012 All articles lacking in-text citations All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015 Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 25 August 2025, at 16:30 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_traffic
|
Bosh Sahifa Tanlangan maqolalar Yangi sahifalar Tasodifiy maqola Maqolalar indeksi Xato haqida xabar berish Yangi oʻzgarishlar Jamoa portali Qoidalar Yordam Forum Aloqa Loyihaga koʻmak Hisob yaratish Kirish Loyihaga koʻmak Hisob yaratish Kirish Mundarija Kirish 1 Astronomiya 2 Falsafa 3 Geografiya 4 Hayvonlar 5 Iqtisodiyot 6 Kitoblar 7 Kishilar 8 Sport 9 Taomlar 10 Tarix 11 Tibbiyot Vikipediya : Tanlangan maqolalar Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Basa Ugi Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Nordfriisk Frysk 贛語 Galego گیلکی गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois Jawa ქართული Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Кыргызча Latina Ladino Лезги Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Мокшень Олык марий Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Diné bizaad Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Polski پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Русский संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük 吴语 Хальмг მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Vikipediya Munozara lotin/кирилл lotin кирилл Mutolaa Manbasini tahrirlash Tarix Mutolaa Manbasini tahrirlash Tarix Bu yerga ishoratlar Bogʻliq oʻzgarishlar Doimiy havola Sahifa haqida maʼlumot Qisqartirilgan URL-manzilni olish QR-kodni yuklab olish PDF sifatida yuklash Bosma uchun versiya Meta-Wiki Vikitur Vikimaʼlumot Vikimaʼlumotlar bandi Vikipediyaning tanlangan maqolalari Bu yulduz Vikipediyadagi tanlangan maqola yoki faylni ifoda etadi. Tanlangan maqolalar Vikipediyaning eng yaxshi maqolalaridir. Ushbu sahifadagi roʻyxatga shunday maqolalar kiritilgan. Biror maqolani tanlangan, deb eʼlon qilishdan avval uni nomzodlar sahifasiga qoʻying. Maqolalar tayinli mezonlarga koʻra baholanib, uning tanlangan yoki shunday emasligi haqidagi qarorga kelinadi. Hozirda oʻzbekcha Vikipediyaning 325 662 ta maqolasi ichida 28 tasi (yaʼni, har 11631 maqoladan bittasi) tanlangan maqola martabasidadir. Tanlangan maqola tepasidagi oʻng burchakka bronza yulduz ( ) qoʻyiladi. Vikipediyaning tanlangan maqolalari Tanlangan maqolalar Vikipediyaning eng yaxshi maqolalaridir. Ushbu sahifadagi roʻyxatga shunday maqolalar kiritilgan. Biror maqolani tanlangan, deb eʼlon qilishdan avval uni nomzodlar sahifasiga qoʻying. Maqolalar tayinli mezonlarga koʻra baholanib, uning tanlangan yoki shunday emasligi haqidagi qarorga kelinadi. Hozirda oʻzbekcha Vikipediyaning 325 662 ta maqolasi ichida 28 tasi (yaʼni, har 11631 maqoladan bittasi) tanlangan maqola martabasidadir. Tanlangan maqola tepasidagi oʻng burchakka bronza yulduz ( ) qoʻyiladi. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#fff;padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain>ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0} Qisqartma VP:TM Tanlangan maqolalar Tanlangan maqola nima? Tanlangan maqola nomzodlari Aloqador mavzular Yaxshi maqolalar Xushsifat maqolalar Tanlangan roʻyxatlar Tanlangan tasvirlar VP:TM Tanlangan maqolalar Tanlangan maqola nima? Tanlangan maqola nomzodlari Yaxshi maqolalar Xushsifat maqolalar Tanlangan roʻyxatlar Tanlangan tasvirlar Tanlangan maqolalar Astronomiya [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Yulduz Falsafa [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Falsafa Geografiya [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Koreya Respublikasi Tehron Halab Qorabuloq Texas Hayvonlar [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Qizil panda Iqtisodiyot [ manbasini tahrirlash ] AQSh iqtisodiyoti Kitoblar [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Encyclopædia Britannica Kishilar [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Abdurauf Fitrat Al-Mutazid Amir Shohmurod Cristiano Ronaldo Ryan White Sport [ manbasini tahrirlash ] 1896-yilgi Yozgi Olimpiada oʻyinlari Futbol boʻyicha 1930-yilgi jahon chempionati Futbol boʻyicha 2016-yilgi Yevropa chempionati Taomlar [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Palov Tarix [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Arman genotsidini inkor etish Britaniya imperiyasi Buxoro qamali Ispaniya imperiyasi Portugaliya imperiyasi Usmonlilar imperiyasidagi yahudiylar tarixi Tibbiyot [ manbasini tahrirlash ] Viruslarning ijtimoiy tarixi Astronomiya Yulduz Falsafa Falsafa Geografiya Koreya Respublikasi Tehron Halab Qorabuloq Texas Hayvonlar Qizil panda Iqtisodiyot AQSh iqtisodiyoti Kitoblar Encyclopædia Britannica Kishilar Abdurauf Fitrat Al-Mutazid Amir Shohmurod Cristiano Ronaldo Ryan White Sport 1896-yilgi Yozgi Olimpiada oʻyinlari Futbol boʻyicha 1930-yilgi jahon chempionati Futbol boʻyicha 2016-yilgi Yevropa chempionati Taomlar Palov Tarix Arman genotsidini inkor etish Britaniya imperiyasi Buxoro qamali Ispaniya imperiyasi Portugaliya imperiyasi Usmonlilar imperiyasidagi yahudiylar tarixi Tibbiyot Viruslarning ijtimoiy tarixi Vikipediya:Tanlangan maqolalar Bu sahifa oxirgi marta 2025-yil 27-dekabr, 15:30 da tahrir qilingan. Matn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike litsenziyasi boʻyicha ommalashtirilmoqda, alohida holatlarda qoʻshimcha shartlar amal qilishi mumkin ( batafsil ). Maxfiylik siyosati Vikipediya haqida Masʼuliyatdan voz kechish Odob-axloq kodeksi Dasturchilar Statistika Cookie bayonoti Mobil versiya
|
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikipediya:Tanlangan_maqolalar
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Timeline 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aircraft 2.2 Passengers and crew 2.3 Crew 2.4 Passengers 2.1 Aircraft 2.2 Passengers and crew 2.3 Crew 2.4 Passengers 3 Flight and disappearance Toggle Flight and disappearance subsection 3.1 Departure 3.2 Communication lost 3.3 Radar 3.4 Satellite communication resumes 3.5 Response by air traffic control 3.6 Presumed loss 3.7 Reported sightings 3.1 Departure 3.2 Communication lost 3.3 Radar 3.4 Satellite communication resumes 3.5 Response by air traffic control 3.6 Presumed loss 3.7 Reported sightings 4 Search Toggle Search subsection 4.1 Southeast Asia 4.2 Southern Indian Ocean 4.2.1 Initial search 4.2.2 Underwater search 4.3 2018 search 4.4 2025-2026 search 4.1 Southeast Asia 4.2 Southern Indian Ocean 4.2.1 Initial search 4.2.2 Underwater search 4.2.1 Initial search 4.2.2 Underwater search 4.3 2018 search 4.4 2025-2026 search 5 Marine debris Toggle Marine debris subsection 5.1 Flaperon 5.2 Parts from the right stabiliser and right wing 5.3 Other debris 5.4 Flap and further search 5.1 Flaperon 5.2 Parts from the right stabiliser and right wing 5.3 Other debris 5.4 Flap and further search 6 Investigation Toggle Investigation subsection 6.1 International participation 6.2 Interim and final reports 6.3 Analysis of satellite communication 6.3.1 Technical background 6.3.2 SDU communications 6.3.3 Inferences 6.3.4 Analysis 6.4 Analysis of hydrophone data 6.1 International participation 6.2 Interim and final reports 6.3 Analysis of satellite communication 6.3.1 Technical background 6.3.2 SDU communications 6.3.3 Inferences 6.3.4 Analysis 6.3.1 Technical background 6.3.2 SDU communications 6.3.3 Inferences 6.3.4 Analysis 6.4 Analysis of hydrophone data 7 Speculated causes of disappearance Toggle Speculated causes of disappearance subsection 7.1 Murder-suicide by pilot 7.1.1 Pilot's flight simulator 7.1.2 Power interruption 7.2 Passenger involvement 7.3 Cargo 7.4 Unresponsive crew or hypoxia 7.1 Murder-suicide by pilot 7.1.1 Pilot's flight simulator 7.1.2 Power interruption 7.1.1 Pilot's flight simulator 7.1.2 Power interruption 7.2 Passenger involvement 7.3 Cargo 7.4 Unresponsive crew or hypoxia 8 Aftermath Toggle Aftermath subsection 8.1 Criticism of Malaysian authorities' management of information 8.2 Malaysia Airlines 8.2.1 Financial troubles 8.2.2 Compensation for passengers' next of kin 8.3 Malaysia 8.3.1 Before 2016 8.3.2 March 2020 8.4 China 8.4.1 Relatives of passengers 8.4.2 Boycotts 8.5 Air transport industry 8.5.1 Aircraft tracking 8.5.2 Transponders 8.5.3 Flight recorders 8.5.4 Safety recommendations 8.1 Criticism of Malaysian authorities' management of information 8.2 Malaysia Airlines 8.2.1 Financial troubles 8.2.2 Compensation for passengers' next of kin 8.2.1 Financial troubles 8.2.2 Compensation for passengers' next of kin 8.3 Malaysia 8.3.1 Before 2016 8.3.2 March 2020 8.3.1 Before 2016 8.3.2 March 2020 8.4 China 8.4.1 Relatives of passengers 8.4.2 Boycotts 8.4.1 Relatives of passengers 8.4.2 Boycotts 8.5 Air transport industry 8.5.1 Aircraft tracking 8.5.2 Transponders 8.5.3 Flight recorders 8.5.4 Safety recommendations 8.5.1 Aircraft tracking 8.5.2 Transponders 8.5.3 Flight recorders 8.5.4 Safety recommendations 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 Explanatory notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Авар Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ລາວ Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item 9M-MRO, the aircraft involved in the disappearance, pictured in 2013 Disappearance Date 8 March 2014 ( 2014-03-08 ) Summary Inconclusive, some debris found Site Indian Ocean , most likely southern Aircraft Aircraft type Boeing 777-2H6ER [ a ] Operator Malaysia Airlines IATA flight No. MH370 ICAO flight No. MAS370 Call sign MALAYSIAN 370 Registration 9M-MRO Flight origin Kuala Lumpur International Airport , Sepang District , Malaysia Destination Beijing Capital International Airport , Beijing , China Occupants 239 Passengers 227 Crew 12 Fatalities 239 (presumed) Survivors 0 (presumed) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Search JACC Timeline Satellite communications analysis Disappearance theories Search JACC JACC Timeline Satellite communications analysis Disappearance theories .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 ( MH370 / MAS370 ) was an international passenger flight operated by Malaysia Airlines that disappeared from radar on 8 March 2014, while flying from Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia to its planned destination, Beijing Capital International Airport in China . [ 1 ] The cause of its disappearance has not been determined. It is widely regarded as the greatest mystery in aviation history, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] and remains the single deadliest case of aircraft disappearance . The crew of the Boeing 777-200ER , registered as 9M-MRO, last communicated with air traffic control (ATC) around 38 minutes after takeoff when the flight was over the South China Sea . The aircraft was lost from ATC's secondary surveillance radar screens minutes later but was tracked by the Malaysian military's primary radar system for another hour, deviating westward from its planned flight path, crossing the Malay Peninsula and Andaman Sea . It left radar range 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) northwest of Penang Island in northwestern Peninsular Malaysia . With all 227 passengers and 12 crew aboard presumed dead , the disappearance of Flight 370 was the deadliest incident involving a Boeing 777 , the deadliest of 2014, and the deadliest in Malaysia Airlines' history until it was surpassed in all three regards by Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , which was shot down by Russian-backed forces while flying over Ukraine four months later on 17 July 2014. The search for the missing aircraft became the most expensive search in the history of aviation. It focused initially on the South China Sea and Andaman Sea, before a novel analysis of the aircraft's automated communications with an Inmarsat satellite indicated that the plane had travelled far southward over the southern Indian Ocean . The lack of official information in the days immediately after the disappearance prompted fierce criticism from the Chinese public, particularly from relatives of the passengers, as most people on board Flight 370 were of Chinese origin. Several pieces of debris washed ashore in the western Indian Ocean during 2015 and 2016; many of these were confirmed to have originated from Flight 370. After a three-year search across 120,000 km 2 (46,000 sq mi) of ocean failed to locate the aircraft, the Joint Agency Coordination Centre heading the operation suspended its activities in January 2017. A second search launched in January 2018 by private contractor Ocean Infinity also ended without success after six months. Relying mostly on the analysis of data from the Inmarsat satellite with which the aircraft last communicated, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) initially proposed that a hypoxia event was the most likely cause given the available evidence, although no consensus has been reached among investigators concerning this theory. At various stages of the investigation, possible hijacking scenarios were considered, including crew involvement, and suspicion of the airplane's cargo manifest; many disappearance theories regarding the flight have also been reported by the media. The Malaysian Ministry of Transport 's final report from July 2018 was inconclusive. It highlighted Malaysian ATC's fruitless attempts to communicate with the aircraft shortly after its disappearance. In the absence of a definitive cause of disappearance, air transport industry safety recommendations and regulations citing Flight 370 have been implemented to prevent a repetition of the circumstances associated with the loss. These include increased battery life on underwater locator beacons , lengthening of recording times on flight data recorders and cockpit voice recorders , and new standards for aircraft position reporting over open ocean. Malaysia had supported 58% of the total cost of the underwater search, Australia 32%, and China 10%. Timeline Flight 370 last made voice contact with ATC at 01:19 MYT , 8 March (17:19 UTC , 7 March) when it was over the South China Sea, less than an hour after takeoff. It disappeared from ATC radar screens at 01:22 MYT, but was still tracked on military radar as it turned sharply away from its original northeastern course to head west and cross the Malay Peninsula, continuing that course until leaving the range of the military radar at 02:22 while over the Andaman Sea, 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) northwest of Penang Island , in northwestern Malaysia. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The multinational search effort for the aircraft, which was to become the most expensive aviation search in history, [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] began in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea, [ 10 ] where the aircraft's signal was last detected on secondary surveillance radar , and was soon extended to the Strait of Malacca and Andaman Sea. Analysis of satellite communications between the aircraft and Inmarsat's satellite communications network concluded that the flight continued until at least 08:19 (nearly an hour after Malaysia Airlines publicly announced the plane's loss) and flew south into the southern Indian Ocean, although the precise location cannot be determined. Australia assumed charge of the search on 17 March, when the search effort began to emphasise the southern Indian Ocean. On 24 March, the Malaysian government noted that the final location determined by the satellite communication was far from any possible landing sites, and concluded, "Flight MH370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean." [ 11 ] From October 2016 to January 2017, a comprehensive survey of 120,000 km 2 (46,000 mi 2 ) of sea floor about 1,800 km (1,100 mi; 970 nmi) southwest of Perth , Western Australia, yielded no evidence of the aircraft. Several pieces of marine debris found on the coast of Africa and on Indian Ocean islands off the coast of Africa—the first of which was discovered on 29 July 2015 on Réunion —have been confirmed as pieces of Flight 370. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] The bulk of the aircraft has not been located, prompting many theories about its disappearance. In January 2018, a search by private US marine exploration company Ocean Infinity began in the search zone around .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 35°36′S 92°48′E / 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 ( CSIRO crash area ) , the most likely crash site according to the drift study published in 2017. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] In a previous search attempt, Malaysia had established a Joint Investigation Team (JIT) to investigate the incident, working with foreign aviation authorities and experts. Malaysia released a final report concerning Flight 370 on 17 October 2017. [ 19 ] Neither the crew nor the aircraft's communication systems relayed a distress signal, indications of bad weather, or technical problems before the aircraft vanished. [ 20 ] Two Iranian passengers travelling on stolen passports were investigated, but eliminated as suspects. Malaysian police identified the captain as the prime suspect if human intervention was the cause of the disappearance, after clearing all others on the flight of suspicion over possible motives. Power was lost to the aircraft's satellite data unit (SDU) at some point between 01:07 and 02:03; the SDU logged onto Inmarsat's satellite communication network at 02:25, which was three minutes after the aircraft had left the range of radar. Based on analysis of the satellite communications, the aircraft was postulated to have turned south after passing north of Sumatra and then to have flown for six hours with little deviation in its track, ending when its fuel was exhausted . [ 21 ] With the loss of all 239 lives on board, Flight 370 is the second-deadliest incident involving a Boeing 777 and the second-deadliest incident of Malaysia Airlines' history, second to Flight 17 in both categories. Malaysia Airlines was struggling financially, a problem that was exacerbated by a decrease of ticket sales after the disappearance of Flight 370 and the downing of Flight 17; the airline was renationalised by the end of 2014. The Malaysian government received significant criticism, especially from China, for failing to disclose information promptly during the early weeks of the search. Flight 370's disappearance brought to public attention the limits of aircraft tracking and flight recorders, including the limited battery life of underwater locator beacons (an issue that had been raised about four years earlier following the loss of Air France Flight 447 , but had never been resolved). In response to Flight 370's disappearance, the International Civil Aviation Organization adopted new standards for aircraft position reporting over open ocean, extended recording time for cockpit voice recorders , and, starting from 2020, new aircraft designs have been required to have a means of recovering the flight recorders , or the information they contain, before they sink into the water. [ 22 ] Background Aircraft Flight 370 was operated with a Boeing 777-2H6ER, [ c ] serial number 28420, registered as 9M-MRO. The aircraft was delivered new to Malaysia Airlines on 31 May 2002. [ 24 ] : 39 The aircraft was powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent 892 engines and configured to carry 282 passengers in total capacity. [ 25 ] [ 24 ] : 39 It had accumulated 53,471.6 hours and 7,526 cycles (takeoffs and landings) in service [ 26 ] : 22 and had not previously been involved in any major incidents, [ 27 ] though a minor incident while taxiing at Shanghai Pudong International Airport in August 2012 resulted in a broken wing tip . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Its last maintenance "A check" was carried out on 23 February 2014. [ 30 ] The aircraft was in compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives for the airframe and engines. A replenishment of the crew member oxygen system was performed on 7 March 2014, a routine maintenance task; an examination of this procedure found nothing unusual. [ 26 ] : 27 Ten years after MH370's disappearance, however, leaked documents have shown that MH370 was given supplemental fuel and crew member oxygen supplies just before takeoff. [ 31 ] The Boeing 777 was introduced in 1994 and has an excellent safety record. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Since its first commercial flight in June 1995, the type has suffered only six other hull losses : the crash of British Airways Flight 38 in 2008; a cockpit fire in a parked EgyptAir Flight 667 at Cairo International Airport in 2011; [ 34 ] [ 35 ] the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 214 in 2013, in which three people died; Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , which was shot down over Ukraine , killing all 298 people aboard in July 2014; [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Emirates Flight 521 , which crashed and burned out while landing at Dubai International Airport in August 2016 killing one person; [ 38 ] and in November 2017, the seventh Boeing 777 hull loss occurred when a Singapore Airlines 777-200ER was written off after catching fire and burning out at Singapore Changi Airport . [ 39 ] Passengers and crew Nationality [ 40 ] Count Australia 6 Canada 2 China 153 [ d ] France 4 India [ 42 ] 5 Indonesia 7 Iran 2 [ e ] Malaysia 50 [ f ] Netherlands 1 New Zealand 2 Russia 1 Taiwan 1 Ukraine 2 United States 3 Total (14 nationalities) 239 The aircraft was carrying 12 Malaysian crew members and 227 passengers from 14 different nations. [ 44 ] On the day of the disappearance, Malaysia Airlines released the names and nationalities of the passengers and crew, based on the flight manifest . [ 40 ] The passenger list was later modified to include two Iranian passengers travelling on stolen Austrian and Italian passports . [ 43 ] Crew All 12 crew members—two pilots and 10 cabin crew—were Malaysian citizens. [ 40 ] The pilot in command was 52-year-old Captain Zaharie Ahmad Shah from Penang . [ 45 ] He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 1981, and after training and receiving his commercial pilot's license, he became a second officer with the airline in 1983. He was promoted to captain of the Boeing 737-400 in 1991, captain of the Airbus A330-300 in 1996, and captain of the Boeing 777-200 in 1998. He had been a type-rating instructor and a type-rating examiner since 2007. Zaharie had a total of 18,365 hours of flying experience. [ 26 ] : 13 [ 46 ] [ 47 ] The co-pilot was 26-year-old First Officer Fariq Abdul Hamid. He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 2007; after becoming a second officer of the Boeing 737-400, he was promoted to first officer of the Boeing 737-400 in 2010 and then transitioned to the Airbus A330-300 in 2012. In November 2013, he began training as first officer of the Boeing 777-200 aircraft. Flight 370 was his final training flight, and he was scheduled to be examined on his next flight. Fariq had accumulated 2,763 hours of flying experience. [ 26 ] : 14 [ 48 ] [ 49 ] Passengers Of the 227 passengers, 153 were Chinese citizens, [ 44 ] including a group of 19 artists with six family members and four staff returning from a calligraphy exhibition of their work in Kuala Lumpur ; 38 passengers were Malaysian. The remaining passengers were from 12 different countries. [ 40 ] [ 50 ] Twenty passengers, 12 of whom were from Malaysia and eight from China, were employees of Freescale Semiconductor . [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Through a 2007 agreement with Malaysia Airlines, Tzu Chi (an international Buddhist organisation) immediately sent specially trained teams to Beijing and Malaysia to give emotional assistance to passengers' families. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] The airline also sent its own team of caregivers and volunteers [ 55 ] and agreed to bear the expense of bringing family members of the passengers to Kuala Lumpur and providing them with accommodation, medical care, and counselling. [ 56 ] Altogether, 115 family members of the Chinese passengers flew to Kuala Lumpur. [ 57 ] Some other family members chose to remain in China, fearing they would feel too isolated in Malaysia. [ 58 ] Flight and disappearance Flight 370 was a scheduled flight in the early morning of Saturday, 8 March 2014, from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to Beijing, China. It was one of two daily flights operated by Malaysia Airlines from its hub at Kuala Lumpur International Airport to Beijing Capital International Airport —scheduled to depart at 00:35 local time (MYT; UTC+08:00 ) and arrive at 06:30 local time (CST; UTC+08:00). [ 59 ] [ 60 ] On board were two pilots, 10 cabin crew, 227 passengers, and 14,296 kg (31,517 lb) of cargo. [ 26 ] : 1, 12, 30 The planned flight duration was 5 hours and 34 minutes, which would consume an estimated 37,200 kg (82,000 lb) of jet fuel . The aircraft carried 49,100 kilograms (108,200 lb) of fuel, including reserves, allowing an endurance of 7 hours and 31 minutes. The extra fuel was enough to divert to alternate airports — Jinan Yaoqiang International Airport and Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport —which would require 4,800 kg (10,600 lb) or 10,700 kg (23,600 lb), respectively, to reach from Beijing. [ 26 ] : 1, 30 Departure At 00:42 MYT, Flight 370 took off from runway 32R, [ 26 ] : 1 and was cleared by air traffic control (ATC) to climb to flight level 180 [ g ] —approximately 18,000 feet (5,500 m)—on a direct path to navigational waypoint IGARI (located at 6°56′12″N 103°35′6″E / 6.93667°N 103.58500°E / 6.93667; 103.58500 ( Waypoint IGARI ) ). Voice analysis has determined that the first officer communicated with ATC while the flight was on the ground and that the Captain communicated with ATC after departure. [ 26 ] : 21 Shortly after departure, the flight was transferred from the airport's ATC to Lumpur Radar on frequency 132.6 MHz. ATC over peninsular Malaysia and adjacent waters is provided by the Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre (ACC); Lumpur Radar is the name of the frequency used for en route air traffic . [ 61 ] At 00:46, Lumpur Radar cleared Flight 370 to flight level 350 [ g ] —approximately 35,000 ft (10,700 m). At 01:01, Flight 370's crew reported to Lumpur Radar that they had reached flight level 350, which they confirmed again at 01:08. [ 26 ] : 1–2 [ 62 ] Communication lost External videos ATC conversations with Flight 370 Audio recordings of conversations between ATC and Flight 370 from pre-departure to final contact (00:25–01:19). The aircraft's final transmission before its disappearance from radar was an automated position report, sent using the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) protocol at 01:06 MYT. [ 63 ] : 2 [ 64 ] [ 65 ] : 36 Among the data provided in this message was the total fuel remaining: 43,800 kg (96,600 lb). [ 66 ] : 9 The last verbal signal to air traffic control occurred at 01:19:30, when Captain Zaharie acknowledged a transition from Lumpur Radar to Ho Chi Minh ACC : [ h ] [ 26 ] : 2, 21 [ 62 ] [ 67 ] Lumpur Radar: "Malaysian three seven zero, contact Ho Chi Minh one two zero decimal nine. Good night." Flight 370: "Good night. Malaysian three seven zero." Lumpur Radar: "Malaysian three seven zero, contact Ho Chi Minh one two zero decimal nine. Good night." Flight 370: "Good night. Malaysian three seven zero." The crew was expected to check in with Ho Chi Minh Area Control Centre as the aircraft entered Vietnamese airspace, shortly after the loss of radar and radio contact. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Vietnamese controllers asked nearby aircraft to attempt to reach Flight 370 on the international air distress frequency. Still, none were able to establish confirmed communication. A report published in the early days of the search quoted one pilot describing faint “mumbling” and static, but this account was never verified and does not appear in the official investigation record. [ 70 ] Calls made to the cockpit at 02:39 and 07:13 went unanswered, though the aircraft’s satellite data unit acknowledged them. [ 63 ] Radar At 01:20:31 MYT, Flight 370 was observed on radar at the Kuala Lumpur ACC as it passed the navigational waypoint IGARI ( 6°56′12″N 103°35′6″E / 6.93667°N 103.58500°E / 6.93667; 103.58500 ( Waypoint IGARI ) ) in the Gulf of Thailand ; five seconds later, the Mode-S symbol disappeared from radar screens. [ 26 ] : 2 At 01:21:13, Flight 370 disappeared from the radar screen at Kuala Lumpur ACC and was lost at about the same time on radar at Ho Chi Minh ACC, which reported that the aircraft was at the nearby waypoint BITOD. [ 26 ] : 2 [ 62 ] Air traffic control uses secondary radar, which relies on a signal emitted by a transponder on each aircraft; therefore, the ADS-B transponder was no longer functioning on Flight 370 after 01:21. The final transponder data indicated that the aircraft was flying at its assigned cruise altitude of flight level 350 [ g ] and was travelling at 471 knots (872 km/h; 542 mph) true airspeed . [ 71 ] There were few clouds around this point, and no rain or lightning nearby. [ 26 ] : 33–36 Later analysis estimated that Flight 370 had 41,500 kg (91,500 lb) of fuel when it disappeared from secondary radar. [ 26 ] : 30 At the time that the transponder stopped functioning, the Malaysian military's primary radar showed Flight 370 turning right, but then beginning a left turn to a southwesterly direction. [ 26 ] : 3 From 01:30:35 until 01:35, military radar showed Flight 370 at 35,700 ft (10,900 m) [ i ] on a 231° magnetic heading, with a ground speed of 496 knots (919 km/h; 571 mph). Flight 370 continued across the Malay Peninsula, fluctuating between 31,000 and 33,000 ft (9,400 and 10,100 m) in altitude. [ 26 ] : 3 A civilian primary radar at Sultan Ismail Petra Airport with a 60 nmi (110 km; 69 mi) range made four detections of an unidentified aircraft between 01:30:37 and 01:52:35; the tracks of the unidentified aircraft are "consistent with those of the military data". [ j ] [ 26 ] : 3–4 At 01:52, Flight 370 was detected passing just south of the island of Penang. From there, the aircraft flew across the Strait of Malacca, passing close to the waypoint VAMPI, and Pulau Perak at 02:03, after which it flew along air route N571 to waypoints MEKAR, NILAM, and possibly IGOGU. [ 63 ] : 3, 38 The last known radar detection, from a point near the limits of Malaysian military radar, was at 02:22, 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) after passing waypoint MEKAR [ 26 ] : 3, 7 (which is 237 nmi (439 km; 273 mi) from Penang) and 247.3 nmi (458.0 km; 284.6 mi) northwest of Penang airport at an altitude of 29,500 ft (9,000 m). [ 72 ] [ 73 ] Countries were reluctant to release information collected from military radar because of sensitivity about revealing their capabilities. Indonesia has an early-warning radar system, but its ATC radar did not register any aircraft with the transponder code used by Flight 370, despite the aircraft possibly having flown near, or over, the northern tip of Sumatra. [ 26 ] : 4 [ 62 ] Indonesian military radar tracked Flight 370 earlier when en route to waypoint IGARI before the transponder is thought to have been turned off, but did not provide information on whether it was detected afterwards. [ 26 ] : 4 [ 74 ] Thailand and Vietnam also detected Flight 370 on radar before the transponder stopped working. The radar position symbols for the transponder code used by Flight 370 vanished after the transponder is thought to have been turned off. [ 26 ] : 4–5 Vietnam's deputy minister of transport Pham Quy Tieu stated that Vietnam had noticed MH370 turning back toward the west and that its operators had twice informed Malaysian authorities the same day on 8 March. [ 75 ] Thai military radar detected an aircraft that might have been Flight 370, but it is not known at what time the last radar contact was made, and the signal did not include identifying data. [ 76 ] Also, the flight was not detected by Australia's conventional system [ 77 ] or its long-range JORN over-the-horizon radar system, which has an official range of 3,000 km (1,900 mi); the latter was not in operation on the night of the disappearance. [ 78 ] Satellite communication resumes Sometime after the final ACARS transmission at 01:06, the satellite communication system aboard the aircraft went offline (possibly due to a power interruption), and remained offline during the plane's initial deviation from its scheduled flight path. However, for an unknown reason, at 02:25 MYT, when the aircraft was somewhere over the Andaman Sea , the aircraft's satellite communication system booted back up and sent a "log-on request" message—the first message since the ACARS transmission at 01:06—which was relayed by satellite to a ground station, both operated by satellite telecommunications company Inmarsat . After logging on to the network, the satellite data unit aboard the aircraft responded to hourly status requests from Inmarsat for the next 6 hours and two ground-to-aircraft telephone calls, at 02:39 and 07:13, both unanswered by the cockpit. [ 63 ] : 18 [ 65 ] The final status request and aircraft acknowledgement occurred at 08:10, about 1 hour and 40 minutes after the flight was scheduled to arrive in Beijing. The aircraft sent a log-on request at 08:19:29, which was followed, after a response from the ground station, by a "log-on acknowledgement" message at 08:19:37. The log-on acknowledgement is the last piece of data received from Flight 370. The aircraft did not respond to a status request from Inmarsat at 09:15. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] The general consensus among investigators is that Flight 370 crashed somewhere in the southern Indian Ocean sometime between 08:19 and 09:15 on 8 March due to fuel exhaustion, although the exact time and location of the crash remain uncertain. Response by air traffic control At 01:38 MYT, Ho Chi Minh Area Control Centre (ACC) contacted Kuala Lumpur Area Control Centre to query the whereabouts of Flight 370 and informed Kuala Lumpur that ACC had not established verbal communication with Flight 370, which was last detected by radar at waypoint BITOD. The two centres exchanged four more calls during the next 20 minutes with no new information. [ 62 ] [ 81 ] At 02:03, Kuala Lumpur ACC relayed to Ho Chi Minh ACC information received from Malaysia Airlines' operations centre that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. Ho Chi Minh ACC contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC twice in the following eight minutes asking for confirmation that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. [ 62 ] At 02:15, the watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC queried Malaysia Airlines' operations centre, which said that it could exchange signals with Flight 370 and that Flight 370 was in Cambodian airspace. [ 81 ] Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC to ask whether the planned flight path for Flight 370 passed through Cambodian airspace. Ho Chi Minh ACC responded that Flight 370 was not supposed to enter Cambodian airspace and that they had already contacted Phnom Penh ACC (which controls Cambodian airspace), which had no communication with Flight 370. [ 62 ] Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Malaysia Airlines' operations centre at 02:34, inquiring about the communication status with Flight 370, and were informed that Flight 370 was in a normal condition based on a signal download and that it was located at 14°54′N 109°15′E / 14.900°N 109.250°E / 14.900; 109.250 . [ 81 ] Later, another Malaysia Airlines aircraft (Flight 386 bound for Shanghai) attempted, at the request of Ho Chi Minh ACC, to contact Flight 370 on the Lumpur Radar frequency – the frequency on which Flight 370 last made contact with Malaysian air traffic control – and on emergency frequencies. The attempt was unsuccessful. [ 62 ] [ 82 ] At 03:30, Malaysia Airlines' operations centre informed Kuala Lumpur ACC that the locations it had provided earlier were "based on flight projection and not reliable for aircraft positioning." Over the next hour, Kuala Lumpur ACC contacted Ho Chi Minh ACC asking whether they had signaled Chinese air traffic control. At 05:09, Singapore ACC was queried for information about Flight 370. At 05:20, an undisclosed official contacted Kuala Lumpur ACC requesting information about Flight 370; he opined that, based on known information, "MH370 never left Malaysian airspace." [ 62 ] The watch supervisor at Kuala Lumpur ACC activated the Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) at 05:30, more than four hours after communication was lost with Flight 370. [ 81 ] The ARCC is a command post at an Area Control Centre that coordinates search-and-rescue activities when an aircraft is lost. Presumed loss Malaysia Airlines issued a media statement at 07:24 MYT on 8 March, one hour after the scheduled arrival time of the flight at Beijing, stating that communication with the flight had been lost by Malaysian ATC at 02:40 and that the government had initiated search-and-rescue operations. [ 83 ] Unbeknownst to investigators or Malaysia Airlines at the time, Flight 370 was still airborne at the time of this initial media statement, and search-and-rescue operations were commenced while the plane was still in flight over the Indian Ocean (albeit the search-and-rescue operations initially focused on the South China Sea, not the Indian Ocean where Flight 370 presumably crashed). [ citation needed ] The time when contact was lost was later corrected to 01:21. [ 83 ] Neither the crew nor the aircraft's communication systems relayed a distress signal , indications of bad weather, or technical problems before the aircraft vanished from radar screens. [ 84 ] On 24 March, Malaysian prime minister Najib Razak appeared before media at 22:00 local time to give a statement regarding Flight 370, during which he announced that he had been briefed by the Air Accidents Investigation Branch that it and Inmarsat (the satellite data provider) had concluded that the airliner's last position before it disappeared was in the southern Indian Ocean. As no places exist where it could have landed, the aircraft must therefore have crashed into the sea. [ 85 ] Just before Najib spoke at 22:00 MYT, an emergency meeting was called in Beijing for relatives of Flight 370 passengers. [ 85 ] Malaysia Airlines announced that Flight 370 was assumed lost with no survivors. It notified most of the families in person or via telephone, and some received an SMS (in English and Chinese) informing them that the aircraft likely had crashed with no survivors. [ 11 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ] On 29 January 2015, the director general of the Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia , Azharuddin Abdul Rahman, announced that the status of Flight 370 would be changed to an "accident", in accordance with the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation , and that all passengers and crew are presumed to have lost their lives. [ 88 ] If the official assumption is confirmed, Flight 370 was, at the time of its disappearance, the deadliest aviation incident in the history of Malaysian Airlines, surpassing the 1977 hijacking and crash of Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 that killed all 100 passengers and crew aboard, and the deadliest involving a Boeing 777, surpassing Asiana Airlines Flight 214 (three fatalities). [ 89 ] [ 90 ] In both of those categories, Flight 370 was surpassed 131 days later by Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , another Boeing 777-200ER, which was shot down on 17 July 2014, killing all 298 people aboard. [ 36 ] Reported sightings The news media reported several sightings of an aircraft fitting the description of the missing Boeing 777. For example, on 19 March 2014, CNN reported that witnesses including fishermen, an oil rig worker, and people on the Kudahuvadhoo island in the Maldives saw the missing airliner (this plane was later identified as a Maldivian plane [ 91 ] ). A fisherman claimed to have seen an unusually low-flying aircraft off the coast of Kota Bharu , while an oil-rig worker 186 miles (299 km) southeast of Vung Tau claimed he saw a "burning object" in the sky that morning, a claim credible enough for the Vietnamese authorities to send a search-and-rescue mission, and Indonesian fishermen reported witnessing an aircraft crash near the Malacca Straits . [ 92 ] Two days later, the Malaysia-based The Star reported that a Malaysian woman "claimed that she saw the stricken Malaysia Airlines plane partly submerged in the waters off the Andaman Islands " on the day the jet disappeared. [ 93 ] Three months later, the Phuket Gazette reported that a British woman sailing in the Indian Ocean claimed to have seen an aircraft on fire. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Search A search-and-rescue effort was launched in southeast Asia soon after the disappearance of Flight 370. Following the initial analysis of communications between the aircraft and a satellite, the surface search was moved to the southern Indian Ocean one week after the aircraft's disappearance. Between 18 March and 28 April, 19 vessels and 345 sorties by military aircraft searched over 4,600,000 km 2 (1,800,000 sq mi). [ 96 ] The final phase of the search was a bathymetric survey and sonar search of the sea floor, about 1,800 kilometres (970 nmi; 1,100 mi) southwest of Perth, Western Australia. [ 97 ] With effect from 30 March 2014, the search was coordinated by the Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC), an Australian government agency that was established specifically to manage the effort to locate and recover Flight 370, and which primarily involved the Malaysian, Chinese, and Australian governments. [ 98 ] On 17 January 2017, the official search for Flight 370—which had proven to be the most expensive search operation in aviation history [ 99 ] [ 100 ] —was suspended after yielding no evidence of the aircraft other than some marine debris on the coast of Africa. [ 101 ] [ 102 ] [ 103 ] [ 104 ] The final ATSB report, published on 17 October 2017, stated that the underwater search for the aircraft, as of 30 June 2017 [update] , had cost a total of US$155 million (~$194 million in 2024). The underwater search accounted for 86% of this amount, bathymetry 10%, and programme management 4%. Malaysia had supported 58% of the total cost, Australia 32%, and China 10%. [ 105 ] The report also concluded that the location where the aircraft went down had been narrowed to an area of 25,000 km 2 (9,700 sq mi) by using satellite images and debris drift analysis. [ 106 ] [ 107 ] In January 2018, the private American marine-exploration company Ocean Infinity resumed the search for MH370 in the narrowed 25,000 km 2 area, using the Norwegian ship Seabed Constructor . [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The search area was significantly extended during the course of the search, and by the end of May 2018, the vessel had searched a total area of more than 112,000 km 2 (43,000 sq mi) using eight autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). [ 112 ] [ 113 ] The contract with the Malaysian government ended soon afterward, and the search was concluded without success on 9 June 2018. [ 114 ] Southeast Asia The Kuala Lumpur Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) was activated at 05:30 MYT—four hours after communication was lost with the aircraft—to coordinate search and rescue efforts. [ 81 ] Search efforts began in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea. On the second day of the search, Malaysian officials said that radar recordings indicated that Flight 370 may have turned around before vanishing from radar screens; [ 50 ] the search zone was expanded to include part of the Strait of Malacca . [ 115 ] On 12 March, the chief of the Royal Malaysian Air Force announced that an unidentified aircraft—believed to be Flight 370—had travelled across the Malay peninsula and was last sighted on military radar 370 km (200 nmi; 230 mi) northwest of the island of Penang; search efforts were subsequently increased in the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. [ 73 ] Records of signals sent between the aircraft and a communications satellite over the Indian Ocean revealed that the plane had continued flying for almost six hours after its final sighting on Malaysian military radar. Initial analysis of these communications determined that Flight 370 was along one of two arcs—equidistant from the satellite—when its last signal was sent. On 15 March, the same day upon which the analysis was disclosed publicly, authorities announced that they would abandon search efforts in the South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, and Strait of Malacca in order to focus their efforts on the two corridors. The northern arc—from northern Thailand to Kazakhstan—was soon discounted, for the aircraft would have had to pass through heavily militarised airspace, and those countries claimed that their military radar would have detected an unidentified aircraft entering their airspace. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] [ 118 ] Southern Indian Ocean The emphasis of the search was shifted to the southern Indian Ocean west of Australia and within Australia's aeronautical and maritime Search and Rescue regions that extend to 75°E longitude . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Accordingly, on 17 March, Australia agreed to manage the search in the southern locus from Sumatra to the southern Indian Ocean. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Initial search From 18 to 27 March 2014, the search effort focused on a 315,000 km 2 (122,000 sq mi) area about 2,600 km (1,400 nmi; 1,600 mi) southwest of Perth. [ 123 ] The search area, which Australian prime minister Tony Abbott called "as close to nowhere as it's possible to be", is renowned for its strong winds , inhospitable climate, hostile seas, and deep ocean floors. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Satellite imagery of the region was analysed; [ 126 ] several objects of interest and two possible debris fields were identified on images made between 16 and 26 March. None of these possible objects were found by aircraft or ships. [ 127 ] Revised estimates of the radar track and the aircraft's remaining fuel led to a move of the search 1,100 km (590 nmi; 680 mi) northeast of the previous area on 28 March, [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ] which was followed by another shift on 4 April. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] Between 2 and 17 April, an effort was made to detect the underwater locator beacons (ULBs, informally known as "pingers") attached to the aircraft's flight recorders , because the beacons' batteries were expected to expire around 7 April. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] Australian naval cutter ADV Ocean Shield , equipped with a towed pinger locator (TPL), joined China's Haixun 01 , equipped with a hand-held hydrophone, and the Royal Navy's HMS Echo , equipped with a hull-mounted hydrophone, in the search. [ 63 ] : 11–12 [ 107 ] : 36 [ 133 ] [ 135 ] [ 136 ] Operators considered the effort to have little chance of success [ 137 ] given the vast search area and the fact that a TPL can only search up to 130 km 2 (50 mi 2 ) per day. [ 137 ] Between 4 and 8 April, several acoustic detections were made that were close to the frequency and rhythm of the sound emitted by the flight recorders' ULBs; analysis of the acoustic detections determined that, although unlikely, the detections could have come from a damaged ULB. [ 63 ] : 13 A sonar search of the seafloor near the detections was carried out between 14 April and 28 May but yielded no sign of Flight 370. [ 63 ] : 14 In a March 2015 report, it was revealed that the battery of the ULB attached to Flight 370's flight data recorder may have expired in December 2012 and thus may not have been as capable of sending signals as would an unexpired battery. [ 138 ] [ 139 ] Underwater search In late June 2014, details of the next phase of the search were announced; [ 140 ] officials have called this phase the "underwater search" despite the previous seafloor sonar survey. [ 141 ] Continued refinement of the analysis of Flight 370's satellite communications identified a "wide area search" along the "7th arc" [ k ] where Flight 370 was located when it last communicated with the satellite. The priority search area was in the southern extent of the wide area search. [ 142 ] Some of the equipment used for the underwater search is most effective when towed 200 m (650 ft) above the seafloor at the end of a 9.7 km (6 mi) cable. [ 143 ] Available bathymetric data for this region was of poor resolution, thus necessitating a bathymetric survey of the search area before the underwater phase began. [ 144 ] Commencing in May, the survey charted around 208,000 km 2 (80,000 sq mi) of seafloor until 17 December 2014, when it was suspended so that the ship conducting the survey could be mobilised in the underwater search. [ 145 ] The governments of Malaysia, China, and Australia made a joint commitment to thoroughly search 120,000 km 2 (46,000 sq mi) of seafloor. [ 146 ] This phase of the search, which began on 6 October 2014, [ 142 ] used three vessels equipped with towed deep-water vehicles that use side-scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounders, and video cameras to locate and identify aircraft debris. [ 147 ] A fourth vessel participated in the search between January and May 2015, using an AUV to search areas that could not be effectively searched using equipment on the other vessels. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] [ 150 ] Following the discovery of the flaperon on Réunion, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) reviewed its drift calculations for debris from the aircraft and, according to the JACC, was satisfied that the search area was still the most likely crash site. [ 151 ] Reverse drift modelling of the debris, to determine its origin after 16 months, also supported the underwater search area, although this method is very imprecise over long periods. [ 151 ] On 17 January 2017, the three countries jointly announced the suspension of the search for Flight 370. [ 101 ] [ 152 ] 2018 search On 17 October 2017, Dutch-based Fugro and American company Ocean Infinity offered to resume the search for the aircraft. [ 153 ] In January 2018, Ocean Infinity announced that it was planning to resume the search in the narrowed 25,000 km 2 (9,700 sq mi) area. The search attempt was approved by the Malaysian government, provided that payment would be made only if the wreckage were found. [ 108 ] [ 109 ] Ocean Infinity chartered the Norwegian ship Seabed Constructor to perform the search. [ 111 ] In late January, it was reported that the AIS tracking system had detected the vessel reaching the search zone on 21 January. The vessel then started moving to 35°36′S 92°48′E / 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 ( CSIRO crash area ) , the most likely crash site according to the drift study by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). [ 16 ] The planned search area of "site 1", where the search began, was 33,012 km 2 (12,746 sq mi), while the extended search area covered a further 48,500 km 2 (18,700 sq mi). [ 110 ] In April, a report by Ocean Infinity revealed that "site 4", farther northeast along the 7th arc, [ k ] had been added to the search plan. [ 157 ] By the end of May 2018, the vessel had searched a total area of over 112,000 km 2 (43,000 sq mi), using eight AUVs ; [ 112 ] [ 113 ] all areas of "site 1" (including areas beyond that originally planned for "site 1"), "site 2", and "site 3" had been searched. [ 158 ] The final phase of the search was conducted in "site 4" in May 2018, [ 158 ] "before the weather limits Ocean Infinity's ability to continue working this year." [ 159 ] Malaysia's new transport minister Loke Siew Fook announced on 23 May 2018 that the search for MH370 would conclude at the end of the month. [ 160 ] Ocean Infinity confirmed on 31 May that its contract with the Malaysian government had ended, [ 161 ] [ 162 ] and it was reported on 9 June 2018 that the Ocean Infinity search had come to an end. [ 114 ] Ocean-floor mapping data collected during the search has been donated to the Nippon Foundation – GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, to be incorporated into the global map of the ocean floor. [ 163 ] [ 164 ] In March 2019, in the wake of the fifth anniversary of the disappearance, the Malaysian government stated that it was willing to look at any "credible leads or specific proposals" regarding a new search. [ 165 ] Ocean Infinity stated that it was ready to resume the search on the same no-find, no-fee basis, believing that it would benefit from the experience that it had gained from its search for the wreck of Argentinian submarine ARA San Juan and bulk carrier ship Stellar Daisy . Ocean Infinity believed that the most probable location was still somewhere along the 7th arc around the area identified previously and upon which its 2018 search was based. [ 166 ] In March 2022, Ocean Infinity committed to resuming its search in 2023 or 2024 pending approval by the Malaysian government. [ 167 ] In 2023 Ocean Infinity was reviewing data from their previous 2018 search to ensure nothing was missed. CEO Oliver Plunkett hoped to resume the search in mid-2023 using Ocean Infinity's new Armada vessel. The transportation minister of Malaysia, Wee Ka Siong , requested credible new evidence from Ocean Infinity in order to resume the search, which Plunkett was allegedly in possession of. [ 168 ] Claims of yet-to-be-identified new evidence has incited victims' families to further push for another search. [ 169 ] In March 2024, days before the tenth anniversary of the disappearance, Malaysia said it would consult with Australia about collaborating on another expedition by the Ocean Infinity team. [ 170 ] [ 171 ] [ 172 ] 2025-2026 search On 2 May 2024, Ocean Infinity sent Malaysian Minister of Transport Anthony Loke a proposal for a new MH370 underwater search. [ 173 ] On 20 December 2024, the Malaysian Government announced that it would resume the search for MH370 and that it would be carried out by Ocean Infinity to cover a 15,000 square km area in the southern Indian Ocean. It was expected to cost $70m (£56m), but, as with the 2018 search, this search would be on a "no find, no fee" basis. [ 174 ] On 25 February 2025, Minister of Transport Loke confirmed that Ocean Infinity had resumed the search. [ 175 ] Subsequently, however, on 3 April 2025, Loke announced that Ocean Infinity had suspended its search due to seasonal weather conditions but that "they will resume the search at the end of this year". [ 176 ] On 3 December 2025, the Malaysian Transport Ministry issued an official statement confirming that search operations for MH370 will resume on 30 December 2025 for a total of 55 days. The search will be conducted intermittently in targeted areas assessed to have the highest probability of locating the aircraft, in line with the service agreement signed between the Malaysian government and Ocean Infinity on 25 March 2025. [ 177 ] [ 178 ] Ocean Infinity is conducting the search on a “ no find, no fee ” basis, with the company undertaking to search a new 5,800-sq-mile (15,000-sq-km) ocean area and to be paid $70m (£52m) only if wreckage is discovered. [ 179 ] The search formally resumed on 31 December, with the Armada 86 05 leaving the port of Fremantle , Western Australia assisted by two autonomous underwater vehicles. [ 180 ] Marine debris By October 2017, twenty pieces of debris believed to be from 9M-MRO had been recovered from beaches in the western Indian Ocean; [ 181 ] 18 of the items were "identified as being very likely or almost certain to originate from MH370", while the other two were "assessed as probably from the accident aircraft." [ 107 ] : 106 On 16 August 2017, the ATSB released two reports: the analysis of satellite imagery collected on 23 March 2014, two weeks after MH370 disappeared, classifying 12 objects in the ocean as "probably man-made"; [ 182 ] and a drift study of the recovered objects by the CSIRO , identifying the crash area "with unprecedented precision and certainty" at 35°36′S 92°48′E / 35.6°S 92.8°E / -35.6; 92.8 ( CSIRO crash area ) , northeast of the main 120,000 km 2 (46,000 mi 2 ) underwater search zone. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] Flaperon The first item of debris to be positively identified as originating from Flight 370 was the right flaperon (a trailing edge control surface). [ 185 ] [ 186 ] [ 187 ] It was discovered in late July 2015 on a beach in Saint-André , Réunion , an island in the western Indian Ocean, about 4,000 km (2,200 nmi; 2,500 mi) west of the underwater search area. [ 188 ] The item was transported from Réunion (an overseas department of France ) to Toulouse , where it was examined by France's civil aviation accident investigation agency, the Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA), and a French defence ministry laboratory. [ 188 ] Malaysia sent its own investigators to both Réunion and Toulouse. [ 188 ] [ 189 ] On 3 September 2015, French officials announced that serial numbers found on internal components of the flaperon linked it "with certainty" to Flight 370. [ 190 ] These serial numbers were retrieved using a borescope . [ 191 ] [ 192 ] [ 193 ] [ 194 ] After the discovery, French police conducted a search of the waters around Réunion for additional debris, [ 188 ] [ 195 ] [ 196 ] and found a damaged suitcase that was initially linked to Flight 370, [ 197 ] but officials have since doubted this connection. [ 198 ] The location of the discovery was consistent with models of debris dispersal 16 months after an origin in the search area then in progress off the west coast of Australia. [ 151 ] [ 188 ] [ 199 ] [ 200 ] A Chinese water bottle and an Indonesian cleaning product were also found in the same area. [ 201 ] [ 202 ] In August 2015, France carried out an aerial search for possible marine debris around the island, covering an area of 120 by 40 km (75 by 25 mi) along the east coast of Réunion. [ 196 ] Foot patrols were also planned to search for debris along the beaches. [ 203 ] Malaysia asked authorities in neighbouring states to be on the alert for marine debris that might have come from an aircraft. [ 204 ] On 14 August, it was announced that no debris that could be traced to Flight 370 had been found at sea off Réunion, but that some items had been found on land. [ 205 ] Air and sea searches for debris ended on 17 August. [ 206 ] The flaperon was covered in Lepas anatifera barnacles, which grow in certain patterns and only while underwater. Researchers have analysed the barnacles on the flaperon in an attempt to deduce its path to Réunion. [ 207 ] Parts from the right stabiliser and right wing In late February 2016, an object bearing a stencilled label of "NO STEP" was found off the coast of Mozambique ; early photographic analysis suggested that it could have come from the aircraft's horizontal stabiliser or from the leading edges of the wings. [ 12 ] The part was found by Blaine Gibson [ 208 ] on a sandbank in the Bazaruto Archipelago off the coast of Vilanculos [ 209 ] in southern Mozambique, around 2,000 km (1,200 mi) southwest of where the flaperon had been found the previous July. [ 210 ] [ 211 ] The fragment was sent to Australia, where experts identified it as almost certainly a horizontal stabiliser panel from 9M-MRO. [ 212 ] [ 213 ] In December 2015, Liam Lotter had found a grey piece of debris on a beach in southern Mozambique, but only after reading in March 2016 about Gibson's find—some 300 km (190 mi) from his own—did his family alert authorities. [ 208 ] The piece was flown to Australia for analysis. It carried a stencilled code 676EB, which identified it as part of a Boeing 777 flap track fairing, [ 12 ] [ 214 ] and the style of lettering matched that of stencils used by Malaysia Airlines, making it almost certain that the part came from 9M-MRO. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 208 ] [ 215 ] The locations where the objects were found are consistent with the drift model performed by CSIRO , [ 13 ] further corroborating that the parts could have come from Flight 370. Other debris On 7 March 2016, more debris, possibly from the aircraft, was found on the island of Réunion . Ab Aziz Kaprawi , Malaysia's deputy transport minister, said that "an unidentified grey item with a blue border" might be linked to Flight 370. Both Malaysian and Australian authorities, coordinating the search in the South Indian Ocean, sent teams to verify whether the debris was from the missing aircraft. [ 216 ] [ 217 ] On 21 March 2016, South African archaeologist Neels Kruger found a grey piece of debris on a beach near Mossel Bay , South Africa, that had an unmistakable partial logo of Rolls-Royce , the manufacturer of the missing aircraft's engines. [ 218 ] The Malaysian ministry of transport acknowledged that the piece could be that of an engine cowling. [ 219 ] An additional piece of possible debris, suggested to have come from the interior of the aircraft, was found on the island of Rodrigues , Mauritius , in late March. [ 220 ] On 11 May 2016, Australian authorities determined that the two pieces of debris were "almost certainly" from Flight 370. [ 221 ] Flap and further search On 24 June 2016, Australian transport minister Darren Chester said that a piece of aircraft debris had been found on Pemba Island , off the coast of Tanzania . [ 222 ] It was handed over to the authorities so that experts from Malaysia could determine its origin. [ 223 ] On 20 July, the Australian government released photographs of the piece, which was believed to be an outboard flap from one of the aircraft's wings. [ 224 ] Malaysia's transport ministry confirmed on 15 September that the debris was indeed from the missing aircraft. [ 225 ] On 21 November 2016, families of the victims announced that they would carry out a search for debris in December on the island of Madagascar . [ 226 ] On 30 November 2018, five pieces of debris recovered between December 2016 and August 2018 on the Malagasy coast, and believed by victims' relatives to be from MH370, were handed to Malaysian transport minister Anthony Loke . [ 227 ] Texas A&M University mathematics professor Goong Chen has argued that the plane may have entered the sea vertically; any other angle of entry would make the aircraft splinter into many pieces, which would have been found already. [ 228 ] [ 229 ] Investigation International participation Malaysia quickly assembled a Joint Investigation Team (JIT), consisting of specialists from Malaysia, China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, [ 63 ] : 1 [ 230 ] which was led in accordance with ICAO standards by "an independent investigator in charge". [ 231 ] [ 232 ] [ 233 ] The team consisted of an airworthiness group, an operations group, and a medical and human factors group. The airworthiness group were tasked with examining issues relating to maintenance records, structures, and systems of the aircraft; the operations group were to review the flight recorders, operations, and meteorology; and the medical and human factors group would investigate psychological, pathological, and survival factors. [ 234 ] Malaysia also announced, on 6 April 2014, that it had set up three ministerial committees: a Next of Kin Committee, a committee to organise the formation of the JIT, and a committee responsible for the Malaysian assets deployed in the search effort. [ 234 ] The criminal investigation was led by the Royal Malaysia Police , [ 88 ] : 9 assisted by Interpol and other relevant international law enforcement authorities. [ 235 ] [ 236 ] On 17 March, Australia took control of co-ordinating the search, rescue, and recovery operations. For the next six weeks, the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) and ATSB worked to determine the search area, correlating information with the JIT and other government and academic sources, while the Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) coordinated the search efforts. Following the fourth phase of the search, the ATSB took responsibility for defining the search area. In May, a search strategy working group was established by the ATSB to determine the most likely position of the aircraft at the 00:19 UTC (08:19 MYT) satellite transmission. The working group included aircraft and satellite experts from: Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK), Boeing (US), Defence Science and Technology Group [ l ] (Australia), Department of Civil Aviation (Malaysia), Inmarsat (UK), National Transportation Safety Board (US), and Thales (France). [ 63 ] : 1 [ 238 ] [ 239 ] As of October 2018 [update] , France was the only country that was continuing the investigation (by means of its Air Transport Gendarmerie ), with the intention of verifying all of the technical data transmitted, particularly those provided by Inmarsat. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] In 2024, researchers at Cardiff University in the United Kingdom conducted a study on underwater hydrophone signals generated by airplane crashes in the ocean. The researchers claimed that these signals could be key to detecting the final resting place of MH370, potentially bringing the UK back into the search efforts. [ 242 ] Interim and final reports Two interim reports were issued in 8 March 2015, and March 2016. They contained factual information about the plane but no analysis. The final report from the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, published on 3 October 2017, was 440 pages and called for planes to be equipped with more precise flight tracking technology. [ 105 ] The final report from the Malaysian Ministry of Transport , was 1,500 pages, released on 30 July 2018. [ 243 ] It confirmed that the plane was manually turned around, taking it off its normal flight path just after 01:00 MYT, "either by the pilot or a third party" and that the plane was missing for twenty minutes before anyone was alerted. [ 24 ] [ 243 ] Following these accounts of air traffic control failings, the Chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia , Azharuddin Abdul Rahman, resigned on 31 July 2018. [ 244 ] [ 245 ] [ 246 ] Analysis of satellite communication The communications between Flight 370 and the satellite communication network operated by Inmarsat, which were relayed by the Inmarsat-3 F1 satellite, provide the only significant clues to the location of Flight 370 after disappearing from Malaysian military radar at 02:22 MYT. These communications have also been used to infer possible in-flight events. The investigative team was challenged with reconstructing the flight path of Flight 370 from a limited set of transmissions with no explicit information about the aircraft's location, heading, or speed. [ 63 ] : 16–17 [ 247 ] Technical background Aeronautical satellite communication (SATCOM) systems are used to transmit messages sent from the aircraft cockpit, as well as automated data signals from onboard equipment, using the ACARS communications protocol. SATCOM may also be used for the transmission of FANS and ATN messages, and for providing voice, fax and data links [ 248 ] using other protocols. [ 247 ] [ 249 ] [ 250 ] The aircraft uses a satellite data unit (SDU) to send and receive signals over the satellite communications network; this operates independently from the other onboard systems that communicate via SATCOM, mostly using the ACARS protocol. Signals from the SDU are transmitted to a communications satellite, which amplifies the signal and changes its frequency before relaying it to a ground station , where the signal is processed and, if applicable, routed to its intended destination (e.g. Malaysia Airlines' operations centre); signals are sent from the ground to the aircraft in reverse order. When the SDU is first powered on, it attempts to connect with the Inmarsat network by transmitting a log-on request, which is acknowledged by the ground station. [ 63 ] : 17 [ 250 ] This is partly to determine whether the SDU belongs to an active service subscriber, and also to identify which satellite should be used for transmitting messages to the SDU. [ 250 ] After connecting, if no further contact has been received from the data terminal (the SDU) for one hour, [ m ] the ground station transmits a "log-on interrogation" message, commonly referred to as a "ping"; [ 63 ] : 18 if the terminal is active, it will respond to the ping automatically. The entire process of interrogating the terminal is referred to as a " handshake ". [ 79 ] [ 251 ] SDU communications Although the ACARS data link on Flight 370 stopped functioning between 01:07 and 02:03 MYT (most likely around the same time the plane lost contact by secondary radar), [ 65 ] : 36 the SDU remained operative. [ 63 ] After last contact by primary radar west of Malaysia, the following events were recorded in the log of Inmarsat's ground station at Perth , Western Australia (all times are MYT /UTC+8): [ 63 ] : 18 [ 65 ] [ n ] 02:25:27 – First handshake ("log-on request" initiated by aircraft) 02:39:52 – Ground to aircraft telephone call, acknowledged by SDU, unanswered 03:41:00 – Second handshake (initiated by ground station) 04:41:02 – Third handshake (initiated by ground station) 05:41:24 – Fourth handshake (initiated by ground station) 06:41:19 – Fifth handshake (initiated by ground station) 07:13:58 – Ground to aircraft telephone call, acknowledged by SDU, unanswered 08:10:58 – Sixth handshake (initiated by ground station) 08:19:29 – Seventh handshake (initiated by aircraft); widely reported as a "partial handshake'", consisting of the following two transmissions: 08:19:29.416 – "log-on request" message transmitted by aircraft (seventh "partial" handshake) 08:19:37.443 – "log-on acknowledge" message transmitted by aircraft (last transmission received from Flight 370) The aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09:15. [ 65 ] Inferences A few inferences can be made from the satellite communications. The first is that the aircraft remained operational until at least 08:19 MYT—seven hours after final contact was made with air traffic control over the South China Sea. The varying burst frequency offset (BFO) values indicate the aircraft was moving at speed. The aircraft's SDU needs location and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite, so it can also be inferred that the aircraft's navigation system was operational. [ 252 ] : 4 Since the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09:15, it can be concluded that at some point between 08:19 and 09:15, the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station. [ 79 ] [ 80 ] [ 251 ] The log-on message sent from the aircraft at 08:19:29 was "log-on request"; there are only a few reasons the SDU would transmit this request, such as a power interruption, software failure, loss of critical systems providing input to the SDU, or a loss of the link due to the aircraft's attitude . [ 63 ] : 22 Investigators consider the most likely reason to be that it was sent during power-up after an electrical outage. [ citation needed ] The log-on request sent earlier in the flight at 02:25 also reveals that the satellite communication system was offline from some point after the final ACARS transmission at 01:06 until 02:25, possibly due to a power interruption. However, it is not known why the satellite system booted back up at 02:25 after being offline for some time. [ citation needed ] At 08:19, the aircraft had been airborne for 7 hours and 38 minutes; the typical Kuala Lumpur-Beijing flight is 5 .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1 ⁄ 2 hours, so fuel exhaustion was likely. [ 63 ] : 33 [ 253 ] In the event of fuel exhaustion and engine flame-out, which would eliminate power to the SDU, the aircraft's ram air turbine (RAT) would deploy, providing power to some instruments and flight controls, including the SDU. [ 63 ] : 33 Approximately 90 seconds after the 02:25 handshake—also a log-on request—communications from the aircraft's in-flight entertainment system were recorded in the ground station log. Similar messages would be expected following the 08:19 handshake, but none were received, supporting the fuel-exhaustion scenario. [ 63 ] : 22 Analysis Two parameters associated with these transmissions that were recorded in a log at the ground station were key to the investigation: Burst time offset (BTO) – the time difference between when a signal is sent from the ground station and when the response is received. This measure is proportional to twice the distance from the ground station via the satellite to the aircraft and includes the time that the SDU takes between receiving and responding to the message and time between reception and processing at the ground station. This measure was analysed to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft at the time each of the seven handshakes occurred, and thereby defining seven circles on the Earth's surface the points on whose circumference are equidistant from the satellite at the calculated distance. Those circles were then reduced to arcs by eliminating those parts of each circle that lay outside the aircraft's range. [ 63 ] : 18 [ 252 ] : 4–6 Burst frequency offset (BFO) – the difference between the expected and received frequency of transmissions. The difference is caused by: Doppler shifts as the signals travelled from the aircraft to the satellite to the ground station; the frequency translations made in the satellite and at the ground station; a small, constant error (bias) in the SDU that results from drift and ageing; and compensation applied by the SDU to counter the Doppler shift on the uplink. This measure was analysed to determine the aircraft's speed and heading, but multiple combinations of speed and heading can be valid solutions. [ 63 ] : 18 [ 252 ] : 9–11 By combining the distance between the aircraft and satellite, speed, and heading with aircraft performance constraints (e.g. fuel consumption, possible speeds and altitudes), investigators generated candidate paths that were analysed separately by two methods. The first assumed the aircraft was flying on one of the three autopilot modes (two are further affected by whether the navigation system used magnetic north or true north as a reference), calculated the BTO and BFO values along these routes, and compared them with the values recorded from Flight 370. The second method generated paths which had the aircraft's speed and heading adjusted at the time of each handshake to minimise the difference between the calculated BFO of the path and the values recorded from Flight 370. [ 63 ] : 18, 25–28 [ 66 ] : 10–11 A probability distribution for each method at the BTO arc of the sixth handshake of the two methods was created and then compared; 80% of the highest probability paths for both analyses combined intersect the BTO arc of the sixth handshake between 32.5°S and 38.1°S, which can be extrapolated to 33.5°S and 38.3°S along the BTO arc of the seventh handshake. [ 66 ] : 12 Analysis of hydrophone data In May 2024, researchers at Cardiff University raised questions about the official location and the time of the impact, in Scientific Reports . [ 255 ] Usama Kadri stated that hydrophone data relating to MH370's crash identified "only a single, relatively weak signal" within the time frame and location of the official search, unlike the "clear pressure signals" shown in previous accidents' data with such impact. [ 242 ] He also noted that, "it is implausible to imagine that a significant crash of an aircraft on the ocean surface would fail to generate a discernible pressure signature," [ 256 ] suggesting that controlled explosion experiments could "almost pinpoint" the aircraft's location, or possibly raise the need to reassess the time frame or location currently established. [ 242 ] Speculated causes of disappearance Murder-suicide by pilot Malaysian police investigated the homes of the pilots and examined the financial records of all 12 crew members. According to the preliminary report released by Malaysia in March 2015, there was "no evidence of recent or imminent significant financial transactions carried out" by any pilot or crew member. Additionally, analysis of the pilots' behaviour on CCTV revealed "no significant behavioural changes." [ 26 ] : 20, 21 Despite this, US officials consider it likely that someone in the cockpit of Flight 370 reprogrammed the aircraft's autopilot to head south over the Indian Ocean. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Media reports have claimed that Malaysian police identified Captain Zaharie as the prime suspect, should human intervention be proven as the cause of the disappearance. [ 259 ] [ 260 ] [ 261 ] In 2020, former Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott stated in a Sky News documentary: "My very clear understanding, from the very top levels of the Malaysian government, is that from very, very early on, they thought it was murder-suicide by the pilot." [ 262 ] In 2023, retired engineers and pilots Jean-Luc Marchand and Patrick Blelly gave several conferences on the pilot suicide theory, supporting this argument with extensive analysis and a detailed report published online. [ 263 ] Pilot's flight simulator In 2016, New York magazine wrote that a confidential document from the Malaysian police investigation showed an FBI analysis of the flight simulator's computer hard drive found a route on Captain Zaharie's home flight simulator that closely matched the projected flight over the Indian Ocean and that this evidence had been withheld from the publicly released investigative report. [ 264 ] New York wrote as follows: New York has obtained a confidential document from the Malaysian police investigation into the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 that shows that the plane's captain, Zaharie Ahmad Shah, conducted a simulated flight deep into the remote southern Indian Ocean less than a month before the plane vanished under uncannily similar circumstances. The revelation, which Malaysia withheld from a lengthy public report on the investigation, is the strongest evidence yet that Zaharie made off with the plane in a premeditated act of mass murder-suicide . [...] The newly unveiled documents [...] suggest Malaysian officials have suppressed at least one key piece of incriminating information. This is not entirely surprising: There is a history in aircraft investigations of national safety boards refusing to believe that their pilots could have intentionally crashed an aircraft full of passengers. New York has obtained a confidential document from the Malaysian police investigation into the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 that shows that the plane's captain, Zaharie Ahmad Shah, conducted a simulated flight deep into the remote southern Indian Ocean less than a month before the plane vanished under uncannily similar circumstances. The revelation, which Malaysia withheld from a lengthy public report on the investigation, is the strongest evidence yet that Zaharie made off with the plane in a premeditated act of mass murder-suicide . [...] The newly unveiled documents [...] suggest Malaysian officials have suppressed at least one key piece of incriminating information. This is not entirely surprising: There is a history in aircraft investigations of national safety boards refusing to believe that their pilots could have intentionally crashed an aircraft full of passengers. The FBI's findings about the flight simulation were confirmed by the ATSB. [ 265 ] News of the simulation was also confirmed by the Malaysian government, [ 266 ] but reported as "nothing sinister". [ 267 ] [ 268 ] Power interruption The SATCOM link functioned normally from pre-flight (beginning at 00:00 MYT) until it responded to a ground-to-air ACARS message with an acknowledge message at 01:07. At some time between 01:07 and 02:03, power was lost to the Satellite Data Unit (SDU). The final report stated "it is likely that the loss of communication prior to the diversion is due to the systems being manually turned off or power interrupted to them." Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak said it was clear that the radar transponders and the flight data transmission system were turned off deliberately by someone trying to hide the plane's position and heading. [ 269 ] At 02:25, the aircraft's SDU rebooted itself and sent a log-on request. [ 63 ] : 22 [ 65 ] : 36–39 Passenger involvement United States and Malaysian officials reviewed the backgrounds of every passenger named on the manifest. [ 50 ] One passenger, who worked as a flight engineer for a Swiss jet charter company , was briefly under suspicion as a potential hijacker because he was thought to have the relevant "aviation skills". [ 270 ] Two men were found to have boarded Flight 370 with stolen passports, which raised suspicion in the immediate aftermath of its disappearance. [ 271 ] [ 272 ] The passports, one Austrian and one Italian, had been reported stolen in Thailand within the preceding two years. [ 271 ] The two passengers were later identified as Iranian men, one aged 19 and the other 29, who had entered Malaysia on 28 February using valid Iranian passports. They were believed to be asylum seekers , [ 273 ] [ 274 ] and the Secretary General of Interpol later stated that the organisation was "inclined to conclude that it was not a terrorist incident". [ 43 ] On 18 March, the Chinese government announced that it had checked all of the Chinese citizens on the aircraft and had ruled out the possibility that any were involved in "destruction or terror attacks". [ 275 ] Cargo Flight 370 was carrying 10,806 kg (23,823 lb) of cargo, of which four unit load devices (standardized cargo containers) of mangosteens (a tropical fruit; total 4,566 kg or 10,066 lb) and 221 kg (487 lb) of lithium-ion batteries were of interest, according to Malaysian investigators. [ 26 ] : 103, 107–109 According to the head of Malaysian police , Khalid Abu Bakar , the people who handled the mangosteens and the Chinese importers were questioned to rule out sabotage. [ 276 ] The lithium-ion batteries were contained in a 2,453 kg (5,408 lb) consignment being shipped from Motorola Solutions facilities in Bayan Lepas , Malaysia, to Tianjin , China. They were packaged in accordance with IATA guidelines, but did not go through any additional inspections at Kuala Lumpur International Airport before being loaded onto Flight 370. [ 26 ] : 104 Lithium-ion batteries can cause intense fires if they overheat and ignite, which has occurred on other flights, [ 277 ] [ 278 ] [ 279 ] and has led to strict regulations on transport aircraft. [ 280 ] [ 277 ] Unresponsive crew or hypoxia An analysis by the ATSB comparing the evidence available for Flight 370 with three categories of accidents—an in-flight upset (e.g., stall ), a glide event (e.g., engine failure, fuel exhaustion), and an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event —concluded that an unresponsive crew or hypoxia event "best fit the available evidence" for the five-hour period of the flight as it travelled south over the Indian Ocean without communication or significant deviations in its track, [ 63 ] : 34 likely on autopilot. [ 281 ] [ 282 ] No consensus exists among investigators on the unresponsive crew or hypoxia theory. [ 283 ] If no control inputs were made following flameout and the disengagement of autopilot, the aircraft would likely have entered a spiral dive [ 63 ] : 33 and entered the ocean within 20 nmi (37 km; 23 mi) of the flameout and disengagement of autopilot. [ 63 ] : 35 The analysis of the flaperon showed that the landing flaps were not extended, supporting the spiral dive at high speed theory. [ 284 ] In May 2018, the ATSB again asserted that the flight was not in control when it crashed, its spokesperson adding that "We have quite a bit of data to tell us that the aircraft, if it was being controlled at the end, it wasn't very successfully being controlled". [ 285 ] Aftermath Criticism of Malaysian authorities' management of information Public communication from Malaysian officials regarding the loss of Flight 370 was initially beset with confusion. [ o ] The Malaysian government and the airline released imprecise, incomplete, and occasionally inaccurate information, with civilian officials sometimes contradicting military leaders. [ 299 ] Malaysian officials were criticised for such persistent release of contradictory information, most notably regarding the last location and time of contact with the aircraft. [ 300 ] Malaysia's acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin Hussein , who was also the country's Defence Minister (until May 2018), denied the existence of problems between the participating countries, but academics explained that because of regional conflicts, there were genuine trust issues involved in co-operation and sharing intelligence, and that these were hampering the search. International relations experts suggested that entrenched rivalries over sovereignty, security, intelligence, and national interests made meaningful multilateral co-operation very difficult. [ 301 ] [ 302 ] A Chinese academic made the observation that the parties were searching independently, and it was therefore not a multilateral search effort. The Guardian newspaper noted the Vietnamese permission given for Chinese aircraft to overfly its airspace as a positive sign of co-operation. [ 302 ] Vietnam temporarily scaled back its search operations after the country's Deputy Transport Minister cited a lack of communication from Malaysian officials despite requests for more information. [ 303 ] China, through the official Xinhua News Agency , urged the Malaysian government to take charge and conduct the operation with greater transparency, a point echoed by the Chinese Foreign Ministry days later. [ 301 ] [ 304 ] Malaysia had initially declined to release raw data from its military radar, deeming the information "too sensitive", but later acceded. [ 301 ] [ 302 ] Defence experts suggested that giving others access to radar information could be sensitive on a military level, for example: "The rate at which they can take the picture can also reveal how good the radar system is." One suggested that some countries could already have had radar data on the aircraft, but were reluctant to share any information that could potentially reveal their defence capabilities and compromise their own security. [ 301 ] Similarly, submarines patrolling the South China Sea might have information in the event of a water impact, and sharing such information could reveal their locations and listening capabilities. [ 305 ] Criticism was also levelled at the delay of the search efforts. On 11 March 2014, three days after the aircraft disappeared, British satellite company Inmarsat (or its partner, SITA ) had provided officials with data suggesting that the aircraft was nowhere near the areas in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea being searched at the time, and that it may have diverted its course through a southern or northern corridor. This information was not acknowledged publicly until it was released by the Malaysian Prime Minister in a press conference on 15 March. [ 247 ] [ 306 ] Explaining why information about satellite signals had not been made available earlier, Malaysia Airlines stated that the raw satellite signals needed to be verified and analysed "so that their significance could be properly understood" before it could publicly confirm their existence. [ 83 ] Acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin claimed that Malaysian and US investigators had immediately discussed the Inmarsat data upon receipt on 12 March, and that they had agreed to send the data to the US for further processing on two separate occasions. Data analysis was completed on 14 March, by which time the AAIB had independently arrived at the same conclusion. [ 307 ] In June 2014, relatives of passengers on Flight 370 began a crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo to raise US$100,000 (~$132,823 in 2024)—with an ultimate goal of raising US$5 million—as a reward to encourage anyone with knowledge of the location of Flight 370, or the cause of its disappearance, to reveal what they knew. [ 308 ] [ 309 ] The campaign, which ended on 8 August 2014, raised US$100,516 from 1,007 contributors. [ 308 ] Malaysia Airlines A month after the disappearance, Malaysia Airlines' chief executive Ahmad Jauhari Yahya acknowledged that ticket sales had declined but failed to provide specific details. This may have partially resulted from the suspension of the airline's advertising campaigns following the disappearance. Ahmad stated in an interview with The Wall Street Journal that the airline's "primary focus...is that we do take care of the families in terms of their emotional needs and also their financial needs. It is important that we provide answers for them. It is important that the world has answers, as well." [ 310 ] In further remarks, Ahmad said he was not sure when the airline could start repairing its image, but that the airline was adequately insured to cover the financial loss stemming from Flight 370's disappearance. [ 310 ] [ 311 ] In China, where the majority of passengers were from, bookings on Malaysia Airlines were down 60% in March. [ 312 ] Malaysia Airlines retired the MH370 flight number and replaced it with MH318 (Flight 318) beginning 14 March 2014. This follows a common practice among airlines to redesignate flights after notorious accidents. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] As of September 2025, Malaysia Airlines still operates the Kuala Lumpur–Beijing route as MH318, though the flight now lands into Beijing Daxing instead of Beijing Capital. [ 315 ] Malaysia Airlines was given US$110 million (~$143 million in 2024) from insurers in March 2014 to cover initial payments to passengers' families and the search effort. [ 316 ] In May, remarks from lead reinsurer of the flight, Allianz , indicated the insured market loss on Flight 370, including the search, was about US$350 million. [ 317 ] [ 318 ] In 2017, Malaysia Airlines announced that they are the first airline to sign up for a new service that would track its airplanes anywhere in the world using orbiting satellites. [ 319 ] Financial troubles At the time of Flight 370's disappearance, Malaysia Airlines was struggling to cut costs to compete with a wave of new, low-cost carriers in the region. In the previous three years, Malaysia Airlines had booked losses of: RM 1.17 billion (US$356 million) in 2013, RM433 million in 2012, and RM2.5 billion in 2011. [ 310 ] Malaysia Airlines lost RM443.4 million (US$137.4 million) in the first quarter of 2014 (January–March). [ 311 ] The second quarter—the first full quarter in the aftermath of Flight 370's disappearance—saw a loss of RM307.04 million (US$97.6 million), representing a 75% increase over losses from the second quarter of 2013. [ 320 ] Industry analysts expected Malaysia Airlines to lose further market share and face a challenging environment to stand out from competitors while addressing its financial plight. [ 310 ] The company's stock, down as much as 20% following the disappearance of Flight 370, had fallen 80% over the previous five years, in contrast to a rise in the Malaysian stock market of about 80% over the same period. [ 312 ] Many analysts and the media suggested that Malaysia Airlines would need to rebrand and repair its image and require government assistance to return to profitability. [ 321 ] [ 322 ] [ 323 ] [ 324 ] [ 325 ] The loss of Flight 17 in July greatly exacerbated Malaysia Airline's financial problems. The combined effect on consumer confidence of the loss of Flight 370 and Flight 17, and the airline's poor financial performance, led Khazanah Nasional —the majority shareholder (69.37%) [ 326 ] and a Malaysian state-run investment arm—to announce on 8 August its plan to purchase the remainder of the airline, thereby renationalising it. [ 327 ] [ 328 ] [ 329 ] Malaysia Airlines renationalised on 1 September 2015. Compensation for passengers' next of kin Lack of evidence in determining the cause of Flight 370's disappearance, as well as the absence of any physical confirmation that the airplane crashed, raises many issues regarding responsibility for the accident and the payments made by insurance agencies. [ 330 ] Under the Montreal Convention , it is the carrier's responsibility to prove lack of fault in an accident and each passenger's next of kin are automatically entitled, regardless of fault, to a payment of approximately US$175,000 [ p ] from the airline's insurance company—amounting to a total of almost US$40 million for the 227 passengers on board. [ 330 ] Malaysia Airlines was also vulnerable to civil action from passengers' families. [ 330 ] Compensation awarded during civil cases (or settlements reached out of court) was likely to vary widely among passengers, based on the country where the proceedings were to take place. An American court could be expected to award upwards of US$8–10 million, while Chinese courts would be likely to award a small fraction of that amount. [ 331 ] [ 332 ] Despite the announcement that the flight ended in the southern Indian Ocean, it was not until 29 January 2015 that the Malaysian government officially declared Flight 370 an accident with no survivors, a move that would allow compensation claims to be made. [ 333 ] The first civil case relating to the disappearance was filed in October 2014—even before Flight 370 had been declared an accident—on behalf of two Malaysian boys whose father was a passenger; [ q ] they were claiming for negligence in failing to contact the aircraft soon after it was lost and for breach of contract for failing to bring the passenger to his destination. [ 336 ] Additional civil proceedings against Malaysia Airlines were filed in China and Malaysia. [ 337 ] Soon after the disappearance of Flight 370, Malaysia Airlines offered ex gratia condolence payments to families of the passengers. In China, the families were offered ¥31,000 (approx. US$5,000) "comfort money", [ 338 ] but some rejected the offer. [ 339 ] It was also reported that Malaysian relatives received only $2,000. [ 339 ] In June 2014, Malaysia's deputy Foreign Minister Hamzah Zainuddin said that families of seven passengers received $50,000 advance compensation from Malaysia Airlines, but that full payout would come after the aircraft was found, or officially declared lost [ 340 ] (which later occurred in January 2015). [ 333 ] Malaysia Before 2016 Many air force experts raised questions and the Malaysian opposition levelled criticisms about the state of Malaysia's air force and radar capabilities. Many criticised the failure of the Royal Malaysian Air Force to identify and respond to an unidentified aircraft (later determined to be Flight 370) flying through Malaysian airspace. [ 341 ] [ 342 ] [ 343 ] [ 344 ] The Malaysian military became aware of the unidentified aircraft only after reviewing radar recordings several hours after the flight's disappearance. [ 343 ] The failure to recognise and react to the unidentified aircraft was a security breach, and was also a missed opportunity to intercept Flight 370 and prevent the time-consuming and expensive search operation. [ 343 ] [ 344 ] The Malaysian Prime Minister, Najib Razak , responded to criticism of his government in an opinion piece published in The Wall Street Journal in which he acknowledged mistakes had been made, and said time would show that Malaysia had done its best, had helped co-ordinate the search, and would continue to provide support. Najib went on to emphasise the need for the aviation industry to "not only learn the lessons of MH370 but implement them," saying in closing that "the world learned from Air France Flight 447 but didn't act. The same mistake must not be made again." [ 345 ] Opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim criticised the Malaysian government regarding its response to Flight 370's disappearance and the military's response when Flight 370 turned back over the Malay Peninsula; he called for an international committee to take charge of the investigation "to save the image of the country and to save the country." [ 346 ] Malaysian authorities have accused Anwar—who was jailed on contentious charges the day before Flight 370 disappeared—of politicising the crisis. Flight 370's captain was a supporter of Anwar, and the two men were acquainted. [ 346 ] Questioned about why Malaysia did not scramble fighter jets to intercept the aircraft as it tracked back across the Malay Peninsula, acting Transport Minister Hishammuddin noted that it was deemed a commercial aircraft and was not hostile, remarking: "If you're not going to shoot it down, what's the point of sending [a fighter jet] up?" [ 347 ] According to former air force pilot major Ahmad Zaidi of RMAF Butterworth , no pilot stays on the base during the night, so the aircraft could not have been intercepted. [ 348 ] [ 349 ] The response to the crisis and lack of transparency in the response brought attention to the state of media in Malaysia. After decades of tight media control, during which government officials were accustomed to passing over issues without scrutiny or accountability, Malaysia was suddenly thrust into the spotlight of the global media and unable to adjust to demands for transparency. [ 350 ] March 2020 On 8 March 2020, six years after the disappearance, two memorial events were held to mark the anniversary. [ 351 ] [ 352 ] Families of MH370 passengers called for a new search for the flight in a bid to seek closure. Malaysia's former Transport Minister Anthony Loke had attended one of the events, expressing regret at being unable to table the compensation documents at the Cabinet level as per his original intent. [ 353 ] The families hoped that the new Transport Minister Wee Ka Siong could expedite the compensation matters. [ 354 ] [ 355 ] Malaysia's transport ministry secretary-general, Datuk Isham Ishak, stated that he had already submitted a request to meet the Prime Minister ( Muhyiddin Yassin ) the following week of 15 to 22 March so that he could present the paper on compensation for the families of MH370 victims, and that the ministry would also continue to seek support from the new government to resume the search for the missing aircraft. [ 356 ] China Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister Xie Hangsheng reacted skeptically to the conclusion by the Malaysian government that the aircraft had gone down with no survivors, demanding on 24 March 2014 "all the relevant information and evidence about the satellite data analysis", and said that the Malaysian government must "finish all the work including search and rescue." [ 357 ] [ 358 ] The following day, Chinese president Xi Jinping sent a special envoy to Kuala Lumpur to consult with the Malaysian government over the missing aircraft. [ 359 ] Relatives of passengers In the days following the disappearance of Flight 370, relatives of those on board became increasingly frustrated at the lack of news. [ 50 ] On 25 March 2014, around two hundred family members of the Chinese passengers protested outside the Malaysian embassy in Beijing. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] Relatives who had arrived in Kuala Lumpur after the announcement continued with their protest, accusing Malaysia of hiding the truth and harbouring a murderer. They also wanted an apology from the Malaysian government for its poor initial handling of the disaster and its "premature" conclusion of total loss, drawn without any physical evidence. [ 362 ] An op-ed in state media outlet China Daily said that Malaysia was not wholly to be blamed for its poor handling of such a "bizarre" and "unprecedented crisis," and appealed to the Chinese relatives not to allow emotions to prevail over evidence and rationality. [ 363 ] The Chinese ambassador to Malaysia defended the Malaysian government's response, stating that the "radical and irresponsible opinions [of the relatives] do not represent the views of Chinese people and the Chinese government". [ 364 ] The ambassador also strongly criticised Western media for having "published false news, stoked conflict and even spread rumours" [ 365 ] to the detriment of relatives and of Sino–Malaysian relations . [ 365 ] On the other hand, a US Department of Defense official criticised China for what he perceived as providing apparently false leads that detracted from the search effort and wasted time and resources. [ 366 ] [ 367 ] In July 2019, Beijing-based family members of some MH370 victims received notice from Malaysia Airlines that from July 2019 onwards, MAS would discontinue the "Meet the Families" discussion sessions in Beijing, China. This came after around 50 sessions had taken place. [ 368 ] Boycotts Some Chinese citizens boycotted all things Malaysian, including holidays and singers, in protest of Malaysia's handling of the Flight 370 investigation. [ 369 ] [ 370 ] Bookings on Malaysia Airlines from China, where the majority of passengers were from, were down 60% in March. [ 312 ] In late March, several major Chinese ticketing agencies— eLong , LY.com, Qunar , and Mango—discontinued the sale of airline tickets to Malaysia [ 369 ] [ 371 ] and several large Chinese travel agencies reported a 50% drop in tourists compared to the same period the year before. [ 372 ] China was the third-largest source of visitors to Malaysia prior to Flight 370's disappearance, accounting for 1.79 million tourists in 2013. One market analyst predicted a 20–40% drop in Chinese tourists to Malaysia, resulting in a loss of 4–8 billion yuan (RM2.1–4.2 billion; US$0.65–1.3 billion). [ 372 ] [ 373 ] The boycotts were largely led or supported by celebrities. [ 374 ] Film star Chen Kun posted a message to Weibo —where he had 70 million followers—stating that he would be boycotting Malaysia until its government told the truth. The post was shared over 70,000 times and drew over 30,000 comments. More than 337,000 people retweeted a tweet from TV host Meng Fei which said that he would join the boycott. [ 372 ] China and Malaysia had previously nominated 2014 to be the " Malaysia–China Friendship Year " to celebrate 40 years of diplomatic relations between the two countries. [ 371 ] Air transport industry The fact that a modern aircraft could disappear in a digitally connected world was met with surprise and disbelief by the public. While changes in the aviation industry often take years to be implemented, airlines and air transport authorities responded swiftly to take action on several measures to reduce the likelihood of a similar incident. [ 375 ] [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ 378 ] Aircraft tracking The International Air Transport Association (IATA)—an industry trade organisation representing more than 240 airlines (accounting for 84% of global air traffic)—and the ICAO began working on implementing new measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. [ 379 ] The IATA created a task force (which included several outside stakeholders) [ 379 ] to define a minimal set of requirements that any tracking system must meet, allowing airlines to decide the best solution to track their aircraft. The IATA's task force planned to come up with several short-, medium-, and long-term solutions to ensure that information is provided in a timely manner to support search, rescue, and recovery activities in the wake of an aircraft accident. [ 380 ] The task force was expected to provide a report to the ICAO on 30 September 2014, but announced on that date that the report would be delayed, citing the need for further clarification on some issues. [ 381 ] [ 382 ] In December 2014, the IATA task force recommended that, within 12 months, airlines track commercial aircraft in no longer than 15-minute intervals. The IATA itself did not support the deadline, which it believed could not be met by all airlines, but the proposed standard had the support of the ICAO. Although the ICAO can set standards, it has no legal authority, and such standards must be adopted by member states. [ 383 ] [ 384 ] In 2016, the ICAO adopted a standard that, by November 2018, all aircraft over open ocean report their position every 15 minutes. [ 385 ] In March, the ICAO approved an amendment to the Chicago Convention requiring new aircraft manufactured after 1 January 2021 to have autonomous tracking devices which could send location information at least once per minute in distress circumstances. [ 385 ] [ 386 ] In May 2014, Inmarsat said that it would offer its tracking service for free to all aircraft equipped with an Inmarsat satellite connection (which includes the vast majority of commercial airliners). [ 387 ] Inmarsat also changed the time period for handshakes with its terminals from one hour to 15 minutes. [ 252 ] : 2 Transponders After the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 , calls were made for transponders to become automated rather than manually operated; no changes were made because aviation experts preferred flexible control, in case of malfunctions or electrical emergencies. [ 388 ] In the aftermath of Flight 370's disappearance, the air transport industry was still resistant to the installation of automated transponders, which would likely entail significant costs. Pilots also criticised changes of this kind, insisting on the need to cut power to equipment in the event of a fire. Nonetheless, new types of tamper-proof circuit breakers were being considered. [ 377 ] Flight recorders The intensive and urgent search for the flight recorders in early April 2014, due to the 30-day battery life of the underwater locator beacons (ULBs) (or "pingers") attached to them, drew attention to their inherent limitations. [ r ] [ 389 ] The maximum distance from the ULBs at which the signal can be detected is normally 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), or 4,500 m (14,800 ft) under favourable conditions. [ 63 ] : 11 Even if the flight recorders are located, the cockpit voice recorder memory has the capacity to store only two hours of data, continuously recording over the oldest data. This storage capacity complies with regulations, which take account of the fact that it is usually only the data recordings from the last section of a flight that are needed to determine the cause of an accident. However, the events that led to Flight 370 diverting from its course, before disappearing, took place more than two hours before the flight ended. [ 390 ] Given these shortcomings, and the importance of the data stored on flight recorders, Flight 370 has brought to attention new technologies that enable data streaming to the ground . [ 391 ] [ 392 ] A call to increase the battery life of ULBs was made following the unsuccessful initial search in 2009 for the flight recorders on Air France Flight 447 , which were not located until 2011. A formal recommendation that the ULB design be upgraded to offer a longer battery life, or to make the recorders ejectable, had been included in the final report of the board of inquiry into the loss of South African Airways Flight 295 over the Indian Ocean in 1987, but it was not until 2014 that the ICAO made such a recommendation, with implementation required by 2018. [ 391 ] The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) issued new regulations that require the transmitting time of ULBs fitted to aircraft flight recorders to be increased from 30 to 90 days, to be implemented by 1 January 2020. [ 393 ] The agency has also proposed that a new underwater locator beacon with a greater range of transmission should be fitted to aircraft that fly over oceans. [ 380 ] In June 2015, Dukane, a manufacturer of underwater locator beacons, began selling beacons with a 90-day battery life. [ 394 ] In March 2016, the ICAO adopted several amendments to the Chicago Convention in order to address issues raised by the disappearance of Flight 370. These affected aircraft manufactured after 2020, requiring cockpit voice recorders to record at least 25 hours of data, to ensure that all phases of a flight are recorded. [ 385 ] [ 386 ] Aircraft designs approved after 2020 must incorporate a means of recovering the flight recorders, or the information contained on them, before the recorders sink below the water. This provision is performance-based so that it can be accomplished by different techniques, such as streaming flight recorder data from a stricken aircraft, or using flight recorders that eject from the aircraft and float on the surface of the water. [ 386 ] The new regulations do not require modifications to be made to existing aircraft. [ 385 ] Safety recommendations In January 2015, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board cited Flight 370 and Air France Flight 447 when it issued eight safety recommendations [ s ] related to locating aircraft wreckage in remote or underwater locations, and repeated recommendations for a crash-protected cockpit image recorder and tamper-resistant flight recorders and transponders. [ 395 ] [ 396 ] In popular culture The disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 has been described as "one of the biggest mysteries in modern aviation history". [ 397 ] [ 398 ] Several documentaries have been produced about the flight. The Smithsonian Channel aired a one-hour documentary on 6 April 2014, titled Malaysia 370: The Plane That Vanished , [ 399 ] [ 400 ] and the Discovery Channel broadcast a one-hour documentary about Flight 370 on 16 April 2014, titled Flight 370: The Missing Links . [ 401 ] [ 402 ] On 17 June 2014, an episode of the television documentary series Horizon , titled "Where Is Flight MH370?" was broadcast on BBC Two . The programme documents how the aircraft disappeared, what experts believe to have happened to it, and how the search has unfolded. It also examines new technologies, such as flight recorder streaming and automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B), which may help prevent similar disappearances in the future. The programme concludes by noting that Ocean Shield had spent two months searching 850 km 2 (330 mi 2 ) of ocean, but that it had searched far to the north of the Inmarsat "hotspot" on the final arc, at approximately 28 degrees south, where the aircraft was most likely to have crashed. [ 403 ] On 8 October 2014, a modified version of the Horizon programme was broadcast in the U.S. by PBS as an episode of NOVA , titled "Why Planes Vanish". [ 404 ] [ 405 ] [ 406 ] The aviation disaster documentary television series Mayday (also known as Air Crash Investigation and Air Emergency ) produced an episode on the disaster, titled " What Happened to Malaysian 370? ". [ 407 ] The episode aired in the UK on 8 March 2015, the first anniversary of Flight 370's disappearance. [ 408 ] In August 2018, the television series Drain the Oceans , which airs on the National Geographic channel , highlighted the disaster, the methods used in the search, and the potential discoveries. [ 409 ] Panoply made a podcast story loosely based on the disappearance of MH370, called "Passenger List". Kelly Marie Tran played the lead character. [ 410 ] Jeff Rake , creator of the NBC show Manifest , said that after he had pitched his idea for the show without any success, the MH370 disappearance led to the TV network's sudden interest. [ 411 ] The first work of fiction about the incident was MH370: A Novella , by New Zealand author Scott Maka. [ 412 ] In 2022, a three-part documentary series, titled MH370: The Lost Flight , was released. [ 413 ] On the ninth anniversary of the flight's disappearance, 8 March 2023, a three-part docuseries, MH370: The Plane That Disappeared premiered on Netflix . [ 414 ] In 2023, American comedian Jocelyn Chia was investigated by Malaysian police for breaching Malaysian laws relating to incitement and offensive online content, after making a joke about the flight at Comedy Cellar in New York City. Acryl Sani Abdullah Sani , chief of the Malaysian police, said an application would be filed to Interpol to find Chia's "full identity" and "latest location". A video of her stand-up performance was removed from TikTok for violating the platform's hate speech guidelines. The Singaporean ambassador to Malaysia stated that Chia (who grew up in Singapore) did not speak for Singaporeans. Vivian Balakrishnan , Singaporean Foreign Minister, called Chia's joke "horrendous statements". Chia stood by the joke, stating that it was being "taken out of context" and had been performed over 100 times without complaints before. [ 415 ] See also Aviation portal Malaysia portal China portal List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft List of aviation accidents and incidents in the 21st century List of missing aircraft List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea List of unrecovered flight recorders List of unsolved deaths Explanatory notes ^ The aircraft was a Boeing 777-200 (Extended Range "ER") model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "777-2H6(ER)" designates a B777-200ER built for Malaysia Airlines (customer code H6). ^ from April 2004 ^ The aircraft is a Boeing 777-200ER (for Extended Range) model; Boeing assigns a unique customer code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which replaces part of the model number at the time the aircraft is built. The code for Malaysia Airlines is "H6", hence "777-2H6ER". [ 23 ] ^ Including one Hong Kong resident. [ 41 ] ^ The manifest initially released by Malaysia Airlines listed an Austrian and an Italian. These were subsequently identified as two Iranian nationals who boarded Flight 370 using stolen passports. [ 43 ] ^ 38 passengers and 12 crew. ^ a b c Aircraft altitude is given as feet above sea level and measured, at higher altitudes, by air pressure, which declines as altitude above sea level increases. Using a standard sea level pressure and formula, the nominal altitude of a given air pressure can be determined—referred to as the "pressure altitude". A flight level is the pressure altitude in hundreds of feet. For example, flight level 350 corresponds to an altitude where air pressure is 179 mmHg (23.9 kPa), which is nominally 35,000 ft (10,700 m) but does not indicate the true altitude. ^ Responsibility for air traffic control is partitioned geographically, by international agreements, into flight information regions (FIRs). Although the airspace at the point where Flight 370 was lost is part of the Singapore FIR, the Kuala Lumpur ACC had been delegated responsibility to provide air traffic control services to aircraft in that part of its FIR. [ 61 ] : 13 ^ Heights given by primary radar are actual altitudes, unlike the pressure altitudes provided by secondary radar. ^ The interim report released by Malaysia during March 2015 states: "All the primary aircraft targets that were recorded by the DCA radar are consistent with those of the military data that were made available to the Investigation Team." The report does not explicitly state that the unidentified aircraft was Flight 370. [ 26 ] : 3–4 ^ a b The 7th arc is a line on the map of possible positions where the aircraft went down due to fuel exhaustion. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] It corresponds to the seventh and final handshake with the tracking satellite at 08:19. [ 156 ] ^ The agency's name changed on 1 July 2015. It was previously known as the Defence Science and Technology Organisation. [ 237 ] ^ The timing of the log-on interrogation message is determined by an inactivity timer, which was set to one hour at the time of Flight 370's disappearance (it was later reduced to 15 minutes). [ 63 ] : 18 ^ Information released and reported publicly about SATCOM transmissions from Flight 370 have been inconsistent, especially the use of the terms "ping" and "handshake". It was initially reported as six "handshakes" or "pings" with one "partial handshake or ping" sent at 00:19 UTC by Flight 370, unprovoked by the ground station. The events listed may consist of several "transmissions" between the aircraft and ground station over the course of a few seconds. A readable copy of the ground station log of transmissions to and from Flight 370 is available online ^ Examples: * Malaysia Airlines' chief executive, Ahmad Jauhari Yahya, initially said air traffic control was in contact with the aircraft two hours into the flight, when in fact the last contact with air traffic control was less than an hour after takeoff. [ 286 ] * Malaysian authorities initially reported that four passengers used stolen passports to board the aircraft before settling on two: one Italian and one Austrian. [ 287 ] * Malaysia abruptly widened the search area to the west on 9 March, and only later explained that military radar had detected the aircraft turning back. [ 287 ] This was later formally denied by Rodzali Daud. [ 288 ] * Malaysian authorities visited the homes of pilot Zaharie and co-pilot Fariq on 15 March, during which they took away a flight simulator belonging to Zaharie. Malaysian police chief Khalid Abu Bakar said this was the first police visit to those homes. On 17 March, the government contradicted this by saying police first visited the pilots' homes on the day following the flight's disappearance, [ 289 ] although this had been previously denied. [ 290 ] * On 16 March, Malaysia's acting transport minister contradicted the prime minister's account on the timing of the final data and communications received. Najib Razak had said that the ACARS system was switched off at 01:07. On 17 March, Malaysian officials said that the system was switched off sometime between 01:07, time of the last ACARS transmission, and 01:37, time of the next expected transmission. [ 291 ] [ 292 ] * Three days after saying that the aircraft was not transporting anything hazardous, Malaysia Airlines' chief executive Ahmad said that potentially dangerous lithium batteries were on board. [ 293 ] * MAS chief executive initially claimed that the last voice communication from the aircraft was, "all right, good night", with the lack of a call sign fuelling speculation that the flight may have been hijacked. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] Three weeks later Malaysian authorities published the transcript that indicated the last words were "Good night Malaysian three seven zero". [ 67 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] [ 298 ] ^ The exact amount of this compensation is 113,100 special drawing rights . Using the official exchange rates on 16 July 2014, this is worth approximately: RM 557,000; ¥ 1,073,000; US$174,000; €129,000; or £102,000. ^ In March 2014, a petition for discovery was filed in a US court by a law firm, not representing relatives of families, against Boeing and Malaysia Airlines. It sought to obtain the names of manufacturers of aircraft parts along with maintenance records. It was reported in the media as a lawsuit or that Malaysia Airlines was being sued. [ 334 ] [ 335 ] ^ Regulations required ULBs to transmit a minimum of 30 days. The ULBs on the flight recorders on Flight 370 had a minimum 30-day battery life after immersion. The ULB manufacturer predicted the maximum battery life was 40 days after immersion. [ 63 ] : 11 ^ A-15-1 to A-15-8 References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} MacLeod, Calum; Winter, Michael; Gray, Allison (8 March 2014). "Beijing-bound flight from Malaysia missing" . USA Today . Archived from the original on 11 November 2020 . Retrieved 3 May 2014 . ^ "10 aviation Mysteries of Our Time" . caaa.com.au . 8 August 2022 . Retrieved 1 September 2024 . ^ Horton, Adrian (6 March 2023). " 'The greatest aviation mystery of all time': what really happened to flight MH370?" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 16 March 2024 . Retrieved 1 September 2024 . ^ Kadri, Usama (10 June 2024). "Flight MH370: can underwater sound signals solve aviation's greatest mystery?" . The Conversation . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ "Flimsy 1 MH370 Timeline.pdf" (PDF) . www.icao.int . Retrieved 23 February 2025 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines flight vanishes with more than 200 people aboard: March 8, 2014" . HISTORY . 4 August 2014 . Retrieved 23 February 2025 . ^ "New missing Malaysian plane MH370 search area announced" . BBC News . 26 June 2014. Archived from the original on 8 July 2014 . Retrieved 15 November 2014 . The search for the missing airliner is already among most expensive in aviation history. ^ Wardell, Jane (8 April 2014). "Search for MH370 to be most expensive in aviation history" . Sydney: Reuters . Archived from the original on 14 April 2014 . Retrieved 15 November 2014 . ^ Pearlman, Jonathan (29 May 2014). "MH370 search becomes most expensive aviation hunt in history, yet still no clues" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 1 June 2014 . ^ Sharp, Tim (17 January 2017). "Facts About Malaysia Flight 370: Passengers, Crew & Aircraft" . livescience.com . Future plc. Archived from the original on 8 May 2017 . Retrieved 20 August 2019 . ^ a b "Flight MH370 'crashed in south Indian Ocean' – Malaysia PM" . BBC News . 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014 . Retrieved 8 May 2014 . ^ a b c d "MH370 search: Mozambique debris 'almost certainly' from missing plane" . BBC News . 24 March 2016. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. ^ a b c "Experts Complete Examination of Mozambique Debris" (PDF) . MH370.gov.my . Ministry of Transport Malaysia. 24 March 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2016 . Retrieved 30 March 2016 . ^ a b "Mozambique debris 'almost certainly from MH370': Australia" . Associated Press. 24 March 2016. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016 . Retrieved 24 March 2016 . ^ a b "Identification of two items of debris recovered from beaches in Mozambique" (PDF) . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau. 19 April 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2016 . Retrieved 11 May 2016 . ^ a b "Ship hired to find MH370 arrives in search zone" . The Star . Sydney. Reuters. 23 January 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . ^ Shah, Aliza (18 January 2018). "Norwegian vessel to arrive at MH370 search area this weekend" . New Straits Times . Kuala Lumpur. Archived from the original on 7 February 2018 . Retrieved 19 January 2018 . ^ "Malaysia says search resumes for missing flight MH370" . Channel NewsAsia . 23 January 2018. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. ^ Brumfiel, Geoff (3 October 2017). "Final Report On MH370 Says Failure To Locate Airliner Is 'Almost Inconceivable' " . NPR. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023 . Retrieved 31 March 2023 . ^ "MH370 disappeared a decade ago. Here's what we know about one of aviation's biggest mysteries" . AP News . 6 March 2024 . Retrieved 23 February 2025 . ^ Pasztor, Andy; Ostrower, Jon (13 March 2014). "U.S. Investigators Suspect Missing Malaysia Airlines Plane Flew On for Hours" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 5 January 2015 . Retrieved 8 March 2023 . ^ "How disappearance of Malaysia Airlines flight is changing safety standards" . Chicago Tribune . 4 March 2016. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023 . Retrieved 11 March 2022 . ^ Pither, Tony (1998). The Boeing 707 720 and C-135 . England: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd . ISBN 978-0-85130-236-2 . ^ a b c "MH370 Safety Investigation Report" (PDF) . Ministry of Transport Malaysia. 30 July 2018. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020 . Retrieved 14 August 2018 . ^ "Boeing 777-200 – Fleet" . Malaysia Airlines. Archived from the original on 17 October 2013 . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y "Factual Information, Safety Investigation: Malaysia Airlines MH370 Boeing 777-200ER (9M-MRO)" (PDF) . mh370.mot.gov.my . Malaysia: Malaysia Ministry of Transport. 8 March 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2015 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ Waldron, Greg (8 March 2014). "Missing MAS 777-200 had no major prior incidents" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ 浦东机场滑行跑道内东航马航两飞机剐蹭 [Two planes of Eastern Airlines Malaysia Airlines in the taxiway of Pudong Airport] (in Chinese). Xinhua News Agency . 10 August 2012. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. ^ "ASN Wikibase Occurrence # 147571" . 9 August 2012 . Retrieved 24 March 2014 . ^ Toh, Mavis (9 March 2014). "MAS 777 underwent maintenance in Feb" . FlightGlobal . Singapore. Archived from the original on 17 February 2020 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Dunne, John (8 March 2024). "MH370 was given extra fuel and oxygen before take off in new twist to missing jet riddle" . Evening Standard . Archived from the original on 18 March 2024 . Retrieved 9 April 2024 . ^ Zhang, Benjamin (3 August 2016). "A Boeing 777 just crashed, but it's still one of the safest planes ever to fly" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 30 May 2020 . ^ Whitmore, Geoff (16 August 2019). "What Is The Safest Airplane To Fly?" . Forbes . Archived from the original on 1 February 2021 . Retrieved 30 May 2020 . ^ Kaminski-Morrow, David (30 November 2012). "EgyptAir 777 fire probe inconclusive but short-circuit suspected" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ Hradecky, Simon (29 July 2011). "Accident: Egyptair B772 at Cairo on Jul 29th 2011, cockpit fire" . The Aviation Herald . Archived from the original on 27 February 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ a b Patterson, Thom (18 July 2014). "Malaysia Air faces new, serious threat as company" . CNN . Archived from the original on 18 May 2024 . Retrieved 18 July 2014 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17 reportedly shot down near Ukraine-Russia border" . CBC News . Canada: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020 . Retrieved 19 July 2014 . ^ "Emirates flight from Trivandrum crash-lands in Dubai, passengers safe" . Deccan Chronicle . 3 August 2016. Archived from the original on 17 September 2020 . Retrieved 3 August 2016 . ^ "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 777-212ER 9V-SQK Singapore-Changi International Airport (SIN)" . aviation-safety.net . Archived from the original on 22 October 2020 . Retrieved 30 May 2020 . ^ a b c d "MH370 Passenger Manifest" (PDF) (Press release). Malaysia Airlines . 8 March 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2014. ^ "HK resident was aboard missing plane" . RTHK . 10 March 2014. Archived from the original on 20 March 2014. ^ Singh, Ranjit (12 March 2014). "MH370: Five Indian nationals identified" . astro AWANI. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014 . Retrieved 29 May 2014 . ^ a b c Budisatrijo, Alice; Westcott, Richard (11 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines MH370: Stolen passports 'no terror link' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on 4 June 2014 . Retrieved 9 May 2014 . ^ a b "Missing Malaysia plane: The passengers on board MH370" . BBC News . 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019 . Retrieved 24 January 2019 . ^ Wong, Chun Han; Fernandez, Celine (10 March 2014). "Pilot Zaharie, of Missing Malaysia Airlines Plane, a Passionate Aviator" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 16 August 2024 . Retrieved 16 August 2024 . Those Who Know Capt. Zaharie Ahmad Shah Recall an Amiable Geek Who Loves to Fly ^ "Missing MAS flight: Captain piloting MH370 a Penang boy" . The Straits Times . 8 March 2014. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ Koswanage, Niluksi (9 March 2014). "Pilot of missing Malaysian flight an aviation tech geek" . Kuala Lumpur: Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . ^ "MISSING MH370: Co-pilot family awaits for latest updates – Latest" . New Straits Times . 8 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014. ^ Watkins, Tom (9 March 2014). "First officer on missing jet was transitioning to 777-200s" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . ^ a b c d e Denyer, Simon; Barnes, Robert; Harlan, Chico (9 March 2014). "Debris spotted may be from missing Malaysian Airline flight" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 9 March 2014. ^ Carter, Chelsea J.; Clancy, Jim (8 March 2014). "No sign of Malaysia Airline wreckage; questions over stolen passports" . CNN . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024 . Retrieved 10 March 2014 . ^ Randewich, Noel (9 March 2014). "Loss of employees on Malaysia flight a blow, U.S. chipmaker says" . San Francisco: Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014 . Retrieved 15 March 2014 . ^ "Caregiver sacrifices time for family of passengers" . New Straits Times . Archived from the original on 31 May 2014. ^ Kuhn, Anthony (20 March 2014). "For Flight 370 Families, Every Day Is 'Torment' : Parallels" . NPR. Archived from the original on 10 May 2015 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ "Missing MAS flight: Malaysia grateful for assistance in search and rescue operations, says Anifah" . The Star . 9 March 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ "Caregivers from Malaysia, Australia assigned to families of passengers onboard MH370" . The Malay Mail . 9 March 2014. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ "Missing Malaysia jet may have veered off course" . CNBC . 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . ^ "MISSING MH370: Families cling to faint hopes: psychologist" . New Straits Times . 10 March 2014. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . ^ "Tweet" . Twitter . Flightradar24 . 7 March 2014. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines 2Q loss widens. Restructuring is imminent but outlook remains bleak" . CAPA Centre For Aviation . 28 August 2014 . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . The only significant cut MAS implemented in 2Q2014 was on the Beijing route, which is now served with one daily flight. (MH370 was one of two daily flights MAS had operated to Beijing.) ^ a b "Airspace Delegated to Malaysia" (PDF) . Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia . 25 August 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2014 . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . ^ a b c d e f g h i "Documents: Preliminary report on missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370" . Malaysia Department of Civil Aviation. Archived from the original on 1 May 2014 . Retrieved 22 October 2014 – via CNN. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac "MH 370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas" (PDF) . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . 26 June 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2014 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . "The Search for MH370: Reports" . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . Archived from the original on 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . "The Search for MH370: Reports" . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . Archived from the original on 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . ^ "MH370 PC live updates / 530 17th March" . Out of Control Videos . Archived from the original on 17 March 2014 . Retrieved 16 July 2014 . Timing of ACARS deactivation unclear. Last ACARS message at 01:07 was not necessarily point at which system was turned off ^ a b c d e f g "Signalling Unit Log for (9M-MRO) Flight MH370" (PDF) . Inmarsat/Malaysia Department of Civil Aviation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 June 2014 . ^ a b c "MH370 – Flight Path Analysis Update" (PDF) . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . 8 October 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2019 . Retrieved 15 November 2014 . ^ a b Rogers, Abby (1 April 2014). "MH370: cockpit transcript in full" . theguardian.com . Archived from the original on 16 May 2014 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ "FlightRadar24.com MH370 7 March 2014" . Retrieved 12 February 2019 . ^ "Malaysian Airlines System (MH) No. 370 ✈ 08-Mar-2014 ✈ WMKK / KUL – ZBAA / PEK ✈" . FlightAware . Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. ^ "Pilot: I established contact with plane" . New Straits Times . AsiaOne . 9 March 2014. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020. ^ Cenciotti, David (11 March 2014). "What we know and what we don't about the mysterious Malaysia Airlines MH370 disappearance" . The Aviationist . Archived from the original on 7 March 2021 . Retrieved 3 April 2014 . ^ Forsythe, Michael; Schmidt, Michael S. (14 March 2014). "Radar Suggests Jet Shifted Path More Than Once" . The New York Times . Sepang, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023 . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . ^ a b Koswanage, Niluksi; Govindasamy, Siva (14 March 2014). "Exclusive: Radar data suggests missing Malaysia plane deliberately flown way off course – sources" . Kuala Lumpur: Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 March 2014 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . ^ Stacey, Daniel (1 May 2014). "Investigators to Re-Examine Clues in Missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 3 April 2023 . Retrieved 13 July 2014 . ^ "Vietnam says it told Malaysia that missing plane MH370 had turned back" . The Straits Times . 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021 . Retrieved 21 April 2019 . ^ Doksone, Thanyarat (19 March 2014). "Missing Malaysia Airlines plane: Thailand gives radar data 10 days after plane lost" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 30 August 2017 . Retrieved 7 July 2017 . ^ "How could Australian radar miss flight MH370?" . Special Broadcasting Service . 26 March 2014. Archived from the original on 19 March 2017. ^ "JORN FAQ" (PDF) . airforce.gov.au . 26 May 2016. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . Based on the time of day that MH370 disappeared, and in the context of peacetime tasking, JORN was not operational at the time of the aircraft's disappearance. ^ a b c "Malaysian government publishes MH370 details from UK AAIB" . Inmarsat . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ a b "Inmarsat breaks silence on probe into missing jet" . Fox News . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ a b c d e Broderick, Sean (1 May 2014). "First MH370 Report Details Confusion in Hours After Flight Was Lost" . Aviation Week . Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 22 October 2014 . ^ Kaminski-Morrow, David (1 May 2014). "Inquiry details controllers' hunt as MH370 vanished" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ a b c "MH370 Flight Incident (Press statements 8–17 March)" . Malaysia Airlines . March 2014. Archived from the original on 18 December 2014 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 . ^ "No MH370 Distress Call, Search Area Widened" . Aviation Week & Space Technology . 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ a b c Holpuch, Amanda; Weaver, Matthew (24 March 2014). "MH370 families attack Malaysian government over loss of plane" . The Guardian (News blog). Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ Withnall, Adam (24 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines flight MH370: Distraught families told by text message to assume 'beyond doubt no one survived' " . The Independent . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 25 March 2014 . ^ Fuller, Thomas; Buckley, Chris (24 March 2014). "Jet Fell Into Ocean With All Lost, Premier Says" . The New York Times . Pearce Air Force Base, Australia. Archived from the original on 4 December 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ a b Rahma, Azharuddin Abdul (29 January 2015). "Announcement on MH370 by Director General" (PDF) . Official Site for MH370 . Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2016 . Retrieved 31 January 2015 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines: experts surprised at disappearance of 'very safe' Boeing 777" . The Guardian . 8 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ Govindasamy, Siva; Scott, Alwyn (8 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines has one of Asia's best safety records" . Mumbai: Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ MH370 Maldives theory debunked ^ Martinez, Michael (19 March 2014). "Flying low? Burning object? Ground witnesses claim they saw Flight 370" . CNN. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . ^ "Raja Dalelah: I'm convinced I saw aircraft near Andaman islands - Nation" . The Star . 21 March 2014. Archived from the original on 22 March 2014 . Retrieved 27 October 2025 . ^ Husted, Chris (2 June 2014). " 'I thought I saw MH370 on fire,' says Phuket yachtie" . Phuket Gazette. Archived from the original on 5 June 2014 . Retrieved 9 August 2024 . ^ Pearlman, Jonathan (3 June 2014). "Malaysia Airlines plane search: British yachtswoman 'saw MH370 on fire' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . ^ "Search for MH370 Facts and statistics Surface search of the southern Indian Ocean 17 March – 28 April 2014" (PDF) . jacc.gov.au . Joint Agency Coordination Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 March 2015 . Retrieved 5 December 2014 . ^ Ironside, Robyn (9 October 2014). "MH370 missing Malaysia Airlines plane: Search might be in wrong spot, investigators say" . News.com.au . News Corp Australia . Archived from the original on 19 October 2014 . Retrieved 19 October 2014 . ^ "About Us" . jacc.gov.au . Joint Agency Coordination Centre. Archived from the original on 10 March 2015 . Retrieved 5 December 2014 . ^ Brown, Sophie (16 June 2014). "MH370: How long will the search continue?" . CNN . Archived from the original on 14 December 2014 . Retrieved 15 November 2014 . ^ "The Hunt for Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 Continues" . Newsweek . Reuters. 6 August 2014. Archived from the original on 14 December 2014 . Retrieved 15 November 2014 . ^ a b "MH370: Families say search suspension for Malaysian plane 'irresponsible' " . BBC News . 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . ^ Whitley, Angus (17 January 2017). "MH370 Search Ends to Leave Aviation's Biggest Mystery Unsolved" . Bloomberg News . Archived from the original on 17 January 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . Australian investigators put the cost of the operation at A$180 million ($135 million). ^ Perry, Juliet; Berlinger, Joshua (17 January 2017). "MH370: Underwater search for missing plane suspended" . CNN . Archived from the original on 17 January 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . 151 – Estimated cost of search in millions of U.S. dollars ^ "After 3 years, MH370 search ends with no plane, few answers" . Chicago Tribune . 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017 . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . The Joint Agency Coordination Center in Australia, which has helped lead the $160 million hunt for the Boeing 777 in remote waters west of Australia, said the search had officially been suspended after crews finished their fruitless sweep of the 120,000-square kilometer (46,000-square mile) search zone. ^ a b Waldron, Greg (3 October 2017). "ATSB final MH370 report calls for more precise flight tracking" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 3 October 2017 . Retrieved 3 October 2017 . ^ Knaus, Christopher (3 October 2017). "MH370's location an 'almost inconceivable' mystery – final report" . TheGuardian.com . Archived from the original on 17 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . ^ a b c "ATSB Transport Safety Report, External Aviation Investigation, AE-2014-054: The Operational Search for MH370" (PDF) . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . 3 October 2017. Archived from the original (Final report) on 10 March 2020 . Retrieved 7 October 2017 . ^ a b "US company resumes search for missing flight MH370" . The Telegraph . Associated Press. 7 January 2018. ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 7 January 2018 . ^ a b "MH370: Private company to resume search for lost Malaysia Airlines plane" . Archived from the original on 7 January 2018 . Retrieved 7 January 2018 . ^ a b "MH370 Operational Search Update #1" (PDF) . oceaninfinity.com . Government of Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2018 . Retrieved 15 February 2018 . ^ a b "A fantastical ship has set out to seek Malaysian Airlines flight 370" . The Economist . Archived from the original on 21 April 2018 . Retrieved 8 January 2018 . ^ a b "MH 370 Operational Search Update #5" (PDF) . oceaninfinity.com . Government of Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2018 . Retrieved 1 March 2018 . ^ a b "MH370 Conclusion of current search for Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370" . oceaninfinity.com . oceaninfinity. Archived from the original on 30 May 2018 . Retrieved 29 May 2018 . ^ a b "MH370: Ocean Infinity search ends amid calls for new disclosures and further investigation" . 8 June 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ "RMAF chief: Recordings captured from radar indicate flight deviated from original route" . The Star Online . 10 March 2014. Archived from the original on 15 March 2014. ^ Kamal, Shazwan Mustafa (15 March 2014). "MH370 possibly in one of two 'corridors', says PM" . Malay Mail . Archived from the original on 20 March 2014. ^ Hodal, Kate (16 March 2014). "Flight MH370: Malaysia asks for help in continued search for missing plane" . The Guardian . Songkhla. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014 . Retrieved 4 November 2014 . ^ Mukherji, Biman; Sugden, Joanna (15 March 2014). "India Continues Search for MH370 as Malaysia Ends Hunt in South China Sea" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 10 September 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ "Arrangements in Australia" . Australian Maritime Safety Authority . Archived from the original on 24 February 2015 . Retrieved 12 November 2014 . ^ "National Search and Rescue Manual – June 2014 edition" (PDF) . Australia Maritime Safety Authority . p. 231. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015 . Retrieved 12 November 2014 . ^ "Australia agrees to lead search in Indian Ocean for missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370" . The Canberra Times . 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ "Missing MH370: Australia to lead southern search for MH370" . The Star . 17 March 2014. ^ "Incident 2014/1475 search for Malaysian airlines flight MH370 planned search area 19 March 2014" (PDF) . Australian Maritime Safety Authority. 19 March 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 April 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Jacobs, Frank (27 March 2014). "MH370 and the Secrets of the Deep, Dark Southern Indian Ocean" . Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on 27 January 2015 . Retrieved 14 February 2015 . ^ "AMSA_MH370_MediaKit " 18/03/2014 – AMSA Search Area Charts" . Australian Maritime Safety Authority. 18 March 2014 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ "Perth remote sensing firm on MH370 mission" . The West Australian . 3 April 2014. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019 . Retrieved 10 December 2019 . ^ "Flight MH370: Images of ocean debris" . BBC News . 28 March 2014. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015 . Retrieved 10 November 2014 . ^ "Flight MH370: 'Objects spotted' in new search area" . BBC News . 28 March 2014. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014 . Retrieved 8 May 2014 . ^ "MH370 Lost in Indian Ocean: "Credible lead" moves search to new area" . New Straits Times . 28 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014 . Retrieved 17 January 2015 . ^ Shoichet, Catherine E.; Pearson, Michael; Mullen, Jethro. "Flight 370 search area shifts after 'credible lead' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 13 April 2024 . Retrieved 28 March 2014 . ^ "Search and recovery continues for Malaysian flight MH370 (4 April 2014 am)" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre . 4 April 2014. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014 . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . ^ "Incident 2014/1475 – search for Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 – area searched (4 April)" (PDF) . Australian Maritime Safety Authority. 4 April 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ a b Donnison, Jon (31 March 2014). "Malaysia flight MH370: No time limit on search, says Tony Abbott" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 3 April 2014 . Retrieved 8 May 2014 . ^ "Royal Navy Submarine Joins MH370 Search" . Sky News. 2 April 2014. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Varandani, Suman (4 April 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370: Towed Pinger Locators Deployed, Underwater Hunt For Black Box Launched With Hopes Of A Breakthrough" . International Business Times . Archived from the original on 24 March 2018 . Retrieved 23 March 2018 . ^ "Pinger locator equipment commences operation (4 April 2014)" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre . 4 April 2014. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . ^ a b "Only days left before Malaysia airlines flight 370's black box dies" . WDAY. 30 March 2014. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014 . Retrieved 13 July 2014 . ^ Ng, Eileen (8 March 2015). "MH370 report: Underwater locator beacon battery had expired" . phys.org . Archived from the original on 14 October 2017 . Retrieved 7 July 2017 . ^ Hawley, Samantha (8 March 2015). "Malaysia Airlines MH370: Report finds battery powering locator beacon on black box expired in 2012, no red flags raised over crew or aircraft" . Australian Broadcasting Corp . Archived from the original on 8 March 2015 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Smyth, Jamie (26 June 2014). "Search for Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 to resume in new area" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on 31 August 2014 . Retrieved 18 November 2014 . ^ "Search for MH370" . jacc.gov.au . Joint Agency Coordination Centre. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015 . Retrieved 14 December 2014 . ^ a b "MH370 Operational Search Update" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre . 8 October 2014. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014 . Retrieved 12 November 2014 . ^ Innis, Michelle (6 October 2014). "Rugged Seabed Seen in New Maps Further Complicates Search for Malaysia Airlines Jet" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 27 October 2014 . Retrieved 18 November 2014 . ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre . 5 November 2014. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018 . Retrieved 5 December 2014 . ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre . 7 January 2015. Archived from the original on 10 January 2015 . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . JACC . 9 December 2015. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015 . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . ^ Stewart, Robb M. (6 October 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Search Reboots" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 9 October 2014 . Retrieved 8 October 2014 . ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . JACC . 14 January 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2015 . Retrieved 2 February 2015 . Fugro Supporter is expected to arrive in the search area and commence search activities in late January. Fugro Supporter has been equipped with a Kongsberg HUGIN 4500 autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). The AUV will be used to scan those portions of the search area that cannot be searched effectively by the equipment on the other search vessels. ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . JACC . 28 January 2015. Archived from the original on 30 January 2015 . Retrieved 1 February 2015 . ^ "MH370 Operational Search Update" . JACC . 13 May 2015. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015 . Retrieved 2 June 2015 . ^ a b c "MH370 Operational Search Update" . Joint Agency Coordination Centre. 5 August 2015. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . ^ "MH370 Joint Communique" . JACC . 17 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017 . Retrieved 20 January 2017 . ^ "MH370: three companies approach Malaysia over restarting search for plane" . The Guardian . Reuters. 17 October 2017. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017 . Retrieved 17 October 2017 . ^ "The Search – Maps – The Seventh Arc" . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . Archived from the original on 2 October 2019 . Retrieved 2 October 2019 . ^ Taylor, Ellis (3 December 2015). "New analysis helps refine MH370 search area" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 2 October 2019 . Retrieved 2 October 2019 . 7th arc is indicated in Figure 1 (by a pink line). ^ "Frequently asked questions: Why is the seventh satellite handshake' or arc so important?" . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . Archived from the original on 2 October 2019 . Retrieved 2 October 2019 . The seventh handshake was the last communications MH370 had with the satellite... we are confident that the point where the aircraft ran out of fuel lies on the arc delineated by the seventh handshake. ^ "MH 370 Operational Search Update #12" (PDF) . oceaninfinity.com . Government of Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2018 . Retrieved 20 April 2018 . ^ a b "MH 370 Operational Search Update #18" . mh370.gov.my . Government of Malaysia. Archived from the original on 20 September 2019 . Retrieved 29 May 2018 . ^ "Update on search for Missing Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370" . OceanInfinity.com . 30 April 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ Dewan, Angela (23 May 2018). "MH370 search to end on May 29 after four years" . CNN . Archived from the original on 23 May 2018 . Retrieved 24 May 2018 . ^ "MH370 hunt continues for few more days" . 1 June 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ "MH370 search: It's not over till it's over" . Archived from the original on 4 December 2021 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ "Ocean Infinity Donates Data to Seabed Mapping Project" . 21 June 2018. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ "Ocean Infinity donates 120,000 square kilometres of data from search for missing Malaysian airliner to The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project" (PDF) . Nippon Foundation . 21 June 2018. Archived from the original (press release) on 22 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . ^ Zhou, Naaman (7 March 2019). "MH370: relatives call for 'serious commitment' from Malaysia to find plane" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 7 March 2019 . Retrieved 23 March 2019 . ^ Creedy, Steve (4 March 2019). "MH370: Ocean Infinity stands ready to resume search" . Archived from the original on 23 March 2019 . Retrieved 23 March 2019 . ^ Thomas, Geoffrey (6 March 2022). "Ocean Infinity commits to new search for MH370 in 2023 or 2024" . Airline Ratings . Archived from the original on 6 March 2022 . Retrieved 22 March 2022 . ^ Iskandat, Iylia Marsya (5 March 2023). "Ocean Infinity wants to resume MH370 search" . New Straits Times . Archived from the original on 28 March 2023 . Retrieved 28 March 2023 . ^ Kelly, Cait (7 March 2023). "Families of MH370 victims' push for another search as technology firm says it has new evidence" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 . Retrieved 31 March 2023 . ^ Azhar, Danial; Leong, Mandy (3 March 2024). "Malaysia says MH370 search must go on, 10 years after plane vanished" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 3 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Nazzaro, Miranda (3 March 2024). "Malaysia signals it may revive search for missing flight MH370, a decade later" . The Hill . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ 'The search must go on': Malaysian government 'committed' to finding MH370 , 3 March 2024, archived from the original on 4 March 2024 , retrieved 4 March 2024 ^ Godfrey, Richard. "New Search: The Search for MH370" . Retrieved 29 January 2025 . ^ Ewe, Koh (20 December 2024). "Malaysia approves new search for missing flight MH370" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 8 January 2025 . Retrieved 20 December 2024 . ^ Sullivan, Helen (26 February 2025). "MH370: search for missing Malaysia Airlines flight resumes after 11 years" . The Guardian . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ "Search for MH370, long missing Malaysia Airlines flight, suspended after just weeks in Indian Ocean" . CBS News . 3 April 2025 . Retrieved 3 April 2025 . ^ Hilmy, Imran (3 December 2025). "MH370: Deep-sea search to resume on Dec 30, says Transport Ministry" . TheStar . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Ministry of Transport Malaysia (3 December 2025). "Resumption of MH370 Search by Ocean Infinity in the Southern Indian Ocean" (PDF) . Retrieved 4 December 2025 . ^ Ratcliffe, Rebecca (29 December 2025). "Search for Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 expected to resume on Tuesday" . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 December 2025 . ^ "Latest deep-sea search for missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 gets underway" . AP News . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "Summary of Possible MH370 Debris Recovered" (PDF) . Malaysian ICAO Annex 13 Safety Investigation Team for MH370, Ministry of Transport, Malaysia. April 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2018 . Retrieved 23 October 2017 . ^ Toh, Mavis (16 August 2017). "New reports offer clues to MH370 location" . FlightGlobal . Archived from the original on 6 October 2017 . Retrieved 16 August 2017 . ^ Dron, Alan (16 August 2017). "New report suggests resting place of MH370" . Aviation Week Network . Archived from the original on 18 August 2017 . Retrieved 17 August 2017 . ^ "Australia's CSIRO believes it can locate missing MH370" . Aljazeera. 16 August 2017. Archived from the original on 5 October 2017 . Retrieved 6 October 2017 . ^ Safi, Michael; Holmes, Oliver (30 July 2015). "MH370 search: what is the 'flaperon' debris found in Réunion?" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 2 February 2017 . Retrieved 15 December 2016 . ^ Boeing "777 Aircraft Maintenance Manual" [D633W101-RBA], Chapter 6 Dimensions and Areas, Section 06-44 Wings (Major zones 500 and 600), p. 221, 3 May 2008 ^ ATSB final report (AE-2014-054) dated 3 October 2017, p. 103. "The flaperon was the first item of debris positively confirmed to have come from MH370." ^ a b c d e "MH370 search: Réunion debris to be tested in France" . BBC News . 30 July 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2017 . Retrieved 30 July 2015 . ^ "MH370 search: Plane debris arrives in France" . BBC News . 1 August 2015. Archived from the original on 5 October 2017 . Retrieved 2 August 2015 . ^ "Le débris d'avion retrouvé fin juillet à La Réunion appartient "avec certitude" au vol MH370, annonce le parquet de Paris" (in French). Francetvinfo. 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 September 2015 . ^ Hanna, Jason; Vandoorne, Saskya (3 September 2015). " 'Certainty' that Reunion debris from MH370, French official says" . CNN. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015 . Retrieved 3 September 2015 . ^ Clark, Nicola (3 September 2015). "Analysis Confirms Plane Debris Came From Malaysia Airlines Flight 370" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 5 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 February 2017 . ^ "MH370: Reunion debris is from missing plane, says Najib" . BBC News . 6 August 2015. Archived from the original on 28 August 2015. ^ Shahrestani, Vin (3 August 2015). "MH370: Malaysian government confirms debris is from a Boeing 777" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Live video here: MH370: Malaysian government confirms debris is from a Boeing 777 . The Telegraph . 3 August 2015 – via YouTube. ^ Adamson, Thomas; Ng, Eileen (2 August 2015). "Malaysia Seeks Help in Finding More Possible MH370 Debris" . ABC News . AP. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . Malaysia's transport ministry confirmed Sunday that the flaperon that was found has been identified as being from a 777, saying it had been verified by French authorities together with Boeing, the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board and a Malaysian team. ^ a b "France launches search for more MH370 debris on Réunion" . France24 . 7 August 2015. Archived from the original on 8 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . The prefect of the French overseas department, Dominique Sorain, said Friday that a helicopter and water vehicles would scour an area 120 kilometres (75 miles) by 40 kilometres (25 miles) around the east coast of the island, where the wing part, known as a flaperon, was found. Bad weather forced the suspension of operations on Friday evening with the search set to begin again on Sunday morning. ^ Aubusson, Kate (31 July 2015). "MH370: Suitcase reportedly found on Reunion [ sic ] Island, close to where plane debris recovered" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 1 August 2015 . Retrieved 31 July 2015 . ^ Rothwell, James; Crilly, Rob; Ensor, Josie (31 July 2015). "MH370 search live: 'Convincing evidence' plane was downed in Indian Ocean - Malaysian offical [ sic ]" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 9 February 2024 . Retrieved 26 March 2024 . ^ "MH370: Aircraft Debris and Drift Modelling" . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau/The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. 4 August 2015. Archived from the original on 5 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Searchers Treating Debris as Major Lead" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 31 July 2015 . Retrieved 30 July 2015 . ^ " 'Chinese water bottle, Indonesian canister' wash up on Reunion Island after possible MH370 wing flap find" . South China Morning Post . AFP, Reuters. 31 July 2015. Archived from the original on 31 July 2015 . Retrieved 31 July 2015 . ^ "MH370 Search: New Items Wash Ashore On Reunion [ sic ]" . Sky News . 31 July 2015. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015 . Retrieved 31 July 2015 . ^ Mullen, Jethro; Shoichet, Catherine; Fantz, Ashley (6 August 2015). "MH370: More plane debris has washed up on Reunion [ sic ], Malaysia says" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . ^ Ng, Eileen; Adamson, Thomas (2 August 2015). "Malaysia Seeks Help in Finding More Possible MH370 Debris" . ABC News (US) . AP. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 August 2015 . ^ "MH370: Search on Reunion [ sic ] island to end Monday" . The Star . Malaysia. 14 August 2015. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015 . Retrieved 14 August 2015 . ^ "France ends search for MH370 debris off Réunion coast" . The Guardian . AFP. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015 . Retrieved 17 August 2015 . ^ Wise, Jeff (7 March 2024). "The Sea Creatures That Opened a New Mystery About MH370" . Intelligencer . Archived from the original on 10 March 2024 . Retrieved 10 March 2024 . ^ a b c Gelineau, Kristen (24 March 2016). "Australia: Mozambique debris "highly likely" from Flight 370" . WSFA . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. ^ Langewiesche, William (17 June 2019). "What Really Happened to Malaysia's Missing Airplane" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 11 July 2019 . Retrieved 10 October 2019 . ^ "Possible debris from Malaysia flight MH370 found near Mozambique: NBC" . New Straits Times . Washington. Reuters. 2 March 2016. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. ^ "MH370 search: 'High possibility' debris is from same plane model" . BBC News . 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016 . Retrieved 2 March 2016 . ^ "Possible MH370 debris in Mozambique to be sent to Australia for analysis" . AsiaOne . AFP. 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2017 . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . ^ ATSB debris report 1, pp. 2–3 ^ ATSB debris report 1, pp. 1–2 ^ "ATSB: Two items of debris found on Mozambique coast 'almost certainly' belong to MH370" . Aviation Safety Network . 19 April 2016. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016. ^ "More debris found on Reunion Island" . Sky News Australia . 8 March 2016. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 . Retrieved 8 March 2016 . ^ "Suspected new debris found in Reunion Island could be from MH370" . Xinhua. 8 March 2016. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016 . Retrieved 8 March 2016 . ^ "Possible piece of MH370 engine found on South African beach" . The Guardian . Kuala Lumpur, Johannesburg. 23 March 2016. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016 . Retrieved 15 December 2016 . ^ Liow, Tiong Lai (22 March 2016). "New Debris Located in South Africa" (Media statement) . Ministry of Transport (Malaysia) . Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. ^ "MH370 search: New debris found in Mauritius to be examined" . BBC News . 3 April 2016. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 . ^ "Debris found in South Africa, Mauritius 'almost certainly' from MH370: Malaysian minister" . ChannelNews Asia . Singapore. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016 . Retrieved 12 May 2016 . ^ "Potential MH370 debris found on island off African coast" . The Washington Post . Associated Press. 24 June 2016. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. ^ "Suspected MH370 debris to be analysed in Tanzania" . The Star Online . Star Media Group Berhad. Agence France-Presse. 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 2 July 2016 . ^ McBride, Brian (20 July 2016). "New Photos Show Wing Flap Believed to Be From Missing MH370" . ABC News . ABC News Internet Ventures. Archived from the original on 21 July 2016 . Retrieved 20 July 2016 . ^ "Malaysia confirms debris found in Tanzania is from MH370" . Times of India . Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. Agence France Presse. 15 September 2016. Archived from the original on 9 December 2016 . Retrieved 15 September 2016 . ^ "MH370 relatives to search for debris in Madagascar" . BBC News . 21 November 2016. Archived from the original on 22 November 2016 . Retrieved 22 November 2016 . ^ Palin, Megan (1 December 2018). " 'Massive breakthrough': Flight MH370 'crashed violently' " . Cairns Post . Retrieved 2 December 2018 . ^ "Some comments, questions and answers regarding MH370 (related to the recent work by G. Chen et al.)" (PDF) . Math.tamu.edu . Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2021 . Retrieved 12 March 2019 . ^ Martinez, Michael; Melvin, Don (30 July 2015). "MH370 possibly plunged straight into ocean, expert says" . Cnn.com . Archived from the original on 5 October 2022 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Childs, Nick; Westcott, Richard (6 April 2014). "Malaysia flight MH370: Search ships to verify signals" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 9 May 2014 . ^ "MH370 Tragedy: DCA has authority to analyse black box of missing plane Read more: MH370 Tragedy: DCA has authority to analyse black box of missing plane" . New Straits Times . 7 April 2014. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ "International Panel To Look into MH370 Incident – Hishammuddin" . Bernama.com . National News Agency of Malaysia . 29 March 2014. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. ^ Ng, Teddy; Kao, Ernest (28 March 2014). "MH370 puts UN search agency's protocol to the test" . South China Morning Post . Archived from the original on 11 April 2019 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . ^ a b Riegler, Paul (6 April 2014). "Malaysia Reorganizes Flight 370 Investigation, Appoints Independent Investigator" . Frequent Business Traveler . Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ "New phase of search starts on both corridors" . Free Malaysia Today . Archived from the original on 21 March 2014 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ Weaver, Matthew; McCarthy, Tom (17 March 2014). "MH370: Australia takes lead in Indian Ocean as search area expands" . The Guardian (News blog). London, New York. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ "Stop Press! Name Change" . DST (Press release). 31 July 2015. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015 . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . As part of the First Principles Review implementation, from 1 July 2015 the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO) has been renamed as the Defence Science and Technology Group. ^ "Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston to lead Joint Agency Coordination Centre" . pm.gov.au . Prime Minister of Australia . 30 March 2014. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014. ^ Milman, Oliver (30 March 2014). "Flight MH370: former Australian defence chief to co-ordinate search" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 9 April 2014 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ Ducos, Jean-Marc (5 August 2018). "La France relance l'enquête sur le MH 370" [France relaunches investigation into MH 370]. Le Parisien (in French). Archived from the original on 8 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . ^ "Disparition du vol MH370 : l'enquête continue" [Disappearance of Flight MH370: the investigation continues]. Le Monde (in French). Agence France-Presse . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 2 January 2019 . Retrieved 2 January 2019 . ^ a b c "Underwater signals generated by open sea airplane crashes could be key to detecting final resting place of MH370" . Cardiff University . 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 23 May 2024 . ^ a b Lyons, Kate; Ellis-Petersen, Hannah; Kuo, Lily; Zhou, Naaman (30 July 2018). "Malaysian investigators release 1,500-page report into disappearance of MH370 – as it happened" . The Guardian (News blog). London. Archived from the original on 1 August 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . ^ "Malaysia aviation chief Azharuddin Abdul Rahman quits over MH370 report" . Times Now . 31 July 2018. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019 . Retrieved 30 January 2019 . ^ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (31 July 2018). "MH370 report: Malaysia aviation chief quits over air traffic failings" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 31 July 2018 . Retrieved 31 July 2018 . ^ Wootson, Cleve R. Jr. (31 July 2018). "Malaysian aviation chief resigns after investigation found someone veered MH370 off course" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. ^ a b c Rayner, Gordon (24 March 2014). "MH370: Britain finds itself at centre of blame game over crucial delays" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ "Classic Aero services and SwiftBroadband" . Inmarsat . Archived from the original on 28 March 2014 . Retrieved 28 March 2014 . ^ Kirby, Mary (14 March 2014). "SITA aids MH370 investigation; expert explains" . Runway Girl Network . Archived from the original on 26 March 2014 . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ a b c Turner, Aimee (16 March 2014). "Malaysian MH370: SATCOMS 101 (Part One)" . AirTrafficManagement.net . Archived from the original on 22 March 2014 . Retrieved 26 March 2014 . ^ a b Prime Minister's Department (Malaysia) (25 March 2014). "Information provided to MH370 investigation by UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB)" . mh370.dca.gov.my . Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia . Archived from the original on 6 April 2014 . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . ^ a b c d Ashton, Chris; Bruce, Alan Shuster; Colledge, Gary; Dickinson, Mark (14 September 2014). "The Search for MH370" . The Journal of Navigation . 68 (1): 1– 22. Bibcode : 2015JNav...68....1A . doi : 10.1017/S037346331400068X . ISSN 0373-4633 . ^ "Considerations on defining the search area – MH370" . atsb.gov.au . Australian Transport Safety Bureau . Archived from the original on 26 May 2014 . Retrieved 28 May 2014 . ^ MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas (PDF) . atsb.gov.au (Report). Australian Transport Safety Bureau . 3 December 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2021 . Retrieved 3 December 2015 . ^ "Scientists plan sea explosions to resolve Malaysian Airlines MH 370 mystery" . The Indian Express . 23 May 2024 . Retrieved 23 May 2024 . ^ Kadri, Usama (2 May 2024). "Underwater acoustic analysis reveals unique pressure signals associated with aircraft crashes in the sea: revisiting MH370" . Scientific Reports . 14 (1) 10102. Bibcode : 2024NatSR..1410102K . doi : 10.1038/s41598-024-60529-1 . ISSN 2045-2322 . PMC 11065988 . PMID 38698079 . ^ Almasy, Steve; Carter, Chelsea J.; Clancy, Jim (18 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 search grows as pilots face increased scrutiny" . CNN . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 13 September 2024 . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ "Deputy PM Warren Truss announces underwater search for missing plane will begin in August" . NewsComAu . Archived from the original on 27 June 2014 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . ^ Sheridan, Michael (22 June 2014). "Suspicion falls again on Malaysia Airlines flight 370's captain Zaharie Shah" . The Australian . Archived from the original on 5 July 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ Sheridan, Michael (22 June 2014). "MH370 pilot 'chief suspect' " . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 22 June 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ Ryall, Jenni (23 June 2014). "Malaysian police investigation names MH370 pilot 'prime suspect' " . News.com.au . News Corp Australia . Archived from the original on 2 July 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ Lavalette, Tristan (19 February 2020). "Abbott says top Malaysian leaders suspected pilot of MH370" . AP News . Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. ^ "Independent Investigation Team Presents New Theory On The Disappearance of MH370 - The Aviationist" . 16 September 2023. Archived from the original on 16 September 2023 . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ Wise, Jeff (22 July 2016). "Exclusive: MH370 Pilot Flew a Suicide Route on His Home Simulator Closely Matching Final Flight" . New York Magazine . New York Media. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Hunt, Elle (28 July 2016). "MH370 pilot's flight simulator plotted course over southern Indian Ocean" . The Guardian . Sydney. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016 . Retrieved 28 July 2016 . ^ "Malaysia confirms Flight 370 pilot plotted fatal route" . CBS News . Kuala Lumpur. 5 August 2016. Archived from the original on 15 May 2018 . Retrieved 15 May 2018 . ^ Thomas, Pierre; Margolin, Josh (2 April 2014). "FBI Finishes Probe into Malaysia Airlines Captain's Flight Simulator" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 6 April 2014 . Retrieved 12 November 2019 . ^ Moore, Andy; Donnison, Jon (29 March 2014). "Flight MH370: Chinese and Australian ships draw blank" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 27 April 2014 . Retrieved 9 May 2014 . ^ Marks, Paul (15 March 2014). "Data transmission system on MH370 deliberately disabled" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. ^ "Malaysia police probe flight engineer on missing MH370" . The Straits Times . Kuala Lumpur. 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015 . Retrieved 2 August 2015 . ^ a b Fuller, Thomas; Schmitt, Eric (8 March 2014). "Passport Theft Adds to Mystery of Missing Malaysia Airlines Jet" . The New York Times . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Shoichet, Catherine E.; Sanchez, Ray (9 March 2014). "Plane bore painters, pilgrims, others from around the world" . CNN . Archived from the original on 24 December 2024 . Retrieved 8 March 2014 . ^ "MISSING MH370: Man with stolen passport on jet is asylum seeker – Latest" . New Straits Times . Archived from the original on 13 March 2014 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (11 March 2014). "Iranians travelling on flight MH370 on forged passports 'not linked to terror' " . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 . Retrieved 30 March 2014 . ^ Buckley, Chris; Bradsher, Keith (18 March 2014). "China Rules Out Terror Ties Among Citizens on Jet" . The New York Times . Sepang, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023 . Retrieved 19 March 2014 . ^ Pearlman, Jonathan (3 April 2014). "MH370: Malaysian police probe fruit farmers as investigation widens" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ a b Knowler, Greg (15 April 2015). "Cathay slaps blanket ban on bulk lithium battery shipments" . The Journal of Commerce . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ "Safety worries lead U.S. airline to ban battery shipments" . BBC News . 3 March 2015. Archived from the original on 27 July 2015 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ Jansen, Bart (25 July 2013). "Crash investigators trace UPS plane fire to batteries" . USA Today . Archived from the original on 11 November 2020 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ Levin, Alan (11 August 2014). "Exploding Lithium Batteries Riskier to Planes: Research" . Bloomberg Business . Archived from the original on 11 September 2015 . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . ^ Feast, Lincoln (26 June 2014). "Malaysia jet passengers likely suffocated, Australia says" . Sydney: Reuters. Archived from the original on 28 June 2014 . Retrieved 29 June 2014 . ^ Stacey, Daniel; Pasztor, Andy; Winning, David (26 June 2014). "Australian Report Postulates Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Lost Oxygen" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 26 April 2023 . Retrieved 29 June 2014 . ^ Bradsher, Keith (27 June 2014). "Pressure Loss Is Explored in Vanishing of Jetliner" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 29 June 2014 . Retrieved 29 June 2014 . ^ Westcott, Ben (3 November 2016). "MH370 out of control and spiraling fast before crash, report says" . CNN . Archived from the original on 30 July 2017 . Retrieved 7 July 2017 . ^ "MH370 not deliberately crashed by pilot, say investigators" . BBC News . 22 May 2018. Archived from the original on 24 May 2018 . Retrieved 24 May 2018 . ^ Hodal, Kate (14 March 2014). "Flight MH370: a week of false leads and confusion in hunt for missing plane" . The Guardian . Songkhla. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014 . Retrieved 25 March 2014 . ^ a b "Missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 – a week of confusion" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 14 March 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023 . Retrieved 7 May 2014 . ^ "Missing Malaysia Airlines plane: Air force chief denies tracking jet to Strait of Malacca" . The Straits Times . Kuala Lumpur. Reuters. 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. ^ Mader, Ian (18 March 2014). "MH370: Further confusion over timing of last words" . 3 News . MediaWorks New Zealand . Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. ^ Jamieson, Alastair (13 March 2014). "Officials Deny Engine Data Report From Missing MH370" . NBC News . Archived from the original on 3 November 2014 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Calder, Simon; Withnall, Adam (17 March 2014). "Missing Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370: Confusion deepens over 'missing 30 minutes' at heart of mystery engulfing stricken jet" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. ^ Bellamy III, Woodrow (19 March 2014). "Malaysian PM Clarifies MH370 Avionics Disablement" . Avionics International . Retrieved 30 January 2019 . ^ "Not just mangosteens on board, MH370 also carried lithium-ion batteries, says daily" . The Malaysian Insider . 22 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ "MH370: "All right, good night" came after system shut down" . The Malaysian Times . 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014 . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 co-pilot's last message was 'all right, good night' – video" . The Guardian . Reuters. 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014 . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . ^ Rajca, Jennifer; Toohey, Paul; Wockner, Cindy (1 April 2014). "Last words transmitted from missing Malaysia Airlines plane were actually 'Good night, Malaysian three seven zero' " . News Corp Australia . Archived from the original on 31 March 2014 . Retrieved 1 April 2014 . ^ "New account of MH370 pilot's final words" . Aljazeera.com . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . ^ Donnison, Jon; Westcott, Richard (31 March 2014). "MH370: New account of cockpit last words" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 8 May 2014 . ^ Fuller, Thomas; Perlez, Jane (11 March 2014). "Stolen Passports on Plane Not Seen as Terror Link" . The New York Times . Sepang, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023 . Retrieved 15 March 2014 . ^ Denyer, Simon (12 March 2014). "Contradictory statements from Malaysia over missing airliner perplex, infuriate" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. ^ a b c d Malakunas, Karl (14 March 2014). "Distrust adding to Malaysian jet confusion: analysts" . Agence France-Presse . Retrieved 17 January 2015 . ^ a b c Branigan, Tania (14 March 2014). "Malaysia flight MH370 hunt sees suspicion and cooperation" . The Guardian . Beijing. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014 . Retrieved 11 May 2014 . ^ Harlan, Chico; Denyer, Simon (11 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines plane may have veered wildly off course during flight, military says" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. ^ "China appeals to Malaysia for search information" . Associated Press. 14 March 2014. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014 . Retrieved 14 March 2014 . ^ Spoonts, Sean (22 March 2014). " "Alright, Goodnight" – Does Malaysia Want To Know What Happened To Flight MH-370?" . SOFREP.COM (Special Operations Forces Report-Special Ops News & Intel) . Sean Spoonts. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 May 2014 . ^ Pasztor, Andy; Ostrower, Jon; Hookway, James (19 March 2014). "Critical Data Was Delayed in Search for Missing Malaysia Airlines Flight" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 27 October 2014 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Hussein, Hishammuddin (21 March 2014). "MH370 Press Briefing by Hishammuddin Hussein on 21st March 2014" . Malaysia: Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia . Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 6 May 2014 . ^ a b "MH370 Is Missing With 239 People on Board, Help The Families Find The Truth" . Indiegogo . Archived from the original on 10 April 2015 . Retrieved 10 April 2015 . ^ Molko, David; Yan, Holly (9 June 2014). "MH370 families seek $5 million for investigation, reward" . CNN . Archived from the original on 30 March 2015 . Retrieved 10 April 2015 . ^ a b c d Raghuvanshi, Gaurav; Ng, Jason (6 April 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Says Priority Is Families of the Missing, Though Ticket Sales Fall" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 23 June 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ a b "Malaysia Airlines Records RM443 million Loss for Q1 2014" . Malaysia Airlines . 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . Much of the costs associated by MH370 will be covered by insurance. ^ a b c "Flight's Disappearance Knocks Malaysia Airlines" . The New York Times . 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 25 June 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2014 . ^ Chiu, Joanne (13 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines to Retire Call Sign 370" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ Neuman, Scott (13 March 2014). "When Bad Things Happen To Planes, Flight Codes Get 'Retired' " . NPR . Archived from the original on 27 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ "MH318 (MAS318) Malaysia Airlines Flight Tracking and History" . FlightAware . Archived from the original on 29 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 July 2025 . ^ Wilson, Harry (23 March 2014). "Flight MH370: insurers make first pay out on missing Malaysia Airlines plane" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . Malaysia Airlines has already been handed $110 million (£67 million) by insurers over the loss of its missing Boeing 777 on flight MH370 ^ Boyle, Charles (27 March 2014). "Complex Situation Occludes Details on Loss of Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370" . Insurance Journal . Archived from the original on 8 August 2014 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty has been identified as both the lead insurer and the lead reinsurer. An Allianz spokesperson in London confirmed that it is officially the latter. ^ Mathew, Jerin (15 May 2014). "Missing Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370 Hits Allianz with $30m Bill" . International Business Times . Archived from the original on 27 July 2014 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . The insured market loss on the aeroplane is about $350m, which include the costs for searching. ^ Vincent, James (19 April 2017). "Malaysia Airlines will be first to use new satellite-based airplane tracking system" . The Verge . Archived from the original on 27 August 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2023 . ^ "Malaysia Airlines Financial Losses Grow" . The New York Times . Reuters. 29 August 2014. Archived from the original on 29 August 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ Venkat, P. R.; Raghuvanshi, Gaurav (2 July 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Could Go Private" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 27 July 2014 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Patterson, Thom (18 July 2014). "Malaysia Air faces new, serious threat as company" . CNN.com . Archived from the original on 11 April 2019 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . Analysts said it may take a government rescue to save the company from financial disaster. ^ "Malaysia Airlines considers tie-up with Etihad Airways as restructuring process slowly begins" . centreforaviation.com . Centre for Aviation. 17 June 2014. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Ngui, Yantoultra (2 July 2014). "Exclusive: State fund plans to take Malaysia Airlines private for restructuring: sources" . Reuters . Kuala Lumpur. Archived from the original on 5 July 2014 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Zhang, Benjamin. "How Malaysia Airlines Can Be Saved From Financial And Reputational Ruin" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 July 2014 . ^ Hamzah, Al-Zaquan Amer; Leong, Trinna; Ngui, Yantoultra (8 August 2014). "Malaysia Airlines To Go Private With A $435 Million Government Investment" . Business Insider . Reuters. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Mouawad, Jad (8 August 2014). "Malaysia Steps in to Save Its Reeling National Airline" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 July 2017 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Creedy, Steve (9 August 2014). "Malaysia Airlines in $460m bid to clear air" . The Australian . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ Hamzah, Al-Zaquan Amer; Ngui, Yantoultra (8 August 2014). "State fund to take over Malaysia Airlines, plans 'complete overhaul' " . Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016 . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . ^ a b c "Missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 puzzle raises legal problems" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 11 May 2014. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . ^ Bishop, Katrina (25 March 2014). "MH370 families face huge compensation disparity" . CNBC . Archived from the original on 16 July 2014 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . ^ Wallace, Gregory (26 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370: How much will families be paid?" . CNN Money . Archived from the original on 20 June 2014 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . ^ a b "MH370: Malaysia declares flight disappearance an accident" . BBC News . 29 January 2015. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. ^ "American law firm plans to bring suit against Boeing and Malaysia Airlines" . South China Morning Post . Reuters. 26 March 2014. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014 . Retrieved 31 January 2015 . ^ Liljas, Per (26 March 2014). "Family Member Files Lawsuit Over Missing Jet as Frustrating Search Continues" . Time . Archived from the original on 30 January 2015 . Retrieved 31 January 2015 . ^ Phillip, Abby (31 October 2014). "Two Malaysian boys sue airline, government in first case after MH370's mysterious disappearance" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. ^ "MH370 disappearance: Chinese families file lawsuits seeking answers" . BBC News . 7 March 2016. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017 . Retrieved 18 March 2017 . ^ Ip, Kelly (13 March 2014). "Families of missing accept 'comfort money' " . The Standard . [ dead link ] ^ a b "MAS cash aid snubbed by kin of Chinese aboard MH370" . The Malay Mail . 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014 . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . ^ "Flight 370: Malaysia Airlines begins insurance payments" . The Times of India . 13 June 2014. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016 . Retrieved 17 July 2014 . [Hamzah Zainuddin] said full payout would come after the plane is found or officially declared lost. ^ "MH370 throws spotlight on Malaysia's air force and radar capabilities" . The Malaysian Insider . 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ Childs, Nick (16 March 2014). "Missing Malaysia plane: MH370 and the military gaps" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 21 May 2014 . Retrieved 9 May 2014 . ^ a b c "Malaysia lets slip chance to intercept MH370" . Malaysiakini . 17 March 2014 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ a b Campbell, Charlie (17 March 2014). "Another Lesson from MH370: Nobody is Watching Malaysian Airspace" . Time . Archived from the original on 26 January 2015 . Retrieved 20 November 2014 . ^ Razak, Najib (13 May 2014). "Malaysia's Lessons From the Vanished Airplane" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 5 December 2014 . Retrieved 22 November 2014 . ^ a b Henderson, Barney (3 April 2014). "MH370 Malaysia Airlines: Anwar Ibrahim says government purposefully concealing information" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ "Multiple authorities let Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 disappear: ABC" . Yahoo News 7 . 20 March 2014. Archived from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 22 November 2014 . ^ "Meet Major Zaidi, people's hero" . The Rocket . 13 January 2015. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021 . Retrieved 6 January 2021 . ^ "VIDEO. Vol MH370 : l'armée malaisienne a-t-elle commis une "grosse bourde" ?" . Franceinfo (in French). 26 July 2017. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021 . Retrieved 6 January 2021 . ^ Kingsbury, Damien (20 March 2014). "A sclerotic Malaysian government stumbles in MH370 crisis" . Crikey . Archived from the original on 21 February 2015 . Retrieved 22 November 2014 . ^ "Families want new search for MH370, six years after disappearance" . Aljazeera.com . Al Jazeera. 8 March 2020. Archived from the original on 17 March 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "沉痛怀缅 MH370六周年" [Memories of the Sixth Anniversary of MH370]. Pocketimes (in Chinese). 8 March 2020. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "MH370赔偿文件未呈内阁 成陆兆福最大遗憾" [The MH370 compensation document was not submitted to the cabinet]. Sinchew Daily (in Chinese). 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "Wee perfect fit for transport minister" . Free Malaysia Today . 14 March 2020. Archived from the original on 17 March 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "MH370家属盼新交长·优先处理赔偿事宜" [MH370's family members look forward to the new communications director]. Sinchew Daily (in Chinese). 11 March 2020. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ "Transport Ministry to meet PM over compensation for next-of kin of MH370 victims" . The Star . 8 March 2020. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ Bradsher, Keith; Wong, Edward; Fuller, Thomas (25 March 2014). "Malaysia Releases Details of Last Contact With Missing Plane" . The New York Times . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023 . Retrieved 25 March 2014 . ^ Hatton, Celia (25 March 2014). "Malaysia Airlines MH370: Relatives in Beijing scuffles" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 8 May 2014 . Retrieved 9 May 2014 . ^ "China's Xi to send special envoy to Malaysia over missing plane" . Yahoo! News . 25 March 2014 . Retrieved 1 April 2014 . ^ "MH370 passengers' relatives protest in China" . Aljazeera.com . 25 March 2014 . Retrieved 25 March 2014 . ^ "(Flight MH370) Message from Beijing: "Liars" " . The Standard . 25 March 2014. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Branigan, Tania (30 March 2014). "Flight MH370: Chinese relatives demand apology from Malaysia" . The Guardian . Beijing. Archived from the original on 6 April 2014 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Mei, Xinyu (31 March 2014). "Treat MH370 tragedy rationally" . China Daily . ^ Jha, Supriya (3 April 2014). "Developments over Malaysian jet search: As it happened" . Z News . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ a b Murdoch, Lindsay (3 April 2014). "Flight MH370: Police investigate whether food on missing plane was poisoned" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 13 March 2024 . Retrieved 3 April 2014 . ^ Schmitt, Eric; Semple, Kirk (15 April 2014). "Flight MH370: Missteps by China slowed search for missing jet" . The Economic Times . Retrieved 17 January 2015 . ^ "China gets taste of world criticism in MH370 hunt" . The Malay Mail . 15 April 2014. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014 . Retrieved 23 April 2014 . ^ "MH370失踪逾5年 马航7月起停止召开中国家属见面会" . Oriental Daily (in Chinese (Malaysia)). 20 July 2019. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 17 March 2020 . ^ a b Demick, Barbara (28 March 2014). "Chinese boycott Malaysia over missing jetliner" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 5 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ Millward, Steven (28 March 2014). "As outrage grows over missing flight, Chinese websites ban Malaysia Airlines ticket sales" . TechInAsia . Archived from the original on 2 August 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ a b Gat, Aviva. "Several Chinese travel booking sites boycott Malaysia Airlines" . Geektime . Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ a b c Hong, Zhang; Zhou, Laura (26 March 2014). "Chinese tourists boycott Malaysia in wake of MH370 disappearance" . South China Morning Post . Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ "Malaysia to face losses of up to RM4 billion in tourism revenue due to MH370, say analysts" . The Malaysian Insider . 27 March 2014. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 30 August 2014 . ^ "Chinese celebs lash out at M'sia over MH370" . Malaysiakini . 27 March 2014. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 1 December 2019 . ^ "How do you track a plane?" . BBC News . 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014 . Retrieved 25 November 2014 . ^ Pasztor, Andy (14 May 2014). "After MH370, Air-Tracking Plan Unveiled" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 13 March 2024 . Retrieved 3 December 2014 . ^ a b Pasztor, Andy (13 July 2014). "How to Avoid Another Malaysia Flight 370" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 10 October 2014 . Retrieved 3 December 2014 . ^ Rolphe, Martin (17 September 2014). "The future of aircraft surveillance and tracking" . NATS . Archived from the original on 7 June 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . ^ a b "Industry Addressing Aircraft Tracking Options" . IATA . 3 June 2014. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015 . Retrieved 25 November 2014 . ^ a b Domínguez, Gabriel (22 August 2014). "What has the aviation industry learned from Flight MH370?" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 October 2014 . Retrieved 19 October 2014 . ^ "IATA wants new airline tracking equipment" . Malaysia Sun . Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 . Retrieved 10 June 2014 . ^ Martell, Allison (30 September 2014). "Task force delays aircraft tracking plans promised after MH370 mystery" . Toronto: Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014 . Retrieved 8 October 2014 . ^ "UN Aviation Body to Propose 15-minute Flight Tracking Standard" . VOA News . Reuters. 6 January 2015. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015 . Retrieved 24 January 2015 . ^ Peterson, Barbara (12 December 2014). "Here's Why Airliners Still Don't Have Real-Time Tracking Tech" . Popular Mechanics . Archived from the original on 13 March 2024 . Retrieved 24 January 2015 . ^ a b c d Lowy, Joan (4 March 2016). "Airlines slow to adopt safety technologies after MH370" . phys.org . Science X Network. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . ^ a b c "ICAO updates Annex 6 with requirements to help avoid recurrence of MH370-type disappearances" . Aviation Safety Network . 7 March 2016. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . ^ "Inmarsat offers to track aircraft for free after Malaysia Airlines disaster" . The Daily Telegraph . 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . ^ "Why can plane transponders be turned off from the cockpit?" . CBS News . 19 March 2014. Archived from the original on 16 June 2024 . Retrieved 19 March 2014 . ^ Stupples, David (9 April 2014). "MH370 should make us rethink how we monitor planes" . Phys.org . Archived from the original on 22 January 2015 . Retrieved 20 January 2015 . ^ de Castella, Tom (25 March 2014). "Malaysia plane: Why black boxes can't always provide the answers" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 22 February 2015 . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . ^ a b Allard, Tom (28 April 2014). "MH370: Expert demands better black box technology" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 3 July 2014 . Retrieved 21 January 2015 . ^ Yu, Yijun (19 March 2014). "If we'd used the cloud, we might know where MH370 is now" . Phys.org . Archived from the original on 22 January 2015 . Retrieved 21 January 2015 . ^ "EASA certifies first Long Range Underwater Locator Device designed and manufactured in Europe" . European Aviation Safety Agency. 4 April 2017. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019 . Retrieved 9 February 2019 . ^ "Dukane Seacom Creates First Certified 90 Day Underwater Locator Beacon; Extended Triple Life will Facilitate Aircraft Recovery Efforts" (PDF) . HEICO News (Press release). 23 June 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2016 . ^ Huerta, Michael P. (22 January 2015). "Safety Recommendation: A – 15 – 1 through – 8" (PDF) . NTSB . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 13 February 2015 . ^ "NTSB Calls for Better Ways to Find Aircraft Accident Sites and Retrieve Critical Flight Data" . NTSB . 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 13 February 2015 . ^ The disappearance of flight MH370: "Malaysia Airlines MH370: One year on, still no trace of plane that disappeared with 239 people onboard" . Australia Plus . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 March 2015. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . Addressing Parliament on Thursday, [Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott] said the disappearance of the passenger jet was 'one of the great mysteries of our time.' "Can Malaysia Airlines Survive Another Tragedy?" . Huffington Post . 18 July 2014. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "Transcripts" . CNN . Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . "Malaysia Airlines disappearance joins greatest mysteries of all time" . PIX 11 . 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "The most read stories of 2014 on KOMONews.com" . KOMO News . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "World Headlines" . OSV Newsweekly . Archived from the original on 13 September 2018 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "Malaysia Airlines MH370: One year on, still no trace of plane that disappeared with 239 people onboard" . Australia Plus . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 March 2015. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . Addressing Parliament on Thursday, [Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott] said the disappearance of the passenger jet was 'one of the great mysteries of our time.' "Can Malaysia Airlines Survive Another Tragedy?" . Huffington Post . 18 July 2014. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "Transcripts" . CNN . Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2015 . "Malaysia Airlines disappearance joins greatest mysteries of all time" . PIX 11 . 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "The most read stories of 2014 on KOMONews.com" . KOMO News . Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . "World Headlines" . OSV Newsweekly . Archived from the original on 13 September 2018 . Retrieved 4 January 2015 . ^ Williams, David (4 May 2018). "Flight MH370 is still missing, but the search has revealed two ships that vanished 140 years ago" . CNN . Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 . Retrieved 4 May 2018 . ^ "Malaysia 370: The Plane That Vanished" . Smithsonian Channel . Archived from the original on 28 July 2014 . Retrieved 18 June 2014 . ^ Morabito, Andrea (3 April 2014). "Smithsonian Channel will air documentary on missing jet" . New York Post . Archived from the original on 9 July 2014 . Retrieved 18 June 2014 . ^ "Flight 370: The Missing Links" . Discovery Channel (Asia) . Discovery Networks International. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017 . Retrieved 18 June 2014 . ^ Kemp, Stuart (2 April 2014). "Discovery Networks International Orders Special on Malaysia Flight 370" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 20 July 2014 . Retrieved 18 June 2014 . ^ "Where is Flight MH370?" . BBC Two . BBC. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021 . Retrieved 12 June 2014 . ^ "Why Planes Vanish" . NOVA . WGBH. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014 . Retrieved 10 October 2014 . FOR BBC Where is Flight MH370? ^ "NOVA – Why Planes Vanish" . pbs.org . PBS. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014 . Retrieved 10 October 2014 . ^ Goglia, John (8 October 2014). "Why Planes Vanish: NOVA Documentary Explores What Happened to Missing Malaysia Boeing-777" . Forbes . Archived from the original on 11 October 2014 . Retrieved 11 October 2014 . ^ "What Happened to Malaysian 370? - Malaysia Airlines 370" . Mayday . Season 14. Episode 11. 24 March 2016 . Retrieved 11 June 2024 – via YouTube. ^ "Air Crash Investigation" . National Geographic . Archived from the original on 13 February 2015 . Retrieved 13 February 2015 . ^ "Airdate: Drain the Oceans" . TV Tonight . 4 July 2018. Archived from the original on 22 August 2018 . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . ^ Hess, Amanda (13 September 2018). "The Best New Social Thriller Is a Podcast" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 16 April 2020 . Retrieved 18 September 2018 . ^ Was Manifest Inspired by Malaysian Flight 370? . San Diego, CA: Syfy. 22 July 2018. Event occurs at 0:03. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019 . Retrieved 18 October 2018 . Seven years later, Malaysian Airlines happened, and suddenly my crazy idea felt a little more real... ^ Teeman, Tim (14 June 2014). "The Surprisingly Good Flight 370 Novel: Author Scott Maka Defends His Controversial Book" . The Daily Beast . Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 6 June 2020 . ^ "MH370: The Lost Flight | Documentary | SBS On Demand" . Sbs.com.au. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022 . Retrieved 25 May 2022 . ^ " 'MH370: The Plane That Disappeared' Is a Three-Part Quest for Answers" . Netflix Tudum . Netflix. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023 . Retrieved 16 February 2023 . ^ "MH370 joke: Malaysia asks Interpol to track down comedian" . 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023 . Retrieved 29 February 2024 . Further reading Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network ATSB investigation of Flight 370 ; Archived 26 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine – webpage of Australian Transport Safety Bureau's investigation (Investigation number: AE-2014-054; Investigation title: "Assistance to Malaysian Ministry of Transport in support of missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 on 7 March 2014 UTC" ) ICAO statement on the first anniversary of the Flight 370 disappearance The data behind the search for MH370 – Interactive analysis of phase 1 sea-floor mapping data from Geoscience Australia Missing flight MH370 – a visual guide to the parts and debris found so far (January 2017) – detailed information about debris Summary of possible MH370 debris recovered (April 2017) "A Timeline of MH370 Physical Evidence" . Aviation Week & Space Technology . 8 March 2019. MH 370 Preliminary Report – Preliminary report issued by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, dated 9 April 2014 and released to the public on 1 May 2014. Factual Information: Safety Investigation for MH370 – Interim report released by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport on 8 March 2015 (586 pages). MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas ; Archived 18 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2014) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 26 June 2014, and the most comprehensive report on Flight 370 publicly released at that time. The report focuses on defining the search area for the fifth phase, but in doing so provides a comprehensive overview/examination of satellite data, the failed searches, and possible "end-of-flight scenarios". MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas (PDF) (Report). 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2019. – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 3 December 2015, covering the Bayesian analysis made by Australia's Defence Science and Technology Group and other developments since mid-2014 in defining the search area. MH370 – Search and debris examination update ; Archived 23 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2016) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 2 November 2016, comprising further analysis of satellite data, additional End of Flight simulations, analysis of flight debris (wing flap), and enhanced debris drift modelling. MH370 First Principles Review and CSIRO reports ; Archived 21 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 20 December 2016, documenting the proceedings and outcomes of the First Principles Review meeting held in Canberra between 2–4 November 2016. The review identified a previously unsearched area of 25,000 km 2 (9,700 sq mi) as having the highest probability of containing the aircraft wreckage. The search for MH370 and ocean surface drift – Part III ; Archived 16 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Report by CSIRO to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau, released on 16 August 2017. From the results of drift studies, CSIRO mentions that it is possible to identify a most-likely location of the aircraft, with unprecedented precision and certainty, at 35.6°S 92.8°E, northeast of the main 120,000-km 2 underwater search zone. Summary of imagery analyses for non-natural objects ; Archived 18 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine – Report by Geoscience Australia, released on 16 August 2017, comprising analysis of imagery from the PLEIADES 1A satellite, of floating objects identified in the southern Indian Ocean. The Operational Search for MH370 (Final) ; Archived 10 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine – Final report issued by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB), released on 3 October 2017, documenting where and how the search for MH370 was conducted, the results obtained, and analysis for where future underwater searches could be undertaken. It concludes that the reasons for the loss of MH370 cannot be established with certainty until the aircraft is located. Safety Investigation Report by The Malaysian ICAO Annex 13 Safety Investigation Team for MH370 ; Archived 9 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine with appendices ; Archived 19 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine – Final report issued by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, dated 2 July 2018 and released to the public on 30 July 2018. External links Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Official website – maintained by the Malaysian government Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC) Australian Maritime Safety Authority MH370 Search – Media kit MH370 at the Australian Transport Safety Bureau; Archived 8 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine Malaysia Airlines ; Archived 29 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine MH370 Press Statement by Ministry of Transport, Malaysia, Wednesday, 2 April 2014 v t e Malaysia Airlines v t e History Malayan Airways (1946-1963) Sabah Airways (1953-1957) Borneo Airways (1957-1965) Federation Air Service (1951-1956; 1958-1960) Malaysian Airways (1963-1966) Malaysia–Singapore Airlines (1966-1972) Malayan Airways (1946-1963) Sabah Airways (1953-1957) Borneo Airways (1957-1965) Federation Air Service (1951-1956; 1958-1960) Malaysian Airways (1963-1966) Malaysia–Singapore Airlines (1966-1972) Accidents and incidents MH653 (1977; 100 fatalities) MH684 (1983; no fatalities) MH2133 (1995; 34 fatalities) MH370 (2014; missing with 239 people · search · timeline · disappearance theories ) MH17 (2014; 298 fatalities · reactions ) MH653 (1977; 100 fatalities) MH684 (1983; no fatalities) MH2133 (1995; 34 fatalities) MH370 (2014; missing with 239 people · search · timeline · disappearance theories ) MH17 (2014; 298 fatalities · reactions ) Services Destinations Fleet Destinations Fleet Subsidiaries Amal Firefly MASkargo MASwings Amal Firefly MASkargo MASwings v t e Aviation accidents and incidents in 2014 ( 2014 ) v t e Jan 20 SSAvC Flight 111 Feb 11 Algerian Air Force C-130 crash Feb 16 Nepal Airlines Flight 183 Feb 17 Ethiopian Airlines Flight 702 Mar 8 Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Mar 13 Haughey Air AgustaWestland AW 139 crash May 17 Lao People's Air Force An-74 crash May 31 Bedford Gulfstream IV crash Jun 14 Ukrainian Air Force Ilyushin Il-76 shootdown Jun 23 Olsberg mid-air collision Jun 24 Pakistan International Airlines Flight 756 Jul 17 Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 Jul 23 TransAsia Airways Flight 222 Jul 24 Air Algérie Flight 5017 Aug 10 Sepahan Airlines Flight 5915 Aug 13 Santos Cessna Citation crash Oct 20 Unijet Flight 074P Oct 29 SkyWay Enterprises Flight 7101 Oct 30 Wichita King Air crash Oct 31 VSS Enterprise crash Nov 12 Armenian Mil Mi-24 shootdown Dec 5 Nut rage incident Dec 15 Loganair Flight 6780 Dec 28 Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 2013 ◄ ► 2015 v t e Aviation accidents and incidents in Malaysia v t e 1970s Gubir shootdown (April 1976) Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash (June 1976) Japan Air Lines Flight 715 (September 1977) Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 (December 1977) Gubir shootdown (April 1976) Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash (June 1976) Japan Air Lines Flight 715 (September 1977) Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 (December 1977) 1980s Malaysian Airline System Flight 684 (December 1983) Flying Tiger Line Flight 066 (February 1989) Malaysian Airline System Flight 684 (December 1983) Flying Tiger Line Flight 066 (February 1989) 1990s Malaysia Airlines Flight 2133 (September 1995) Royal Brunei Airlines Flight 839 (September 1997) Malaysia Airlines Flight 2133 (September 1995) Royal Brunei Airlines Flight 839 (September 1997) 2010s MASwings Flight 3002 (October 2013) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (March 2014) MASwings Flight 3002 (October 2013) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (March 2014) 2020s Elmina plane crash (August 2023) Lumut mid-air collision (April 2024) Elmina plane crash (August 2023) Lumut mid-air collision (April 2024) Authority control databases International FAST FAST National United States France BnF data Israel United States France BnF data Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 2010s missing person cases 2014 controversies 2014 in Australia 2014 in China 2014 in international relations 2014 in Malaysia Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 777 Australia–China relations Australia–Malaysia relations Aviation accidents and incidents in 2014 Aviation accidents and incidents in Malaysia Aviation accidents and incidents in the Indian Ocean China–Malaysia relations Malaysia Airlines accidents and incidents March 2014 in Asia Missing aircraft People lost at sea CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 French-language sources (fr) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2018 CS1 Chinese (Malaysia)-language sources (zh-my) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from July 2020 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from December 2025 Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2024 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2018 Webarchive template wayback links Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 18:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Spanish period 2 American period Toggle American period subsection 2.1 Bishop Lamy 2.1 Bishop Lamy 3 Death and legacy 4 Controversy Toggle Controversy subsection 4.1 Revolution of 1837 4.2 Penitentes 4.1 Revolution of 1837 4.2 Penitentes 5 Quotes 6 See also 7 Citations 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Antonio José Martínez العربية Español Français Kiswahili مصرى Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Antonio José Martínez Padre Martínez, c. 1848 Born January 17, 1793 Abiquiú , Santa Fe de Nuevo México , Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Rio Arriba County, New Mexico , U.S.) Died July 27, 1867 (aged 74) Kit Carson Park in Taos, New Mexico Occupations Priest , educator , publisher , rancher , farmer , community leader , and politician Antonio José Martínez (January 17, 1793 [ 1 ] – July 27, 1867 [ 2 ] ) was a New Mexican priest , educator , publisher , rancher , farmer , community leader , and politician . He lived through and influenced three distinct periods of New Mexico's history: the Spanish period, the Mexican period, and the American occupation and subsequent territorial period. Martínez appears as a character in Willa Cather 's novel, Death Comes for the Archbishop . Spanish period Martínez was born Antonio Jose Martinez in Abiquiu on January 17, 1793, when New Mexico was a very isolated and desolate territory of the Spanish Empire . In 1804, the Martinez family, including his father Severino and five siblings, moved to Taos , a prosperous outpost , where they came to be known as Martínez. [ 3 ] His mother was María del Carmel Santistévan of La Plaza de Santa Rosa de Abiquiú. [ 4 ] During his upbringing, Martínez's father taught him the importance of ranching and farming at the Hacienda Martínez in Northern New Mexico . In 1811, Martínez married María de la Luz, who died giving birth to their daughter less than a year later, when he was 19. [ 5 ] Their child was named in honor of María de la Luz. Six years later Martínez moved south after much thought and correspondence with the Bishop of Durango . He decided to travel there in 1817, and become a priest, enrolling in the Tridentine Seminary of the Diocese of Durango. [ 5 ] Martínez not only excelled at the seminary but also in understanding the ideals of liberal Mexican politicians and teachers of his day, including Miguel Hidalgo . After six years, Martínez was ordained , and he returned to New Mexico, where after a few years in other parishes, he became the parish priest of Taos , and from then on was known as Padre Martínez . [ 5 ] American period In 1841, the newly formed Republic of Texas recognized the difficulties New Mexico was facing and decided to take advantage of them by sending an expedition to invade New Mexico and possibly annex the territory. The invasion failed, and the Texans were captured by Manuel Armijo . This event, in addition to the numerous Americans already living in New Mexico, led many to believe that New Mexico had weakened and become ready for invasion. The Mexican–American War began in 1846. Stephen W. Kearny led 1,700 American troops into Santa Fe without encountering any resistance. Before the invasion, Martínez had witnessed the animosity towards Native Americans and Mexicans displayed by the Anglos living in New Mexico. He encouraged his students to study law and it was to them he delivered his famous quote, "The American government resembles a burro; but on this burro lawyers will ride, not priests." [ 6 ] Within a year of the American occupation, the Taos Revolt occurred. Charles Bent , the newly appointed American governor of New Mexico, was assassinated in the uprising. American forces quickly regained power, instituted martial law , and executed the rebels involved. Many, including Kit Carson , believed Martínez himself took part in some way in instigating the rebellion, but nothing has been proven. In a letter to a friend in Santa Fe, Martínez stated that the American reprisals were too harsh and would hinder future relations between New Mexico and its new rulers. Despite the problems, Martínez was able to adjust to the administration and for seven years played a dominant role in the conventions and legislative sessions of the new Territory . Bishop Lamy With the new government came new leadership, both political and religious. Jean Baptiste Lamy , a Frenchman nearly 21 years younger than Martínez, became the vicar apostolic of Santa Fe in 1851. Martínez supported Lamy until January 1854 when Lamy issued a letter instituting mandatory tithing and decreeing that heads of families that failed to tithe be denied the sacraments . Martínez publicly protested the letter and openly contested it in the secular press. From then on, Lamy and Martínez clashed over many issues, such as the effects of frontier life on Catholic standards, and women's issues. The two also argued over interpretations of canon law . The situation culminated when Lamy wrote a letter explaining that he felt New Mexicans faced a sad future because they didn't have the intellectual liveliness of Americans and their morals were primitive. These comments outraged New Mexicans. The clergy of New Mexico wrote a letter directly to the Pope , expressing their concern about Lamy. Martínez was not involved in the letter but continued to write communiques criticizing Lamy for the Santa Fe Gazette . Believe it or not, in early 1856, Martínez offered his conditional resignation, but admitted his parishioners in Taos, New Mexico to his private chapel in his home and ministered to them from there. On October 27, 1856, Lamy suspended Martínez. In response, Martínez antagonized the pastor that Lamy sent in his place, persuaded a neighboring priest of his goals and gained the allegiance of approximately a third of the parishioners in the two parishes. Finally, in April 1858, Lamy excommunicated Martínez. Martínez never recognized the validity of the excommunication, and continued to minister to his supporters until his death. Martínez also continued to write about Christianity , publishing his famous work, Religión , in which he called for small honoraria for priests in New Mexico, because of the heavy demands associated with New Mexico's isolation. He also explained the problem of denying sacraments to individuals because of their financial status. Lastly, he condemned the Spanish Inquisition and all the actions associated with it, including the many excommunications. Death and legacy This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Father Antonio José Martínez died on July 27, 1867. Infirm and aged beyond his years, Martínez lived the last ten years of his life estranged from Bishop Jean Baptiste Lamy . By the spring of 1858, Bishop Lamy felt compelled to excommunicate Martínez not for moral failings, but for his "scandalous writings." [ citation needed ] Bishop Lamy wrote his denunciation of Martínez in the marginal notes of the Baptism and Funeral Register of Our Lady of Guadalupe Church where he had served since 1826. The writings in La Gaceta of Santa Fe were a critique of the Bishop's re-introduction of the system of tithing that Martínez since 1829 successfully advocated the government revoke. In 1826, he established a coed elementary school; in 1833 a seminary from which 16 men were ordained to the priesthood; and in 1846 a law school that graduated many of the earliest lawyers and politicians of the Territory of New Mexico. He produced a speller for the children of his family members, and later obtained the first printing press in New Mexico. In 1838, he published his autobiography on his press, and the following year published the first book printed in New Mexico, a bilingual ritual—Latin and Spanish. He published only six issues of the newspaper called El Crepúsculo de Libertad ; published religious/devotional tracts and texts for his elementary school, seminary, and law school. Martínez was a licensed attorney turned politician, and served five times under the Republic of Mexico on the legislature of the Departamento de Nuevo Mexico, and six times for the Territory of New Mexico under the United States. [ citation needed ] He was married before he became a priest; his wife died in childbirth, and his daughter died at the young age of 12. Even after ordination, Martínez had other children that he recognized as heirs in his Last Will and Testament. His eldest was Santiago Valdez (b. 1830) who wrote his 1877 biography, and the second to the youngest was Vicente Ferrer Romero (b. 1844) who became an effective evangelizer for the Presbyterian Church. Martínez has been accused of instigating the Chimayó Rebellion of 1837 and the Taos Revolt of 1847 with its concomitant assassination of Governor Charles Bent , but this is unlikely. [ 7 ] After his tension and controversies with Bishop Lamy, in 1863 it seems he flirted with becoming an Anglican, observing the Holy Communion "according to the reformed rite" with Bishop Talbot. [ 8 ] However, he remained staunchly Roman Catholic as his Last Will and Testament testifies. [ citation needed ] In his Last Will, Martínez expressed a desire not to have a public ceremony, nevertheless there was a large funeral ceremony for him. Martínez requested to be buried in his Oratorio, dedicated to La Purísima Concepción, contiguous to and on the west-side of his residence. This request was honored, and so he was buried in his own Oratorio that he had built on his property. A quarter century later in 1891, his body was moved about two miles east the American Cemetery. The land, originally owned by Martínez, was deeded to Theodora Romero , and then came into possession of the Kit Carson park and cemetery in Taos. Inscribed on the Martínez tombstone are the words La Honra de su País ("The Honor of his Homeland"). Martínez's peers in the Territorial Legislature pronounced this encomium in 1867, the year of his death. Sculptor Huberto Maestas of San Luis, Colorado sculpted the larger than life-sized bronze memorial of Martínez unveiled at Taos Plaza on July 16, 2006. Controversy Revolution of 1837 When Santa Anna became the President of Mexico in 1833, he intentionally began to centralize and departmentalize the Mexican government. Santa Anna also began to impose harsher taxes in New Mexico, which sparked a rebellion in the northern part of the province. In 1837, the rebels, mostly poorer ranchers and farmers, captured Santa Fe, killed governor Albino Pérez , and installed their own governor, José María González . The leaders of the rebellion were divided on their goals and soon factionalized. American merchants and traders within New Mexico were uncomfortable about the new government and funded a Mexican army led by Manuel Armijo to put down the uprising. The Martínez family had grown wealthy through trade and would have become a critical subject had the rebellion survived. Martínez not only helped fund the Mexican army, but also offered his services to Armijo as chaplain of the army until the termination of the revolt in early 1838, when the old administration was restored with Armijo as governor. Upon suppression of the rebellion, Armijo ordered the execution of José Gonzales, but not before directing Martínez: " Padre Martĺnez, confiese á este genĺzaro para que le dén cinco balazos " ("Father Martĺnez, hear this genizaro 's confession so that he may be shot five times"). [ 9 ] Martínez heard Gonzales's confession and then handed him over to Armijo. [ citation needed ] Penitentes Following Mexican independence from Spain , Church authorities in Mexico withdrew the Franciscan , Dominican and Jesuit missionaries from its provinces. In 1832, the last of the Franciscan regional authorities authorized Padre Martínez to supervise the Penitente brotherhood, a type of folk Catholicism that had developed among the Hispano New Mexicans. In addition to offering spiritual and social aid to the community, the Penitentes engaged in such ascetic practices as flagellation and the carrying of heavy crosses. Bishop Lamy unsuccessfully attempted to suppress the brotherhood as a part of the "Americanization" of the Church in New Mexico. Padre Martínez championed the Penitente cause, putting him squarely at odds with Lamy. Quotes His greate name deserves to be written in letters of gold in all high places that this gaping and ignorant multitude might fall down and worship it, that he has and done condisend to remain amongst and instrkut such a people. His greate name deserves to be written in letters of gold in all high places that this gaping and ignorant multitude might fall down and worship it, that he has and done condisend to remain amongst and instrkut such a people. — Thoughts on Padre Martínez and the people of New Mexico in a letter by Charles Bent [ 10 ] Charles Bent's statement about the "greate literary Martinez" and similar comments are sarcastic. Bent felt a strong antipathy toward Padre Antonio José Martínez who opposed his ambition to acquire the Guadalupe-Miranda (Beaubien) Land Grant / Maxwell Land Grant . Padre Martinez insisted that the extremely large territory, over 1.7 million acres including what is today Philmont Scout Ranch, remain common grazing grounds the inhabitants of New Mexico since time immemorial used for their cattle. In the early 1830s Charles Bent, together with his brother William, founded a fort on the Arkansas River (the Spanish called it Rio Napiste) in what is today's southern Colorado. The river marked the southern boundary between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain since the Otis-Anin Treaty of 1819. A couple of years later—after Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821—the river became the northern boundary of the Republic of Mexico with the United States. Bent's Fort was, therefore, located at a very strategic place for international commerce. It became a headquarters for French Canadian and American fur trappers and traders who—through the American Fur Company—successfully exported beaver pelts, in the form of top hats, to the salons of Paris and London. In the spring or early summer of 1846, during the time of US-Mexican War, Charles Bent visited Colonel Stephen W. Kearny, leader of the Army of the West at Forth Leavenworth, Kansas. Together with a large contingent of his army, Kearny gathered at Bent's Fort by the end of June in preparation to march on Santa Fe on behalf of the Government of the United States to take possession of New Mexico that belonged to the Republic of Mexico. Padre Martinez, the priest of Taos, had been a Mexican nationalist. He had been ordained a priest in Durango, Mexico a year after Mexican Independence, and considered Padre Miguel Hidalgo (Father of Mexican Independence) a hero and mentor. At the same time, he considered George Washington as another of his hero-mentors. Padre Martinez appreciated the ideals spelled out in the American Constitution and Bill of Rights. Although Padre Martinez had resisted U.S. encroachment into New Mexico since the early 1840s, he eventually came to believe that New Mexico would be better off under the flag of the United States. Before coming into Santa Fe, Kearny was aware that Padre Martinez was the main religious and political leader in northern New Mexico and throughout the whole region. Kearny, ironically, dispatched Captain Bent with a dozen soldiers to escort Padre Martinez and his brothers from Taos to Santa Fe in order to pledge allegiance to the American Flag. Because of their convictions, and in order to attempt avoiding bloodshed in the civil transfer of power, they willingly complied, thus becoming the first inhabitants of New Mexico to become citizens of the United States. Moreover, Colonel Kearny asked Padre Martinez to borrow his Ramage printing press on which the Padre had published New Mexico's first book, a newspaper, as well as religious and educational materials. The Padre lent the press to the Colonel soon-to-be promoted to Brigadier General, and Kearny used it to publish his Code of Laws. You can say that the teachings of the American Government represent a burro, and this burro can only be mounted by lawyers and not the Clergy. You can say that the teachings of the American Government represent a burro, and this burro can only be mounted by lawyers and not the Clergy. — Padre Martínez to seminary students in September 1846 when transitioning his Taos seminary to law school [ citation needed ] The quote attributed to Padre Martinez about the clergyman/attorney riding the burro is from an 1877 unpublished manuscript by Santiago Valdez in Spanish belonging to the Ritch Collection housed at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, near Los Angeles: Biografia del Presbítero Antonio José Martínez, Cura de Taos. Padre Martinez made the statement in September 1846, a few weeks after General Stephen Watts Kearny had, on August 18 in the name of the United States of America, occupied Santa Fe and all of New Mexico. See also Death Comes for the Archbishop Lamy of Santa Fe Citations ^ Etulain 2002 , p. 107. ^ Etulain 2002 , p. 127. ^ Etulain 2002 , p. 111. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Martínez, Vicente M. "The Progeny of Padre Martinez of Taos" . Fundación Presbítero Don Antonio José Martínez . Retrieved 29 November 2013 . ^ a b c Etulain 2002 , p. 112. ^ Smith, Chuck (1996). The New Mexico State Constitution: A Reference Guide . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. xxi. ISBN 0-313-29548-4 . ^ "New Mexico Office of the State Historian : Taos Rebellion-1847" . dev.newmexicohistory.org . Retrieved 2016-04-12 . ^ du Pont Breck, Allen. The Episcopal Church in Colorado 1860-1963 (1 ed.). Big Mountain Press. p. 23-24. ^ Etulain 2002 , p. 116. ^ Etulain 2002 , p. 119. References Etulain, Richard W. (2002). New Mexican Lives: Profiles and Historical Stories . University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2433-7 . Further reading Fray Angelico Chavez (c. 1981). But Time and Chance . Sunstone Press, Santa Fe. ISBN 0-913270-95-4 . Susan A. Roberts & Calvin A. Roberts (1989). New Mexico . University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1145-8 . Rev. Juan Romero (2006) [1976]. Reluctant Dawn, A History of Padre Martinez-Based on 1877 Biography (Second ed.). Children's Book Press. ISBN 1-4243-0810-0 . Pedro Sánchez (1978) [1903]. Memorias Sobre la Vida del Presbítero Don Antonio José Martínez / Recollections of the Life of the Priest Don Antonio José Martínez . translation by Ray John de Aragon 1978, original Spanish edition 1903. Lightning Tree. ISBN 0-89016-045-7 . Thomas J. Steele, S.J. (1997). New Mexican Spanish Religious Oratory 1800-1900 . University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1768-5 . Santiago Valdez (1993) [1877]. Biografia del Presbitero Antonio Jose Matinez, Cura de Taos . Translated by Romero, Juan. Authors include E.A. Mares & Thomas J. Steele (c. 1985). New Perspectives from Taos . Millient Rogers Museum of Taos. ISBN 0-9609818-3-7 . External links Cuaderno de Ortografia From the Collections at the Library of Congress Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States Israel United States Israel Other Open Library SNAC Yale LUX Open Library SNAC Yale LUX 1793 births 1867 deaths American writers of Mexican descent American people of Spanish descent People of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico People from New Mexico Territory Mexican Roman Catholic priests Hispanos of New Mexico People excommunicated by the Catholic Church People from Taos, New Mexico People from Abiquiú, New Mexico Catholics from New Mexico 19th-century American Roman Catholic priests American politicians of Mexican descent Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Pages using infobox person with deprecated parameters Articles needing additional references from October 2020 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 This page was last edited on 4 June 2025, at 21:28 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 9,457 results for author: Zhang, J Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10611 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Molmo2: Open Weights and Data for Vision-Language Models with Video Understanding and Grounding Authors: Christopher Clark , Jieyu Zhang , Zixian Ma , Jae Sung Park , Mohammadreza Salehi , Rohun Tripathi , Sangho Lee , Zhongzheng Ren , Chris Dongjoo Kim , Yinuo Yang , Vincent Shao , Yue Yang , Weikai Huang , Ziqi Gao , Taira Anderson , Jianrui Zhang , Jitesh Jain , George Stoica , Winson Han , Ali Farhadi , Ranjay Krishna Abstract : Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstrea… ▽ More Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstream applications require more than just high-level video understanding; they require grounding -- either by pointing or by tracking in pixels. Even proprietary models lack this capability. We present Molmo2, a new family of VLMs that are state-of-the-art among open-source models and demonstrate exceptional new capabilities in point-driven grounding in single image, multi-image, and video tasks. Our key contribution is a collection of 7 new video datasets and 2 multi-image datasets, including a dataset of highly detailed video captions for pre-training, a free-form video Q&A dataset for fine-tuning, a new object tracking dataset with complex queries, and an innovative new video pointing dataset, all collected without the use of closed VLMs. We also present a training recipe for this data utilizing an efficient packing and message-tree encoding scheme, and show bi-directional attention on vision tokens and a novel token-weight strategy improves performance. Our best-in-class 8B model outperforms others in the class of open weight and data models on short videos, counting, and captioning, and is competitive on long-videos. On video-grounding Molmo2 significantly outperforms existing open-weight models like Qwen3-VL (35.5 vs 29.6 accuracy on video counting) and surpasses proprietary models like Gemini 3 Pro on some tasks (38.4 vs 20.0 F1 on video pointing and 56.2 vs 41.1 J&F on video tracking). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10611 [ pdf , ps , other ] Molmo2: Open Weights and Data for Vision-Language Models with Video Understanding and Grounding Authors: Christopher Clark , Jieyu Zhang , Zixian Ma , Jae Sung Park , Mohammadreza Salehi , Rohun Tripathi , Sangho Lee , Zhongzheng Ren , Chris Dongjoo Kim , Yinuo Yang , Vincent Shao , Yue Yang , Weikai Huang , Ziqi Gao , Taira Anderson , Jianrui Zhang , Jitesh Jain , George Stoica , Winson Han , Ali Farhadi , Ranjay Krishna Abstract : Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstrea… ▽ More Today's strongest video-language models (VLMs) remain proprietary. The strongest open-weight models either rely on synthetic data from proprietary VLMs, effectively distilling from them, or do not disclose their training data or recipe. As a result, the open-source community lacks the foundations needed to improve on the state-of-the-art video (and image) language models. Crucially, many downstream applications require more than just high-level video understanding; they require grounding -- either by pointing or by tracking in pixels. Even proprietary models lack this capability. We present Molmo2, a new family of VLMs that are state-of-the-art among open-source models and demonstrate exceptional new capabilities in point-driven grounding in single image, multi-image, and video tasks. Our key contribution is a collection of 7 new video datasets and 2 multi-image datasets, including a dataset of highly detailed video captions for pre-training, a free-form video Q&A dataset for fine-tuning, a new object tracking dataset with complex queries, and an innovative new video pointing dataset, all collected without the use of closed VLMs. We also present a training recipe for this data utilizing an efficient packing and message-tree encoding scheme, and show bi-directional attention on vision tokens and a novel token-weight strategy improves performance. Our best-in-class 8B model outperforms others in the class of open weight and data models on short videos, counting, and captioning, and is competitive on long-videos. On video-grounding Molmo2 significantly outperforms existing open-weight models like Qwen3-VL (35.5 vs 29.6 accuracy on video counting) and surpasses proprietary models like Gemini 3 Pro on some tasks (38.4 vs 20.0 F1 on video pointing and 56.2 vs 41.1 J&F on video tracking). △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI LLMdoctor: Token-Level Flow-Guided Preference Optimization for Efficient Test-Time Alignment of Large Language Models Authors: Tiesunlong Shen , Rui Mao , Jin Wang , Heming Sun , Jian Zhang , Xuejie Zhang , Erik Cambria Abstract : Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the ba… ▽ More Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the base model. This paper introduces LLMdoctor, a novel framework for efficient test-time alignment that operates via a patient-doctor paradigm. It integrates token-level reward acquisition with token-level flow-guided preference optimization (TFPO) to steer a large, frozen patient LLM with a smaller, specialized doctor model. Unlike conventional methods that rely on trajectory-level rewards, LLMdoctor first extracts fine-grained, token-level preference signals from the patient model's behavioral variations. These signals then guide the training of the doctor model via TFPO, which establishes flow consistency across all subtrajectories, enabling precise token-by-token alignment while inherently preserving generation diversity. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LLMdoctor significantly outperforms existing test-time alignment methods and even surpasses the performance of full fine-tuning approaches like DPO. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI26 arXiv:2601.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] LLMdoctor: Token-Level Flow-Guided Preference Optimization for Efficient Test-Time Alignment of Large Language Models Authors: Tiesunlong Shen , Rui Mao , Jin Wang , Heming Sun , Jian Zhang , Xuejie Zhang , Erik Cambria Abstract : Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the ba… ▽ More Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the base model. This paper introduces LLMdoctor, a novel framework for efficient test-time alignment that operates via a patient-doctor paradigm. It integrates token-level reward acquisition with token-level flow-guided preference optimization (TFPO) to steer a large, frozen patient LLM with a smaller, specialized doctor model. Unlike conventional methods that rely on trajectory-level rewards, LLMdoctor first extracts fine-grained, token-level preference signals from the patient model's behavioral variations. These signals then guide the training of the doctor model via TFPO, which establishes flow consistency across all subtrajectories, enabling precise token-by-token alignment while inherently preserving generation diversity. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LLMdoctor significantly outperforms existing test-time alignment methods and even surpasses the performance of full fine-tuning approaches like DPO. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI26 arXiv:2601.10406 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI ErrEval: Error-Aware Evaluation for Question Generation through Explicit Diagnostics Authors: Weiping Fu , Bifan Wei , Jingyi Hao , Yushun Zhang , Jian Zhang , Jiaxin Wang , Bo Li , Yu He , Lingling Zhang , Jun Liu Abstract : Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose Er… ▽ More Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose ErrEval, a flexible and Error-aware Evaluation framework that enhances QG evaluation through explicit error diagnostics. Specifically, ErrEval reformulates evaluation as a two-stage process of error diagnosis followed by informed scoring. At the first stage, a lightweight plug-and-play Error Identifier detects and categorizes common errors across structural, linguistic, and content-related aspects. These diagnostic signals are then incorporated as explicit evidence to guide LLM evaluators toward more fine-grained and grounded judgments. Extensive experiments on three benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of ErrEval, showing that incorporating explicit diagnostics improves alignment with human judgments. Further analyses confirm that ErrEval effectively mitigates the overestimation of low-quality questions. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10406 [ pdf , ps , other ] ErrEval: Error-Aware Evaluation for Question Generation through Explicit Diagnostics Authors: Weiping Fu , Bifan Wei , Jingyi Hao , Yushun Zhang , Jian Zhang , Jiaxin Wang , Bo Li , Yu He , Lingling Zhang , Jun Liu Abstract : Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose Er… ▽ More Automatic Question Generation (QG) often produces outputs with critical defects, such as factual hallucinations and answer mismatches. However, existing evaluation methods, including LLM-based evaluators, mainly adopt a black-box and holistic paradigm without explicit error modeling, leading to the neglect of such defects and overestimation of question quality. To address this issue, we propose ErrEval, a flexible and Error-aware Evaluation framework that enhances QG evaluation through explicit error diagnostics. Specifically, ErrEval reformulates evaluation as a two-stage process of error diagnosis followed by informed scoring. At the first stage, a lightweight plug-and-play Error Identifier detects and categorizes common errors across structural, linguistic, and content-related aspects. These diagnostic signals are then incorporated as explicit evidence to guide LLM evaluators toward more fine-grained and grounded judgments. Extensive experiments on three benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of ErrEval, showing that incorporating explicit diagnostics improves alignment with human judgments. Further analyses confirm that ErrEval effectively mitigates the overestimation of low-quality questions. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10261 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR XuanJia: A Comprehensive Virtualization-Based Code Obfuscator for Binary Protection Authors: Xianyu Zou , Xiaoli Gong , Jin Zhang , Shiyang Li , Pen-Chung Yew Abstract : Virtualization-based binary obfuscation is widely adopted to protect software intellectual property, yet existing approaches leave exception-handling (EH) metadata unprotected to preserve ABI compatibility. This exposed metadata leaks rich structural information, such as stack layouts, control-flow boundaries, and object lifetimes, which can be exploited to facilitate reverse engineering. In this… ▽ More Virtualization-based binary obfuscation is widely adopted to protect software intellectual property, yet existing approaches leave exception-handling (EH) metadata unprotected to preserve ABI compatibility. This exposed metadata leaks rich structural information, such as stack layouts, control-flow boundaries, and object lifetimes, which can be exploited to facilitate reverse engineering. In this paper, we present XuanJia, a comprehensive VM-based binary obfuscation framework that provides end-to-end protection for both executable code and exception-handling semantics. At the core of XuanJia is ABI-Compliant EH Shadowing, a novel exception-aware protection mechanism that preserves compatibility with unmodified operating system runtimes while eliminating static EH metadata leakage. XuanJia replaces native EH metadata with ABI-compliant shadow unwind information to satisfy OS-driven unwinding, and securely redirects exception handling into a protected virtual machine where the genuine EH semantics are decrypted, reversed, and replayed using obfuscated code. We implement XuanJia from scratch, supporting 385 x86 instruction encodings and 155 VM handler templates, and design it as an extensible research testbed. We evaluate XuanJia across correctness, resilience, and performance dimensions. Our results show that XuanJia preserves semantic equivalence under extensive dynamic and symbolic testing, effectively disrupts automated reverse-engineering tools such as IDA Pro, and incurs negligible space overhead and modest runtime overhead. These results demonstrate that XuanJia achieves strong protection of exception-handling logic without sacrificing correctness or practicality. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10261 [ pdf , ps , other ] XuanJia: A Comprehensive Virtualization-Based Code Obfuscator for Binary Protection Authors: Xianyu Zou , Xiaoli Gong , Jin Zhang , Shiyang Li , Pen-Chung Yew Abstract : Virtualization-based binary obfuscation is widely adopted to protect software intellectual property, yet existing approaches leave exception-handling (EH) metadata unprotected to preserve ABI compatibility. This exposed metadata leaks rich structural information, such as stack layouts, control-flow boundaries, and object lifetimes, which can be exploited to facilitate reverse engineering. In this… ▽ More Virtualization-based binary obfuscation is widely adopted to protect software intellectual property, yet existing approaches leave exception-handling (EH) metadata unprotected to preserve ABI compatibility. This exposed metadata leaks rich structural information, such as stack layouts, control-flow boundaries, and object lifetimes, which can be exploited to facilitate reverse engineering. In this paper, we present XuanJia, a comprehensive VM-based binary obfuscation framework that provides end-to-end protection for both executable code and exception-handling semantics. At the core of XuanJia is ABI-Compliant EH Shadowing, a novel exception-aware protection mechanism that preserves compatibility with unmodified operating system runtimes while eliminating static EH metadata leakage. XuanJia replaces native EH metadata with ABI-compliant shadow unwind information to satisfy OS-driven unwinding, and securely redirects exception handling into a protected virtual machine where the genuine EH semantics are decrypted, reversed, and replayed using obfuscated code. We implement XuanJia from scratch, supporting 385 x86 instruction encodings and 155 VM handler templates, and design it as an extensible research testbed. We evaluate XuanJia across correctness, resilience, and performance dimensions. Our results show that XuanJia preserves semantic equivalence under extensive dynamic and symbolic testing, effectively disrupts automated reverse-engineering tools such as IDA Pro, and incurs negligible space overhead and modest runtime overhead. These results demonstrate that XuanJia achieves strong protection of exception-handling logic without sacrificing correctness or practicality. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10259 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT Transmission Mask Analysis for Range-Doppler Sensing in Half-Duplex ISAC Authors: Dikai Liu , Yifeng Xiong , Marco Lops , Fan Liu , Jianhua Zhang Abstract : In this paper, we analyze the periodic transmission masks for MASked Modulation (MASM) in half-duplex integrated sensing and communication (ISAC), and derive their closed-form expected range-Doppler response $\mathbb{E}\{r(k,l,ν)\}$. We show that range sidelobes ($k\neq l$) are Doppler-invariant, extending the range-sidelobe optimality to the 2-D setting. For the range mainlobe ($k=l$), periodic m… ▽ More In this paper, we analyze the periodic transmission masks for MASked Modulation (MASM) in half-duplex integrated sensing and communication (ISAC), and derive their closed-form expected range-Doppler response $\mathbb{E}\{r(k,l,ν)\}$. We show that range sidelobes ($k\neq l$) are Doppler-invariant, extending the range-sidelobe optimality to the 2-D setting. For the range mainlobe ($k=l$), periodic masking yields sparse Doppler sidelobes: Cyclic difference sets (CDSs) (in particular Singer CDSs) are minimax-optimal in a moderately dynamic regime, while in a highly dynamic regime the Doppler-sidelobe energy is a concave function of the mask autocorrelation, revealing an inevitable tradeoff with mainlobe fluctuation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures, submitted to IEEE ISIT 2026 arXiv:2601.10259 [ pdf , ps , other ] Transmission Mask Analysis for Range-Doppler Sensing in Half-Duplex ISAC Authors: Dikai Liu , Yifeng Xiong , Marco Lops , Fan Liu , Jianhua Zhang Abstract : In this paper, we analyze the periodic transmission masks for MASked Modulation (MASM) in half-duplex integrated sensing and communication (ISAC), and derive their closed-form expected range-Doppler response $\mathbb{E}\{r(k,l,ν)\}$. We show that range sidelobes ($k\neq l$) are Doppler-invariant, extending the range-sidelobe optimality to the 2-D setting. For the range mainlobe ($k=l$), periodic m… ▽ More In this paper, we analyze the periodic transmission masks for MASked Modulation (MASM) in half-duplex integrated sensing and communication (ISAC), and derive their closed-form expected range-Doppler response $\mathbb{E}\{r(k,l,ν)\}$. We show that range sidelobes ($k\neq l$) are Doppler-invariant, extending the range-sidelobe optimality to the 2-D setting. For the range mainlobe ($k=l$), periodic masking yields sparse Doppler sidelobes: Cyclic difference sets (CDSs) (in particular Singer CDSs) are minimax-optimal in a moderately dynamic regime, while in a highly dynamic regime the Doppler-sidelobe energy is a concave function of the mask autocorrelation, revealing an inevitable tradeoff with mainlobe fluctuation. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 8 pages, 10 figures, submitted to IEEE ISIT 2026 arXiv:2601.10170 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT On Existence of Girth-8 QC-LDPC Code with Large Column Weight: Combining Mirror-sequence with Classification Modulo Ten Authors: Guohua Zhang , Xiangya Liu , Jianhua Zhang , Yi Fang Abstract : Quasi-cyclic (QC) LDPC codes with large girths play a crucial role in several research and application fields, including channel coding, compressed sensing and distributed storage systems. A major challenge in respect of the code construction is how to obtain such codes with the shortest possible length (or equivalently, the smallest possible circulant size) using algebraic methods instead of sear… ▽ More Quasi-cyclic (QC) LDPC codes with large girths play a crucial role in several research and application fields, including channel coding, compressed sensing and distributed storage systems. A major challenge in respect of the code construction is how to obtain such codes with the shortest possible length (or equivalently, the smallest possible circulant size) using algebraic methods instead of search methods. The greatest-common-divisor (GCD) framework we previously proposed has algebraically constructed QC-LDPC codes with column weights of 5 and 6, very short lengths, and a girth of 8. By introducing the concept of a mirror sequence and adopting a new row-regrouping scheme, QC-LDPC codes with column weights of 7 and 8, very short lengths, and a girth of 8 are proposed for arbitrary row weights in this article via an algebraic manner under the GCD framework. Thanks to these novel algebraic methods, the lower bounds (for column weights 7 and 8) on consecutive circulant sizes are both improved by asymptotically about 20%, compared with the existing benchmarks. Furthermore, these new constructions can also offer circulant sizes asymptotically about 25% smaller than the novel bounds. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 4 figures; Submitted to ISIT2026 (preprint) arXiv:2601.10170 [ pdf , ps , other ] On Existence of Girth-8 QC-LDPC Code with Large Column Weight: Combining Mirror-sequence with Classification Modulo Ten Authors: Guohua Zhang , Xiangya Liu , Jianhua Zhang , Yi Fang Abstract : Quasi-cyclic (QC) LDPC codes with large girths play a crucial role in several research and application fields, including channel coding, compressed sensing and distributed storage systems. A major challenge in respect of the code construction is how to obtain such codes with the shortest possible length (or equivalently, the smallest possible circulant size) using algebraic methods instead of sear… ▽ More Quasi-cyclic (QC) LDPC codes with large girths play a crucial role in several research and application fields, including channel coding, compressed sensing and distributed storage systems. A major challenge in respect of the code construction is how to obtain such codes with the shortest possible length (or equivalently, the smallest possible circulant size) using algebraic methods instead of search methods. The greatest-common-divisor (GCD) framework we previously proposed has algebraically constructed QC-LDPC codes with column weights of 5 and 6, very short lengths, and a girth of 8. By introducing the concept of a mirror sequence and adopting a new row-regrouping scheme, QC-LDPC codes with column weights of 7 and 8, very short lengths, and a girth of 8 are proposed for arbitrary row weights in this article via an algebraic manner under the GCD framework. Thanks to these novel algebraic methods, the lower bounds (for column weights 7 and 8) on consecutive circulant sizes are both improved by asymptotically about 20%, compared with the existing benchmarks. Furthermore, these new constructions can also offer circulant sizes asymptotically about 25% smaller than the novel bounds. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 4 figures; Submitted to ISIT2026 (preprint) arXiv:2601.10141 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Understanding and Preserving Safety in Fine-Tuned LLMs Authors: Jiawen Zhang , Yangfan Hu , Kejia Chen , Lipeng He , Jiachen Ma , Jian Lou , Dan Li , Jian Liu , Xiaohu Yang , Ruoxi Jia Abstract : Fine-tuning is an essential and pervasive functionality for applying large language models (LLMs) to downstream tasks. However, it has the potential to substantially degrade safety alignment, e.g., by greatly increasing susceptibility to jailbreak attacks, even when the fine-tuning data is entirely harmless. Despite garnering growing attention in defense efforts during the fine-tuning stage, exist… ▽ More Fine-tuning is an essential and pervasive functionality for applying large language models (LLMs) to downstream tasks. However, it has the potential to substantially degrade safety alignment, e.g., by greatly increasing susceptibility to jailbreak attacks, even when the fine-tuning data is entirely harmless. Despite garnering growing attention in defense efforts during the fine-tuning stage, existing methods struggle with a persistent safety-utility dilemma: emphasizing safety compromises task performance, whereas prioritizing utility typically requires deep fine-tuning that inevitably leads to steep safety declination. In this work, we address this dilemma by shedding new light on the geometric interaction between safety- and utility-oriented gradients in safety-aligned LLMs. Through systematic empirical analysis, we uncover three key insights: (I) safety gradients lie in a low-rank subspace, while utility gradients span a broader high-dimensional space; (II) these subspaces are often negatively correlated, causing directional conflicts during fine-tuning; and (III) the dominant safety direction can be efficiently estimated from a single sample. Building upon these novel insights, we propose safety-preserving fine-tuning (SPF), a lightweight approach that explicitly removes gradient components conflicting with the low-rank safety subspace. Theoretically, we show that SPF guarantees utility convergence while bounding safety drift. Empirically, SPF consistently maintains downstream task performance and recovers nearly all pre-trained safety alignment, even under adversarial fine-tuning scenarios. Furthermore, SPF exhibits robust resistance to both deep fine-tuning and dynamic jailbreak attacks. Together, our findings provide new mechanistic understanding and practical guidance toward always-aligned LLM fine-tuning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10141 [ pdf , ps , other ] Understanding and Preserving Safety in Fine-Tuned LLMs Authors: Jiawen Zhang , Yangfan Hu , Kejia Chen , Lipeng He , Jiachen Ma , Jian Lou , Dan Li , Jian Liu , Xiaohu Yang , Ruoxi Jia Abstract : Fine-tuning is an essential and pervasive functionality for applying large language models (LLMs) to downstream tasks. However, it has the potential to substantially degrade safety alignment, e.g., by greatly increasing susceptibility to jailbreak attacks, even when the fine-tuning data is entirely harmless. Despite garnering growing attention in defense efforts during the fine-tuning stage, exist… ▽ More Fine-tuning is an essential and pervasive functionality for applying large language models (LLMs) to downstream tasks. However, it has the potential to substantially degrade safety alignment, e.g., by greatly increasing susceptibility to jailbreak attacks, even when the fine-tuning data is entirely harmless. Despite garnering growing attention in defense efforts during the fine-tuning stage, existing methods struggle with a persistent safety-utility dilemma: emphasizing safety compromises task performance, whereas prioritizing utility typically requires deep fine-tuning that inevitably leads to steep safety declination. In this work, we address this dilemma by shedding new light on the geometric interaction between safety- and utility-oriented gradients in safety-aligned LLMs. Through systematic empirical analysis, we uncover three key insights: (I) safety gradients lie in a low-rank subspace, while utility gradients span a broader high-dimensional space; (II) these subspaces are often negatively correlated, causing directional conflicts during fine-tuning; and (III) the dominant safety direction can be efficiently estimated from a single sample. Building upon these novel insights, we propose safety-preserving fine-tuning (SPF), a lightweight approach that explicitly removes gradient components conflicting with the low-rank safety subspace. Theoretically, we show that SPF guarantees utility convergence while bounding safety drift. Empirically, SPF consistently maintains downstream task performance and recovers nearly all pre-trained safety alignment, even under adversarial fine-tuning scenarios. Furthermore, SPF exhibits robust resistance to both deep fine-tuning and dynamic jailbreak attacks. Together, our findings provide new mechanistic understanding and practical guidance toward always-aligned LLM fine-tuning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10120 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA cs.AI cs.CL TopoDIM: One-shot Topology Generation of Diverse Interaction Modes for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Rui Sun , Jie Ding , Chenghua Gong , Tianjun Gu , Yihang Jiang , Juyuan Zhang , Liming Pan , Linyuan Lü Abstract : Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent system… ▽ More Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent systems, we propose TopoDIM, a framework for one-shot Topology generation with Diverse Interaction Modes. Designed for decentralized execution to enhance adaptability and privacy, TopoDIM enables agents to autonomously construct heterogeneous communication without iterative coordination, achieving token efficiency and improved task performance. Experiments demonstrate that TopoDIM reduces total token consumption by 46.41% while improving average performance by 1.50% over state-of-the-art methods. Moreover, the framework exhibits strong adaptability in organizing communication among heterogeneous agents. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10120 [ pdf , ps , other ] TopoDIM: One-shot Topology Generation of Diverse Interaction Modes for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Rui Sun , Jie Ding , Chenghua Gong , Tianjun Gu , Yihang Jiang , Juyuan Zhang , Liming Pan , Linyuan Lü Abstract : Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent system… ▽ More Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent systems, we propose TopoDIM, a framework for one-shot Topology generation with Diverse Interaction Modes. Designed for decentralized execution to enhance adaptability and privacy, TopoDIM enables agents to autonomously construct heterogeneous communication without iterative coordination, achieving token efficiency and improved task performance. Experiments demonstrate that TopoDIM reduces total token consumption by 46.41% while improving average performance by 1.50% over state-of-the-art methods. Moreover, the framework exhibits strong adaptability in organizing communication among heterogeneous agents. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10103 [ pdf , ps , other ] FlowAct-R1: Towards Interactive Humanoid Video Generation Authors: Lizhen Wang , Yongming Zhu , Zhipeng Ge , Youwei Zheng , Longhao Zhang , Tianshu Hu , Shiyang Qin , Mingshuang Luo , Jiaxu Zhang , Xin Chen , Yulong Wang , Zerong Zheng , Jianwen Jiang , Chao Liang , Weifeng Chen , Xing Wang , Yuan Zhang , Mingyuan Gao Abstract : Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time… ▽ More Interactive humanoid video generation aims to synthesize lifelike visual agents that can engage with humans through continuous and responsive video. Despite recent advances in video synthesis, existing methods often grapple with the trade-off between high-fidelity synthesis and real-time interaction requirements. In this paper, we propose FlowAct-R1, a framework specifically designed for real-time interactive humanoid video generation. Built upon a MMDiT architecture, FlowAct-R1 enables the streaming synthesis of video with arbitrary durations while maintaining low-latency responsiveness. We introduce a chunkwise diffusion forcing strategy, complemented by a novel self-forcing variant, to alleviate error accumulation and ensure long-term temporal consistency during continuous interaction. By leveraging efficient distillation and system-level optimizations, our framework achieves a stable 25fps at 480p resolution with a time-to-first-frame (TTFF) of only around 1.5 seconds. The proposed method provides holistic and fine-grained full-body control, enabling the agent to transition naturally between diverse behavioral states in interactive scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that FlowAct-R1 achieves exceptional behavioral vividness and perceptual realism, while maintaining robust generalization across diverse character styles. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10079 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL Sparse-RL: Breaking the Memory Wall in LLM Reinforcement Learning via Stable Sparse Rollouts Authors: Sijia Luo , Xiaokang Zhang , Yuxuan Hu , Bohan Zhang , Ke Wang , Jinbo Su , Mengshu Sun , Lei Liang , Jing Zhang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning (RL) has become essential for eliciting complex reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, the substantial memory overhead of storing Key-Value (KV) caches during long-horizon rollouts acts as a critical bottleneck, often prohibiting efficient training on limited hardware. While existing KV compression techniques offer a remedy for inference, directly a… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning (RL) has become essential for eliciting complex reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, the substantial memory overhead of storing Key-Value (KV) caches during long-horizon rollouts acts as a critical bottleneck, often prohibiting efficient training on limited hardware. While existing KV compression techniques offer a remedy for inference, directly applying them to RL training induces a severe policy mismatch, leading to catastrophic performance collapse. To address this, we introduce Sparse-RL empowers stable RL training under sparse rollouts. We show that instability arises from a fundamental policy mismatch among the dense old policy, the sparse sampler policy, and the learner policy. To mitigate this issue, Sparse-RL incorporates Sparsity-Aware Rejection Sampling and Importance-based Reweighting to correct the off-policy bias introduced by compression-induced information loss. Experimental results show that Sparse-RL reduces rollout overhead compared to dense baselines while preserving the performance. Furthermore, Sparse-RL inherently implements sparsity-aware training, significantly enhancing model robustness during sparse inference deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10079 [ pdf , ps , other ] Sparse-RL: Breaking the Memory Wall in LLM Reinforcement Learning via Stable Sparse Rollouts Authors: Sijia Luo , Xiaokang Zhang , Yuxuan Hu , Bohan Zhang , Ke Wang , Jinbo Su , Mengshu Sun , Lei Liang , Jing Zhang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning (RL) has become essential for eliciting complex reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, the substantial memory overhead of storing Key-Value (KV) caches during long-horizon rollouts acts as a critical bottleneck, often prohibiting efficient training on limited hardware. While existing KV compression techniques offer a remedy for inference, directly a… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning (RL) has become essential for eliciting complex reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, the substantial memory overhead of storing Key-Value (KV) caches during long-horizon rollouts acts as a critical bottleneck, often prohibiting efficient training on limited hardware. While existing KV compression techniques offer a remedy for inference, directly applying them to RL training induces a severe policy mismatch, leading to catastrophic performance collapse. To address this, we introduce Sparse-RL empowers stable RL training under sparse rollouts. We show that instability arises from a fundamental policy mismatch among the dense old policy, the sparse sampler policy, and the learner policy. To mitigate this issue, Sparse-RL incorporates Sparsity-Aware Rejection Sampling and Importance-based Reweighting to correct the off-policy bias introduced by compression-induced information loss. Experimental results show that Sparse-RL reduces rollout overhead compared to dense baselines while preserving the performance. Furthermore, Sparse-RL inherently implements sparsity-aware training, significantly enhancing model robustness during sparse inference deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10025 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Structured Personality Control and Adaptation for LLM Agents Authors: Jinpeng Wang , Xinyu Jia , Wei Wei Heng , Yuquan Li , Binbin Shi , Qianlei Chen , Guannan Chen , Junxia Zhang , Yuyu Yin Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly shaping human-computer interaction (HCI), from personalized assistants to social simulations. Beyond language competence, researchers are exploring whether LLMs can exhibit human-like characteristics that influence engagement, decision-making, and perceived realism. Personality, in particular, is critical, yet existing approaches often struggle to achi… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly shaping human-computer interaction (HCI), from personalized assistants to social simulations. Beyond language competence, researchers are exploring whether LLMs can exhibit human-like characteristics that influence engagement, decision-making, and perceived realism. Personality, in particular, is critical, yet existing approaches often struggle to achieve both nuanced and adaptable expression. We present a framework that models LLM personality via Jungian psychological types, integrating three mechanisms: a dominant-auxiliary coordination mechanism for coherent core expression, a reinforcement-compensation mechanism for temporary adaptation to context, and a reflection mechanism that drives long-term personality evolution. This design allows the agent to maintain nuanced traits while dynamically adjusting to interaction demands and gradually updating its underlying structure. Personality alignment is evaluated using Myers-Briggs Type Indicator questionnaires and tested under diverse challenge scenarios as a preliminary structured assessment. Findings suggest that evolving, personality-aware LLMs can support coherent, context-sensitive interactions, enabling naturalistic agent design in HCI. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10025 [ pdf , ps , other ] Structured Personality Control and Adaptation for LLM Agents Authors: Jinpeng Wang , Xinyu Jia , Wei Wei Heng , Yuquan Li , Binbin Shi , Qianlei Chen , Guannan Chen , Junxia Zhang , Yuyu Yin Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly shaping human-computer interaction (HCI), from personalized assistants to social simulations. Beyond language competence, researchers are exploring whether LLMs can exhibit human-like characteristics that influence engagement, decision-making, and perceived realism. Personality, in particular, is critical, yet existing approaches often struggle to achi… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly shaping human-computer interaction (HCI), from personalized assistants to social simulations. Beyond language competence, researchers are exploring whether LLMs can exhibit human-like characteristics that influence engagement, decision-making, and perceived realism. Personality, in particular, is critical, yet existing approaches often struggle to achieve both nuanced and adaptable expression. We present a framework that models LLM personality via Jungian psychological types, integrating three mechanisms: a dominant-auxiliary coordination mechanism for coherent core expression, a reinforcement-compensation mechanism for temporary adaptation to context, and a reflection mechanism that drives long-term personality evolution. This design allows the agent to maintain nuanced traits while dynamically adjusting to interaction demands and gradually updating its underlying structure. Personality alignment is evaluated using Myers-Briggs Type Indicator questionnaires and tested under diverse challenge scenarios as a preliminary structured assessment. Findings suggest that evolving, personality-aware LLMs can support coherent, context-sensitive interactions, enabling naturalistic agent design in HCI. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09668 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV STEP3-VL-10B Technical Report Authors: Ailin Huang , Chengyuan Yao , Chunrui Han , Fanqi Wan , Hangyu Guo , Haoran Lv , Hongyu Zhou , Jia Wang , Jian Zhou , Jianjian Sun , Jingcheng Hu , Kangheng Lin , Liang Zhao , Mitt Huang , Song Yuan , Wenwen Qu , Xiangfeng Wang , Yanlin Lai , Yingxiu Zhao , Yinmin Zhang , Yukang Shi , Yuyang Chen , Zejia Weng , Ziyang Meng , Ang Li , et al. (68 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish… ▽ More We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish intrinsic vision-language synergy; and second, a scaled post-training pipeline featuring over 1k iterations of reinforcement learning. Crucially, we implement Parallel Coordinated Reasoning (PaCoRe) to scale test-time compute, allocating resources to scalable perceptual reasoning that explores and synthesizes diverse visual hypotheses. Consequently, despite its compact 10B footprint, STEP3-VL-10B rivals or surpasses models 10$\times$-20$\times$ larger (e.g., GLM-4.6V-106B, Qwen3-VL-235B) and top-tier proprietary flagships like Gemini 2.5 Pro and Seed-1.5-VL. Delivering best-in-class performance, it records 92.2% on MMBench and 80.11% on MMMU, while excelling in complex reasoning with 94.43% on AIME2025 and 75.95% on MathVision. We release the full model suite to provide the community with a powerful, efficient, and reproducible baseline. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 50 pages arXiv:2601.09668 [ pdf , ps , other ] STEP3-VL-10B Technical Report Authors: Ailin Huang , Chengyuan Yao , Chunrui Han , Fanqi Wan , Hangyu Guo , Haoran Lv , Hongyu Zhou , Jia Wang , Jian Zhou , Jianjian Sun , Jingcheng Hu , Kangheng Lin , Liang Zhao , Mitt Huang , Song Yuan , Wenwen Qu , Xiangfeng Wang , Yanlin Lai , Yingxiu Zhao , Yinmin Zhang , Yukang Shi , Yuyang Chen , Zejia Weng , Ziyang Meng , Ang Li , et al. (68 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish… ▽ More We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish intrinsic vision-language synergy; and second, a scaled post-training pipeline featuring over 1k iterations of reinforcement learning. Crucially, we implement Parallel Coordinated Reasoning (PaCoRe) to scale test-time compute, allocating resources to scalable perceptual reasoning that explores and synthesizes diverse visual hypotheses. Consequently, despite its compact 10B footprint, STEP3-VL-10B rivals or surpasses models 10$\times$-20$\times$ larger (e.g., GLM-4.6V-106B, Qwen3-VL-235B) and top-tier proprietary flagships like Gemini 2.5 Pro and Seed-1.5-VL. Delivering best-in-class performance, it records 92.2% on MMBench and 80.11% on MMMU, while excelling in complex reasoning with 94.43% on AIME2025 and 75.95% on MathVision. We release the full model suite to provide the community with a powerful, efficient, and reproducible baseline. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 50 pages arXiv:2601.09361 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI GeoRA: Geometry-Aware Low-Rank Adaptation for RLVR Authors: Jiaying Zhang , Lei Shi , Jiguo Li , Jun Xu , Jiuchong Gao , Jinghua Hao , Renqing He Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is crucial for advancing large-scale reasoning models. However, existing parameter-efficient methods, such as PiSSA and MiLoRA, are designed for Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and do not account for the distinct optimization dynamics and geometric structures of RLVR. Applying these methods directly leads to spectral collapse and optimization inst… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is crucial for advancing large-scale reasoning models. However, existing parameter-efficient methods, such as PiSSA and MiLoRA, are designed for Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and do not account for the distinct optimization dynamics and geometric structures of RLVR. Applying these methods directly leads to spectral collapse and optimization instability, which severely limit model performance. Meanwhile, alternative approaches that leverage update sparsity encounter significant efficiency bottlenecks on modern hardware due to unstructured computations. To address these challenges, we propose GeoRA (Geometry-Aware Low-Rank Adaptation), which exploits the anisotropic and compressible nature of RL update subspaces. GeoRA initializes adapters by extracting principal directions via Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) within a geometrically constrained subspace while freezing the residual components. This method preserves the pre-trained geometric structure and enables efficient GPU computation through dense operators. Experiments on Qwen and Llama demonstrate that GeoRA mitigates optimization bottlenecks caused by geometric misalignment. It consistently outperforms established low-rank baselines on key mathematical benchmarks, achieving state-of-the-art (SOTA) results. Moreover, GeoRA shows superior generalization and resilience to catastrophic forgetting in out-of-domain tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09361 [ pdf , ps , other ] GeoRA: Geometry-Aware Low-Rank Adaptation for RLVR Authors: Jiaying Zhang , Lei Shi , Jiguo Li , Jun Xu , Jiuchong Gao , Jinghua Hao , Renqing He Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is crucial for advancing large-scale reasoning models. However, existing parameter-efficient methods, such as PiSSA and MiLoRA, are designed for Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and do not account for the distinct optimization dynamics and geometric structures of RLVR. Applying these methods directly leads to spectral collapse and optimization inst… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is crucial for advancing large-scale reasoning models. However, existing parameter-efficient methods, such as PiSSA and MiLoRA, are designed for Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and do not account for the distinct optimization dynamics and geometric structures of RLVR. Applying these methods directly leads to spectral collapse and optimization instability, which severely limit model performance. Meanwhile, alternative approaches that leverage update sparsity encounter significant efficiency bottlenecks on modern hardware due to unstructured computations. To address these challenges, we propose GeoRA (Geometry-Aware Low-Rank Adaptation), which exploits the anisotropic and compressible nature of RL update subspaces. GeoRA initializes adapters by extracting principal directions via Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) within a geometrically constrained subspace while freezing the residual components. This method preserves the pre-trained geometric structure and enables efficient GPU computation through dense operators. Experiments on Qwen and Llama demonstrate that GeoRA mitigates optimization bottlenecks caused by geometric misalignment. It consistently outperforms established low-rank baselines on key mathematical benchmarks, achieving state-of-the-art (SOTA) results. Moreover, GeoRA shows superior generalization and resilience to catastrophic forgetting in out-of-domain tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09299 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.GT On the Fair Allocation to Asymmetric Agents with Binary XOS Valuations Authors: Ziheng Chen , Bo Li , Zihan Luo , Jialin Zhang Abstract : We study the problem of allocating $m$ indivisible goods among $n$ agents, where each agent's valuation is fractionally subadditive (XOS). With respect to AnyPrice Share (APS) fairness, Kulkarni et al. (2024) showed that, when agents have binary marginal values, a $0.1222$-APS allocation can be found in polynomial time, and there exists an instance where no allocation is better than $0.5$-approxim… ▽ More We study the problem of allocating $m$ indivisible goods among $n$ agents, where each agent's valuation is fractionally subadditive (XOS). With respect to AnyPrice Share (APS) fairness, Kulkarni et al. (2024) showed that, when agents have binary marginal values, a $0.1222$-APS allocation can be found in polynomial time, and there exists an instance where no allocation is better than $0.5$-approximate APS. Very recently, Feige and Grinberg (2025) extended the problem to the asymmetric case, where agents may have different entitlements, and improved the approximation ratio to $1/6$ for general XOS valuations. In this work, we focus on the asymmetric setting with binary XOS valuations, and further improve the approximation ratio to $1/2$, which matches the known upper bound. We also present a polynomial-time algorithm to compute such an allocation. Beyond APS fairness, we also study the weighted maximin share (WMMS) fairness. Farhadi et al. (2019) showed that, a $1/n$-WMMS allocation always exists for agents with general additive valuations, and that this approximation ratio is tight. We extend this result to general XOS valuations, where a $1/n$-WMMS allocation still exists, and this approximation ratio cannot be improved even when marginal values are binary. This shows a sharp contrast to binary additive valuations, where an exact WMMS allocation exists and can be found in polynomial time. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: AAMAS 2026 arXiv:2601.09299 [ pdf , ps , other ] On the Fair Allocation to Asymmetric Agents with Binary XOS Valuations Authors: Ziheng Chen , Bo Li , Zihan Luo , Jialin Zhang Abstract : We study the problem of allocating $m$ indivisible goods among $n$ agents, where each agent's valuation is fractionally subadditive (XOS). With respect to AnyPrice Share (APS) fairness, Kulkarni et al. (2024) showed that, when agents have binary marginal values, a $0.1222$-APS allocation can be found in polynomial time, and there exists an instance where no allocation is better than $0.5$-approxim… ▽ More We study the problem of allocating $m$ indivisible goods among $n$ agents, where each agent's valuation is fractionally subadditive (XOS). With respect to AnyPrice Share (APS) fairness, Kulkarni et al. (2024) showed that, when agents have binary marginal values, a $0.1222$-APS allocation can be found in polynomial time, and there exists an instance where no allocation is better than $0.5$-approximate APS. Very recently, Feige and Grinberg (2025) extended the problem to the asymmetric case, where agents may have different entitlements, and improved the approximation ratio to $1/6$ for general XOS valuations. In this work, we focus on the asymmetric setting with binary XOS valuations, and further improve the approximation ratio to $1/2$, which matches the known upper bound. We also present a polynomial-time algorithm to compute such an allocation. Beyond APS fairness, we also study the weighted maximin share (WMMS) fairness. Farhadi et al. (2019) showed that, a $1/n$-WMMS allocation always exists for agents with general additive valuations, and that this approximation ratio is tight. We extend this result to general XOS valuations, where a $1/n$-WMMS allocation still exists, and this approximation ratio cannot be improved even when marginal values are binary. This shows a sharp contrast to binary additive valuations, where an exact WMMS allocation exists and can be found in polynomial time. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: AAMAS 2026 arXiv:2601.09285 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cond-mat.mtrl-sci Enhancing Spatial Reasoning in Large Language Models for Metal-Organic Frameworks Structure Prediction Authors: Mianzhi Pan , JianFei Li , Peishuo Liu , Botian Wang , Yawen Ouyang , Yiming Rong , Hao Zhou , Jianbing Zhang Abstract : Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials with broad applications such as carbon capture and drug delivery, yet accurately predicting their 3D structures remains a significant challenge. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise in generating crystals, their application to MOFs is hindered by MOFs' high atomic complexity. Inspired by the success of block-wise par… ▽ More Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials with broad applications such as carbon capture and drug delivery, yet accurately predicting their 3D structures remains a significant challenge. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise in generating crystals, their application to MOFs is hindered by MOFs' high atomic complexity. Inspired by the success of block-wise paradigms in deep generative models, we pioneer the use of LLMs in this domain by introducing MOF-LLM, the first LLM framework specifically adapted for block-level MOF structure prediction. To effectively harness LLMs for this modular assembly task, our training paradigm integrates spatial-aware continual pre-training (CPT), structural supervised fine-tuning (SFT), and matching-driven reinforcement learning (RL). By incorporating explicit spatial priors and optimizing structural stability via Soft Adaptive Policy Optimization (SAPO), our approach substantially enhances the spatial reasoning capability of a Qwen-3 8B model for accurate MOF structure prediction. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate that MOF-LLM outperforms state-of-the-art denoising-based and LLM-based methods while exhibiting superior sampling efficiency. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09285 [ pdf , ps , other ] Enhancing Spatial Reasoning in Large Language Models for Metal-Organic Frameworks Structure Prediction Authors: Mianzhi Pan , JianFei Li , Peishuo Liu , Botian Wang , Yawen Ouyang , Yiming Rong , Hao Zhou , Jianbing Zhang Abstract : Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials with broad applications such as carbon capture and drug delivery, yet accurately predicting their 3D structures remains a significant challenge. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise in generating crystals, their application to MOFs is hindered by MOFs' high atomic complexity. Inspired by the success of block-wise par… ▽ More Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials with broad applications such as carbon capture and drug delivery, yet accurately predicting their 3D structures remains a significant challenge. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise in generating crystals, their application to MOFs is hindered by MOFs' high atomic complexity. Inspired by the success of block-wise paradigms in deep generative models, we pioneer the use of LLMs in this domain by introducing MOF-LLM, the first LLM framework specifically adapted for block-level MOF structure prediction. To effectively harness LLMs for this modular assembly task, our training paradigm integrates spatial-aware continual pre-training (CPT), structural supervised fine-tuning (SFT), and matching-driven reinforcement learning (RL). By incorporating explicit spatial priors and optimizing structural stability via Soft Adaptive Policy Optimization (SAPO), our approach substantially enhances the spatial reasoning capability of a Qwen-3 8B model for accurate MOF structure prediction. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate that MOF-LLM outperforms state-of-the-art denoising-based and LLM-based methods while exhibiting superior sampling efficiency. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09274 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI $A^3$-Bench: Benchmarking Memory-Driven Scientific Reasoning via Anchor and Attractor Activation Authors: Jian Zhang , Yu He , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Kai He , Fangzhi Xu , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Scientific reasoning relies not only on logical inference but also on activating prior knowledge and experiential structures. Memory can efficiently reuse knowledge and enhance reasoning consistency and stability. However, existing benchmarks mainly evaluate final answers or step-by-step coherence, overlooking the \textit{memory-driven} mechanisms that underlie human reasoning, which involves acti… ▽ More Scientific reasoning relies not only on logical inference but also on activating prior knowledge and experiential structures. Memory can efficiently reuse knowledge and enhance reasoning consistency and stability. However, existing benchmarks mainly evaluate final answers or step-by-step coherence, overlooking the \textit{memory-driven} mechanisms that underlie human reasoning, which involves activating anchors and attractors, then integrating them into multi-step inference. To address this gap, we propose $A^3$-Bench~ a benchmark designed to evaluate scientific reasoning through dual-scale memory-driven activation, grounded in Anchor and Attractor Activation. First, we annotate 2,198 science reasoning problems across domains using the SAPM process(subject, anchor & attractor, problem, and memory developing). Second, we introduce a dual-scale memory evaluation framework utilizing anchors and attractors, along with the AAUI(Anchor--Attractor Utilization Index) metric to measure memory activation rates. Finally, through experiments with various base models and paradigms, we validate $A^3$-Bench and analyze how memory activation impacts reasoning performance, providing insights into memory-driven scientific reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09274 [ pdf , ps , other ] $A^3$-Bench: Benchmarking Memory-Driven Scientific Reasoning via Anchor and Attractor Activation Authors: Jian Zhang , Yu He , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Kai He , Fangzhi Xu , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Scientific reasoning relies not only on logical inference but also on activating prior knowledge and experiential structures. Memory can efficiently reuse knowledge and enhance reasoning consistency and stability. However, existing benchmarks mainly evaluate final answers or step-by-step coherence, overlooking the \textit{memory-driven} mechanisms that underlie human reasoning, which involves acti… ▽ More Scientific reasoning relies not only on logical inference but also on activating prior knowledge and experiential structures. Memory can efficiently reuse knowledge and enhance reasoning consistency and stability. However, existing benchmarks mainly evaluate final answers or step-by-step coherence, overlooking the \textit{memory-driven} mechanisms that underlie human reasoning, which involves activating anchors and attractors, then integrating them into multi-step inference. To address this gap, we propose $A^3$-Bench~ a benchmark designed to evaluate scientific reasoning through dual-scale memory-driven activation, grounded in Anchor and Attractor Activation. First, we annotate 2,198 science reasoning problems across domains using the SAPM process(subject, anchor & attractor, problem, and memory developing). Second, we introduce a dual-scale memory evaluation framework utilizing anchors and attractors, along with the AAUI(Anchor--Attractor Utilization Index) metric to measure memory activation rates. Finally, through experiments with various base models and paradigms, we validate $A^3$-Bench and analyze how memory activation impacts reasoning performance, providing insights into memory-driven scientific reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09259 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI MAXS: Meta-Adaptive Exploration with LLM Agents Authors: Jian Zhang , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Yu He , Haoran Luo , li yuan , Lingling Zhang , Rui Mao , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global effectiveness and computational efficiency. To address these two issues, we propose meta-adaptive exploration with LLM agents a meta-adaptive reasoning framework based on LLM Agents that flexibly integrates tool execution and reasoning planning. MAXS employs a lookahead strategy to extend reasoning paths a few steps ahead, estimating the advantage value of tool usage, and combines step consistency variance and inter-step trend slopes to jointly select stable, consistent, and high-value reasoning steps. Additionally, we introduce a trajectory convergence mechanism that controls computational cost by halting further rollouts once path consistency is achieved, enabling a balance between resource efficiency and global effectiveness in multi-tool reasoning. We conduct extensive empirical studies across three base models (MiMo-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-32B) and five datasets, demonstrating that MAXS consistently outperforms existing methods in both performance and inference efficiency. Further analysis confirms the effectiveness of our lookahead strategy and tool usage. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09259 [ pdf , ps , other ] MAXS: Meta-Adaptive Exploration with LLM Agents Authors: Jian Zhang , Zhiyuan Wang , Zhangqi Wang , Yu He , Haoran Luo , li yuan , Lingling Zhang , Rui Mao , Qika Lin , Jun Liu Abstract : Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global… ▽ More Large Language Model (LLM) Agents exhibit inherent reasoning abilities through the collaboration of multiple tools. However, during agent inference, existing methods often suffer from (i) locally myopic generation, due to the absence of lookahead, and (ii) trajectory instability, where minor early errors can escalate into divergent reasoning paths. These issues make it difficult to balance global effectiveness and computational efficiency. To address these two issues, we propose meta-adaptive exploration with LLM agents a meta-adaptive reasoning framework based on LLM Agents that flexibly integrates tool execution and reasoning planning. MAXS employs a lookahead strategy to extend reasoning paths a few steps ahead, estimating the advantage value of tool usage, and combines step consistency variance and inter-step trend slopes to jointly select stable, consistent, and high-value reasoning steps. Additionally, we introduce a trajectory convergence mechanism that controls computational cost by halting further rollouts once path consistency is achieved, enabling a balance between resource efficiency and global effectiveness in multi-tool reasoning. We conduct extensive empirical studies across three base models (MiMo-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-7B, Qwen2.5-VL-32B) and five datasets, demonstrating that MAXS consistently outperforms existing methods in both performance and inference efficiency. Further analysis confirms the effectiveness of our lookahead strategy and tool usage. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09088 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CL Distribution-Aligned Sequence Distillation for Superior Long-CoT Reasoning Authors: Shaotian Yan , Kaiyuan Liu , Chen Shen , Bing Wang , Sinan Fan , Jun Zhang , Yue Wu , Zheng Wang , Jieping Ye Abstract : In this report, we introduce DASD-4B-Thinking, a lightweight yet highly capable, fully open-source reasoning model. It achieves SOTA performance among open-source models of comparable scale across challenging benchmarks in mathematics, scientific reasoning, and code generation -- even outperforming several larger models. We begin by critically reexamining a widely adopted distillation paradigm in… ▽ More In this report, we introduce DASD-4B-Thinking, a lightweight yet highly capable, fully open-source reasoning model. It achieves SOTA performance among open-source models of comparable scale across challenging benchmarks in mathematics, scientific reasoning, and code generation -- even outperforming several larger models. We begin by critically reexamining a widely adopted distillation paradigm in the community: SFT on teacher-generated responses, also known as sequence-level distillation. Although a series of recent works following this scheme have demonstrated remarkable efficiency and strong empirical performance, they are primarily grounded in the SFT perspective. Consequently, these approaches focus predominantly on designing heuristic rules for SFT data filtering, while largely overlooking the core principle of distillation itself -- enabling the student model to learn the teacher's full output distribution so as to inherit its generalization capability. Specifically, we identify three critical limitations in current practice: i) Inadequate representation of the teacher's sequence-level distribution; ii) Misalignment between the teacher's output distribution and the student's learning capacity; and iii) Exposure bias arising from teacher-forced training versus autoregressive inference. In summary, these shortcomings reflect a systemic absence of explicit teacher-student interaction throughout the distillation process, leaving the essence of distillation underexploited. To address these issues, we propose several methodological innovations that collectively form an enhanced sequence-level distillation training pipeline. Remarkably, DASD-4B-Thinking obtains competitive results using only 448K training samples -- an order of magnitude fewer than those employed by most existing open-source efforts. To support community research, we publicly release our models and the training dataset. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2601.09088 [ pdf , ps , other ] Distribution-Aligned Sequence Distillation for Superior Long-CoT Reasoning Authors: Shaotian Yan , Kaiyuan Liu , Chen Shen , Bing Wang , Sinan Fan , Jun Zhang , Yue Wu , Zheng Wang , Jieping Ye Abstract : In this report, we introduce DASD-4B-Thinking, a lightweight yet highly capable, fully open-source reasoning model. It achieves SOTA performance among open-source models of comparable scale across challenging benchmarks in mathematics, scientific reasoning, and code generation -- even outperforming several larger models. We begin by critically reexamining a widely adopted distillation paradigm in… ▽ More In this report, we introduce DASD-4B-Thinking, a lightweight yet highly capable, fully open-source reasoning model. It achieves SOTA performance among open-source models of comparable scale across challenging benchmarks in mathematics, scientific reasoning, and code generation -- even outperforming several larger models. We begin by critically reexamining a widely adopted distillation paradigm in the community: SFT on teacher-generated responses, also known as sequence-level distillation. Although a series of recent works following this scheme have demonstrated remarkable efficiency and strong empirical performance, they are primarily grounded in the SFT perspective. Consequently, these approaches focus predominantly on designing heuristic rules for SFT data filtering, while largely overlooking the core principle of distillation itself -- enabling the student model to learn the teacher's full output distribution so as to inherit its generalization capability. Specifically, we identify three critical limitations in current practice: i) Inadequate representation of the teacher's sequence-level distribution; ii) Misalignment between the teacher's output distribution and the student's learning capacity; and iii) Exposure bias arising from teacher-forced training versus autoregressive inference. In summary, these shortcomings reflect a systemic absence of explicit teacher-student interaction throughout the distillation process, leaving the essence of distillation underexploited. To address these issues, we propose several methodological innovations that collectively form an enhanced sequence-level distillation training pipeline. Remarkably, DASD-4B-Thinking obtains competitive results using only 448K training samples -- an order of magnitude fewer than those employed by most existing open-source efforts. To support community research, we publicly release our models and the training dataset. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2601.09028 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR OpenDecoder: Open Large Language Model Decoding to Incorporate Document Quality in RAG Authors: Fengran Mo , Zhan Su , Yuchen Hui , Jinghan Zhang , Jia Ao Sun , Zheyuan Liu , Chao Zhang , Tetsuya Sakai , Jian-Yun Nie Abstract : The development of large language models (LLMs) has achieved superior performance in a range of downstream tasks, including LLM-based retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). The quality of generated content heavily relies on the usefulness of the retrieved information and the capacity of LLMs' internal information processing mechanism to incorporate it in answer generation. It is generally assumed t… ▽ More The development of large language models (LLMs) has achieved superior performance in a range of downstream tasks, including LLM-based retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). The quality of generated content heavily relies on the usefulness of the retrieved information and the capacity of LLMs' internal information processing mechanism to incorporate it in answer generation. It is generally assumed that the retrieved information is relevant to the question. However, the retrieved information may have a variable degree of relevance and usefulness, depending on the question and the document collection. It is important to take into account the relevance of the retrieved information in answer generation. In this paper, we propose OpenDecoder, a new approach that leverages explicit evaluation of the retrieved information as quality indicator features for generation. We aim to build a RAG model that is more robust to varying levels of noisy context. Three types of explicit evaluation information are considered: relevance score, ranking score, and QPP (query performance prediction) score. The experimental results on five benchmark datasets demonstrate the effectiveness and better robustness of OpenDecoder by outperforming various baseline methods. Importantly, this paradigm is flexible to be integrated with the post-training of LLMs for any purposes and incorporated with any type of external indicators. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ACM WWW 2026 arXiv:2601.09028 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenDecoder: Open Large Language Model Decoding to Incorporate Document Quality in RAG Authors: Fengran Mo , Zhan Su , Yuchen Hui , Jinghan Zhang , Jia Ao Sun , Zheyuan Liu , Chao Zhang , Tetsuya Sakai , Jian-Yun Nie Abstract : The development of large language models (LLMs) has achieved superior performance in a range of downstream tasks, including LLM-based retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). The quality of generated content heavily relies on the usefulness of the retrieved information and the capacity of LLMs' internal information processing mechanism to incorporate it in answer generation. It is generally assumed t… ▽ More The development of large language models (LLMs) has achieved superior performance in a range of downstream tasks, including LLM-based retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). The quality of generated content heavily relies on the usefulness of the retrieved information and the capacity of LLMs' internal information processing mechanism to incorporate it in answer generation. It is generally assumed that the retrieved information is relevant to the question. However, the retrieved information may have a variable degree of relevance and usefulness, depending on the question and the document collection. It is important to take into account the relevance of the retrieved information in answer generation. In this paper, we propose OpenDecoder, a new approach that leverages explicit evaluation of the retrieved information as quality indicator features for generation. We aim to build a RAG model that is more robust to varying levels of noisy context. Three types of explicit evaluation information are considered: relevance score, ranking score, and QPP (query performance prediction) score. The experimental results on five benchmark datasets demonstrate the effectiveness and better robustness of OpenDecoder by outperforming various baseline methods. Importantly, this paradigm is flexible to be integrated with the post-training of LLMs for any purposes and incorporated with any type of external indicators. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ACM WWW 2026 arXiv:2601.08758 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.CV M3CoTBench: Benchmark Chain-of-Thought of MLLMs in Medical Image Understanding Authors: Juntao Jiang , Jiangning Zhang , Yali Bi , Jinsheng Bai , Weixuan Liu , Weiwei Jin , Zhucun Xue , Yong Liu , Xiaobin Hu , Shuicheng Yan Abstract : Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has proven effective in enhancing large language models by encouraging step-by-step intermediate reasoning, and recent advances have extended this paradigm to Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). In the medical domain, where diagnostic decisions depend on nuanced visual cues and sequential reasoning, CoT aligns naturally with clinical thinking processes. Howev… ▽ More Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has proven effective in enhancing large language models by encouraging step-by-step intermediate reasoning, and recent advances have extended this paradigm to Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). In the medical domain, where diagnostic decisions depend on nuanced visual cues and sequential reasoning, CoT aligns naturally with clinical thinking processes. However, Current benchmarks for medical image understanding generally focus on the final answer while ignoring the reasoning path. An opaque process lacks reliable bases for judgment, making it difficult to assist doctors in diagnosis. To address this gap, we introduce a new M3CoTBench benchmark specifically designed to evaluate the correctness, efficiency, impact, and consistency of CoT reasoning in medical image understanding. M3CoTBench features 1) a diverse, multi-level difficulty dataset covering 24 examination types, 2) 13 varying-difficulty tasks, 3) a suite of CoT-specific evaluation metrics (correctness, efficiency, impact, and consistency) tailored to clinical reasoning, and 4) a performance analysis of multiple MLLMs. M3CoTBench systematically evaluates CoT reasoning across diverse medical imaging tasks, revealing current limitations of MLLMs in generating reliable and clinically interpretable reasoning, and aims to foster the development of transparent, trustworthy, and diagnostically accurate AI systems for healthcare. Project page at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 40 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.08758 [ pdf , ps , other ] M3CoTBench: Benchmark Chain-of-Thought of MLLMs in Medical Image Understanding Authors: Juntao Jiang , Jiangning Zhang , Yali Bi , Jinsheng Bai , Weixuan Liu , Weiwei Jin , Zhucun Xue , Yong Liu , Xiaobin Hu , Shuicheng Yan Abstract : Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has proven effective in enhancing large language models by encouraging step-by-step intermediate reasoning, and recent advances have extended this paradigm to Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). In the medical domain, where diagnostic decisions depend on nuanced visual cues and sequential reasoning, CoT aligns naturally with clinical thinking processes. Howev… ▽ More Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning has proven effective in enhancing large language models by encouraging step-by-step intermediate reasoning, and recent advances have extended this paradigm to Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). In the medical domain, where diagnostic decisions depend on nuanced visual cues and sequential reasoning, CoT aligns naturally with clinical thinking processes. However, Current benchmarks for medical image understanding generally focus on the final answer while ignoring the reasoning path. An opaque process lacks reliable bases for judgment, making it difficult to assist doctors in diagnosis. To address this gap, we introduce a new M3CoTBench benchmark specifically designed to evaluate the correctness, efficiency, impact, and consistency of CoT reasoning in medical image understanding. M3CoTBench features 1) a diverse, multi-level difficulty dataset covering 24 examination types, 2) 13 varying-difficulty tasks, 3) a suite of CoT-specific evaluation metrics (correctness, efficiency, impact, and consistency) tailored to clinical reasoning, and 4) a performance analysis of multiple MLLMs. M3CoTBench systematically evaluates CoT reasoning across diverse medical imaging tasks, revealing current limitations of MLLMs in generating reliable and clinically interpretable reasoning, and aims to foster the development of transparent, trustworthy, and diagnostically accurate AI systems for healthcare. Project page at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 40 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2601.08743 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI TableCache: Primary Foreign Key Guided KV Cache Precomputation for Low Latency Text-to-SQL Authors: Jinbo Su , Yuxuan Hu , Cuiping Li , Hong Chen , Jia Li , Lintao Ma , Jing Zhang Abstract : In Text-to-SQL tasks, existing LLM-based methods often include extensive database schemas in prompts, leading to long context lengths and increased prefilling latency. While user queries typically focus on recurrent table sets-offering an opportunity for KV cache sharing across queries-current inference engines, such as SGLang and vLLM, generate redundant prefix cache copies when processing user q… ▽ More In Text-to-SQL tasks, existing LLM-based methods often include extensive database schemas in prompts, leading to long context lengths and increased prefilling latency. While user queries typically focus on recurrent table sets-offering an opportunity for KV cache sharing across queries-current inference engines, such as SGLang and vLLM, generate redundant prefix cache copies when processing user queries with varying table orders. To address this inefficiency, we propose precomputing table representations as KV caches offline and querying the required ones online. A key aspect of our approach is the computation of table caches while preserving primary foreign key relationships between tables. Additionally, we construct a Table Trie structure to facilitate efficient KV cache lookups during inference. To enhance cache performance, we introduce a cache management system with a query reranking strategy to improve cache hit rates and a computation loading pipeline for parallelizing model inference and cache loading. Experimental results show that our proposed TableCache achieves up to a 3.62x speedup in Time to First Token (TTFT) with negligible performance degradation. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08743 [ pdf , ps , other ] TableCache: Primary Foreign Key Guided KV Cache Precomputation for Low Latency Text-to-SQL Authors: Jinbo Su , Yuxuan Hu , Cuiping Li , Hong Chen , Jia Li , Lintao Ma , Jing Zhang Abstract : In Text-to-SQL tasks, existing LLM-based methods often include extensive database schemas in prompts, leading to long context lengths and increased prefilling latency. While user queries typically focus on recurrent table sets-offering an opportunity for KV cache sharing across queries-current inference engines, such as SGLang and vLLM, generate redundant prefix cache copies when processing user q… ▽ More In Text-to-SQL tasks, existing LLM-based methods often include extensive database schemas in prompts, leading to long context lengths and increased prefilling latency. While user queries typically focus on recurrent table sets-offering an opportunity for KV cache sharing across queries-current inference engines, such as SGLang and vLLM, generate redundant prefix cache copies when processing user queries with varying table orders. To address this inefficiency, we propose precomputing table representations as KV caches offline and querying the required ones online. A key aspect of our approach is the computation of table caches while preserving primary foreign key relationships between tables. Additionally, we construct a Table Trie structure to facilitate efficient KV cache lookups during inference. To enhance cache performance, we introduce a cache management system with a query reranking strategy to improve cache hit rates and a computation loading pipeline for parallelizing model inference and cache loading. Experimental results show that our proposed TableCache achieves up to a 3.62x speedup in Time to First Token (TTFT) with negligible performance degradation. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08623 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.CR cs.LG SafeRedir: Prompt Embedding Redirection for Robust Unlearning in Image Generation Models Authors: Renyang Liu , Kangjie Chen , Han Qiu , Jie Zhang , Kwok-Yan Lam , Tianwei Zhang , See-Kiong Ng Abstract : Image generation models (IGMs), while capable of producing impressive and creative content, often memorize a wide range of undesirable concepts from their training data, leading to the reproduction of unsafe content such as NSFW imagery and copyrighted artistic styles. Such behaviors pose persistent safety and compliance risks in real-world deployments and cannot be reliably mitigated by post-hoc… ▽ More Image generation models (IGMs), while capable of producing impressive and creative content, often memorize a wide range of undesirable concepts from their training data, leading to the reproduction of unsafe content such as NSFW imagery and copyrighted artistic styles. Such behaviors pose persistent safety and compliance risks in real-world deployments and cannot be reliably mitigated by post-hoc filtering, owing to the limited robustness of such mechanisms and a lack of fine-grained semantic control. Recent unlearning methods seek to erase harmful concepts at the model level, which exhibit the limitations of requiring costly retraining, degrading the quality of benign generations, or failing to withstand prompt paraphrasing and adversarial attacks. To address these challenges, we introduce SafeRedir, a lightweight inference-time framework for robust unlearning via prompt embedding redirection. Without modifying the underlying IGMs, SafeRedir adaptively routes unsafe prompts toward safe semantic regions through token-level interventions in the embedding space. The framework comprises two core components: a latent-aware multi-modal safety classifier for identifying unsafe generation trajectories, and a token-level delta generator for precise semantic redirection, equipped with auxiliary predictors for token masking and adaptive scaling to localize and regulate the intervention. Empirical results across multiple representative unlearning tasks demonstrate that SafeRedir achieves effective unlearning capability, high semantic and perceptual preservation, robust image quality, and enhanced resistance to adversarial attacks. Furthermore, SafeRedir generalizes effectively across a variety of diffusion backbones and existing unlearned models, validating its plug-and-play compatibility and broad applicability. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code at arXiv:2601.08623 [ pdf , ps , other ] SafeRedir: Prompt Embedding Redirection for Robust Unlearning in Image Generation Models Authors: Renyang Liu , Kangjie Chen , Han Qiu , Jie Zhang , Kwok-Yan Lam , Tianwei Zhang , See-Kiong Ng Abstract : Image generation models (IGMs), while capable of producing impressive and creative content, often memorize a wide range of undesirable concepts from their training data, leading to the reproduction of unsafe content such as NSFW imagery and copyrighted artistic styles. Such behaviors pose persistent safety and compliance risks in real-world deployments and cannot be reliably mitigated by post-hoc… ▽ More Image generation models (IGMs), while capable of producing impressive and creative content, often memorize a wide range of undesirable concepts from their training data, leading to the reproduction of unsafe content such as NSFW imagery and copyrighted artistic styles. Such behaviors pose persistent safety and compliance risks in real-world deployments and cannot be reliably mitigated by post-hoc filtering, owing to the limited robustness of such mechanisms and a lack of fine-grained semantic control. Recent unlearning methods seek to erase harmful concepts at the model level, which exhibit the limitations of requiring costly retraining, degrading the quality of benign generations, or failing to withstand prompt paraphrasing and adversarial attacks. To address these challenges, we introduce SafeRedir, a lightweight inference-time framework for robust unlearning via prompt embedding redirection. Without modifying the underlying IGMs, SafeRedir adaptively routes unsafe prompts toward safe semantic regions through token-level interventions in the embedding space. The framework comprises two core components: a latent-aware multi-modal safety classifier for identifying unsafe generation trajectories, and a token-level delta generator for precise semantic redirection, equipped with auxiliary predictors for token masking and adaptive scaling to localize and regulate the intervention. Empirical results across multiple representative unlearning tasks demonstrate that SafeRedir achieves effective unlearning capability, high semantic and perceptual preservation, robust image quality, and enhanced resistance to adversarial attacks. Furthermore, SafeRedir generalizes effectively across a variety of diffusion backbones and existing unlearned models, validating its plug-and-play compatibility and broad applicability. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code at arXiv:2601.07994 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI DYCP: Dynamic Context Pruning for Long-Form Dialogue with LLMs Authors: Nayoung Choi , Jonathan Zhang , Jinho D. Choi Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) often exhibit increased response latency and degraded answer quality as dialogue length grows, making effective context management essential. However, existing methods rely on extra LLM calls to build memory or perform offline memory construction without considering the current user utterance, which can introduce inefficiencies or disrupt conversational continuity. We… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) often exhibit increased response latency and degraded answer quality as dialogue length grows, making effective context management essential. However, existing methods rely on extra LLM calls to build memory or perform offline memory construction without considering the current user utterance, which can introduce inefficiencies or disrupt conversational continuity. We introduce DyCP, a lightweight context management method that dynamically segment and retrieve relevant memory at query time. It preserves the sequential structure of dialogue without predefined topic boundaries and supports efficient, adaptive context retrieval. Across three long-form dialogue benchmarks, LoCoMo, MT-Bench+, and SCM4LLMs, and multiple LLMs, DyCP consistently improves answer quality while reducing response latency. We also examine the gap between modern LLMs' expanded context windows and their actual long-context processing capacity, highlighting the continued importance of effective context management. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted (B) to TACL 2026 arXiv:2601.07994 [ pdf , ps , other ] DYCP: Dynamic Context Pruning for Long-Form Dialogue with LLMs Authors: Nayoung Choi , Jonathan Zhang , Jinho D. Choi Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) often exhibit increased response latency and degraded answer quality as dialogue length grows, making effective context management essential. However, existing methods rely on extra LLM calls to build memory or perform offline memory construction without considering the current user utterance, which can introduce inefficiencies or disrupt conversational continuity. We… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) often exhibit increased response latency and degraded answer quality as dialogue length grows, making effective context management essential. However, existing methods rely on extra LLM calls to build memory or perform offline memory construction without considering the current user utterance, which can introduce inefficiencies or disrupt conversational continuity. We introduce DyCP, a lightweight context management method that dynamically segment and retrieve relevant memory at query time. It preserves the sequential structure of dialogue without predefined topic boundaries and supports efficient, adaptive context retrieval. Across three long-form dialogue benchmarks, LoCoMo, MT-Bench+, and SCM4LLMs, and multiple LLMs, DyCP consistently improves answer quality while reducing response latency. We also examine the gap between modern LLMs' expanded context windows and their actual long-context processing capacity, highlighting the continued importance of effective context management. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted (B) to TACL 2026 arXiv:2601.07903 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Enhancing Large Language Models for Time-Series Forecasting via Vector-Injected In-Context Learning Authors: Jianqi Zhang , Jingyao Wang , Wenwen Qiang , Fanjiang Xu , Changwen Zheng Abstract : The World Wide Web needs reliable predictive capabilities to respond to changes in user behavior and usage patterns. Time series forecasting (TSF) is a key means to achieve this goal. In recent years, the large language models (LLMs) for TSF (LLM4TSF) have achieved good performance. However, there is a significant difference between pretraining corpora and time series data, making it hard to guara… ▽ More The World Wide Web needs reliable predictive capabilities to respond to changes in user behavior and usage patterns. Time series forecasting (TSF) is a key means to achieve this goal. In recent years, the large language models (LLMs) for TSF (LLM4TSF) have achieved good performance. However, there is a significant difference between pretraining corpora and time series data, making it hard to guarantee forecasting quality when directly applying LLMs to TSF; fine-tuning LLMs can mitigate this issue, but often incurs substantial computational overhead. Thus, LLM4TSF faces a dual challenge of prediction performance and compute overhead. To address this, we aim to explore a method for improving the forecasting performance of LLM4TSF while freezing all LLM parameters to reduce computational overhead. Inspired by in-context learning (ICL), we propose LVICL. LVICL uses our vector-injected ICL to inject example information into a frozen LLM, eliciting its in-context learning ability and thereby enhancing its performance on the example-related task (i.e., TSF). Specifically, we first use the LLM together with a learnable context vector adapter to extract a context vector from multiple examples adaptively. This vector contains compressed, example-related information. Subsequently, during the forward pass, we inject this vector into every layer of the LLM to improve forecasting performance. Compared with conventional ICL that adds examples into the prompt, our vector-injected ICL does not increase prompt length; moreover, adaptively deriving a context vector from examples suppresses components harmful to forecasting, thereby improving model performance. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07903 [ pdf , ps , other ] Enhancing Large Language Models for Time-Series Forecasting via Vector-Injected In-Context Learning Authors: Jianqi Zhang , Jingyao Wang , Wenwen Qiang , Fanjiang Xu , Changwen Zheng Abstract : The World Wide Web needs reliable predictive capabilities to respond to changes in user behavior and usage patterns. Time series forecasting (TSF) is a key means to achieve this goal. In recent years, the large language models (LLMs) for TSF (LLM4TSF) have achieved good performance. However, there is a significant difference between pretraining corpora and time series data, making it hard to guara… ▽ More The World Wide Web needs reliable predictive capabilities to respond to changes in user behavior and usage patterns. Time series forecasting (TSF) is a key means to achieve this goal. In recent years, the large language models (LLMs) for TSF (LLM4TSF) have achieved good performance. However, there is a significant difference between pretraining corpora and time series data, making it hard to guarantee forecasting quality when directly applying LLMs to TSF; fine-tuning LLMs can mitigate this issue, but often incurs substantial computational overhead. Thus, LLM4TSF faces a dual challenge of prediction performance and compute overhead. To address this, we aim to explore a method for improving the forecasting performance of LLM4TSF while freezing all LLM parameters to reduce computational overhead. Inspired by in-context learning (ICL), we propose LVICL. LVICL uses our vector-injected ICL to inject example information into a frozen LLM, eliciting its in-context learning ability and thereby enhancing its performance on the example-related task (i.e., TSF). Specifically, we first use the LLM together with a learnable context vector adapter to extract a context vector from multiple examples adaptively. This vector contains compressed, example-related information. Subsequently, during the forward pass, we inject this vector into every layer of the LLM to improve forecasting performance. Compared with conventional ICL that adds examples into the prompt, our vector-injected ICL does not increase prompt length; moreover, adaptively deriving a context vector from examples suppresses components harmful to forecasting, thereby improving model performance. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07553 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI VirtualEnv: A Platform for Embodied AI Research Authors: Kabir Swain , Sijie Han , Ayush Raina , Jin Zhang , Shuang Li , Michael Stopa , Antonio Torralba Abstract : As large language models (LLMs) continue to improve in reasoning and decision-making, there is a growing need for realistic and interactive environments where their abilities can be rigorously evaluated. We present VirtualEnv, a next-generation simulation platform built on Unreal Engine 5 that enables fine-grained benchmarking of LLMs in embodied and interactive scenarios. VirtualEnv supports rich… ▽ More As large language models (LLMs) continue to improve in reasoning and decision-making, there is a growing need for realistic and interactive environments where their abilities can be rigorously evaluated. We present VirtualEnv, a next-generation simulation platform built on Unreal Engine 5 that enables fine-grained benchmarking of LLMs in embodied and interactive scenarios. VirtualEnv supports rich agent-environment interactions, including object manipulation, navigation, and adaptive multi-agent collaboration, as well as game-inspired mechanics like escape rooms and procedurally generated environments. We provide a user-friendly API built on top of Unreal Engine, allowing researchers to deploy and control LLM-driven agents using natural language instructions. We integrate large-scale LLMs and vision-language models (VLMs), such as GPT-based models, to generate novel environments and structured tasks from multimodal inputs. Our experiments benchmark the performance of several popular LLMs across tasks of increasing complexity, analyzing differences in adaptability, planning, and multi-agent coordination. We also describe our methodology for procedural task generation, task validation, and real-time environment control. VirtualEnv is released as an open-source platform, we aim to advance research at the intersection of AI and gaming, enable standardized evaluation of LLMs in embodied AI settings, and pave the way for future developments in immersive simulations and interactive entertainment. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07553 [ pdf , ps , other ] VirtualEnv: A Platform for Embodied AI Research Authors: Kabir Swain , Sijie Han , Ayush Raina , Jin Zhang , Shuang Li , Michael Stopa , Antonio Torralba Abstract : As large language models (LLMs) continue to improve in reasoning and decision-making, there is a growing need for realistic and interactive environments where their abilities can be rigorously evaluated. We present VirtualEnv, a next-generation simulation platform built on Unreal Engine 5 that enables fine-grained benchmarking of LLMs in embodied and interactive scenarios. VirtualEnv supports rich… ▽ More As large language models (LLMs) continue to improve in reasoning and decision-making, there is a growing need for realistic and interactive environments where their abilities can be rigorously evaluated. We present VirtualEnv, a next-generation simulation platform built on Unreal Engine 5 that enables fine-grained benchmarking of LLMs in embodied and interactive scenarios. VirtualEnv supports rich agent-environment interactions, including object manipulation, navigation, and adaptive multi-agent collaboration, as well as game-inspired mechanics like escape rooms and procedurally generated environments. We provide a user-friendly API built on top of Unreal Engine, allowing researchers to deploy and control LLM-driven agents using natural language instructions. We integrate large-scale LLMs and vision-language models (VLMs), such as GPT-based models, to generate novel environments and structured tasks from multimodal inputs. Our experiments benchmark the performance of several popular LLMs across tasks of increasing complexity, analyzing differences in adaptability, planning, and multi-agent coordination. We also describe our methodology for procedural task generation, task validation, and real-time environment control. VirtualEnv is released as an open-source platform, we aim to advance research at the intersection of AI and gaming, enable standardized evaluation of LLMs in embodied AI settings, and pave the way for future developments in immersive simulations and interactive entertainment. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07526 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.SE MegaFlow: Large-Scale Distributed Orchestration System for the Agentic Era Authors: Lei Zhang , Mouxiang Chen , Ruisheng Cao , Jiawei Chen , Fan Zhou , Yiheng Xu , Jiaxi Yang , Zeyao Ma , Liang Chen , Changwei Luo , Kai Zhang , Fan Yan , KaShun Shum , Jiajun Zhang , Zeyu Cui , Feng Hu , Junyang Lin , Binyuan Hui , Min Yang Abstract : The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effecti… ▽ More The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effectively support large-scale training and evaluation on such complex agentic tasks. To address this challenge, we present MegaFlow, a large-scale distributed orchestration system that enables efficient scheduling, resource allocation, and fine-grained task management for agent-environment workloads. MegaFlow abstracts agent training infrastructure into three independent services (Model Service, Agent Service, and Environment Service) that interact through unified interfaces, enabling independent scaling and flexible resource allocation across diverse agent-environment configurations. In our agent training deployments, MegaFlow successfully orchestrates tens of thousands of concurrent agent tasks while maintaining high system stability and achieving efficient resource utilization. By enabling such large-scale agent training, MegaFlow addresses a critical infrastructure gap in the emerging agentic AI landscape. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07526 [ pdf , ps , other ] MegaFlow: Large-Scale Distributed Orchestration System for the Agentic Era Authors: Lei Zhang , Mouxiang Chen , Ruisheng Cao , Jiawei Chen , Fan Zhou , Yiheng Xu , Jiaxi Yang , Zeyao Ma , Liang Chen , Changwei Luo , Kai Zhang , Fan Yan , KaShun Shum , Jiajun Zhang , Zeyu Cui , Feng Hu , Junyang Lin , Binyuan Hui , Min Yang Abstract : The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effecti… ▽ More The rapid development of interactive and autonomous AI systems signals our entry into the agentic era. Training and evaluating agents on complex agentic tasks such as software engineering and computer use requires not only efficient model computation but also sophisticated infrastructure capable of coordinating vast agent-environment interactions. However, no open-source infrastructure can effectively support large-scale training and evaluation on such complex agentic tasks. To address this challenge, we present MegaFlow, a large-scale distributed orchestration system that enables efficient scheduling, resource allocation, and fine-grained task management for agent-environment workloads. MegaFlow abstracts agent training infrastructure into three independent services (Model Service, Agent Service, and Environment Service) that interact through unified interfaces, enabling independent scaling and flexible resource allocation across diverse agent-environment configurations. In our agent training deployments, MegaFlow successfully orchestrates tens of thousands of concurrent agent tasks while maintaining high system stability and achieving efficient resource utilization. By enabling such large-scale agent training, MegaFlow addresses a critical infrastructure gap in the emerging agentic AI landscape. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07518 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Mon3tr: Monocular 3D Telepresence with Pre-built Gaussian Avatars as Amortization Authors: Fangyu Lin , Yingdong Hu , Zhening Liu , Yufan Zhuang , Zehong Lin , Jun Zhang Abstract : Immersive telepresence aims to transform human interaction in AR/VR applications by enabling lifelike full-body holographic representations for enhanced remote collaboration. However, existing systems rely on hardware-intensive multi-camera setups and demand high bandwidth for volumetric streaming, limiting their real-time performance on mobile devices. To overcome these challenges, we propose Mon… ▽ More Immersive telepresence aims to transform human interaction in AR/VR applications by enabling lifelike full-body holographic representations for enhanced remote collaboration. However, existing systems rely on hardware-intensive multi-camera setups and demand high bandwidth for volumetric streaming, limiting their real-time performance on mobile devices. To overcome these challenges, we propose Mon3tr, a novel Monocular 3D telepresence framework that integrates 3D Gaussian splatting (3DGS) based parametric human modeling into telepresence for the first time. Mon3tr adopts an amortized computation strategy, dividing the process into a one-time offline multi-view reconstruction phase to build a user-specific avatar and a monocular online inference phase during live telepresence sessions. A single monocular RGB camera is used to capture body motions and facial expressions in real time to drive the 3DGS-based parametric human model, significantly reducing system complexity and cost. The extracted motion and appearance features are transmitted at < 0.2 Mbps over WebRTC's data channel, allowing robust adaptation to network fluctuations. On the receiver side, e.g., Meta Quest 3, we develop a lightweight 3DGS attribute deformation network to dynamically generate corrective 3DGS attribute adjustments on the pre-built avatar, synthesizing photorealistic motion and appearance at ~ 60 FPS. Extensive experiments demonstrate the state-of-the-art performance of our method, achieving a PSNR of > 28 dB for novel poses, an end-to-end latency of ~ 80 ms, and > 1000x bandwidth reduction compared to point-cloud streaming, while supporting real-time operation from monocular inputs across diverse scenarios. Our demos can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07518 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mon3tr: Monocular 3D Telepresence with Pre-built Gaussian Avatars as Amortization Authors: Fangyu Lin , Yingdong Hu , Zhening Liu , Yufan Zhuang , Zehong Lin , Jun Zhang Abstract : Immersive telepresence aims to transform human interaction in AR/VR applications by enabling lifelike full-body holographic representations for enhanced remote collaboration. However, existing systems rely on hardware-intensive multi-camera setups and demand high bandwidth for volumetric streaming, limiting their real-time performance on mobile devices. To overcome these challenges, we propose Mon… ▽ More Immersive telepresence aims to transform human interaction in AR/VR applications by enabling lifelike full-body holographic representations for enhanced remote collaboration. However, existing systems rely on hardware-intensive multi-camera setups and demand high bandwidth for volumetric streaming, limiting their real-time performance on mobile devices. To overcome these challenges, we propose Mon3tr, a novel Monocular 3D telepresence framework that integrates 3D Gaussian splatting (3DGS) based parametric human modeling into telepresence for the first time. Mon3tr adopts an amortized computation strategy, dividing the process into a one-time offline multi-view reconstruction phase to build a user-specific avatar and a monocular online inference phase during live telepresence sessions. A single monocular RGB camera is used to capture body motions and facial expressions in real time to drive the 3DGS-based parametric human model, significantly reducing system complexity and cost. The extracted motion and appearance features are transmitted at < 0.2 Mbps over WebRTC's data channel, allowing robust adaptation to network fluctuations. On the receiver side, e.g., Meta Quest 3, we develop a lightweight 3DGS attribute deformation network to dynamically generate corrective 3DGS attribute adjustments on the pre-built avatar, synthesizing photorealistic motion and appearance at ~ 60 FPS. Extensive experiments demonstrate the state-of-the-art performance of our method, achieving a PSNR of > 28 dB for novel poses, an end-to-end latency of ~ 80 ms, and > 1000x bandwidth reduction compared to point-cloud streaming, while supporting real-time operation from monocular inputs across diverse scenarios. Our demos can be found at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07463 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Puzzle it Out: Local-to-Global World Model for Offline Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Authors: Sijia li , Xinran Li , Shibo Chen , Jun Zhang Abstract : Offline multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) aims to solve cooperative decision-making problems in multi-agent systems using pre-collected datasets. Existing offline MARL methods primarily constrain training within the dataset distribution, resulting in overly conservative policies that struggle to generalize beyond the support of the data. While model-based approaches offer a promising solut… ▽ More Offline multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) aims to solve cooperative decision-making problems in multi-agent systems using pre-collected datasets. Existing offline MARL methods primarily constrain training within the dataset distribution, resulting in overly conservative policies that struggle to generalize beyond the support of the data. While model-based approaches offer a promising solution by expanding the original dataset with synthetic data generated from a learned world model, the high dimensionality, non-stationarity, and complexity of multi-agent systems make it challenging to accurately estimate the transitions and reward functions in offline MARL. Given the difficulty of directly modeling joint dynamics, we propose a local-to-global (LOGO) world model, a novel framework that leverages local predictions-which are easier to estimate-to infer global state dynamics, thus improving prediction accuracy while implicitly capturing agent-wise dependencies. Using the trained world model, we generate synthetic data to augment the original dataset, expanding the effective state-action space. To ensure reliable policy learning, we further introduce an uncertainty-aware sampling mechanism that adaptively weights synthetic data by prediction uncertainty, reducing approximation error propagation to policies. In contrast to conventional ensemble-based methods, our approach requires only an additional encoder for uncertainty estimation, significantly reducing computational overhead while maintaining accuracy. Extensive experiments across 8 scenarios against 8 baselines demonstrate that our method surpasses state-of-the-art baselines on standard offline MARL benchmarks, establishing a new model-based baseline for generalizable offline multi-agent learning. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07463 [ pdf , ps , other ] Puzzle it Out: Local-to-Global World Model for Offline Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Authors: Sijia li , Xinran Li , Shibo Chen , Jun Zhang Abstract : Offline multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) aims to solve cooperative decision-making problems in multi-agent systems using pre-collected datasets. Existing offline MARL methods primarily constrain training within the dataset distribution, resulting in overly conservative policies that struggle to generalize beyond the support of the data. While model-based approaches offer a promising solut… ▽ More Offline multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) aims to solve cooperative decision-making problems in multi-agent systems using pre-collected datasets. Existing offline MARL methods primarily constrain training within the dataset distribution, resulting in overly conservative policies that struggle to generalize beyond the support of the data. While model-based approaches offer a promising solution by expanding the original dataset with synthetic data generated from a learned world model, the high dimensionality, non-stationarity, and complexity of multi-agent systems make it challenging to accurately estimate the transitions and reward functions in offline MARL. Given the difficulty of directly modeling joint dynamics, we propose a local-to-global (LOGO) world model, a novel framework that leverages local predictions-which are easier to estimate-to infer global state dynamics, thus improving prediction accuracy while implicitly capturing agent-wise dependencies. Using the trained world model, we generate synthetic data to augment the original dataset, expanding the effective state-action space. To ensure reliable policy learning, we further introduce an uncertainty-aware sampling mechanism that adaptively weights synthetic data by prediction uncertainty, reducing approximation error propagation to policies. In contrast to conventional ensemble-based methods, our approach requires only an additional encoder for uncertainty estimation, significantly reducing computational overhead while maintaining accuracy. Extensive experiments across 8 scenarios against 8 baselines demonstrate that our method surpasses state-of-the-art baselines on standard offline MARL benchmarks, establishing a new model-based baseline for generalizable offline multi-agent learning. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07413 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.MA The Practicality of Normalizing Flow Test-Time Training in Bayesian Inference for Agent-Based Models Authors: Junyao Zhang , Jinglai Li , Junqi Tang Abstract : Agent-Based Models (ABMs) are gaining great popularity in economics and social science because of their strong flexibility to describe the realistic and heterogeneous decisions and interaction rules between individual agents. In this work, we investigate for the first time the practicality of test-time training (TTT) of deep models such as normalizing flows, in the parameters posterior estimations… ▽ More Agent-Based Models (ABMs) are gaining great popularity in economics and social science because of their strong flexibility to describe the realistic and heterogeneous decisions and interaction rules between individual agents. In this work, we investigate for the first time the practicality of test-time training (TTT) of deep models such as normalizing flows, in the parameters posterior estimations of ABMs. We propose several practical TTT strategies for fine-tuning the normalizing flow against distribution shifts. Our numerical study demonstrates that TTT schemes are remarkably effective, enabling real-time adjustment of flow-based inference for ABM parameters. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07413 [ pdf , ps , other ] The Practicality of Normalizing Flow Test-Time Training in Bayesian Inference for Agent-Based Models Authors: Junyao Zhang , Jinglai Li , Junqi Tang Abstract : Agent-Based Models (ABMs) are gaining great popularity in economics and social science because of their strong flexibility to describe the realistic and heterogeneous decisions and interaction rules between individual agents. In this work, we investigate for the first time the practicality of test-time training (TTT) of deep models such as normalizing flows, in the parameters posterior estimations… ▽ More Agent-Based Models (ABMs) are gaining great popularity in economics and social science because of their strong flexibility to describe the realistic and heterogeneous decisions and interaction rules between individual agents. In this work, we investigate for the first time the practicality of test-time training (TTT) of deep models such as normalizing flows, in the parameters posterior estimations of ABMs. We propose several practical TTT strategies for fine-tuning the normalizing flow against distribution shifts. Our numerical study demonstrates that TTT schemes are remarkably effective, enabling real-time adjustment of flow-based inference for ABM parameters. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07351 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Beyond Hard Masks: Progressive Token Evolution for Diffusion Language Models Authors: Linhao Zhong , Linyu Wu , Bozhen Fang , Tianjian Feng , Chenchen Jing , Wen Wang , Jiaheng Zhang , Hao Chen , Chunhua Shen Abstract : Diffusion Language Models (DLMs) offer a promising alternative for language modeling by enabling parallel decoding through iterative refinement. However, most DLMs rely on hard binary masking and discrete token assignments, which hinder the revision of early decisions and underutilize intermediate probabilistic representations. In this paper, we propose EvoToken-DLM, a novel diffusion-based langua… ▽ More Diffusion Language Models (DLMs) offer a promising alternative for language modeling by enabling parallel decoding through iterative refinement. However, most DLMs rely on hard binary masking and discrete token assignments, which hinder the revision of early decisions and underutilize intermediate probabilistic representations. In this paper, we propose EvoToken-DLM, a novel diffusion-based language modeling approach that replaces hard binary masks with evolving soft token distributions. EvoToken-DLM enables a progressive transition from masked states to discrete outputs, supporting revisable decoding. To effectively support this evolution, we introduce continuous trajectory supervision, which aligns training objectives with iterative probabilistic updates. Extensive experiments across multiple benchmarks show that EvoToken-DLM consistently achieves superior performance, outperforming strong diffusion-based and masked DLM baselines. Project webpage: △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project webpage: arXiv:2601.07351 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Hard Masks: Progressive Token Evolution for Diffusion Language Models Authors: Linhao Zhong , Linyu Wu , Bozhen Fang , Tianjian Feng , Chenchen Jing , Wen Wang , Jiaheng Zhang , Hao Chen , Chunhua Shen Abstract : Diffusion Language Models (DLMs) offer a promising alternative for language modeling by enabling parallel decoding through iterative refinement. However, most DLMs rely on hard binary masking and discrete token assignments, which hinder the revision of early decisions and underutilize intermediate probabilistic representations. In this paper, we propose EvoToken-DLM, a novel diffusion-based langua… ▽ More Diffusion Language Models (DLMs) offer a promising alternative for language modeling by enabling parallel decoding through iterative refinement. However, most DLMs rely on hard binary masking and discrete token assignments, which hinder the revision of early decisions and underutilize intermediate probabilistic representations. In this paper, we propose EvoToken-DLM, a novel diffusion-based language modeling approach that replaces hard binary masks with evolving soft token distributions. EvoToken-DLM enables a progressive transition from masked states to discrete outputs, supporting revisable decoding. To effectively support this evolution, we introduce continuous trajectory supervision, which aligns training objectives with iterative probabilistic updates. Extensive experiments across multiple benchmarks show that EvoToken-DLM consistently achieves superior performance, outperforming strong diffusion-based and masked DLM baselines. Project webpage: △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project webpage: arXiv:2601.07280 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL ReasonTabQA: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Table Question Answering from Real World Industrial Scenarios Authors: Changzai Pan , Jie Zhang , Kaiwen Wei , Chenshuo Pan , Yu Zhao , Jingwang Huang , Jian Yang , Zhenhe Wu , Haoyang Zeng , Xiaoyan Gu , Weichao Sun , Yanbo Zhai , Yujie Mao , Zhuoru Jiang , Jiang Zhong , Shuangyong Song , Yongxiang Li , Zhongjiang He Abstract : Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a… ▽ More Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a significant challenge that remains inadequately addressed by current methodologies. To bridge this gap, we present ReasonTabQA, a large-scale bilingual benchmark encompassing 1,932 tables across 30 industry domains such as energy and automotive. ReasonTabQA provides high-quality annotations for both final answers and explicit reasoning chains, supporting both thinking and no-thinking paradigms. Furthermore, we introduce TabCodeRL, a reinforcement learning method that leverages table-aware verifiable rewards to guide the generation of logical reasoning paths. Extensive experiments on ReasonTabQA and 4 TableQA datasets demonstrate that while TabCodeRL yields substantial performance gains on open-source LLMs, the persistent performance gap on ReasonTabQA underscores the inherent complexity of real-world industrial TableQA. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07280 [ pdf , ps , other ] ReasonTabQA: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Table Question Answering from Real World Industrial Scenarios Authors: Changzai Pan , Jie Zhang , Kaiwen Wei , Chenshuo Pan , Yu Zhao , Jingwang Huang , Jian Yang , Zhenhe Wu , Haoyang Zeng , Xiaoyan Gu , Weichao Sun , Yanbo Zhai , Yujie Mao , Zhuoru Jiang , Jiang Zhong , Shuangyong Song , Yongxiang Li , Zhongjiang He Abstract : Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a… ▽ More Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly catalyzed table-based question answering (TableQA). However, existing TableQA benchmarks often overlook the intricacies of industrial scenarios, which are characterized by multi-table structures, nested headers, and massive scales. These environments demand robust table reasoning through deep structured inference, presenting a significant challenge that remains inadequately addressed by current methodologies. To bridge this gap, we present ReasonTabQA, a large-scale bilingual benchmark encompassing 1,932 tables across 30 industry domains such as energy and automotive. ReasonTabQA provides high-quality annotations for both final answers and explicit reasoning chains, supporting both thinking and no-thinking paradigms. Furthermore, we introduce TabCodeRL, a reinforcement learning method that leverages table-aware verifiable rewards to guide the generation of logical reasoning paths. Extensive experiments on ReasonTabQA and 4 TableQA datasets demonstrate that while TabCodeRL yields substantial performance gains on open-source LLMs, the persistent performance gap on ReasonTabQA underscores the inherent complexity of real-world industrial TableQA. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06903 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC Divergence-Based Adaptive Aggregation for Byzantine Robust Federated Learning Authors: Bingnan Xiao , Feng Zhu , Jingjing Zhang , Wei Ni , Xin Wang Abstract : Inherent client drifts caused by data heterogeneity, as well as vulnerability to Byzantine attacks within the system, hinder effective model training and convergence in federated learning (FL). This paper presents two new frameworks, named DiveRgence-based Adaptive aGgregation (DRAG) and Byzantine-Resilient DRAG (BR-DRAG), to mitigate client drifts and resist attacks while expediting training. DRA… ▽ More Inherent client drifts caused by data heterogeneity, as well as vulnerability to Byzantine attacks within the system, hinder effective model training and convergence in federated learning (FL). This paper presents two new frameworks, named DiveRgence-based Adaptive aGgregation (DRAG) and Byzantine-Resilient DRAG (BR-DRAG), to mitigate client drifts and resist attacks while expediting training. DRAG designs a reference direction and a metric named divergence of degree to quantify the deviation of local updates. Accordingly, each worker can align its local update via linear calibration without extra communication cost. BR-DRAG refines DRAG under Byzantine attacks by maintaining a vetted root dataset at the server to produce trusted reference directions. The workers' updates can be then calibrated to mitigate divergence caused by malicious attacks. We analytically prove that DRAG and BR-DRAG achieve fast convergence for non-convex models under partial worker participation, data heterogeneity, and Byzantine attacks. Experiments validate the effectiveness of DRAG and its superior performance over state-of-the-art methods in handling client drifts, and highlight the robustness of BR-DRAG in maintaining resilience against data heterogeneity and diverse Byzantine attacks. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 17 figures arXiv:2601.06903 [ pdf , ps , other ] Divergence-Based Adaptive Aggregation for Byzantine Robust Federated Learning Authors: Bingnan Xiao , Feng Zhu , Jingjing Zhang , Wei Ni , Xin Wang Abstract : Inherent client drifts caused by data heterogeneity, as well as vulnerability to Byzantine attacks within the system, hinder effective model training and convergence in federated learning (FL). This paper presents two new frameworks, named DiveRgence-based Adaptive aGgregation (DRAG) and Byzantine-Resilient DRAG (BR-DRAG), to mitigate client drifts and resist attacks while expediting training. DRA… ▽ More Inherent client drifts caused by data heterogeneity, as well as vulnerability to Byzantine attacks within the system, hinder effective model training and convergence in federated learning (FL). This paper presents two new frameworks, named DiveRgence-based Adaptive aGgregation (DRAG) and Byzantine-Resilient DRAG (BR-DRAG), to mitigate client drifts and resist attacks while expediting training. DRAG designs a reference direction and a metric named divergence of degree to quantify the deviation of local updates. Accordingly, each worker can align its local update via linear calibration without extra communication cost. BR-DRAG refines DRAG under Byzantine attacks by maintaining a vetted root dataset at the server to produce trusted reference directions. The workers' updates can be then calibrated to mitigate divergence caused by malicious attacks. We analytically prove that DRAG and BR-DRAG achieve fast convergence for non-convex models under partial worker participation, data heterogeneity, and Byzantine attacks. Experiments validate the effectiveness of DRAG and its superior performance over state-of-the-art methods in handling client drifts, and highlight the robustness of BR-DRAG in maintaining resilience against data heterogeneity and diverse Byzantine attacks. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 13 pages, 17 figures arXiv:2601.06843 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.CL Speak While Watching: Unleashing TRUE Real-Time Video Understanding Capability of Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Junyan Lin , Junlong Tong , Hao Wu , Jialiang Zhang , Jinming Liu , Xin Jin , Xiaoyu Shen Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved strong performance across many tasks, yet most systems remain limited to offline inference, requiring complete inputs before generating outputs. Recent streaming methods reduce latency by interleaving perception and generation, but still enforce a sequential perception-generation cycle, limiting real-time interaction. In this work, we target a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved strong performance across many tasks, yet most systems remain limited to offline inference, requiring complete inputs before generating outputs. Recent streaming methods reduce latency by interleaving perception and generation, but still enforce a sequential perception-generation cycle, limiting real-time interaction. In this work, we target a fundamental bottleneck that arises when extending MLLMs to real-time video understanding: the global positional continuity constraint imposed by standard positional encoding schemes. While natural in offline inference, this constraint tightly couples perception and generation, preventing effective input-output parallelism. To address this limitation, we propose a parallel streaming framework that relaxes positional continuity through three designs: Overlapped, Group-Decoupled, and Gap-Isolated. These designs enable simultaneous perception and generation, allowing the model to process incoming inputs while producing responses in real time. Extensive experiments reveal that Group-Decoupled achieves the best efficiency-performance balance, maintaining high fluency and accuracy while significantly reducing latency. We further show that the proposed framework yields up to 2x acceleration under balanced perception-generation workloads, establishing a principled pathway toward speak-while-watching real-time systems. We make all our code publicly available: △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06843 [ pdf , ps , other ] Speak While Watching: Unleashing TRUE Real-Time Video Understanding Capability of Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Junyan Lin , Junlong Tong , Hao Wu , Jialiang Zhang , Jinming Liu , Xin Jin , Xiaoyu Shen Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved strong performance across many tasks, yet most systems remain limited to offline inference, requiring complete inputs before generating outputs. Recent streaming methods reduce latency by interleaving perception and generation, but still enforce a sequential perception-generation cycle, limiting real-time interaction. In this work, we target a… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved strong performance across many tasks, yet most systems remain limited to offline inference, requiring complete inputs before generating outputs. Recent streaming methods reduce latency by interleaving perception and generation, but still enforce a sequential perception-generation cycle, limiting real-time interaction. In this work, we target a fundamental bottleneck that arises when extending MLLMs to real-time video understanding: the global positional continuity constraint imposed by standard positional encoding schemes. While natural in offline inference, this constraint tightly couples perception and generation, preventing effective input-output parallelism. To address this limitation, we propose a parallel streaming framework that relaxes positional continuity through three designs: Overlapped, Group-Decoupled, and Gap-Isolated. These designs enable simultaneous perception and generation, allowing the model to process incoming inputs while producing responses in real time. Extensive experiments reveal that Group-Decoupled achieves the best efficiency-performance balance, maintaining high fluency and accuracy while significantly reducing latency. We further show that the proposed framework yields up to 2x acceleration under balanced perception-generation workloads, establishing a principled pathway toward speak-while-watching real-time systems. We make all our code publicly available: △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06806 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.RO SpatialNav: Leveraging Spatial Scene Graphs for Zero-Shot Vision-and-Language Navigation Authors: Jiwen Zhang , Zejun Li , Siyuan Wang , Xiangyu Shi , Zhongyu Wei , Qi Wu Abstract : Although learning-based vision-and-language navigation (VLN) agents can learn spatial knowledge implicitly from large-scale training data, zero-shot VLN agents lack this process, relying primarily on local observations for navigation, which leads to inefficient exploration and a significant performance gap. To deal with the problem, we consider a zero-shot VLN setting that agents are allowed to fu… ▽ More Although learning-based vision-and-language navigation (VLN) agents can learn spatial knowledge implicitly from large-scale training data, zero-shot VLN agents lack this process, relying primarily on local observations for navigation, which leads to inefficient exploration and a significant performance gap. To deal with the problem, we consider a zero-shot VLN setting that agents are allowed to fully explore the environment before task execution. Then, we construct the Spatial Scene Graph (SSG) to explicitly capture global spatial structure and semantics in the explored environment. Based on the SSG, we introduce SpatialNav, a zero-shot VLN agent that integrates an agent-centric spatial map, a compass-aligned visual representation, and a remote object localization strategy for efficient navigation. Comprehensive experiments in both discrete and continuous environments demonstrate that SpatialNav significantly outperforms existing zero-shot agents and clearly narrows the gap with state-of-the-art learning-based methods. Such results highlight the importance of global spatial representations for generalizable navigation. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages, 4 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.06806 [ pdf , ps , other ] SpatialNav: Leveraging Spatial Scene Graphs for Zero-Shot Vision-and-Language Navigation Authors: Jiwen Zhang , Zejun Li , Siyuan Wang , Xiangyu Shi , Zhongyu Wei , Qi Wu Abstract : Although learning-based vision-and-language navigation (VLN) agents can learn spatial knowledge implicitly from large-scale training data, zero-shot VLN agents lack this process, relying primarily on local observations for navigation, which leads to inefficient exploration and a significant performance gap. To deal with the problem, we consider a zero-shot VLN setting that agents are allowed to fu… ▽ More Although learning-based vision-and-language navigation (VLN) agents can learn spatial knowledge implicitly from large-scale training data, zero-shot VLN agents lack this process, relying primarily on local observations for navigation, which leads to inefficient exploration and a significant performance gap. To deal with the problem, we consider a zero-shot VLN setting that agents are allowed to fully explore the environment before task execution. Then, we construct the Spatial Scene Graph (SSG) to explicitly capture global spatial structure and semantics in the explored environment. Based on the SSG, we introduce SpatialNav, a zero-shot VLN agent that integrates an agent-centric spatial map, a compass-aligned visual representation, and a remote object localization strategy for efficient navigation. Comprehensive experiments in both discrete and continuous environments demonstrate that SpatialNav significantly outperforms existing zero-shot agents and clearly narrows the gap with state-of-the-art learning-based methods. Such results highlight the importance of global spatial representations for generalizable navigation. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages, 4 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.06803 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.CV Forest Before Trees: Latent Superposition for Efficient Visual Reasoning Authors: Yubo Wang , Juntian Zhang , Yichen Wu , Yankai Lin , Nils Lukas , Yuhan Liu Abstract : While Chain-of-Thought empowers Large Vision-Language Models with multi-step reasoning, explicit textual rationales suffer from an information bandwidth bottleneck, where continuous visual details are discarded during discrete tokenization. Recent latent reasoning methods attempt to address this challenge, but often fall prey to premature semantic collapse due to rigid autoregressive objectives. I… ▽ More While Chain-of-Thought empowers Large Vision-Language Models with multi-step reasoning, explicit textual rationales suffer from an information bandwidth bottleneck, where continuous visual details are discarded during discrete tokenization. Recent latent reasoning methods attempt to address this challenge, but often fall prey to premature semantic collapse due to rigid autoregressive objectives. In this paper, we propose Laser, a novel paradigm that reformulates visual deduction via Dynamic Windowed Alignment Learning (DWAL). Instead of forcing a point-wise prediction, Laser aligns the latent state with a dynamic validity window of future semantics. This mechanism enforces a "Forest-before-Trees" cognitive hierarchy, enabling the model to maintain a probabilistic superposition of global features before narrowing down to local details. Crucially, Laser maintains interpretability via decodable trajectories while stabilizing unconstrained learning via Self-Refined Superposition. Extensive experiments on 6 benchmarks demonstrate that Laser achieves state-of-the-art performance among latent reasoning methods, surpassing the strong baseline Monet by 5.03% on average. Notably, it achieves these gains with extreme efficiency, reducing inference tokens by more than 97%, while demonstrating robust generalization to out-of-distribution domains. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06803 [ pdf , ps , other ] Forest Before Trees: Latent Superposition for Efficient Visual Reasoning Authors: Yubo Wang , Juntian Zhang , Yichen Wu , Yankai Lin , Nils Lukas , Yuhan Liu Abstract : While Chain-of-Thought empowers Large Vision-Language Models with multi-step reasoning, explicit textual rationales suffer from an information bandwidth bottleneck, where continuous visual details are discarded during discrete tokenization. Recent latent reasoning methods attempt to address this challenge, but often fall prey to premature semantic collapse due to rigid autoregressive objectives. I… ▽ More While Chain-of-Thought empowers Large Vision-Language Models with multi-step reasoning, explicit textual rationales suffer from an information bandwidth bottleneck, where continuous visual details are discarded during discrete tokenization. Recent latent reasoning methods attempt to address this challenge, but often fall prey to premature semantic collapse due to rigid autoregressive objectives. In this paper, we propose Laser, a novel paradigm that reformulates visual deduction via Dynamic Windowed Alignment Learning (DWAL). Instead of forcing a point-wise prediction, Laser aligns the latent state with a dynamic validity window of future semantics. This mechanism enforces a "Forest-before-Trees" cognitive hierarchy, enabling the model to maintain a probabilistic superposition of global features before narrowing down to local details. Crucially, Laser maintains interpretability via decodable trajectories while stabilizing unconstrained learning via Self-Refined Superposition. Extensive experiments on 6 benchmarks demonstrate that Laser achieves state-of-the-art performance among latent reasoning methods, surpassing the strong baseline Monet by 5.03% on average. Notably, it achieves these gains with extreme efficiency, reducing inference tokens by more than 97%, while demonstrating robust generalization to out-of-distribution domains. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06707 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Evaluating Accounting Reasoning Capabilities of Large Language Models Authors: Jie Zhou , Xin Chen , Jie Zhang , Hai Li , Jie Wang , Zhe Li Abstract : Large language models are transforming learning, cognition, and research across many fields. Effectively integrating them into professional domains, such as accounting, is a key challenge for enterprise digital transformation. To address this, we define vertical domain accounting reasoning and propose evaluation criteria derived from an analysis of the training data characteristics of representati… ▽ More Large language models are transforming learning, cognition, and research across many fields. Effectively integrating them into professional domains, such as accounting, is a key challenge for enterprise digital transformation. To address this, we define vertical domain accounting reasoning and propose evaluation criteria derived from an analysis of the training data characteristics of representative GLM models. These criteria support systematic study of accounting reasoning and provide benchmarks for performance improvement. Using this framework, we evaluate GLM-6B, GLM-130B, GLM-4, and OpenAI GPT-4 on accounting reasoning tasks. Results show that prompt design significantly affects performance, with GPT-4 demonstrating the strongest capability. Despite these gains, current models remain insufficient for real-world enterprise accounting, indicating the need for further optimization to unlock their full practical value. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06707 [ pdf , ps , other ] Evaluating Accounting Reasoning Capabilities of Large Language Models Authors: Jie Zhou , Xin Chen , Jie Zhang , Hai Li , Jie Wang , Zhe Li Abstract : Large language models are transforming learning, cognition, and research across many fields. Effectively integrating them into professional domains, such as accounting, is a key challenge for enterprise digital transformation. To address this, we define vertical domain accounting reasoning and propose evaluation criteria derived from an analysis of the training data characteristics of representati… ▽ More Large language models are transforming learning, cognition, and research across many fields. Effectively integrating them into professional domains, such as accounting, is a key challenge for enterprise digital transformation. To address this, we define vertical domain accounting reasoning and propose evaluation criteria derived from an analysis of the training data characteristics of representative GLM models. These criteria support systematic study of accounting reasoning and provide benchmarks for performance improvement. Using this framework, we evaluate GLM-6B, GLM-130B, GLM-4, and OpenAI GPT-4 on accounting reasoning tasks. Results show that prompt design significantly affects performance, with GPT-4 demonstrating the strongest capability. Despite these gains, current models remain insufficient for real-world enterprise accounting, indicating the need for further optimization to unlock their full practical value. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06642 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Boosting Overlapping Organoid Instance Segmentation Using Pseudo-Label Unmixing and Synthesis-Assisted Learning Authors: Gui Huang , Kangyuan Zheng , Xuan Cai , Jiaqi Wang , Jianjia Zhang , Kaida Ning , Wenbo Wei , Yujuan Zhu , Jiong Zhang , Mengting Liu Abstract : Organoids, sophisticated in vitro models of human tissues, are crucial for medical research due to their ability to simulate organ functions and assess drug responses accurately. Accurate organoid instance segmentation is critical for quantifying their dynamic behaviors, yet remains profoundly limited by high-quality annotated datasets and pervasive overlap in microscopy imaging. While semi-superv… ▽ More Organoids, sophisticated in vitro models of human tissues, are crucial for medical research due to their ability to simulate organ functions and assess drug responses accurately. Accurate organoid instance segmentation is critical for quantifying their dynamic behaviors, yet remains profoundly limited by high-quality annotated datasets and pervasive overlap in microscopy imaging. While semi-supervised learning (SSL) offers a solution to alleviate reliance on scarce labeled data, conventional SSL frameworks suffer from biases induced by noisy pseudo-labels, particularly in overlapping regions. Synthesis-assisted SSL (SA-SSL) has been proposed for mitigating training biases in semi-supervised semantic segmentation. We present the first adaptation of SA-SSL to organoid instance segmentation and reveal that SA-SSL struggles to disentangle intertwined organoids, often misrepresenting overlapping instances as a single entity. To overcome this, we propose Pseudo-Label Unmixing (PLU), which identifies erroneous pseudo-labels for overlapping instances and then regenerates organoid labels through instance decomposition. For image synthesis, we apply a contour-based approach to synthesize organoid instances efficiently, particularly for overlapping cases. Instance-level augmentations (IA) on pseudo-labels before image synthesis further enhances the effect of synthetic data (SD). Rigorous experiments on two organoid datasets demonstrate our method's effectiveness, achieving performance comparable to fully supervised models using only 10% labeled data, and state-of-the-art results. Ablation studies validate the contributions of PLU, contour-based synthesis, and augmentation-aware training. By addressing overlap at both pseudo-label and synthesis levels, our work advances scalable, label-efficient organoid analysis, unlocking new potential for high-throughput applications in precision medicine. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06642 [ pdf , ps , other ] Boosting Overlapping Organoid Instance Segmentation Using Pseudo-Label Unmixing and Synthesis-Assisted Learning Authors: Gui Huang , Kangyuan Zheng , Xuan Cai , Jiaqi Wang , Jianjia Zhang , Kaida Ning , Wenbo Wei , Yujuan Zhu , Jiong Zhang , Mengting Liu Abstract : Organoids, sophisticated in vitro models of human tissues, are crucial for medical research due to their ability to simulate organ functions and assess drug responses accurately. Accurate organoid instance segmentation is critical for quantifying their dynamic behaviors, yet remains profoundly limited by high-quality annotated datasets and pervasive overlap in microscopy imaging. While semi-superv… ▽ More Organoids, sophisticated in vitro models of human tissues, are crucial for medical research due to their ability to simulate organ functions and assess drug responses accurately. Accurate organoid instance segmentation is critical for quantifying their dynamic behaviors, yet remains profoundly limited by high-quality annotated datasets and pervasive overlap in microscopy imaging. While semi-supervised learning (SSL) offers a solution to alleviate reliance on scarce labeled data, conventional SSL frameworks suffer from biases induced by noisy pseudo-labels, particularly in overlapping regions. Synthesis-assisted SSL (SA-SSL) has been proposed for mitigating training biases in semi-supervised semantic segmentation. We present the first adaptation of SA-SSL to organoid instance segmentation and reveal that SA-SSL struggles to disentangle intertwined organoids, often misrepresenting overlapping instances as a single entity. To overcome this, we propose Pseudo-Label Unmixing (PLU), which identifies erroneous pseudo-labels for overlapping instances and then regenerates organoid labels through instance decomposition. For image synthesis, we apply a contour-based approach to synthesize organoid instances efficiently, particularly for overlapping cases. Instance-level augmentations (IA) on pseudo-labels before image synthesis further enhances the effect of synthetic data (SD). Rigorous experiments on two organoid datasets demonstrate our method's effectiveness, achieving performance comparable to fully supervised models using only 10% labeled data, and state-of-the-art results. Ablation studies validate the contributions of PLU, contour-based synthesis, and augmentation-aware training. By addressing overlap at both pseudo-label and synthesis levels, our work advances scalable, label-efficient organoid analysis, unlocking new potential for high-throughput applications in precision medicine. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06562 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG Mosaic: Unlocking Long-Context Inference for Diffusion LLMs via Global Memory Planning and Dynamic Peak Taming Authors: Liang Zheng , Bowen Shi , Yitao Hu , Jiawei Zhang , Ruofan Li , Sheng Chen , Wenxin Li , Keqiu Li Abstract : Diffusion-based large language models (dLLMs) have emerged as a promising paradigm, utilizing simultaneous denoising to enable global planning and iterative refinement. While these capabilities are particularly advantageous for long-context generation, deploying such models faces a prohibitive memory capacity barrier stemming from severe system inefficiencies. We identify that existing inference s… ▽ More Diffusion-based large language models (dLLMs) have emerged as a promising paradigm, utilizing simultaneous denoising to enable global planning and iterative refinement. While these capabilities are particularly advantageous for long-context generation, deploying such models faces a prohibitive memory capacity barrier stemming from severe system inefficiencies. We identify that existing inference systems are ill-suited for this paradigm: unlike autoregressive models constrained by the cumulative KV-cache, dLLMs are bottlenecked by transient activations recomputed at every step. Furthermore, general-purpose memory reuse mechanisms lack the global visibility to adapt to dLLMs' dynamic memory peaks, which toggle between logits and FFNs. To address these mismatches, we propose Mosaic, a memory-efficient inference system that shifts from local, static management to a global, dynamic paradigm. Mosaic integrates a mask-only logits kernel to eliminate redundancy, a lazy chunking optimizer driven by an online heuristic search to adaptively mitigate dynamic peaks, and a global memory manager to resolve fragmentation via virtual addressing. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that Mosaic achieves an average 2.71$\times$ reduction in the memory peak-to-average ratio and increases the maximum inference sequence length supportable on identical hardware by 15.89-32.98$\times$. This scalability is achieved without compromising accuracy and speed, and in fact reducing latency by 4.12%-23.26%. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages, 18 figures arXiv:2601.06562 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mosaic: Unlocking Long-Context Inference for Diffusion LLMs via Global Memory Planning and Dynamic Peak Taming Authors: Liang Zheng , Bowen Shi , Yitao Hu , Jiawei Zhang , Ruofan Li , Sheng Chen , Wenxin Li , Keqiu Li Abstract : Diffusion-based large language models (dLLMs) have emerged as a promising paradigm, utilizing simultaneous denoising to enable global planning and iterative refinement. While these capabilities are particularly advantageous for long-context generation, deploying such models faces a prohibitive memory capacity barrier stemming from severe system inefficiencies. We identify that existing inference s… ▽ More Diffusion-based large language models (dLLMs) have emerged as a promising paradigm, utilizing simultaneous denoising to enable global planning and iterative refinement. While these capabilities are particularly advantageous for long-context generation, deploying such models faces a prohibitive memory capacity barrier stemming from severe system inefficiencies. We identify that existing inference systems are ill-suited for this paradigm: unlike autoregressive models constrained by the cumulative KV-cache, dLLMs are bottlenecked by transient activations recomputed at every step. Furthermore, general-purpose memory reuse mechanisms lack the global visibility to adapt to dLLMs' dynamic memory peaks, which toggle between logits and FFNs. To address these mismatches, we propose Mosaic, a memory-efficient inference system that shifts from local, static management to a global, dynamic paradigm. Mosaic integrates a mask-only logits kernel to eliminate redundancy, a lazy chunking optimizer driven by an online heuristic search to adaptively mitigate dynamic peaks, and a global memory manager to resolve fragmentation via virtual addressing. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that Mosaic achieves an average 2.71$\times$ reduction in the memory peak-to-average ratio and increases the maximum inference sequence length supportable on identical hardware by 15.89-32.98$\times$. This scalability is achieved without compromising accuracy and speed, and in fact reducing latency by 4.12%-23.26%. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 11 pages, 18 figures arXiv:2601.06479 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SRFlow: A Dataset and Regularization Model for High-Resolution Facial Optical Flow via Splatting Rasterization Authors: JiaLin Zhang , Dong Li Abstract : Facial optical flow supports a wide range of tasks in facial motion analysis. However, the lack of high-resolution facial optical flow datasets has hindered progress in this area. In this paper, we introduce Splatting Rasterization Flow (SRFlow), a high-resolution facial optical flow dataset, and Splatting Rasterization Guided FlowNet (SRFlowNet), a facial optical flow model with tailored regulari… ▽ More Facial optical flow supports a wide range of tasks in facial motion analysis. However, the lack of high-resolution facial optical flow datasets has hindered progress in this area. In this paper, we introduce Splatting Rasterization Flow (SRFlow), a high-resolution facial optical flow dataset, and Splatting Rasterization Guided FlowNet (SRFlowNet), a facial optical flow model with tailored regularization losses. These losses constrain flow predictions using masks and gradients computed via difference or Sobel operator. This effectively suppresses high-frequency noise and large-scale errors in texture-less or repetitive-pattern regions, enabling SRFlowNet to be the first model explicitly capable of capturing high-resolution skin motion guided by Gaussian splatting rasterization. Experiments show that training with the SRFlow dataset improves facial optical flow estimation across various optical flow models, reducing end-point error (EPE) by up to 42% (from 0.5081 to 0.2953). Furthermore, when coupled with the SRFlow dataset, SRFlowNet achieves up to a 48% improvement in F1-score (from 0.4733 to 0.6947) on a composite of three micro-expression datasets. These results demonstrate the value of advancing both facial optical flow estimation and micro-expression recognition. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06479 [ pdf , ps , other ] SRFlow: A Dataset and Regularization Model for High-Resolution Facial Optical Flow via Splatting Rasterization Authors: JiaLin Zhang , Dong Li Abstract : Facial optical flow supports a wide range of tasks in facial motion analysis. However, the lack of high-resolution facial optical flow datasets has hindered progress in this area. In this paper, we introduce Splatting Rasterization Flow (SRFlow), a high-resolution facial optical flow dataset, and Splatting Rasterization Guided FlowNet (SRFlowNet), a facial optical flow model with tailored regulari… ▽ More Facial optical flow supports a wide range of tasks in facial motion analysis. However, the lack of high-resolution facial optical flow datasets has hindered progress in this area. In this paper, we introduce Splatting Rasterization Flow (SRFlow), a high-resolution facial optical flow dataset, and Splatting Rasterization Guided FlowNet (SRFlowNet), a facial optical flow model with tailored regularization losses. These losses constrain flow predictions using masks and gradients computed via difference or Sobel operator. This effectively suppresses high-frequency noise and large-scale errors in texture-less or repetitive-pattern regions, enabling SRFlowNet to be the first model explicitly capable of capturing high-resolution skin motion guided by Gaussian splatting rasterization. Experiments show that training with the SRFlow dataset improves facial optical flow estimation across various optical flow models, reducing end-point error (EPE) by up to 42% (from 0.5081 to 0.2953). Furthermore, when coupled with the SRFlow dataset, SRFlowNet achieves up to a 48% improvement in F1-score (from 0.4733 to 0.6947) on a composite of three micro-expression datasets. These results demonstrate the value of advancing both facial optical flow estimation and micro-expression recognition. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06445 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI LitVISTA: A Benchmark for Narrative Orchestration in Literary Text Authors: Mingzhe Lu , Yiwen Wang , Yanbing Liu , Qi You , Chong Liu , Ruize Qin , Haoyu Dong , Wenyu Zhang , Jiarui Zhang , Yue Hu , Yunpeng Li Abstract : Computational narrative analysis aims to capture rhythm, tension, and emotional dynamics in literary texts. Existing large language models can generate long stories but overly focus on causal coherence, neglecting the complex story arcs and orchestration inherent in human narratives. This creates a structural misalignment between model- and human-generated narratives. We propose VISTA Space, a hig… ▽ More Computational narrative analysis aims to capture rhythm, tension, and emotional dynamics in literary texts. Existing large language models can generate long stories but overly focus on causal coherence, neglecting the complex story arcs and orchestration inherent in human narratives. This creates a structural misalignment between model- and human-generated narratives. We propose VISTA Space, a high-dimensional representational framework for narrative orchestration that unifies human and model narrative perspectives. We further introduce LitVISTA, a structurally annotated benchmark grounded in literary texts, enabling systematic evaluation of models' narrative orchestration capabilities. We conduct oracle evaluations on a diverse selection of frontier LLMs, including GPT, Claude, Grok, and Gemini. Results reveal systematic deficiencies: existing models fail to construct a unified global narrative view, struggling to jointly capture narrative function and structure. Furthermore, even advanced thinking modes yield only limited gains for such literary narrative understanding. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06445 [ pdf , ps , other ] LitVISTA: A Benchmark for Narrative Orchestration in Literary Text Authors: Mingzhe Lu , Yiwen Wang , Yanbing Liu , Qi You , Chong Liu , Ruize Qin , Haoyu Dong , Wenyu Zhang , Jiarui Zhang , Yue Hu , Yunpeng Li Abstract : Computational narrative analysis aims to capture rhythm, tension, and emotional dynamics in literary texts. Existing large language models can generate long stories but overly focus on causal coherence, neglecting the complex story arcs and orchestration inherent in human narratives. This creates a structural misalignment between model- and human-generated narratives. We propose VISTA Space, a hig… ▽ More Computational narrative analysis aims to capture rhythm, tension, and emotional dynamics in literary texts. Existing large language models can generate long stories but overly focus on causal coherence, neglecting the complex story arcs and orchestration inherent in human narratives. This creates a structural misalignment between model- and human-generated narratives. We propose VISTA Space, a high-dimensional representational framework for narrative orchestration that unifies human and model narrative perspectives. We further introduce LitVISTA, a structurally annotated benchmark grounded in literary texts, enabling systematic evaluation of models' narrative orchestration capabilities. We conduct oracle evaluations on a diverse selection of frontier LLMs, including GPT, Claude, Grok, and Gemini. Results reveal systematic deficiencies: existing models fail to construct a unified global narrative view, struggling to jointly capture narrative function and structure. Furthermore, even advanced thinking modes yield only limited gains for such literary narrative understanding. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06328 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI ToolGym: an Open-world Tool-using Environment for Scalable Agent Testing and Data Curation Authors: Ziqiao Xi , Shuang Liang , Qi Liu , Jiaqing Zhang , Letian Peng , Fang Nan , Meshal Nayim , Tianhui Zhang , Rishika Mundada , Lianhui Qin , Biwei Huang , Kun Zhou Abstract : Tool-using LLM agents still struggle in open-world settings with large tool pools, long-horizon objectives, wild constraints, and unreliable tool states. For scalable and realistic training and testing, we introduce an open-world tool-using environment, built on 5,571 format unified tools across 204 commonly used apps. It includes a task creation engine that synthesizes long-horizon, multi-tool wo… ▽ More Tool-using LLM agents still struggle in open-world settings with large tool pools, long-horizon objectives, wild constraints, and unreliable tool states. For scalable and realistic training and testing, we introduce an open-world tool-using environment, built on 5,571 format unified tools across 204 commonly used apps. It includes a task creation engine that synthesizes long-horizon, multi-tool workflows with wild constraints, and a state controller that injects interruptions and failures to stress-test robustness. On top of this environment, we develop a tool select-then-execute agent framework with a planner-actor decomposition to separate deliberate reasoning and self-correction from step-wise execution. Comprehensive evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs reveals the misalignment between tool planning and execution abilities, the constraint following weakness of existing LLMs, and DeepSeek-v3.2's strongest robustness. Finally, we collect 1,170 trajectories from our environment to fine-tune LLMs, achieving superior performance to baselines using 119k samples, indicating the environment's value as both a realistic benchmark and a data engine for tool-using agents. Our code and data will be publicly released. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Submitted to ACL 2026 12 pages, 4 figures Ziqiao Xi and Shuang Liang contributed equally to this work arXiv:2601.06328 [ pdf , ps , other ] ToolGym: an Open-world Tool-using Environment for Scalable Agent Testing and Data Curation Authors: Ziqiao Xi , Shuang Liang , Qi Liu , Jiaqing Zhang , Letian Peng , Fang Nan , Meshal Nayim , Tianhui Zhang , Rishika Mundada , Lianhui Qin , Biwei Huang , Kun Zhou Abstract : Tool-using LLM agents still struggle in open-world settings with large tool pools, long-horizon objectives, wild constraints, and unreliable tool states. For scalable and realistic training and testing, we introduce an open-world tool-using environment, built on 5,571 format unified tools across 204 commonly used apps. It includes a task creation engine that synthesizes long-horizon, multi-tool wo… ▽ More Tool-using LLM agents still struggle in open-world settings with large tool pools, long-horizon objectives, wild constraints, and unreliable tool states. For scalable and realistic training and testing, we introduce an open-world tool-using environment, built on 5,571 format unified tools across 204 commonly used apps. It includes a task creation engine that synthesizes long-horizon, multi-tool workflows with wild constraints, and a state controller that injects interruptions and failures to stress-test robustness. On top of this environment, we develop a tool select-then-execute agent framework with a planner-actor decomposition to separate deliberate reasoning and self-correction from step-wise execution. Comprehensive evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs reveals the misalignment between tool planning and execution abilities, the constraint following weakness of existing LLMs, and DeepSeek-v3.2's strongest robustness. Finally, we collect 1,170 trajectories from our environment to fine-tune LLMs, achieving superior performance to baselines using 119k samples, indicating the environment's value as both a realistic benchmark and a data engine for tool-using agents. Our code and data will be publicly released. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Submitted to ACL 2026 12 pages, 4 figures Ziqiao Xi and Shuang Liang contributed equally to this work arXiv:2601.06021 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Chaining the Evidence: Robust Reinforcement Learning for Deep Search Agents with Citation-Aware Rubric Rewards Authors: Jiajie Zhang , Xin Lv , Ling Feng , Lei Hou , Juanzi Li Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a critical technique for enhancing LLM-based deep search agents. However, existing approaches primarily rely on binary outcome rewards, which fail to capture the comprehensiveness and factuality of agents' reasoning process, and often lead to undesirable behaviors such as shortcut exploitation and hallucinations. To address these limitations, we propose \… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a critical technique for enhancing LLM-based deep search agents. However, existing approaches primarily rely on binary outcome rewards, which fail to capture the comprehensiveness and factuality of agents' reasoning process, and often lead to undesirable behaviors such as shortcut exploitation and hallucinations. To address these limitations, we propose \textbf{Citation-aware Rubric Rewards (CaRR)}, a fine-grained reward framework for deep search agents that emphasizes reasoning comprehensiveness, factual grounding, and evidence connectivity. CaRR decomposes complex questions into verifiable single-hop rubrics and requires agents to satisfy these rubrics by explicitly identifying hidden entities, supporting them with correct citations, and constructing complete evidence chains that link to the predicted answer. We further introduce \textbf{Citation-aware Group Relative Policy Optimization (C-GRPO)}, which combines CaRR and outcome rewards for training robust deep search agents. Experiments show that C-GRPO consistently outperforms standard outcome-based RL baselines across multiple deep search benchmarks. Our analysis also validates that C-GRPO effectively discourages shortcut exploitation, promotes comprehensive, evidence-grounded reasoning, and exhibits strong generalization to open-ended deep research tasks. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06021 [ pdf , ps , other ] Chaining the Evidence: Robust Reinforcement Learning for Deep Search Agents with Citation-Aware Rubric Rewards Authors: Jiajie Zhang , Xin Lv , Ling Feng , Lei Hou , Juanzi Li Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a critical technique for enhancing LLM-based deep search agents. However, existing approaches primarily rely on binary outcome rewards, which fail to capture the comprehensiveness and factuality of agents' reasoning process, and often lead to undesirable behaviors such as shortcut exploitation and hallucinations. To address these limitations, we propose \… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a critical technique for enhancing LLM-based deep search agents. However, existing approaches primarily rely on binary outcome rewards, which fail to capture the comprehensiveness and factuality of agents' reasoning process, and often lead to undesirable behaviors such as shortcut exploitation and hallucinations. To address these limitations, we propose \textbf{Citation-aware Rubric Rewards (CaRR)}, a fine-grained reward framework for deep search agents that emphasizes reasoning comprehensiveness, factual grounding, and evidence connectivity. CaRR decomposes complex questions into verifiable single-hop rubrics and requires agents to satisfy these rubrics by explicitly identifying hidden entities, supporting them with correct citations, and constructing complete evidence chains that link to the predicted answer. We further introduce \textbf{Citation-aware Group Relative Policy Optimization (C-GRPO)}, which combines CaRR and outcome rewards for training robust deep search agents. Experiments show that C-GRPO consistently outperforms standard outcome-based RL baselines across multiple deep search benchmarks. Our analysis also validates that C-GRPO effectively discourages shortcut exploitation, promotes comprehensive, evidence-grounded reasoning, and exhibits strong generalization to open-ended deep research tasks. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05930 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG cs.MA Can We Predict Before Executing Machine Learning Agents? Authors: Jingsheng Zheng , Jintian Zhang , Yujie Luo , Yuren Mao , Yunjun Gao , Lun Du , Huajun Chen , Ningyu Zhang Abstract : Autonomous machine learning agents have revolutionized scientific discovery, yet they remain constrained by a Generate-Execute-Feedback paradigm. Previous approaches suffer from a severe Execution Bottleneck, as hypothesis evaluation relies strictly on expensive physical execution. To bypass these physical constraints, we internalize execution priors to substitute costly runtime checks with instan… ▽ More Autonomous machine learning agents have revolutionized scientific discovery, yet they remain constrained by a Generate-Execute-Feedback paradigm. Previous approaches suffer from a severe Execution Bottleneck, as hypothesis evaluation relies strictly on expensive physical execution. To bypass these physical constraints, we internalize execution priors to substitute costly runtime checks with instantaneous predictive reasoning, drawing inspiration from World Models. In this work, we formalize the task of Data-centric Solution Preference and construct a comprehensive corpus of 18,438 pairwise comparisons. We demonstrate that LLMs exhibit significant predictive capabilities when primed with a Verified Data Analysis Report, achieving 61.5% accuracy and robust confidence calibration. Finally, we instantiate this framework in FOREAGENT, an agent that employs a Predict-then-Verify loop, achieving a 6x acceleration in convergence while surpassing execution-based baselines by +6%. Our code and dataset will be publicly available soon at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05930 [ pdf , ps , other ] Can We Predict Before Executing Machine Learning Agents? Authors: Jingsheng Zheng , Jintian Zhang , Yujie Luo , Yuren Mao , Yunjun Gao , Lun Du , Huajun Chen , Ningyu Zhang Abstract : Autonomous machine learning agents have revolutionized scientific discovery, yet they remain constrained by a Generate-Execute-Feedback paradigm. Previous approaches suffer from a severe Execution Bottleneck, as hypothesis evaluation relies strictly on expensive physical execution. To bypass these physical constraints, we internalize execution priors to substitute costly runtime checks with instan… ▽ More Autonomous machine learning agents have revolutionized scientific discovery, yet they remain constrained by a Generate-Execute-Feedback paradigm. Previous approaches suffer from a severe Execution Bottleneck, as hypothesis evaluation relies strictly on expensive physical execution. To bypass these physical constraints, we internalize execution priors to substitute costly runtime checks with instantaneous predictive reasoning, drawing inspiration from World Models. In this work, we formalize the task of Data-centric Solution Preference and construct a comprehensive corpus of 18,438 pairwise comparisons. We demonstrate that LLMs exhibit significant predictive capabilities when primed with a Verified Data Analysis Report, achieving 61.5% accuracy and robust confidence calibration. Finally, we instantiate this framework in FOREAGENT, an agent that employs a Predict-then-Verify loop, achieving a 6x acceleration in convergence while surpassing execution-based baselines by +6%. Our code and dataset will be publicly available soon at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05903 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL HAPS: Hierarchical LLM Routing with Joint Architecture and Parameter Search Authors: Zihang Tian , Rui Li , Jingsen Zhang , Xiaohe Bo , Wei Huo , Xu Chen Abstract : Large language model (LLM) routing aims to exploit the specialized strengths of different LLMs for diverse tasks. However, existing approaches typically focus on selecting LLM architectures while overlooking parameter settings, which are critical for task performance. In this paper, we introduce HAPS, a hierarchical LLM routing framework that jointly searches over model architectures and parameter… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) routing aims to exploit the specialized strengths of different LLMs for diverse tasks. However, existing approaches typically focus on selecting LLM architectures while overlooking parameter settings, which are critical for task performance. In this paper, we introduce HAPS, a hierarchical LLM routing framework that jointly searches over model architectures and parameters. Specifically, we use a high-level router to select among candidate LLM architectures, and then search for the optimal parameters for the selected architectures based on a low-level router. We design a parameter generation network to share parameters between the two routers to mutually enhance their capabilities. In the training process, we design a reward-augmented objective to effectively optimize our framework. Experiments on two commonly used benchmarks show that HAPS consistently outperforms strong routing baselines. We have released our code at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05903 [ pdf , ps , other ] HAPS: Hierarchical LLM Routing with Joint Architecture and Parameter Search Authors: Zihang Tian , Rui Li , Jingsen Zhang , Xiaohe Bo , Wei Huo , Xu Chen Abstract : Large language model (LLM) routing aims to exploit the specialized strengths of different LLMs for diverse tasks. However, existing approaches typically focus on selecting LLM architectures while overlooking parameter settings, which are critical for task performance. In this paper, we introduce HAPS, a hierarchical LLM routing framework that jointly searches over model architectures and parameter… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) routing aims to exploit the specialized strengths of different LLMs for diverse tasks. However, existing approaches typically focus on selecting LLM architectures while overlooking parameter settings, which are critical for task performance. In this paper, we introduce HAPS, a hierarchical LLM routing framework that jointly searches over model architectures and parameters. Specifically, we use a high-level router to select among candidate LLM architectures, and then search for the optimal parameters for the selected architectures based on a low-level router. We design a parameter generation network to share parameters between the two routers to mutually enhance their capabilities. In the training process, we design a reward-augmented objective to effectively optimize our framework. Experiments on two commonly used benchmarks show that HAPS consistently outperforms strong routing baselines. We have released our code at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05870 [ pdf , ps , other ] IIB-LPO: Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck Authors: Huilin Deng , Hongchen Luo , Yue Zhu , Long Li , Zhuoyue Chen , Xinghao Zhao , Ming Li , Jihai Zhang , Mengchang Wang , Yang Cao , Yu Kang Abstract : Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entrop… ▽ More Recent advances in Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) for Large Language Model (LLM) reasoning have been hindered by a persistent challenge: exploration collapse. The semantic homogeneity of random rollouts often traps models in narrow, over-optimized behaviors. While existing methods leverage policy entropy to encourage exploration, they face inherent limitations. Global entropy regularization is susceptible to reward hacking, which can induce meaningless verbosity, whereas local token-selective updates struggle with the strong inductive bias of pre-trained models. To address this, we propose Latent Policy Optimization via Iterative Information Bottleneck (IIB-LPO), a novel approach that shifts exploration from statistical perturbation of token distributions to topological branching of reasoning trajectories. IIB-LPO triggers latent branching at high-entropy states to diversify reasoning paths and employs the Information Bottleneck principle both as a trajectory filter and a self-reward mechanism, ensuring concise and informative exploration. Empirical results across four mathematical reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that IIB-LPO achieves state-of-the-art performance, surpassing prior methods by margins of up to 5.3% in accuracy and 7.4% in diversity metrics. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05827 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE SSR: Safeguarding Staking Rewards by Defining and Detecting Logical Defects in DeFi Staking Authors: Zewei Lin , Jiachi Chen , Jingwen Zhang , Zexu Wang , Yuming Feng , Weizhe Zhang , Zibin Zheng Abstract : Decentralized Finance (DeFi) staking is one of the most prominent applications within the DeFi ecosystem, where DeFi projects enable users to stake tokens on the platform and reward participants with additional tokens. However, logical defects in DeFi staking could enable attackers to claim unwarranted rewards by manipulating reward amounts, repeatedly claiming rewards, or engaging in other malici… ▽ More Decentralized Finance (DeFi) staking is one of the most prominent applications within the DeFi ecosystem, where DeFi projects enable users to stake tokens on the platform and reward participants with additional tokens. However, logical defects in DeFi staking could enable attackers to claim unwarranted rewards by manipulating reward amounts, repeatedly claiming rewards, or engaging in other malicious actions. To mitigate these threats, we conducted the first study focused on defining and detecting logical defects in DeFi staking. Through the analysis of 64 security incidents and 144 audit reports, we identified six distinct types of logical defects, each accompanied by detailed descriptions and code examples. Building on this empirical research, we developed SSR (Safeguarding Staking Reward), a static analysis tool designed to detect logical defects in DeFi staking contracts. SSR utilizes a large language model (LLM) to extract fundamental information about staking logic and constructs a DeFi staking model. It then identifies logical defects by analyzing the model and the associated semantic features. We constructed a ground truth dataset based on known security incidents and audit reports to evaluate the effectiveness of SSR. The results indicate that SSR achieves an overall precision of 92.31%, a recall of 87.92%, and an F1-score of 88.85%. Additionally, to assess the prevalence of logical defects in real-world smart contracts, we compiled a large-scale dataset of 15,992 DeFi staking contracts. SSR detected that 3,557 (22.24%) of these contracts contained at least one logical defect. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05827 [ pdf , ps , other ] SSR: Safeguarding Staking Rewards by Defining and Detecting Logical Defects in DeFi Staking Authors: Zewei Lin , Jiachi Chen , Jingwen Zhang , Zexu Wang , Yuming Feng , Weizhe Zhang , Zibin Zheng Abstract : Decentralized Finance (DeFi) staking is one of the most prominent applications within the DeFi ecosystem, where DeFi projects enable users to stake tokens on the platform and reward participants with additional tokens. However, logical defects in DeFi staking could enable attackers to claim unwarranted rewards by manipulating reward amounts, repeatedly claiming rewards, or engaging in other malici… ▽ More Decentralized Finance (DeFi) staking is one of the most prominent applications within the DeFi ecosystem, where DeFi projects enable users to stake tokens on the platform and reward participants with additional tokens. However, logical defects in DeFi staking could enable attackers to claim unwarranted rewards by manipulating reward amounts, repeatedly claiming rewards, or engaging in other malicious actions. To mitigate these threats, we conducted the first study focused on defining and detecting logical defects in DeFi staking. Through the analysis of 64 security incidents and 144 audit reports, we identified six distinct types of logical defects, each accompanied by detailed descriptions and code examples. Building on this empirical research, we developed SSR (Safeguarding Staking Reward), a static analysis tool designed to detect logical defects in DeFi staking contracts. SSR utilizes a large language model (LLM) to extract fundamental information about staking logic and constructs a DeFi staking model. It then identifies logical defects by analyzing the model and the associated semantic features. We constructed a ground truth dataset based on known security incidents and audit reports to evaluate the effectiveness of SSR. The results indicate that SSR achieves an overall precision of 92.31%, a recall of 87.92%, and an F1-score of 88.85%. Additionally, to assess the prevalence of logical defects in real-world smart contracts, we compiled a large-scale dataset of 15,992 DeFi staking contracts. SSR detected that 3,557 (22.24%) of these contracts contained at least one logical defect. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05777 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE EET: Experience-Driven Early Termination for Cost-Efficient Software Engineering Agents Authors: Yaoqi Guo , Ying Xiao , Jie M. Zhang , Mark Harman , Yiling Lou , Yang Liu , Zhenpeng Chen Abstract : Software engineering (SE) agents powered by large language models are increasingly adopted in practice, yet they often incur substantial monetary cost. We introduce EET, an experience-driven early termination approach that reduces the cost of SE agents while preserving task performance. EET extracts structured experience from prior issue-resolution executions and leverages it to guide early termin… ▽ More Software engineering (SE) agents powered by large language models are increasingly adopted in practice, yet they often incur substantial monetary cost. We introduce EET, an experience-driven early termination approach that reduces the cost of SE agents while preserving task performance. EET extracts structured experience from prior issue-resolution executions and leverages it to guide early termination during patch generation and selection, reducing unproductive iterations. We evaluate EET on the SWE-bench Verified benchmark across three representative SE agents. EET consistently reduces total cost by 19%-55% (32% on average), with negligible loss in resolution rate (at most 0.2%). These efficiency gains are achieved, on average, by identifying early-termination opportunities for 11% of issues and reducing API calls, input tokens, and output tokens by 21%, 30%, and 25%, respectively. We release the code, prompts, and data at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05777 [ pdf , ps , other ] EET: Experience-Driven Early Termination for Cost-Efficient Software Engineering Agents Authors: Yaoqi Guo , Ying Xiao , Jie M. Zhang , Mark Harman , Yiling Lou , Yang Liu , Zhenpeng Chen Abstract : Software engineering (SE) agents powered by large language models are increasingly adopted in practice, yet they often incur substantial monetary cost. We introduce EET, an experience-driven early termination approach that reduces the cost of SE agents while preserving task performance. EET extracts structured experience from prior issue-resolution executions and leverages it to guide early termin… ▽ More Software engineering (SE) agents powered by large language models are increasingly adopted in practice, yet they often incur substantial monetary cost. We introduce EET, an experience-driven early termination approach that reduces the cost of SE agents while preserving task performance. EET extracts structured experience from prior issue-resolution executions and leverages it to guide early termination during patch generation and selection, reducing unproductive iterations. We evaluate EET on the SWE-bench Verified benchmark across three representative SE agents. EET consistently reduces total cost by 19%-55% (32% on average), with negligible loss in resolution rate (at most 0.2%). These efficiency gains are achieved, on average, by identifying early-termination opportunities for 11% of issues and reducing API calls, input tokens, and output tokens by 21%, 30%, and 25%, respectively. We release the code, prompts, and data at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05724 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Overcoming Joint Intractability with Lossless Hierarchical Speculative Decoding Authors: Yuxuan Zhou , Fei Huang , Heng Li , Fengyi Wu , Tianyu Wang , Jianwei Zhang , Junyang Lin , Zhi-Qi Cheng Abstract : Verification is a key bottleneck in improving inference speed while maintaining distribution fidelity in Speculative Decoding. Recent work has shown that sequence-level verification leads to a higher number of accepted tokens compared to token-wise verification. However, existing solutions often rely on surrogate approximations or are constrained by partial information, struggling with joint intra… ▽ More Verification is a key bottleneck in improving inference speed while maintaining distribution fidelity in Speculative Decoding. Recent work has shown that sequence-level verification leads to a higher number of accepted tokens compared to token-wise verification. However, existing solutions often rely on surrogate approximations or are constrained by partial information, struggling with joint intractability. In this work, we propose Hierarchical Speculative Decoding (HSD), a provably lossless verification method that significantly boosts the expected number of accepted tokens and overcomes joint intractability by balancing excess and deficient probability mass across accessible branches. Our extensive large-scale experiments demonstrate that HSD yields consistent improvements in acceptance rates across diverse model families and benchmarks. Moreover, its strong explainability and generality make it readily integrable into a wide range of speculative decoding frameworks. Notably, integrating HSD into EAGLE-3 yields over a 12% performance gain, establishing state-of-the-art decoding efficiency without compromising distribution fidelity. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05724 [ pdf , ps , other ] Overcoming Joint Intractability with Lossless Hierarchical Speculative Decoding Authors: Yuxuan Zhou , Fei Huang , Heng Li , Fengyi Wu , Tianyu Wang , Jianwei Zhang , Junyang Lin , Zhi-Qi Cheng Abstract : Verification is a key bottleneck in improving inference speed while maintaining distribution fidelity in Speculative Decoding. Recent work has shown that sequence-level verification leads to a higher number of accepted tokens compared to token-wise verification. However, existing solutions often rely on surrogate approximations or are constrained by partial information, struggling with joint intra… ▽ More Verification is a key bottleneck in improving inference speed while maintaining distribution fidelity in Speculative Decoding. Recent work has shown that sequence-level verification leads to a higher number of accepted tokens compared to token-wise verification. However, existing solutions often rely on surrogate approximations or are constrained by partial information, struggling with joint intractability. In this work, we propose Hierarchical Speculative Decoding (HSD), a provably lossless verification method that significantly boosts the expected number of accepted tokens and overcomes joint intractability by balancing excess and deficient probability mass across accessible branches. Our extensive large-scale experiments demonstrate that HSD yields consistent improvements in acceptance rates across diverse model families and benchmarks. Moreover, its strong explainability and generality make it readily integrable into a wide range of speculative decoding frameworks. Notably, integrating HSD into EAGLE-3 yields over a 12% performance gain, establishing state-of-the-art decoding efficiency without compromising distribution fidelity. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05600 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.CL cs.LG SceneAlign: Aligning Multimodal Reasoning to Scene Graphs in Complex Visual Scenes Authors: Chuhan Wang , Xintong Li , Jennifer Yuntong Zhang , Junda Wu , Chengkai Huang , Lina Yao , Julian McAuley , Jingbo Shang Abstract : Multimodal large language models often struggle with faithful reasoning in complex visual scenes, where intricate entities and relations require precise visual grounding at each step. This reasoning unfaithfulness frequently manifests as hallucinated entities, mis-grounded relations, skipped steps, and over-specified reasoning. Existing preference-based approaches, typically relying on textual per… ▽ More Multimodal large language models often struggle with faithful reasoning in complex visual scenes, where intricate entities and relations require precise visual grounding at each step. This reasoning unfaithfulness frequently manifests as hallucinated entities, mis-grounded relations, skipped steps, and over-specified reasoning. Existing preference-based approaches, typically relying on textual perturbations or answer-conditioned rationales, fail to address this challenge as they allow models to exploit language priors to bypass visual grounding. To address this, we propose SceneAlign, a framework that leverages scene graphs as structured visual information to perform controllable structural interventions. By identifying reasoning-critical nodes and perturbing them through four targeted strategies that mimic typical grounding failures, SceneAlign constructs hard negative rationales that remain linguistically plausible but are grounded in inaccurate visual facts. These contrastive pairs are used in Direct Preference Optimization to steer models toward fine-grained, structure-faithful reasoning. Across seven visual reasoning benchmarks, SceneAlign consistently improves answer accuracy and reasoning faithfulness, highlighting the effectiveness of grounding-aware alignment for multimodal reasoning. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint arXiv:2601.05600 [ pdf , ps , other ] SceneAlign: Aligning Multimodal Reasoning to Scene Graphs in Complex Visual Scenes Authors: Chuhan Wang , Xintong Li , Jennifer Yuntong Zhang , Junda Wu , Chengkai Huang , Lina Yao , Julian McAuley , Jingbo Shang Abstract : Multimodal large language models often struggle with faithful reasoning in complex visual scenes, where intricate entities and relations require precise visual grounding at each step. This reasoning unfaithfulness frequently manifests as hallucinated entities, mis-grounded relations, skipped steps, and over-specified reasoning. Existing preference-based approaches, typically relying on textual per… ▽ More Multimodal large language models often struggle with faithful reasoning in complex visual scenes, where intricate entities and relations require precise visual grounding at each step. This reasoning unfaithfulness frequently manifests as hallucinated entities, mis-grounded relations, skipped steps, and over-specified reasoning. Existing preference-based approaches, typically relying on textual perturbations or answer-conditioned rationales, fail to address this challenge as they allow models to exploit language priors to bypass visual grounding. To address this, we propose SceneAlign, a framework that leverages scene graphs as structured visual information to perform controllable structural interventions. By identifying reasoning-critical nodes and perturbing them through four targeted strategies that mimic typical grounding failures, SceneAlign constructs hard negative rationales that remain linguistically plausible but are grounded in inaccurate visual facts. These contrastive pairs are used in Direct Preference Optimization to steer models toward fine-grained, structure-faithful reasoning. Across seven visual reasoning benchmarks, SceneAlign consistently improves answer accuracy and reasoning faithfulness, highlighting the effectiveness of grounding-aware alignment for multimodal reasoning. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint arXiv:2601.05572 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Towards Generalized Multi-Image Editing for Unified Multimodal Models Authors: Pengcheng Xu , Peng Tang , Donghao Luo , Xiaobin Hu , Weichu Cui , Qingdong He , Zhennan Chen , Jiangning Zhang , Charles Ling , Boyu Wang Abstract : Unified Multimodal Models (UMMs) integrate multimodal understanding and generation, yet they are limited to maintaining visual consistency and disambiguating visual cues when referencing details across multiple input images. In this work, we propose a scalable multi-image editing framework for UMMs that explicitly distinguishes image identities and generalizes to variable input counts. Algorithmic… ▽ More Unified Multimodal Models (UMMs) integrate multimodal understanding and generation, yet they are limited to maintaining visual consistency and disambiguating visual cues when referencing details across multiple input images. In this work, we propose a scalable multi-image editing framework for UMMs that explicitly distinguishes image identities and generalizes to variable input counts. Algorithmically, we introduce two innovations: 1) The learnable latent separators explicitly differentiate each reference image in the latent space, enabling accurate and disentangled conditioning. 2) The sinusoidal index encoding assigns visual tokens from the same image a continuous sinusoidal index embedding, which provides explicit image identity while allowing generalization and extrapolation on a variable number of inputs. To facilitate training and evaluation, we establish a high-fidelity benchmark using an inverse dataset construction methodology to guarantee artifact-free, achievable outputs. Experiments show clear improvements in semantic consistency, visual fidelity, and cross-image integration over prior baselines on diverse multi-image editing tasks, validating our advantages on consistency and generalization ability. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.05572 [ pdf , ps , other ] Towards Generalized Multi-Image Editing for Unified Multimodal Models Authors: Pengcheng Xu , Peng Tang , Donghao Luo , Xiaobin Hu , Weichu Cui , Qingdong He , Zhennan Chen , Jiangning Zhang , Charles Ling , Boyu Wang Abstract : Unified Multimodal Models (UMMs) integrate multimodal understanding and generation, yet they are limited to maintaining visual consistency and disambiguating visual cues when referencing details across multiple input images. In this work, we propose a scalable multi-image editing framework for UMMs that explicitly distinguishes image identities and generalizes to variable input counts. Algorithmic… ▽ More Unified Multimodal Models (UMMs) integrate multimodal understanding and generation, yet they are limited to maintaining visual consistency and disambiguating visual cues when referencing details across multiple input images. In this work, we propose a scalable multi-image editing framework for UMMs that explicitly distinguishes image identities and generalizes to variable input counts. Algorithmically, we introduce two innovations: 1) The learnable latent separators explicitly differentiate each reference image in the latent space, enabling accurate and disentangled conditioning. 2) The sinusoidal index encoding assigns visual tokens from the same image a continuous sinusoidal index embedding, which provides explicit image identity while allowing generalization and extrapolation on a variable number of inputs. To facilitate training and evaluation, we establish a high-fidelity benchmark using an inverse dataset construction methodology to guarantee artifact-free, achievable outputs. Experiments show clear improvements in semantic consistency, visual fidelity, and cross-image integration over prior baselines on diverse multi-image editing tasks, validating our advantages on consistency and generalization ability. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Zhang,+J
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_ref-104
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Morphology 2 History 3 Gender 4 Syntax Toggle Syntax subsection 4.1 Functions 4.2 Dependents 4.1 Functions 4.2 Dependents 5 Semantics Toggle Semantics subsection 5.1 Generic 5.2 Non-human she 5.3 Deities 5.1 Generic 5.2 Non-human she 5.3 Deities 6 Other 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References She (pronoun) فارسی Français Македонски Nederlands Português Simple English Svenska తెలుగు ייִדיש Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item In Modern English , she is a singular , feminine , third-person pronoun . Morphology In Standard Modern English, she has four shapes representing five distinct word forms : [ 1 ] she : the nominative (subjective) form her : the accusative (objective, also called the ' oblique '. [ 2 ] : 146 ) form; the dependent genitive (possessive) form hers: the independent genitive form herself : the reflexive form History This section contains too many or overly lengthy quotations . Please help summarise the quotations . Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource . ( July 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Old English had a single third-person pronoun – from the Proto-Germanic hu y ccudemonstrative base * khi- , from PIE * ko- ' this ' [ 3 ] – which had a plural and three genders in the singular. In early Middle English , one case was lost, and distinct pronouns started to develop. The modern pronoun it developed out of the neuter, singular in the 12th century. Her developed out of the feminine singular dative and genitive forms. The older pronoun had the following forms: Case Singular Plural Masculine Neuter Feminine Nominative hē hit hēo hī ( e ) Accusative hine hit hīe hī ( e ) Dative him him hire him / heom Genitive his his hire hira / heora The evolution of she is disputed. [ 4 ] : 118 By Middle English, it was found in the form schē [ 5 ] [ʃeː] , [ a ] but how it arrived there is unclear. Some sources propose it evolved from the demonstrative pronoun : .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}} [...] probably evolving from Old English seo , sio (accusative sie ), fem. of demonstrative pronoun (masc. se ) ' the ' , from PIE root * so- ' this, that ' (see the ). [ 6 ] [...] probably evolving from Old English seo , sio (accusative sie ), fem. of demonstrative pronoun (masc. se ) ' the ' , from PIE root * so- ' this, that ' (see the ). [ 6 ] Others propose it descends directly from the third-person feminine pronoun: In Middle English, the Old English system collapses, due to the gradual loss of þe and the replacement of the paradigm se , seo , þæt by indeclinable that . [ 4 ] : 296 In Middle English, the Old English system collapses, due to the gradual loss of þe and the replacement of the paradigm se , seo , þæt by indeclinable that . [ 4 ] : 296 A more likely account is what is sometimes called the 'Shetland Theory', since it assumes a development parallel to that of Shetland < OScand. Hjaltland , Shapinsay < Hjalpandisey , etc. The starting point is the morphologically and chronologically preferable hēo . Once again we have syllabicity shift and vowel reduction, giving [heo̯] > [he̯o] > [hjoː] . Then [hj-] > [ç-] , and [ç-] > [ʃ-] , giving final [ʃoː] . [ 4 ] : 118 A more likely account is what is sometimes called the 'Shetland Theory', since it assumes a development parallel to that of Shetland < OScand. Hjaltland , Shapinsay < Hjalpandisey , etc. The starting point is the morphologically and chronologically preferable hēo . Once again we have syllabicity shift and vowel reduction, giving [heo̯] > [he̯o] > [hjoː] . Then [hj-] > [ç-] , and [ç-] > [ʃ-] , giving final [ʃoː] . [ 4 ] : 118 This does not lead to the modern form she / ʃ iː / . So any solution that gets [ʃ] from /eo/ also needs to 'correct' the resultant /oː/ (outside the north) to /eː/. This means an analogical transfer of (probably) the /eː/ of he . [ 4 ] : 118 So any solution that gets [ʃ] from /eo/ also needs to 'correct' the resultant /oː/ (outside the north) to /eː/. This means an analogical transfer of (probably) the /eː/ of he . [ 4 ] : 118 None of this is entirely plausible. [ citation needed ] The -self forms developed in early Middle English, with hire self becoming herself. [ 7 ] By the 15th century, the Middle English forms of she had solidified into those we use today. [ 4 ] : 120 Gender Historically, she was encompassed in he as he had three genders in Old English. The neuter and feminine genders split off during Middle English. Today, she is the only feminine pronoun in English. She is occasionally used as a gender neutral , third-person, singular pronoun (see also singular they ). [ 1 ] : 492 Syntax Functions She can appear as a subject , object , determiner or predicative complement . [ 1 ] The reflexive form also appears as an adjunct . She occasionally appears as a modifier in a noun phrase. Subject: She 's there; her being there ; she paid for herself to be there. Object: I saw her ; I introduced him to her ; She saw herself . Predicative complement: The only person there was her . Dependent determiner: This is her book. Independent determiner: This is hers . Adjunct: She did it herself . Modifier: The she goat was missing. Dependents Pronouns rarely take dependents , but it is possible for she to have many of the same kind of dependents as other noun phrases . Relative clause modifier: she who arrives late Determiner: A: Somebody was here, and she left this . B: I'm that she. Adjective phrase modifier: the real her Adverb phrase external modifier: Not even her Semantics She 's referents are generally limited to individual, female persons , excluding the speaker and the addressee. She is always definite and usually specific . Generic The pronoun she can also be used to refer to an unspecified person, as in If you see someone in trouble, help her . [ b ] If either your mother or father would like to discuss it, I'll talk to her . Non-human she She has traditionally been used for ships, but can also be used for other inanimate objects as a form of anthropomorphism . [ 8 ] SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American Great Lakes freighter that sank in Lake Superior during a storm. When launched in 1958, she was the largest ship on North America's Great Lakes. "I know, I know ... It's Eleanor ... Just take her , slick." ― Gone in 60 Seconds (2000 film) She can also be used for countries as political entities, but not as geographical entities. [ 1 ] : 487 Canada really found her place in the world during WWII. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} Canada's prairies are grassland , and she has five great lakes in Ontario. Many English style guides discourage the use of she for countries or inanimate objects; [ 8 ] [ 9 ] such use may be considered dated or sexist. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Deities "She" may refer to a particular goddess or to a monotheistic God when regarded as female. In this case it may be written "She" with reverential capitalization . Other In 1999, she was selected as the word of the millennium by the American Dialect Society . [ 12 ] See also English personal pronouns Third-person pronoun Notes ^ The pronunciation of /eː/ would later change to / iː / in the Great Vowel Shift . ^ See § Gender , above. References ^ a b c d .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002). The Cambridge grammar of the English language . Cambridge University Press. ^ Lass, Roger, ed. (1999). The Cambridge history of the English Language: Volume III 1476–1776 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ "it" . Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 20 March 2021 . ^ a b c d e f Blake, Norman , ed. (1992). The Cambridge history of the English Language: Volume II 1066–1476 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ Stratmann, Francis Henry; Bradley, Henry (1891). A Middle English dictionary . London: Oxford University Press. pp. 526, 528. ISBN 0-19-863106-5 – via The Internet Archive . schē, see schēo . [...] schēo, pron., she {{ cite encyclopedia }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ "she" . Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 23 March 2021 . ^ "herself" . Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 23 March 2021 . ^ a b Curzan, Anne (2003). "Third-person pronouns in the gender shift: why is that ship a she ?". Gender Shifts in the History of English . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ "8.118: Pronouns referring to vessels" . Chicago Manual of Style . Retrieved 8 March 2022 . When a pronoun is used to refer to a vessel, the neuter it or its (rather than she or her ) is preferred. ^ Siegal, Allan M. (2015). The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage (Fifth ed.). New York. p. 257. ISBN 9781101905449 . Use it and its in reference to countries, ships and boats. In such contexts, she , her and hers evoke dated stereotypes of the roles of women and men. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ DeFronzo, James; Gill, Jungyun (2020). Social Problems and Social Movements . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 146. ISBN 9781442221550 . ^ "1999 Words of the Year, Word of the 1990s, Word of the 20th Century, Word of the Millennium" . American Dialect Society . 13 January 2000 . Retrieved 24 March 2021 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Modern English personal pronouns v t e Standard I He She It Who One We You They I He She It Who One We You They Non-standard Y'all Ye Yinz Y'all Ye Yinz See also Neopronouns Spivak pronouns Mx Neopronouns Spivak pronouns Spivak pronouns Mx Modern English personal pronouns English grammar Middle English personal pronouns 12th-century neologisms Sociolinguistics Terms for women Pages with plain IPA CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with style issues from July 2024 All articles with style issues Articles containing Proto-Germanic-language text Articles containing Proto-Indo-European-language text Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text Articles containing Middle English (1100-1500)-language text Pages with Middle English (1100-1500) IPA All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024 Use dmy dates from August 2019 This page was last edited on 7 December 2025, at 14:34 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_(pronoun)
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Krisana Kraisintu Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States Netherlands Poland Israel United States Netherlands Poland Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 1918 births 2010 deaths Alumni of the London School of Economics Anglo-Chinese School alumni Deputy prime ministers of Singapore Finance ministers of Singapore Chairmen of the Monetary Authority of Singapore Malaysian emigrants to Singapore People who lost Malaysian citizenship Naturalised citizens of Singapore Members of the Parliament of Singapore Members of the Dewan Rakyat Members of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore National University of Singapore alumni Recipients of the Darjah Utama Temasek People's Action Party politicians Singaporean politicians of Chinese descent Singaporean Methodists Singaporean people of Hokkien descent Peranakan people in Singapore Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics Rothschild & Co people Ministers for defence of Singapore Chiefs of Defence Force (Singapore) Ministers for education of Singapore Deaths from bladder cancer Deaths from cancer in Singapore Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from July 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2018 Pages using Template:Post-nominals with customized linking Articles containing Chinese-language text CS1 maint: location missing publisher Webarchive template wayback links S-bef: 'before' parameter begins with the word 'new' Template:Succession box: 'before' parameter begins with the word 'new' This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 03:06 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goh_Keng_Swee#cite_ref-33
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–2 of 2 results for author: Van de Weghe, N Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.07375 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL GROKE: Vision-Free Navigation Instruction Evaluation via Graph Reasoning on OpenStreetMap Authors: Farzad Shami , Subhrasankha Dey , Nico Van de Weghe , Henrikki Tenkanen Abstract : The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, the… ▽ More The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, their reliance on high-fidelity visual simulators introduces licensing constraints and computational costs, and perception errors further confound linguistic quality assessment. This paper introduces GROKE(Graph-based Reasoning over OSM Knowledge for instruction Evaluation), a vision-free training-free hierarchical LLM-based framework for evaluating navigation instructions using OpenStreetMap data. Through systematic ablation studies, we demonstrate that structured JSON and textual formats for spatial information substantially outperform grid-based and visual graph representations. Our hierarchical architecture combines sub-instruction planning with topological graph navigation, reducing navigation error by 68.5% compared to heuristic and sampling baselines on the Map2Seq dataset. The agent's execution success, trajectory fidelity, and decision patterns serve as proxy metrics for functional navigability given OSM-visible landmarks and topology, establishing a scalable and interpretable evaluation paradigm without visual dependencies. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Under Review for ACL 2026 arXiv:2601.07375 [ pdf , ps , other ] GROKE: Vision-Free Navigation Instruction Evaluation via Graph Reasoning on OpenStreetMap Authors: Farzad Shami , Subhrasankha Dey , Nico Van de Weghe , Henrikki Tenkanen Abstract : The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, the… ▽ More The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, their reliance on high-fidelity visual simulators introduces licensing constraints and computational costs, and perception errors further confound linguistic quality assessment. This paper introduces GROKE(Graph-based Reasoning over OSM Knowledge for instruction Evaluation), a vision-free training-free hierarchical LLM-based framework for evaluating navigation instructions using OpenStreetMap data. Through systematic ablation studies, we demonstrate that structured JSON and textual formats for spatial information substantially outperform grid-based and visual graph representations. Our hierarchical architecture combines sub-instruction planning with topological graph navigation, reducing navigation error by 68.5% compared to heuristic and sampling baselines on the Map2Seq dataset. The agent's execution success, trajectory fidelity, and decision patterns serve as proxy metrics for functional navigability given OSM-visible landmarks and topology, establishing a scalable and interpretable evaluation paradigm without visual dependencies. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Under Review for ACL 2026 arXiv:1402.3779 [ pdf ] cs.OH QTC3D: Extending the Qualitative Trajectory Calculus to Three Dimensions Authors: Nikolaos Mavridis , Nicola Bellotto , Konstantinos Iliopoulos , Nico Van de Weghe Abstract : Spatial interactions between agents (humans, animals, or machines) carry information of high value to human or electronic observers. However, not all the information contained in a pair of continuous trajectories is important and thus the need for qualitative descriptions of interaction trajectories arises. The Qualitative Trajectory Calculus (QTC) (Van de Weghe, 2004) is a promising development t… ▽ More Spatial interactions between agents (humans, animals, or machines) carry information of high value to human or electronic observers. However, not all the information contained in a pair of continuous trajectories is important and thus the need for qualitative descriptions of interaction trajectories arises. The Qualitative Trajectory Calculus (QTC) (Van de Weghe, 2004) is a promising development towards this goal. Numerous variants of QTC have been proposed in the past and QTC has been applied towards analyzing various interaction domains. However, an inherent limitation of those QTC variations that deal with lateral movements is that they are limited to two-dimensional motion; therefore, complex three-dimensional interactions, such as those occurring between flying planes or birds, cannot be captured. Towards that purpose, in this paper QTC3Dis presented: a novel qualitative trajectory calculus that can deal with full three-dimensional interactions. QTC3D is based on transformations of the Frenet-Serret frames accompanying the trajectories of the moving objects. Apart from the theoretical exposition, including definition and properties, as well as computational aspects, we also present an application of QTC3D towards modeling bird flight. Thus, the power of QTC is now extended to the full dimensionality of physical space, enabling succinct yet rich representations of spatial interactions between agents. △ Less Submitted 16 February, 2014; originally announced February 2014. arXiv:1402.3779 [ pdf ] QTC3D: Extending the Qualitative Trajectory Calculus to Three Dimensions Authors: Nikolaos Mavridis , Nicola Bellotto , Konstantinos Iliopoulos , Nico Van de Weghe Abstract : Spatial interactions between agents (humans, animals, or machines) carry information of high value to human or electronic observers. However, not all the information contained in a pair of continuous trajectories is important and thus the need for qualitative descriptions of interaction trajectories arises. The Qualitative Trajectory Calculus (QTC) (Van de Weghe, 2004) is a promising development t… ▽ More Spatial interactions between agents (humans, animals, or machines) carry information of high value to human or electronic observers. However, not all the information contained in a pair of continuous trajectories is important and thus the need for qualitative descriptions of interaction trajectories arises. The Qualitative Trajectory Calculus (QTC) (Van de Weghe, 2004) is a promising development towards this goal. Numerous variants of QTC have been proposed in the past and QTC has been applied towards analyzing various interaction domains. However, an inherent limitation of those QTC variations that deal with lateral movements is that they are limited to two-dimensional motion; therefore, complex three-dimensional interactions, such as those occurring between flying planes or birds, cannot be captured. Towards that purpose, in this paper QTC3Dis presented: a novel qualitative trajectory calculus that can deal with full three-dimensional interactions. QTC3D is based on transformations of the Frenet-Serret frames accompanying the trajectories of the moving objects. Apart from the theoretical exposition, including definition and properties, as well as computational aspects, we also present an application of QTC3D towards modeling bird flight. Thus, the power of QTC is now extended to the full dimensionality of physical space, enabling succinct yet rich representations of spatial interactions between agents. △ Less Submitted 16 February, 2014; originally announced February 2014. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Van+de+Weghe%2C+N
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Dimensions and planes of existence Toggle Dimensions and planes of existence subsection 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 1.1 Matter/Object — Physical sciences 1.2 Life/Organism — Biological sciences 1.3 Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences 1.4 Culture/Person — Human social sciences 2 Theoretical joint points Toggle Theoretical joint points subsection 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 2.1 Quantum gravity 2.2 The modern synthesis 2.3 Behavioral investment theory 2.4 Justification systems theory 3 The "problem of psychology" Toggle The "problem of psychology" subsection 3.1 Solution 3.1 Solution 4 Consciousness and human behavior 5 Toward the integration of human knowledge 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Tree of knowledge system العربية Español فارسی Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these messages ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view . Please discuss further on the talk page . See our advice if the article is about you and read our scam warning in case someone asks for money to edit this article. ( October 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references . ( September 2022 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The tree of knowledge ( ToK ) system is a new [ when? ] map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques , who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University . [ 1 ] The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [ 2 ] [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in Review of General Psychology . [ 3 ] Two special issues of the Journal of Clinical Psychology in December 2004 [ 4 ] and January 2005 [ 5 ] were devoted to the elaboration and evaluation of the model. In 2008, a special issue of Theory & Psychology [ 6 ] was devoted to the ToK System. In 2011, Henriques published A New Unified Theory of Psychology . That same year he also launched the blog Theory of Knowledge: A Unified Approach to Psychology and Philosophy on Psychology Today , which remains active. There is also a Theory Of Knowledge Society and discussion listserve that is devoted to discussing Henriques' work and other big picture viewpoints. In some ways, the ToK System reflects a fairly common hierarchy of nature and of the sciences that has been represented in one way or another since the time of Auguste Comte , who in the 19th century used a hierarchical conception of nature to argue for the existence of sociology. It also has clear parallels with Aristotle's conception of the scales of nature and the first four levels of the Great Chain of Being . Despite some overlap with a number of traditional schemes, the ToK System is properly thought of as a new theory of both ontic reality and our scientific knowledge of that reality. One of the most important and salient features of the Tree of Knowledge is how it represents reality as consisting of four different planes of existence. The theory is that, following Matter, Life, Mind and Culture each represent complex adaptive landscapes that are organized and mediated by novel emergent information processing and communication systems. Specifically, DNA/RNA store information that is processed by cells which then engage in intercellular communication to create the plane of existence called Life. Similarly, the brain and nervous system store and process information in animals which then engage in communication networks on the complex adaptive plane called Mind. Finally, linguistic storage and processing and communication between human beings generates the emergence of the Culture-Person plane of existence. The separable planes of existence or dimension of complexity argument is one of the most crucial aspects of the system. Many have argued nature is hierarchically leveled; for example, a list of such levels might be subatomic particles , atoms , molecules , cells , organ structures, multi-celled organisms, consciousness , and society is common. The ToK System embraces a view of nature as levels, but adds the notion that there are also separable dimensions of complexity . The difference becomes particularly clear in the extension of the ToK System into the Periodic Table of Behavior . The Periodic Table of Behavior (PTB) shows that natural science can be arranged in terms of the four fundamental dimensions (i.e., matter, life, mind, and culture) and three fundamental levels of analysis (i.e., part, whole, group). The PTB also demonstrates that behavior is a central concept in science. Epistemologically, natural scientists view the world via a third person behavioral lens. Ontologically, science is about mapping different kinds of behaviors that take place in nature at various levels and dimensions of analysis. The second central insight of the ToK System is that it shows how natural science is a particular kind of justification system that emerges out of Culture based on novel methods and specific epistemological commitments and assumptions (i.e., an exterior view point, quantification and experimentation). This epistemology and methodology functions to justify scientific ontology, which in turn maps the ontic reality. Specifically, the domains of the physical, biological, (basic) psychological and social sciences map the ontic dimensions of matter, life, mind and culture. The Periodic Table of Behavior further shows how science is a justification system that is arranged to map behavioral frequencies at different dimensions of complexity and levels of analysis. Dimensions and planes of existence This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. ( April 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Matter/Object — Physical sciences The dimension of matter refers to the set of material objects and their behaviors through time. In accordance with modern cosmology , matter is theorized to have emerged from a pure energy singularity at the Big Bang . Space and time were also born at such a point. Nonliving material objects range in complexity from subatomic particles to large organic molecules. The physical sciences (i.e., physics , chemistry , geology, astronomy ) describe the behavior of material objects. [ 3 ] Life/Organism — Biological sciences The dimension of life refers to organisms and their behaviors through time. Living objects are considered a unique subset of material objects. Just as quantum particles form the fundamental units of material complexity, genes are the fundamental units of living information. Although many questions about the emergence of life remain unanswered, in accordance with modern biology, the ToK posits that natural selection operating on genetic combinations through time is the unified theory of biology and forms the foundational understanding for the emergence of organic complexity. [ 3 ] Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition , in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science . [ 3 ] Henriques argues that comparative psychology , ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. Culture/Person — Human social sciences Culture in the ToK system refers to the set of sociolinguistic behaviors, which range from large scale nation states to individual human justifications for particular actions. Just as genetic information processing is associated with the Life dimension and neuronal information processing associated with the Mind dimension, symbolic information processing emerges with the Cultural dimension. [ 3 ] Henriques argues that human cognitive science, human psychology and the social sciences (i.e., anthropology, sociology, political science, and economics) work to map this domain. Theoretical joint points Quantum gravity Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics , the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity , the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies ). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything , yet progress is being made, most notably through string theory , loop quantum gravity , black hole thermodynamics and the study of the early universe. Some of the difficulties combining these two pillars of physical science are philosophical in nature and it is possible that the macro view of knowledge offered by the ToK may eventually aid in the construction of a coherent theory of quantum gravity. The reason the ToK might help is that it locates scientific knowledge in relationship to the physical universe. The modern synthesis The modern synthesis refers to the merger of genetics with natural selection which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s and offers a reasonably complete framework for understanding the emergence of biological complexity. Although there remain significant gaps in biological knowledge surrounding questions such as the origin of life and the emergence of sexual reproduction, the modern synthesis represents the most complete and well-substantiated joint point. Behavioral investment theory Behavioral investment theory (BIT) is a metatheoretical formulation for the mind, brain and animal behavioral sciences. Henriques proposes that it enables the merger of the selection science of behaviorism with the information science of cognitive neuroscience that has conceptual parallels with the modern synthesis. BIT posits that the nervous system evolved as an increasingly flexible computational control system that coordinates the behavioral expenditure of energy of the animal as a whole. Expenditure of behavioral energy is theorized to be computed on an investment value system built evolutionarily through natural selection operating on genetic combinations and ontogenetically through behavioral selection operating on neural combinations. As such, the current behavioral investments of the animal are conceptualized as the joint product of the two vectors of phylogeny and ontogeny . A unique element of BIT is that it finds a core of agreement and builds bridges between five brain-behavior paradigms: (1) cognitive science ; (2) behavioral science ; (3) evolutionary theory and genetics; (4) neuroscience; and (5) cybernetics / systems theory . David C. Geary noted the similarities between his "motive-to-control" hypothesis and Henriques' Behavioral Investment Theory, which were developed independently of each other. Furthermore, Geary suggested that his model "seem[ed] to fill in many of the proximate mechanisms and evolutionary pressures that define the life-mind joint point, and provided a framework for further development of the mind-culture joint point." [ 7 ] Justification systems theory The justification systems theory (JUST; formerly known as the justification hypothesis) posits that the evolution of language reached a tipping point with emergence of propositional claims. Specifically, propositional claims can be questioned, which generates the "question-answer" dynamic. This creates the problem of justification, which Henriques argues drives both the design of the human self-consciousness system as a mental organ of justification and gives rise to the evolution of the Culture-Person plane of existence. JUST is a novel proposal that allows for both the understanding of the evolution of culture and for identifying what makes humans distinct animals. A basic initial claim of JUST is that the process of justification is a crucial component of human mental behavior at both the individual and societal level. Unlike all other animals, humans everywhere ask for and give explanations for their actions. Arguments, debates, moral dictates, rationalizations, and excuses all involve the process of explaining why one's claims, thoughts or actions are warranted. In virtually every form of social exchange, from warfare to politics to family struggles to science, humans are constantly justifying their behavioral investments to themselves and others. JUST consists of three key postulates: The first is that the evolution of propositional language must have created the problem of justification, which involves three interlocking problems of deciphering what is (1) analytically true and what is (2) good for the group and (3) good for the individual. The second postulate is that the structure and functional design of human consciousness can be understood as a solution to the problem of justification. Specifically, the three domains of human consciousness that Henriques identifies in the Updated Tripartite Model of the (1) experiential; (2) private narrator; and (3) public narrator are directly consistent with adaptive pressures that arise from the logic of the problem of justification. This analysis deepens when one considers the dynamic relationships and filtering that takes place between these three domains. The third postulate is that culture can be understood as large scale justification systems that coordinate the behavior of human populations. Cultural systems are seen to evolve much in the same way as organisms do in biological evolution: there is a process of variation, selection and retention of belief systems. The "problem of psychology" The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework . The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are ignorant of different approaches. In most cases, individual psychologists have to determine for themselves which elements of which perspective to apply, and how to integrate them into their overall understanding. Henriques argues that the problem of psychology is a central feature of modern knowledge systems. In A New Unified Theory of Psychology , he described it as follows: The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The problem of psychology is the joint observation that the field cannot be coherently defined and yet it connects more deeply than any other discipline to the three great branches of learning. Taken together, these observations suggest that the problem of psychology is a profound problem in academia at large. This conclusion is bolstered by the fact that as psychology has lumbered along acquiring findings but not foundational clarity, the fragmentation of human knowledge has grown exponentially. All of this suggests that the question, "What is psychology?" is profoundly important, one of the central questions in all of philosophy. Asking the right questions is often the most important step in getting the right answer. My interest in psychotherapy integration ultimately led me to ask the question, "What is psychology?”. Although I had no idea at the time, it turns out that this is the right question. And, as startling as it sounds, because psychology connects to so many different domains, the correct answer to it opens up a whole new vision for integrating human knowledge. The reason for psychology's fragmentation, according to the ToK System, is that there has been no meta-theoretical frame that allows scholars to agree on the basic questions that need to be addressed. As such, the different schools of thought in psychology are like the blind men who each grab a part of the elephant and proclaim they have discovered its true nature. With its novel depiction of evolving dimensions of complexity, the ToK allows scholars finally to see the elephant. In his 2003 Review of General Psychology paper, [ 8 ] Henriques used the ToK System with the attempt to clarify and align the views of B.F. Skinner and Sigmund Freud . These luminaries were chosen because when one considers their influence and historical opposition, it can readily be argued that they represent two schools of thought that are the most difficult to integrate. Henriques used the meta-perspective offered by the ToK to argue how one can retain the key insights from each school of thought, identify errors and points of confusion, and integrate the insights into a coherent whole. Cultural and personality psychologist, Michael Katzko, [ 10 ] however critiques Henriques' position on "the problem of psychology": There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] There is a very good reason for skepticism regarding the repeated claims that the one unique problem of psychology, applicable across the entire discipline, has been identified and that the ToK System solves it. The reason is given by the detail with which alternatives have been worked out, be they historical studies of institutional development or critical commentaries on the rhetorical structure of psychology's literature. [ 11 ] Solution The problem of psychology, according to the ToK, is its conceptual incoherence, which Henriques identifies by the following: When the various conceptions of psychology (e.g., behavioral, humanistic, cognitive) are viewed through the lens of the ToK System, psychology spans two different dimensions of complexity: the mental and the cultural. In other words, the discipline has historically spanned two fundamentally separate problems: If, as previously thought, nature simply consisted of levels of complexity, psychology would not be crisply defined in relationship to biology or the social sciences. And, indeed, it is frequently suggested that psychology exists in an amorphous space between biology and the social sciences. However, with its dimension of complexity depiction, the ToK System suggests that psychology can be crisply defined as the science of mind, which is the third dimension of complexity. Furthermore, because human behavior exists in the fourth dimension, psychology must be divided into two broad scientific domains of Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). [ 9 ] Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] If it is so difficult to define terms such as 'psychology' with such precision, why bother? Why not just agree that we all have at least a rough idea of what psychology is, and take the rest of the afternoon off? After all, if theoretical or empirical work improves our understanding of some aspect of the world or our fellow people, or improves our ability to help people enhance their physical or emotional well being, what difference does it make whether this work is considered a part of psychology, of cognitive science, of behavioral neuroscience, of public health, or what have you? This raises the question of what definitions in general are good for. [ 12 ] In a similar vein, Scott O. Lilienfeld, who described Henriques' effort as "thoughtful", contended that psychology is "an inherently fuzzy concept that resists precise definition" and that "attempts to define psychology [would be] likely to hamper rather than foster consilience across disciplines". Lilienfield went on further to suggest that the scientist-practitioner gap in psychology lies not in definitional issues, but in different "epistemic attitudes" between these two groups. He stated that scientists have an epistemic attitude of empiricism , (where questions regarding human nature are settled by scientific evidence), and that practitioners have an epistemic attitude of romanticism , (where questions of human nature are settled by intuition). Lilienfeld suggested that the solution to the scientist-practitioner gulf isn't definitional, but in "train[ing] future clinical scientists to appreciate the proper places of romanticism and empiricism within science". [ 13 ] Consciousness and human behavior A frequent question and point of confusion in the ToK System is the definition and meaning of consciousness . As mentioned above, mind is not synonymous with consciousness. And, to understand consciousness from a ToK vantage point, it is crucial to recognize that the term is often ambiguous in its meaning. Two primary meanings are sentience , which is the capacity for mental experience and self-awareness , which is the capacity to be aware of one's awareness. Sentience is conceptualized as a "level 3" phenomenon, possessed by many animals other than humans and is defined as a "perceived" electro-neuro-chemical representation of animal-environment relations. The ingredient of neurological behavior that allows for the emergence of mental experience is considered the "hard" problem of consciousness and the ToK System does not address this question explicitly. In contrast, through the Justification Hypothesis (see below), the ToK System involves a very direct analysis of the other issue of consciousness, that of self-awareness . Another frequent question that is raised is "Where does individual human behavior fall on the ToK?" To analyze human behavior from the context of the ToK, one uses the ToK like a prism to separate the dimensions of behavior into physiochemical, biogenetic, neuropsychological and sociolinguistic. Thus if we imagine a conversation between a husband and wife as follows: Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” Wife: “You are late again.” Husband: “Please, not now. It was a stressful day, traffic was bad, and you know that if work needs to be done, I can’t just leave it.” The words represent the sociolinguistic dimension and are understood as a function of justification. Justification systems are seen both at the level of individual, micro-social and societal (i.e., the context of justification in which men work and women stay at home). The actions of the husband and wife in terms of facial expression , body movement, etc. are seen as the mental dimension and are understood as a function of behavioral investment. The physiological make up of the organ systems and cells of each body is seen as the biogenetic dimension. Finally, the position, temperature, molecular make up is seen as the physiochemical dimension. Each of the more basic dimensions represent conditions of possibility that allow for the emergence of the higher dimension of process. Thus, insufficient oxygen disrupts organic processes which in turn renders neuropsychological and sociolinguistic processes impossible. Toward the integration of human knowledge As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience . Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In a 2008 article on the ToK, [ 14 ] Henriques cites Oliver Reiser 's 1958 call for unifying scientific knowledge that Henriques implies is similar in theme to the ToK: With its depiction of the dimensions of complexity and interlocking theoretical joint points, Henriques' believes that his ToK System offers new avenues that might allow scholars to meet Reiser’s call for academic synthesis. Henriques, like Reiser, believes that with a shared sense of purpose and a common background of explanation, people might yet be able to integrate bodies of knowledge into a unified interpretation of humanity, with humanity's place in nature and its potentialities for creating the good society. See also Tree of knowledge (philosophy) by René Descartes Tinbergen's four questions Behavioral repertoire Consilience Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge – 1998 book by E.O. Wilson Descriptive psychology General System Theory Psychological behaviorism Social meaning-making The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution – 1959 book by C. P. Snow Unified theory of cognition Unity of science Metasystem transition References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} " "About Me" section of the ToK System website" . Archived from the original on 5 December 2008 . Retrieved 3 January 2009 . ^ " "The Tree of Knowledge System" section of the 8 key ideas in the Unified Theory of Knowledge website" . Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 . Retrieved 2 July 2022 . ^ a b c d e Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 60, No 12" . Archived from the original on 3 March 2011 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2): Journal of Clinical Psychology: Vol 61, No 1" . Archived from the original on 16 December 2012 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 – via Wiley Online Library. ^ "Theory & Psychology - Volume 18, Number 6, Dec 01, 2008" . Sage Journals . ^ Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2003). The tree of knowledge system and the theoretical unification of psychology. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. ^ a b Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. ^ Homepage of Michael Katzko ^ Katzko, M. W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology , 18, 817–828. Abstract ^ Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. ^ Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Final draft ^ Reiser, O.L. (1958). The integration of human knowledge. Boston: Porter Sargent. Bibliography Anchin, J.C. (2008). The critical role of the dialectic in viable metatheory: A commentary on Henriques' Tree of Knowledge System for integrating human knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 801–816. Full text Calhoun, L.G. (2004). The unification of psychology: A noble quest. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 60, 1283–1289. Abstract Geary, D. C. (2005). The motivation to control and the origin of mind: Exploring the life-mind joint point in the tree of knowledge. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 21–46. Full text Gilbert, P. (2004). A much needed macro level view: A commentary on Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1223–1226. Full text Goertzen, J.R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18, 829–852. Full text Haaga, D.A.F. (2004). Defining psychology: What can it do for us? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1227–1230. Full text Hayes, S.C. (2004). Taxonomy as a contextualist views it. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1231–1236. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2008). The problem of psychology and the integration of human knowledge: Contrasting Wilson's Consilience with the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 731–755. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). A new vision for the field: Introduction to the second special issue on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61, 3–6. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2005). Toward a useful mass movement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 121–139. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2004). Psychology Defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1207–1221. Full text Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Henriques, G.R. (2004). The development of the unified theory and the future of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 39, 16–21. Final draft Henriques, G.R., & Cobb, H.C. (2004). Introduction to the special issues on the unified theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1203–1205. Full text Henriques, G.R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Unified professional psychology: Implications for combined-integrated doctoral training programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1051–1063. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2003). The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology. Review of General Psychology, 7, 150–182. Full text Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Henriques, G.R. (2002). The harmful dysfunction analysis and the differentiation between mental disorder and disease. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice , 1, 157–173. Full text Henriques, G.R. (2000). Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? Journal of Science and Health Policy, 1, 152–165. Full text Jones, R. (2005). From that dirty little science grows a Tree of Knowledge. The Madison, 1, 36–45. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2008). Pruning the Tree of Knowledge. Theory & Psychology, 18, 817–828. Full text Katzko, M.W. (2004). Psychology's dilemma: An institutional neurosis? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1237–1242. Full text Kihlstrom, J.F. (2004). Unity within psychology, and unity between science and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1243–1247. Full text Lilienfeld, S.O. (2004). Defining psychology: Is it worth the trouble? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1249–1253. Full text Mayer, J.D. (2004). How does psychotherapy influence personality? A theoretical integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1291–1315. Full text Presbury, J. (2004). Rooting the tree of knowledge: A response to Henriques’ psychology defined. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1255–1258. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2008). Theoretical unification as a practical project: Kant and the Tree of Knowledge System. Theory & Psychology, 18, 757–777. Full text Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics of personalization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 67–80. Full text Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Rand, K.L., & Ilardi, S.S. (2005). Toward a consilient science of psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 7–20. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2008). Religion as a large-scale justification system: Does the Justification Hypothesis explain animistic attribution? Theory & Psychology, 18, 779–799. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2006). Durkheim's aphorism, the Justification Hypothesis, and the nature of social facts. Sociological Viewpoints, fall issue, 57–70. Full text Shaffer, L.S. (2005). From mirror self-recognition to the looking glass self: Exploring the justification hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 47–65 . Full text Shealy, C.N. (2005). Justifying the justification hypothesis: Scientific-humanism, Equilintegration (EI) Theory, and the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 81–106. Full text Slife, B. (2005). Testing the limits of Henriques' proposal: Wittgensteinian lessons and hermenuetic dialogue. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 107–120. Full text Stam, H.J. (2004). Unifying psychology: Epistemological act or disciplinary maneuver? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1259–1262. Full text Stanovich, K.E. (2004). Metarepresentation and the great cognitive divide: A commentary on Henriques' "Psychology Defined". Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1263–1266. Full text Stricker, G. (2004). The unification of psychology and psychological organizations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1267–1269. Full text Vazire, S., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Beyond the Justification Hypothesis: A Broader Theory of the Evolution of Self-Consciousness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1271–1273. Full text Viney, W. (2004). Pluralism in the sciences is not easily dismissed. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1275–1278. Full text Yanchar, S.C. (2004). Some discontents with theoretical unification. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 1279–1281. Full text External links The Official Tree of Knowledge Website Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques at the Psychology Wiki This page uses content from the English-language version of Psychology Wiki . The original article was at Tree of Knowledge System/Expert article by Gregg Henriques . The list of authors can be seen in the page history . The text of both The Psychology Wiki and Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License . Science studies Systems Systems theory Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with possible conflicts of interest from October 2020 Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Use dmy dates from September 2017 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from March 2023 Articles needing additional references from April 2024 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 5 November 2025, at 05:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system#Behavioral_investment_theory
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early history 2 Later period 3 Seljuk rulers Toggle Seljuk rulers subsection 3.1 Rulers of the Seljuk Dynasty 3.2 Seljuk sultans of Hamadan 3.3 Seljuk rulers of Kerman 3.4 Seljuk rulers in Syria 3.5 Seljuk sultans of Rum (Anatolia) 3.1 Rulers of the Seljuk Dynasty 3.2 Seljuk sultans of Hamadan 3.3 Seljuk rulers of Kerman 3.4 Seljuk rulers in Syria 3.5 Seljuk sultans of Rum (Anatolia) 4 Gallery 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading Seljuk dynasty Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پنجابی Polski Português Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Seljuk dynasty Double-headed eagle , used as a symbol by several Seljuk rulers including Kayqubad I Founded 11th century – Seljuk Titles Sultan of Seljuk Empire Sultan of Rum Sultan of Kermân (or Kirmân) Emir of Damascus Emir of Aleppo Sultan of Seljuk Empire Sultan of Rum Sultan of Kermân (or Kirmân) Emir of Damascus Emir of Aleppo Traditions Sunni Islam ( Maturidi Hanafi ) Dissolution Damascus : 1104 – Baktāsh (Ertaş) , dethroned by Toghtekin Great Seljuk : 1194 – Toghrul III was killed in battle with Tekish Rum : 1308 – Mesud II died The Seljuk dynasty , or Seljukids [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ( / ˈ s ɛ l dʒ ʊ k / SEL -juuk ; Turkish : Selçuklular , Persian : سلجوقیان Saljuqian , [ 3 ] ) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids [ 4 ] or Seljuk Turks , [ 5 ] [ 6 ] was an Oghuz Turkic , Sunni Muslim dynasty that culturally became Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persian culture. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] The founder of the Seljuk dynasty, Seljuk Beg, was a descendant of a royal Khazar chief Tuqaq who served as advisor to the King of the Khazars, [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] in West Asia and Central Asia . The Seljuks established the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194), the Sultanate of Kermân (1041–1186) and the Sultanate of Rum (1074–1308), which stretched from Iran to Anatolia and were the prime targets of the First Crusade . Early history The Seljuks originated from the Kinik branch of the Oghuz Turks , [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] who in the 8th century lived on the periphery of the Muslim world; north of the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea in their Oghuz Yabgu State [ 16 ] in the Kazakh Steppe of Turkestan . [ 17 ] During the 10th century, Oghuz had come into close contact with Muslim cities. [ 18 ] When Seljuk , the leader of the Seljuk clan, had a falling out with Yabghu , the supreme chieftain of the Oghuz, he split his clan from the bulk of the Oghuz Turks and set up camp on the west bank of the lower Syr Darya . Around 985, Seljuk converted to Islam. [ 18 ] In the 11th century, the Seljuks migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia , in the province of Khurasan , where they encountered the Ghaznavids . The Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Nasa in 1035. Seljuk's grandsons, Tughril and Chaghri, received the insignias of governor, grants of land, and were given the title of dehqan . [ 19 ] At the Battle of Dandanaqan , they defeated a Ghaznavid army, and after a successful siege of Isfahan by Tughril in 1050/51, [ 20 ] established the Great Seljuk Empire . The Seljuks mixed with the local population and adopted the Persian culture and Persian language in the following decades. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Later period After arriving in Persia , the Seljuks adopted the Persian culture and used the Persian language as the official language of the government, [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] and played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition which features "Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers". [ 29 ] Today, they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture , art , literature , and language . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Seljuk rulers Rulers of the Seljuk Dynasty The "Great Seljuks" were heads of the family; in theory their authority extended over all the other Seljuk lines, although in practice this often was not the case. Turkic custom called for the senior member of the family to be the Great Seljuk, although usually the position was associated with the ruler of western Persia. Titular name(s) Personal name Reign Bey بیگ Tughril I طغرل 1037–1063 Suleiman [ 30 ] سلیمان شاہ 1063 [ 31 ] Sultan سلطان Alp Arslan (Arslan I) الپ ارسلان 1063–1072 Sultan سلطان Jalāl al-Dawlah جلال الدولہ Malik Shah I ملک شاہ یکم 1072–1092 Sultan سلطان Nasir al-Duniya wa al-Din ناصر الدنیا والدین Mahmud I محمود یکم 1092–1094 Sultan سلطان Abul Muzaffar Rukn al-Duniya wa al-Din أبو المظفر رکن الدنیا والدین Barkiyaruq برکیارق 1094–1105 Sultan سلطان Muizz al-Din معز الدین Malik Shah II ملک شاہ دوم 1104–1105 Sultan سلطان Ghiyath al-Duniya wa al-Din غیاث الدنیا والدین Muhammad I Tapar محمد تاپار 1105–1118 Sultan سلطان Muizz al-Din معز الدین * Ahmad Sanjar احمد سنجر 1118–1153 Khwarazmian dynasty replaces the Seljuk dynasty. From 1157, the Oghuz took control of much of Khurasan, with the remainder in the hands of former Seljuk emirs. Muhammad's son Mahmud II succeeded him in western Persia, but Ahmad Sanjar , who was the governor of Khurasan at the time being the senior member of the family, became the Great Seljuk Sultan. Seljuk sultans of Hamadan The rulers of western Persia, who maintained a very loose grip on the Abbasids of Baghdad . Several Turkic emirs gained a strong level of influence in the region, such as the Eldiguzids . Mahmud II 1118–1131 1131–1133 disputed between: Dawud 1131–1132 Mas'ud (in Jibal and Iranian Azerbaijan ) 1132 Toghrul II , 1132–1133 Dawud 1131–1132 Mas'ud (in Jibal and Iranian Azerbaijan ) 1132 Toghrul II , 1132–1133 Mas'ud 1133–1152 Malik Shah III 1152–1153 Muhammad II 1153–1159 Suleiman-Shah 1159–1161 Arslan-Shah 1161–1177 Toghrul III 1177–1194 In 1194, Toghrul III was killed in battle with the Khwarezm Shah , who annexed Hamadan. Seljuk rulers of Kerman Kerman was a province in southern Persia. Between 1053 and 1154, the territory also included Umman . Qavurt 1041–1073 (great-grandson of Seljuq, brother of Alp Arslan) Kerman Shah 1073–1074 Sultan Shah 1074–1075 or 1074–1085 Hussain Omar 1075–1084 or 1074 (before Sultan Shah) Turan Shah I 1084–1096 or 1085–1097 Iranshah ibn Turanshah 1096–1101 or 1097–1101 Arslan Shah I 1101–1142 Muhammad I 1142–1156 Tuğrul Shah 1156–1169 or 1156–1170 Bahram-Shah 1169–1174 or 1170–1175 Arslan Shah II 1174–1176 or 1175–1176 Turan Shah II 1176–1183 Muhammad II Shah 1183–1187 or 1183–1186 Muhammad abandoned Kerman, which fell into the hands of the Oghuz chief Malik Dinar . Kerman was eventually annexed by the Khwarezmid Empire in 1196. Seljuk rulers in Syria Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I 1085–1086 Jalal ad-Dawlah Malik Shah I of Great Seljuk 1086–1087 Qasim ad-Dawla Abu Said Aq Sunqur al-Hajib 1087–1094 Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I ( second time ) 1094–1095 Fakhr al-Mulk Ridwan 1095–1113 Tadj ad-Dawla Alp Arslan al-Akhras 1113–1114 Sultan Shah 1114–1123 To the Artuqids Sultans / Emirs of Damascus : Aziz ibn Abaaq al-Khwarazmi 1076–1079 Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I 1079–1095 Abu Nasr Shams al-Muluk Duqaq 1095–1104 Tutush II 1104 Muhi ad-Din Baktāsh (Ertaş) 1104 Damascus seized by the Burid Toghtekin Seljuk sultans of Rum (Anatolia) The Seljuk line, already having been deprived of any significant power, effectively ended in the early 14th century. History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE. Turkic peoples Onogurs Oghuz Turks Saragurs Utigurs Bulgars Sabir Kutrigurs Karluks Kimek Kipchaks Cherniye Klobuki Uyghurs Tatars Kumyks Yakuts Dolgans Krymchaks Crimean Karaites Onogurs Oghuz Turks Saragurs Utigurs Bulgars Sabir Kutrigurs Karluks Kimek Kipchaks Cherniye Klobuki Uyghurs Tatars Kumyks Yakuts Dolgans Krymchaks Crimean Karaites Turkic languages Turkish Azerbaijani Uzbek Kazakh Uyghur Turkmen Tatar Kyrgyz Bashkir Chuvash Qasgqai Karakalpak Sakha Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Tuvan Gagauz Karaim Krymchak Turkish Azerbaijani Uzbek Kazakh Uyghur Turkmen Tatar Kyrgyz Bashkir Chuvash Qasgqai Karakalpak Sakha Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Tuvan Gagauz Karaim Krymchak Turkic mythology Belief system: Tengrism and Shamanism Chief gods and goddesses: Kayra and Ülgen Epics and heroes: Ergenekon and Asena Major concepts: Sheka and Grey wolf Belief system: Tengrism and Shamanism Chief gods and goddesses: Kayra and Ülgen Epics and heroes: Ergenekon and Asena Major concepts: Sheka and Grey wolf Pre-14th century Yenisei Kyrgyz People 202 BCE–13th CE Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate Dingling 71 BC–?? AD Tiele (Gaoche) Göktürks First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744 Sabiri People Khazar Khaganate 618–1048 Xueyantuo 628–646 Kangar Union 659–750 Turk Shahi 665-850 Türgesh Khaganate 699–766 Kimek–Kipchak Confederation 743–1035 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055 Karluk Yabgu State 756–940 Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212 Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036 Qocho 856–1335 Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091 Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Sultanate of Rum Cuman–Kipchak Confederation 1067–1239 Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231 Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century Atabegs of Azerbaijan 1136–1225 Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526 Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266 Golden Horde 1242–1502 Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517 Bahri dynasty Ottoman State 1299–1922 Yenisei Kyrgyz People 202 BCE–13th CE Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate Dingling 71 BC–?? AD Tiele (Gaoche) Tiele (Gaoche) Göktürks First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744 First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744 Sabiri People Khazar Khaganate 618–1048 Xueyantuo 628–646 Kangar Union 659–750 Turk Shahi 665-850 Türgesh Khaganate 699–766 Kimek–Kipchak Confederation 743–1035 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055 Karluk Yabgu State 756–940 Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212 Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036 Qocho 856–1335 Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091 Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Sultanate of Rum Sultanate of Rum Cuman–Kipchak Confederation 1067–1239 Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231 Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century Atabegs of Azerbaijan 1136–1225 Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526 Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266 Golden Horde 1242–1502 Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517 Bahri dynasty Bahri dynasty Ottoman State 1299–1922 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Kutalmish 1060–1077 Suleyman I (Suleiman) 1077–1086 Dawud Kilij Arslan I 1092–1107 Malik Shah 1107–1116 Rukn ad-Din Mesud I 1116–1156 Izz ad-Din Kilij Arslan II 1156–1192 Ghiyath ad-Din Kaykhusraw I 1192–1196 Suleyman II (Suleiman) 1196–1204 Kilij Arslan III 1204–1205 Ghiyath ad-Din Kaykhusraw I (second time) 1205–1211 Izz ad-Din Kaykaus I 1211–1220 Ala ad-Din Kayqubad I 1220–1237 Ghiyath ad-Din Kaykhusraw II 1237–1246 Izz ad-Din Kaykaus II 1246–1260 Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan IV 1248–1265 Ala ad-Din Kayqubad II 1249–1257 Ghiyath ad-Din Kaykhusraw III 1265–1282 Ghiyath ad-Din Mesud II 1282–1284 Ala ad-Din Kayqubad III 1284 Ghiyath ad-Din Mesud II (second time) 1284–1293 Ala ad-Din Kayqubad III (second time) 1293–1294 Ghiyath ad-Din Mesud II (third time) 1294–1301 Ala ad-Din Kayqubad III (third time) 1301–1303 Ghiyath ad-Din Mesud II (fourth time) 1303–1307 The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rûm with their contemporary neighbors in Central Asia .mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}} Tuqaq Temur Beg Commander-in-chief of the Oghuz army Ma'munid rulers in Chorasmia ( r . 995-1117) Seljuk Beg The founder of Seljuk dynasty Altun Tash (1017-1032) Arslan Yabgu Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk The mother of Toghrul I, Chaghri, Ibrahim & Artash Yûsuf Inal [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Yûnus [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Mûsâ [ 37 ] (İnanç) Yabgu Harun ( r . 1032-1035) Ismail Khandan ( r . 1035-1041) Rasūl Tagīn [ 38 ] Qutalmish [ 39 ] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate Toghrul Beg First sultan of the Seljuks (r. 1037–1063) Chaghri Beg Co-ruler of the Seljuk dynasty Ibrahim Inal [ 39 ] Artash Inal [ 40 ] Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu [ 40 ] [ 39 ] Yûsuf, [ 41 ] Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah Shah Malik ( r . 1041-1042) Mānsūr [ 38 ] [ 38 ] Suleyman I Shah of Rûm [ 42 ] ( r . 1077–1086) Alp Ilig and Dawlat [ 38 ] Suleiman [ 30 ] ( r . 1063) [ 31 ] Alp Arslan ( r . 1063–1072) Kavurt [ 43 ] Beg ( r . 1048–1073) Kirman Seljuks Seljuk rule in Khwarazm ( r . 1042-1077) Abu'l-Qasim ( İznik ) ( r . 1086-1092) Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey ( Kayseri ) Malik-Shah I ( r . 1072–1092) Kīrmān [ 44 ] Shah ( r . 1073–1074) Sultan Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1074–1085) Turan I Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1085–1097) Anūsh Tekīn ( r . 1077-1097) Ayisha [ 42 ] Khātun ( r. in Malatya ) Kilij Arslan I ( r. 1092–1107) Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd) [ 42 ] Mahmud I [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1094) Barkiyaruq [ 48 ] ( r . 1092–1104) Arslan Shah I ( r . 1101–1142) Muhammad I Mālīk Shah ( r . 1142–1156) Îrânshah ( r . 1097–1101) Ekinchi ( r . 1097) Toghrul Arslan [ 42 ] ( r. 1107-1124 ) Malīk Shah of Rûm ( r. 1110–1116) Muhammad I Tapar ( r . 1105–1118) Malik-Shah II ( r . 1104-1105) Toghrul Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1156–1170) Bahrām Shah ( r . 1170 - 1175) [ 44 ] Arslan II Shah ( r . 1170 - 1177) [ 44 ] Turan II Shah ( r . 1177–1183) Muhammad II ( r . 1183–1187) Qutbū'd-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1097-1127) Gündüz Alp [ 49 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I ( r . 1116–1156) Malīk Arab [ 42 ] ( r. 1116-1127) in Ankara Ahmad Sanjar ( r . 1118-1153) Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk Mahmud II [ 50 ] [ 51 ] ( r . 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Toghrul II [ 50 ] [ 52 ] ( r . 1132–1134) Masud [ 50 ] [ 53 ] ( r . 1134–1152) Suleiman-Shah [ 50 ] ( r . 1159–1160) Qizil Arslan ( r . 1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız ( r . 1127-1156) Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan ( Sivas ) & ZūnNūn ( Kayseri ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan II ( r . 1156–1192) Malīk Shāhīn Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Kastamonu ) ; Daulat Dawud [ 50 ] ( r . 1131–1132) Malik-Shah III [ 50 ] ( r . 1152–1153) Muhammad II [ 50 ] ( r . 1153–1159) Arslan-Shah [ 50 ] [ 54 ] ( r . 1160–1177) Toghrul III [ 50 ] [ 55 ] ( r . 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan Terken Khatun Tāj ad-Dīn İl-Arslan ( r . 1156-1172) Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm ( r. 1196–1204) The mothers of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I and Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw I ( r. 1192–1196) & ( r. 1205–1211) Dawlat Raziya Khatun Malīka İsmetū'd-Dīn Gevher Nesibe Sultan Qutb ū'd-Dīn Malīk Shāh ( Sivas , Aksaray ) Arslan Shāh ( Niğde ) Terken Khatun de facto ruler of Muhammad ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish ( r . 1172-1200) Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh ( r . 1172-1193) Kilij Arslan III ( r. 1204–1205) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I ( r. 1211–1220) Hunad - Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya Castle ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād I ( r. 1220–1237) Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of Ayyubids Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Eskişehir ) Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh ( Kayseri ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1200-1220) Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubardī ( r . 1220-1231) Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn ( Koyulhisar ) Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249) [ Note 1 ] Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw II ( r. 1237–1246) Gurju Khatun ( Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians ) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Suleyman [ Note 2 ] ( Parwāna ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan, Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh ( Elbistan ) Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh ( Malatya ) Ögedei established the Mongol rule in Khwarezmia ( r . 1229–1241) Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey ( r . 1256–1263) ( Karamanoğulları Anatolian Beylik ) Unknown son [ 56 ] ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II (1246–1249) [ Note 3 ] ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1254-1262) [ Note 4 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1257-1262) & (1262-1266) [ Note 5 ] ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II [ Note 6 ] ( r. 1249–1254) Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik (established in Sinop in 1277) Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh ( Amasya ) Sanjar Shāh ( Ereğli ) Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh ( Niksar , Koyulhisar ) Möngke appointed Hulagu , the son of Tolui , as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253 Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey (Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş (15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277) [ Note 7 ] or [ Note 8 ] (24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r. 1282–1284) & ( r. 1284–1296) Farāmurz Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III ( r. 1266–1282) & ( r. 1282–1284) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed ( r . 1277-1297) Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Ali Kubilai endorsed Abaqa , the son of Hulagu , as Il-Khan in 1270 ( r. 1265–1282) Ahmad Tagüdar ( r. 1282–1284) Uç Beylik of Osman established ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III ( r . 1298-1302) [ 42 ] Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Masūd ( r . 1297-1300) Taraqay Arghun ( r. 1284–1291) Gaykhatu ( r. 1291–1295) Osman of Ottomans ( r . 1299-1323/4) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r . 1303-1308) [ 42 ] Gazi Chelebi ( r . 1300-1322) Baydu ( r. 1295) Ghazan ( r. 1295–1304) Öljaitü ( r. 1304–1316) The list of important historical events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaghri Beg defeated Shah - Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm . . Establishment . Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 . . . . . . . The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Crusade . . . ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon . Third Crusade . Ala ad-Din Tekish - Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray , Khorasan in 1194 . Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks . Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal al-Din Mangburni in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230 . Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs . Babai Revolt . Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire . Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign (1249–1254) [ 42 ] Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259 . Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294 . Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt , Bilecik in 1299 . Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks . Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336 Tuqaq Temur Beg Commander-in-chief of the Oghuz army Ma'munid rulers in Chorasmia ( r . 995-1117) Seljuk Beg The founder of Seljuk dynasty Altun Tash (1017-1032) Arslan Yabgu Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk The mother of Toghrul I, Chaghri, Ibrahim & Artash Yûsuf Inal [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Yûnus [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Mûsâ [ 37 ] (İnanç) Yabgu Harun ( r . 1032-1035) Ismail Khandan ( r . 1035-1041) Rasūl Tagīn [ 38 ] Qutalmish [ 39 ] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate Toghrul Beg First sultan of the Seljuks (r. 1037–1063) Chaghri Beg Co-ruler of the Seljuk dynasty Ibrahim Inal [ 39 ] Artash Inal [ 40 ] Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu [ 40 ] [ 39 ] Yûsuf, [ 41 ] Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah Shah Malik ( r . 1041-1042) Mānsūr [ 38 ] [ 38 ] Suleyman I Shah of Rûm [ 42 ] ( r . 1077–1086) Alp Ilig and Dawlat [ 38 ] Suleiman [ 30 ] ( r . 1063) [ 31 ] Alp Arslan ( r . 1063–1072) Kavurt [ 43 ] Beg ( r . 1048–1073) Kirman Seljuks Seljuk rule in Khwarazm ( r . 1042-1077) Abu'l-Qasim ( İznik ) ( r . 1086-1092) Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey ( Kayseri ) Malik-Shah I ( r . 1072–1092) Kīrmān [ 44 ] Shah ( r . 1073–1074) Sultan Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1074–1085) Turan I Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1085–1097) Anūsh Tekīn ( r . 1077-1097) Ayisha [ 42 ] Khātun ( r. in Malatya ) Kilij Arslan I ( r. 1092–1107) Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd) [ 42 ] Mahmud I [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1094) Barkiyaruq [ 48 ] ( r . 1092–1104) Arslan Shah I ( r . 1101–1142) Muhammad I Mālīk Shah ( r . 1142–1156) Îrânshah ( r . 1097–1101) Ekinchi ( r . 1097) Toghrul Arslan [ 42 ] ( r. 1107-1124 ) Malīk Shah of Rûm ( r. 1110–1116) Muhammad I Tapar ( r . 1105–1118) Malik-Shah II ( r . 1104-1105) Toghrul Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1156–1170) Bahrām Shah ( r . 1170 - 1175) [ 44 ] Arslan II Shah ( r . 1170 - 1177) [ 44 ] Turan II Shah ( r . 1177–1183) Muhammad II ( r . 1183–1187) Qutbū'd-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1097-1127) Gündüz Alp [ 49 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I ( r . 1116–1156) Malīk Arab [ 42 ] ( r. 1116-1127) in Ankara Ahmad Sanjar ( r . 1118-1153) Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk Mahmud II [ 50 ] [ 51 ] ( r . 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Toghrul II [ 50 ] [ 52 ] ( r . 1132–1134) Masud [ 50 ] [ 53 ] ( r . 1134–1152) Suleiman-Shah [ 50 ] ( r . 1159–1160) Qizil Arslan ( r . 1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız ( r . 1127-1156) Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan ( Sivas ) & ZūnNūn ( Kayseri ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan II ( r . 1156–1192) Malīk Shāhīn Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Kastamonu ) ; Daulat Dawud [ 50 ] ( r . 1131–1132) Malik-Shah III [ 50 ] ( r . 1152–1153) Muhammad II [ 50 ] ( r . 1153–1159) Arslan-Shah [ 50 ] [ 54 ] ( r . 1160–1177) Toghrul III [ 50 ] [ 55 ] ( r . 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan Terken Khatun Tāj ad-Dīn İl-Arslan ( r . 1156-1172) Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm ( r. 1196–1204) The mothers of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I and Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw I ( r. 1192–1196) & ( r. 1205–1211) Dawlat Raziya Khatun Malīka İsmetū'd-Dīn Gevher Nesibe Sultan Qutb ū'd-Dīn Malīk Shāh ( Sivas , Aksaray ) Arslan Shāh ( Niğde ) Terken Khatun de facto ruler of Muhammad ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish ( r . 1172-1200) Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh ( r . 1172-1193) Kilij Arslan III ( r. 1204–1205) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I ( r. 1211–1220) Hunad - Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya Castle ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād I ( r. 1220–1237) Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of Ayyubids Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Eskişehir ) Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh ( Kayseri ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1200-1220) Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubardī ( r . 1220-1231) Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn ( Koyulhisar ) Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249) [ Note 1 ] Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw II ( r. 1237–1246) Gurju Khatun ( Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians ) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Suleyman [ Note 2 ] ( Parwāna ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan, Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh ( Elbistan ) Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh ( Malatya ) Ögedei established the Mongol rule in Khwarezmia ( r . 1229–1241) Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey ( r . 1256–1263) ( Karamanoğulları Anatolian Beylik ) Unknown son [ 56 ] ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II (1246–1249) [ Note 3 ] ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1254-1262) [ Note 4 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1257-1262) & (1262-1266) [ Note 5 ] ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II [ Note 6 ] ( r. 1249–1254) Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik (established in Sinop in 1277) Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh ( Amasya ) Sanjar Shāh ( Ereğli ) Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh ( Niksar , Koyulhisar ) Möngke appointed Hulagu , the son of Tolui , as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253 Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey (Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş (15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277) [ Note 7 ] or [ Note 8 ] (24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r. 1282–1284) & ( r. 1284–1296) Farāmurz Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III ( r. 1266–1282) & ( r. 1282–1284) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed ( r . 1277-1297) Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Ali Kubilai endorsed Abaqa , the son of Hulagu , as Il-Khan in 1270 ( r. 1265–1282) Ahmad Tagüdar ( r. 1282–1284) Uç Beylik of Osman established ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III ( r . 1298-1302) [ 42 ] Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Masūd ( r . 1297-1300) Taraqay Arghun ( r. 1284–1291) Gaykhatu ( r. 1291–1295) Osman of Ottomans ( r . 1299-1323/4) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r . 1303-1308) [ 42 ] Gazi Chelebi ( r . 1300-1322) Baydu ( r. 1295) Ghazan ( r. 1295–1304) Öljaitü ( r. 1304–1316) Tuqaq Temur Beg Commander-in-chief of the Oghuz army Ma'munid rulers in Chorasmia ( r . 995-1117) Seljuk Beg The founder of Seljuk dynasty Altun Tash (1017-1032) Arslan Yabgu Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk The mother of Toghrul I, Chaghri, Ibrahim & Artash Yûsuf Inal [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Yûnus [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Mûsâ [ 37 ] (İnanç) Yabgu Harun ( r . 1032-1035) Ismail Khandan ( r . 1035-1041) Rasūl Tagīn [ 38 ] Qutalmish [ 39 ] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate Toghrul Beg First sultan of the Seljuks (r. 1037–1063) Chaghri Beg Co-ruler of the Seljuk dynasty Ibrahim Inal [ 39 ] Artash Inal [ 40 ] Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu [ 40 ] [ 39 ] Yûsuf, [ 41 ] Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah Shah Malik ( r . 1041-1042) Mānsūr [ 38 ] [ 38 ] Suleyman I Shah of Rûm [ 42 ] ( r . 1077–1086) Alp Ilig and Dawlat [ 38 ] Suleiman [ 30 ] ( r . 1063) [ 31 ] Alp Arslan ( r . 1063–1072) Kavurt [ 43 ] Beg ( r . 1048–1073) Kirman Seljuks Seljuk rule in Khwarazm ( r . 1042-1077) Abu'l-Qasim ( İznik ) ( r . 1086-1092) Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey ( Kayseri ) Malik-Shah I ( r . 1072–1092) Kīrmān [ 44 ] Shah ( r . 1073–1074) Sultan Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1074–1085) Turan I Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1085–1097) Anūsh Tekīn ( r . 1077-1097) Ayisha [ 42 ] Khātun ( r. in Malatya ) Kilij Arslan I ( r. 1092–1107) Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd) [ 42 ] Mahmud I [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1094) Barkiyaruq [ 48 ] ( r . 1092–1104) Arslan Shah I ( r . 1101–1142) Muhammad I Mālīk Shah ( r . 1142–1156) Îrânshah ( r . 1097–1101) Ekinchi ( r . 1097) Toghrul Arslan [ 42 ] ( r. 1107-1124 ) Malīk Shah of Rûm ( r. 1110–1116) Muhammad I Tapar ( r . 1105–1118) Malik-Shah II ( r . 1104-1105) Toghrul Shah [ 44 ] ( r . 1156–1170) Bahrām Shah ( r . 1170 - 1175) [ 44 ] Arslan II Shah ( r . 1170 - 1177) [ 44 ] Turan II Shah ( r . 1177–1183) Muhammad II ( r . 1183–1187) Qutbū'd-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1097-1127) Gündüz Alp [ 49 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I ( r . 1116–1156) Malīk Arab [ 42 ] ( r. 1116-1127) in Ankara Ahmad Sanjar ( r . 1118-1153) Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk Mahmud II [ 50 ] [ 51 ] ( r . 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Toghrul II [ 50 ] [ 52 ] ( r . 1132–1134) Masud [ 50 ] [ 53 ] ( r . 1134–1152) Suleiman-Shah [ 50 ] ( r . 1159–1160) Qizil Arslan ( r . 1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız ( r . 1127-1156) Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan ( Sivas ) & ZūnNūn ( Kayseri ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan II ( r . 1156–1192) Malīk Shāhīn Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Kastamonu ) ; Daulat Dawud [ 50 ] ( r . 1131–1132) Malik-Shah III [ 50 ] ( r . 1152–1153) Muhammad II [ 50 ] ( r . 1153–1159) Arslan-Shah [ 50 ] [ 54 ] ( r . 1160–1177) Toghrul III [ 50 ] [ 55 ] ( r . 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan Terken Khatun Tāj ad-Dīn İl-Arslan ( r . 1156-1172) Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm ( r. 1196–1204) The mothers of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I and Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw I ( r. 1192–1196) & ( r. 1205–1211) Dawlat Raziya Khatun Malīka İsmetū'd-Dīn Gevher Nesibe Sultan Qutb ū'd-Dīn Malīk Shāh ( Sivas , Aksaray ) Arslan Shāh ( Niğde ) Terken Khatun de facto ruler of Muhammad ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish ( r . 1172-1200) Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh ( r . 1172-1193) Kilij Arslan III ( r. 1204–1205) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus I ( r. 1211–1220) Hunad - Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya Castle ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād I ( r. 1220–1237) Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of Ayyubids Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh ( Ankara , Çankırı , Eskişehir ) Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh ( Kayseri ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad ( r . 1200-1220) Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubardī ( r . 1220-1231) Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn ( Koyulhisar ) Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249) [ Note 1 ] Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw II ( r. 1237–1246) Gurju Khatun ( Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians ) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Suleyman [ Note 2 ] ( Parwāna ) ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan, Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh ( Elbistan ) Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh ( Malatya ) Ögedei established the Mongol rule in Khwarezmia ( r . 1229–1241) Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey ( r . 1256–1263) ( Karamanoğulları Anatolian Beylik ) Unknown son [ 56 ] ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II (1246–1249) [ Note 3 ] ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1254-1262) [ Note 4 ] Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV ( r. 1249–1254) & ( r. 1257-1262) & (1262-1266) [ Note 5 ] ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II [ Note 6 ] ( r. 1249–1254) Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik (established in Sinop in 1277) Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh ( Amasya ) Sanjar Shāh ( Ereğli ) Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh ( Niksar , Koyulhisar ) Möngke appointed Hulagu , the son of Tolui , as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253 Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey (Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş ) ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş (15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277) [ Note 7 ] or [ Note 8 ] (24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r. 1282–1284) & ( r. 1284–1296) Farāmurz Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III ( r. 1266–1282) & ( r. 1282–1284) Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed ( r . 1277-1297) Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Ali Kubilai endorsed Abaqa , the son of Hulagu , as Il-Khan in 1270 ( r. 1265–1282) Ahmad Tagüdar ( r. 1282–1284) Uç Beylik of Osman established ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III ( r . 1298-1302) [ 42 ] Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Masūd ( r . 1297-1300) Taraqay Arghun ( r. 1284–1291) Gaykhatu ( r. 1291–1295) Osman of Ottomans ( r . 1299-1323/4) Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II ( r . 1303-1308) [ 42 ] Gazi Chelebi ( r . 1300-1322) Baydu ( r. 1295) Ghazan ( r. 1295–1304) Öljaitü ( r. 1304–1316) The list of important historical events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaghri Beg defeated Shah - Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm . . Establishment . Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 . . . . . . . The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Crusade . . . ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon . Third Crusade . Ala ad-Din Tekish - Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray , Khorasan in 1194 . Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks . Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal al-Din Mangburni in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230 . Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs . Babai Revolt . Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire . Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign (1249–1254) [ 42 ] Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259 . Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294 . Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt , Bilecik in 1299 . Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks . Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336 The list of important historical events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaghri Beg defeated Shah - Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm . . Establishment . Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 . . . . . . . The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Crusade . . . ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon . Third Crusade . Ala ad-Din Tekish - Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray , Khorasan in 1194 . Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks . Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal al-Din Mangburni in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230 . Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs . Babai Revolt . Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire . Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign (1249–1254) [ 42 ] Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259 . Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294 . Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt , Bilecik in 1299 . Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks . Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336 Gallery Shatranj chess set, glazed fritware , 12th-century Iran . New York Metropolitan Museum of Art . Seljuk sarcophagus at the Eskişehir Eti Archaeology Museum Family tree v t e Great Seljuk sultans family tree v t e Tuqaq Temur Yalig Beg ( b . ? – d . ?) Commander-in-chief of The Oghuz army Seljuk Beg ( b . ? – d . ?) The founder of Seljuk dynasty Qawam al-Dawla [ 57 ] ( r . 1012–1028) Buyid Governor in Kerman Arslan Yabgu ( b . ? – d . 1032) Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk ( b . ? - d . ?) The mother of Toghrul , Chaghri , Ibrahim and Artash Yûsuf Inal [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Yûnus [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Mûsâ Yabgu [ 58 ] (İnanç Yabgu) Governor of Tokharistan Abu Kalijar [ 57 ] ( r . 1028–1048) Buyid Amir in Kirman Kurlu Bey [ 59 ] ( r . 1069–1071) Leader of the Seljuk vassal state in Palestine Qutalmish [ 60 ] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate 1. Toghrul I ( r . 1037–1063) First sultan of The Great Seljuk Empire Chaghri Beg [ 30 ] ( r . 1040–1060) Governor of Khorasan Ibrahim Inal [ 60 ] Artash Inal [ 58 ] (Artāsh) Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu [ 58 ] [ 60 ] Yûsuf, Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, [ 61 ] Bori and Dawlatshah 1. Qawurd-Beg [ 57 ] Seljuk Shah of Kirman ( r . 1048–1073) Kerman Seljuk Sultanate Atsiz ibn Uvaq [ 59 ] ( r . 1076–1079) Amir of Dimashq Aksungur [ 62 ] ( r . 1086–1094) Sultan of Aleppo 2.Suleiman [ 30 ] ( r . 1063) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 3. Alp Arslan ( r . 1063–1072) Sultan of Great Seljuk Alp Sungur Yâkūtî [ 30 ] Prince Governor of Azerbaijan Arslan Argun and Ilyas [ 30 ] Other princes Khadija Arslan [ 30 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Qa'im . Safiyya Khatun [ 30 ] Princess 2. Kerman Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1073–1074) 3.Hussain Omar Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1074) Tutush [ 64 ] [ 65 ] ( r . 1079–1095) Sultan of Dimashq and ( r . 1094–1095) of Aleppo Turkan Khatun [ 45 ] The daughter of Tamghach Khan Ibrahim of Kara-Khanid dynasty and de facto ruler of Mahmud I 4. Malik-Shah I [ 46 ] ( r . 1072–1092) Sultan of Great Seljuk Arslan-Shah ( r . 1066–1083) Governor of Khorasan Doğan-Shah ( r . 1083–1092) Governor of Khorasan Arslan-Argun [ 66 ] ( r . 1092–1097) Governor of Khorasan Tuğrul and Böri-Bars Other princes Aisha Princess married Kara-Khanid khan Nasr Shams al-Mulk. 4. Sultan Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1074–1085) 5. Turan I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1085–1097) Dawud and Ahmad [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Other princes 5. Mahmud I [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1094) Sultan of Great Seljuk 6. Bark-Yaruq [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1104) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 8. Muhammad I Tapar [ 67 ] ( r . 1105–1118) Sultan of Great Seljuk 9. Ahmad Sanjar [ 68 ] ( r . 1118–1153) Last sultan of The Great Seljuk Tuğrul and Amîr Humâr [ 46 ] Other princes Gawhar Khatun [ 46 ] Princess married Ghaznavid sultan Mas'ud III. Sayyeda [ 46 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Mustazhir 6. Iranshah [ 63 ] ( r . 1097–1101) 7. Arslan I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1101–1142) Duqaq [ 65 ] ( r . 1095–1104) Amir of Dimashq Mah-i Malak [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadi 7. Malik-Shah II [ 47 ] ( r . 1104-1105) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 1. Mahmud II [ 50 ] [ 51 ] ( r . 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks 3. Toghrul II [ 50 ] [ 52 ] ( r . 1132–1134) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Mu'mine Khatun wife of Toghrul II until 1134 wife of İldeniz from 1136 Ildeniz ( r . 1160–1175) de facto ruler Atabeg of Arslan-Shah 4. Masud [ 50 ] [ 53 ] ( r . 1134–1152) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8. Malīk Muhammad I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1142–1156) 9. Toghrul Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1156–1170) Tutush II & Artash [ 65 ] ( Baktāsh ) ( r . 1104) Amir of Dimashq 2.Dawud [ 50 ] ( r . 1131–1132) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 5. Malik-Shah III [ 50 ] ( r . 1152–1153) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 6. Muhammad II [ 50 ] ( r . 1153–1159) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 7. Suleiman-Shah [ 50 ] ( r . 1159–1160) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8. Arslan-Shah [ 50 ] [ 54 ] ( r . 1160–1177) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Muhammad ( r . 1175–1186) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of Arslan-Shah Qizil Arslan ( r . 1186-1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids 10. Bahrām , 11. Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1170 - 1171) 12. Bahrām Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1171 - 1172) 13. Bahrām & Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1172–1175) 14. Bahrām Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175) 15. Muhammad II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175) 16. Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175 - 1177) 17. Turan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1177–1183) 18. Muhammad II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1183–1187) Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan [ 65 ] ( r . 1095–1113) Malik of Aleppo Alp Arslan [ 65 ] ( r . 1113–1114) Sultan Shah [ 65 ] ( r . 1114–1117) 9. Toghrul III [ 50 ] [ 69 ] ( r . 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr ( r . 1191–1210) de facto ruler Atabeg of the Eldiguzids Muzaffar al-Din Uzbek ( r . 1210–1225) Atabeg of the Eldiguzids Tuqaq Temur Yalig Beg ( b . ? – d . ?) Commander-in-chief of The Oghuz army Seljuk Beg ( b . ? – d . ?) The founder of Seljuk dynasty Qawam al-Dawla [ 57 ] ( r . 1012–1028) Buyid Governor in Kerman Arslan Yabgu ( b . ? – d . 1032) Chief of Seljuk dynasty Mikail ibn Seljuk ( b . ? - d . ?) The mother of Toghrul , Chaghri , Ibrahim and Artash Yûsuf Inal [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Yûnus [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Mûsâ Yabgu [ 58 ] (İnanç Yabgu) Governor of Tokharistan Abu Kalijar [ 57 ] ( r . 1028–1048) Buyid Amir in Kirman Kurlu Bey [ 59 ] ( r . 1069–1071) Leader of the Seljuk vassal state in Palestine Qutalmish [ 60 ] Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate 1. Toghrul I ( r . 1037–1063) First sultan of The Great Seljuk Empire Chaghri Beg [ 30 ] ( r . 1040–1060) Governor of Khorasan Ibrahim Inal [ 60 ] Artash Inal [ 58 ] (Artāsh) Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu [ 58 ] [ 60 ] Yûsuf, Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, [ 61 ] Bori and Dawlatshah 1. Qawurd-Beg [ 57 ] Seljuk Shah of Kirman ( r . 1048–1073) Kerman Seljuk Sultanate Atsiz ibn Uvaq [ 59 ] ( r . 1076–1079) Amir of Dimashq Aksungur [ 62 ] ( r . 1086–1094) Sultan of Aleppo 2.Suleiman [ 30 ] ( r . 1063) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 3. Alp Arslan ( r . 1063–1072) Sultan of Great Seljuk Alp Sungur Yâkūtî [ 30 ] Prince Governor of Azerbaijan Arslan Argun and Ilyas [ 30 ] Other princes Khadija Arslan [ 30 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Qa'im . Safiyya Khatun [ 30 ] Princess 2. Kerman Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1073–1074) 3.Hussain Omar Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1074) Tutush [ 64 ] [ 65 ] ( r . 1079–1095) Sultan of Dimashq and ( r . 1094–1095) of Aleppo Turkan Khatun [ 45 ] The daughter of Tamghach Khan Ibrahim of Kara-Khanid dynasty and de facto ruler of Mahmud I 4. Malik-Shah I [ 46 ] ( r . 1072–1092) Sultan of Great Seljuk Arslan-Shah ( r . 1066–1083) Governor of Khorasan Doğan-Shah ( r . 1083–1092) Governor of Khorasan Arslan-Argun [ 66 ] ( r . 1092–1097) Governor of Khorasan Tuğrul and Böri-Bars Other princes Aisha Princess married Kara-Khanid khan Nasr Shams al-Mulk. 4. Sultan Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1074–1085) 5. Turan I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1085–1097) Dawud and Ahmad [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Other princes 5. Mahmud I [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1094) Sultan of Great Seljuk 6. Bark-Yaruq [ 47 ] ( r . 1092–1104) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 8. Muhammad I Tapar [ 67 ] ( r . 1105–1118) Sultan of Great Seljuk 9. Ahmad Sanjar [ 68 ] ( r . 1118–1153) Last sultan of The Great Seljuk Tuğrul and Amîr Humâr [ 46 ] Other princes Gawhar Khatun [ 46 ] Princess married Ghaznavid sultan Mas'ud III. Sayyeda [ 46 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Mustazhir 6. Iranshah [ 63 ] ( r . 1097–1101) 7. Arslan I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1101–1142) Duqaq [ 65 ] ( r . 1095–1104) Amir of Dimashq Mah-i Malak [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Princess married Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadi 7. Malik-Shah II [ 47 ] ( r . 1104-1105) [ 31 ] Sultan of Great Seljuk 1. Mahmud II [ 50 ] [ 51 ] ( r . 1118–1131) First sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks 3. Toghrul II [ 50 ] [ 52 ] ( r . 1132–1134) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Mu'mine Khatun wife of Toghrul II until 1134 wife of İldeniz from 1136 Ildeniz ( r . 1160–1175) de facto ruler Atabeg of Arslan-Shah 4. Masud [ 50 ] [ 53 ] ( r . 1134–1152) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8. Malīk Muhammad I Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1142–1156) 9. Toghrul Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1156–1170) Tutush II & Artash [ 65 ] ( Baktāsh ) ( r . 1104) Amir of Dimashq 2.Dawud [ 50 ] ( r . 1131–1132) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 5. Malik-Shah III [ 50 ] ( r . 1152–1153) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 6. Muhammad II [ 50 ] ( r . 1153–1159) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 7. Suleiman-Shah [ 50 ] ( r . 1159–1160) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks 8. Arslan-Shah [ 50 ] [ 54 ] ( r . 1160–1177) Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Muhammad ( r . 1175–1186) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of Arslan-Shah Qizil Arslan ( r . 1186-1191) de facto ruler of Toghrul III Atabeg of the Eldiguzids 10. Bahrām , 11. Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1170 - 1171) 12. Bahrām Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1171 - 1172) 13. Bahrām & Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1172–1175) 14. Bahrām Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175) 15. Muhammad II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175) 16. Arslan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1175 - 1177) 17. Turan II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1177–1183) 18. Muhammad II Shah [ 63 ] ( r . 1183–1187) Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan [ 65 ] ( r . 1095–1113) Malik of Aleppo Alp Arslan [ 65 ] ( r . 1113–1114) Sultan Shah [ 65 ] ( r . 1114–1117) 9. Toghrul III [ 50 ] [ 69 ] ( r . 1177–1191, 1192–1194) Last sultan of The Iraqi Seljuks Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr ( r . 1191–1210) de facto ruler Atabeg of the Eldiguzids Muzaffar al-Din Uzbek ( r . 1210–1225) Atabeg of the Eldiguzids Notes: .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman} See also Khatun Seljuk princess Seljuk Empire Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Seljuk (warlord) Notes ^ Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249 ^ Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676) ^ Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone ^ ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı ( Sultan Han , Aksaray ) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia ^ Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone ^ Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers ^ According to İbn Bîbî , el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye , p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 - 17 Muharram 676) ^ According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk , p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 - 17 Muharram 678) References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Neiberg, Michael S. (2002). Warfare in World History . Routledge. pp. 19– 20. ISBN 978-1-134-58342-3 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades . Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 39– 45. ISBN 978-1-78093-736-6 . ^ Rāvandī, Muḥammad (1385). Rāḥat al-ṣudūr va āyat al-surūr dar tārīkh-i āl-i saljūq . Tihrān: Intishārāt-i Asāṭīr. ISBN 978-964-331-366-1 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ "The Saljuqids" . Encyclopædia Iranica . ^ Tetley, G.E (2009). Hillenbrand, Carole (ed.). The Ghaznavid and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian History . London and New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 16. ISBN 978-0-415-43119-4 . ^ Fleet, Kate (2009). The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1 (PDF) . Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes , (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161, 164; "renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran…", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace." ^ Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din Nishapuri (2001), "The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami’ al-Tawarikh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the Saljuq-nama of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri," Partial tr. K.A. Luther, ed. C.E. Bosworth, Richmond, UK. K.A. Luther, p. 9: "[T]he Turks were illiterate and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire") ^ Peacock, A. C. S. (2010). Early Seljūq history : a new interpretation . London: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-203-85695-6 . OCLC 828533970 . ^ Özgüdenli, Osman Gazi (2018). "Selçukluların Kökeni" [Origin of the Seljuks]. In Turan, Refik (ed.). Selçuklu Tarihi El Kitabı [ Seljuk History Handbook ] (in Turkish). Grafiker Yayınları. pp. 19– 37. ^ Golden, Peter (2007). "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism". In Golden, Peter; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Roná-Tas, András (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives . Brill. p. 159. ^ Concise Britannica Online Seljuq Dynasty Archived 2007-01-14 at the Wayback Machine article ^ The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami Al-Tawarikh ( LINK ) ^ Shaw, Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey ( LINK ) ^ Golden, Peter B. (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. p. 209 ^ Wink, Andre, Al Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World Brill Academic Publishers, 1996, ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5 p. 9 ^ Islam: An Illustrated History , p. 51 ^ a b Michael Adas, Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History , (Temple University Press, 2001), 99. ^ Bosworth, C.E. The Ghaznavids: 994–1040 , Edinburgh University Press, 1963, 242. ^ Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F–O , (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007), 476. ^ a b O. Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica , Online Edition, ( LINK ) ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica , "Seljuq", Online Edition, ( LINK Archived 2007-12-19 at the Wayback Machine ): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..." ^ a b M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies) , vol. 25–26 (2005), pp. 157–169 ^ M.A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica , Online Edition, ( LINK ): "... here one might bear in mind that Turco-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..." ^ F. Daftary, "Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia , Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth ; UNESCO Publishing , Institute of Ismaili Studies : "... Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) ..." ^ Bosworth, C.E.; Hillenbrand, R.; Rogers, J.M.; Blois, F.C. de; Bosworth, C.E.; Darley-Doran, R.E., "Saldjukids," Encyclopaedia of Islam . Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2009: "Culturally, the consisting of the Seljuq Empire marked a further step in the dethronement of Arabic from being the sole lingua franca of educated and polite society in the Middle East. Coming as they did through a Transoxania which was still substantially Iranian and into Persia proper, the Seljuqs with no high-level Turkish cultural or literary heritage of their own – took over that of Persia, so that the Persian language became the administration and culture in their land of Persia and Anatolia. The Persian culture of the Rum Seljuqs was particularly splendid, and it was only gradually that Turkish emerged there as a parallel language in the field of government and adab; the Persian imprint in Ottoman civilization was to remain strong until the 19th century. ^ Ehsan Yarshater, "Iran" in Encyclopedia Iranica : "The ascent of the Saljuqids also put an end to a period which Minorsky has called "the Persian intermezzo" (see Minorsky, 1932, p. 21), when Iranian dynasties, consisting mainly of the Saffarids, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids, the Kakuyids, and the Bavandids of Tabarestan and Gilan, ruled most of Iran. By all accounts, weary of the miseries and devastations of never-ending conflicts and wars, Persians seemed to have sighed with relief and to have welcomed the stability of the Saljuqid rule, all the more so since the Saljuqids mitigated the effect of their foreignness, quickly adopting the Persian culture and court customs and procedures and leaving the civil administration in the hand of Persian personnel, headed by such capable and learned viziers as ‘Amid-al-Molk Kondori and Nezam-al-Molk." ^ C.E. Bosworth , "Turkish expansion towards the west", in UNESCO History of Humanity , Volume IV: From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century, UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, 2000. p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose Mathnawī , composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature." ^ Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, p. 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers." ^ a b c d e f g h Sevim, Ali (1993). "ÇAĞRI BEY" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 8 (Ci̇lve – Dârünnedve) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 183– 186. ISBN 978-975-389-435-7 . ^ a b c d e Sümer, Faruk (2009). "SELÇUKLULAR" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 365– 371. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8 . ^ Black, Jeremy (2005). The Atlas of World History . American Edition, New York: Covent Garden Books. pp. 65, 228. ISBN 978-0-7566-1861-2 . This map varies from other maps which are slightly different in scope, especially along the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. ^ a b Zahîrüddîn-i Nîsâbûrî, Selcûḳnâme , (Muhammed Ramazânî Publications), Tahran 1332, p. 10. ^ a b Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî , Câmiʿu’t-tevârîḫ , (Ahmed Ateş Publications), Ankara 1960, vol. II/5, p. 5. ^ a b Râvendî, Muhammed b. Ali, Râhatü’s-sudûr, (Ateş Publications), vol. I, p. 85. ^ a b Müstevfî, Târîḫ-i Güzîde, (Nevâî Publications), p. 426. ^ Osman Gazi Özgüdenli (2016). MÛSÂ YABGU . Vol. EK-2. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 324– 325. ^ a b c d Sevim, Ali (2010). SÜLEYMAN ŞAH I (PDF) . Vol. 38. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 103– 105. ISBN 978-9-7538-9590-3 . ^ a b c Faruk Sümer (2002). KUTALMIŞ (PDF) . Vol. 26. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 480– 481. ISBN 978-9-7538-9406-7 . ^ a b Osman Gazi Özgüdenli (2016). "MÛSÂ YABGU" . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Supplement 2 (Kâfûr, Ebü'l-Misk – Züreyk, Kostantin) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 324– 325. ISBN 978-975-389-889-8 . ^ Beyhakī, Târîḫ, (Behmenyâr), p. 71. ^ a b c d e f g h Sümer, Faruk (2009). ANADOLU SELÇUKLULARI (PDF) . Vol. 36. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 380– 384. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8 . ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2002). KAVURD BEY (PDF) . Vol. 25. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 73– 74. ISBN 978-9-7538-9403-6 . ^ a b c d e f Sümer, Faruk (2009). Kirman Selçuks (PDF) . Vol. 36. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 377– 379. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8 . ^ a b c d e Bezer, Gülay Öğün (2011). "TERKEN HATUN, the mother of MAHMÛD I" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 40 (Tanzi̇mat – Teveccüh) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 510. ISBN 978-975-389-652-8 . Terken Khatun (wife of Malik-Shah I) . Cite error: The named reference "TerkenHatun" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page ). ^ a b c d e f g h Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2004). "MELİKŞAH" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 29 (Mekteb – Misir Mevlevîhânesi̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 978-975-389-415-9 . ^ a b c d Özaydın, Abdülkerim (1992). "BERKYARUK" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 5 (Balaban – Beşi̇r Ağa) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 514– 516. ISBN 978-975-389-432-6 . ^ Sümer, Faruk (2009). SELÇUKLULAR (PDF) . Vol. 36. Istanbul : TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi . pp. 365– 371. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8 . ^ Enverî , Düstûrnâme-i Enverî, pp. 78-80, 1464. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Sümer, Faruk (2009). "IRAK SELÇUKLULARI" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 387. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8 . Cite error: The named reference "IrakSelçuks" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page ). ^ a b Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2003). "MAHMÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 27 (Kütahya Mevlevîhânesi̇ – Mani̇sa) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 371– 372. ISBN 978-975-389-408-1 . ^ a b Sümer, Faruk (2012). "TUĞRUL I" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 341– 342. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6 . ^ a b Sümer, Faruk (2004). "MES'ÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 29 (Mekteb – Misir Mevlevîhânesi̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 349– 351. ISBN 978-975-389-415-9 . ^ a b Sümer, Faruk (1991). "ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 3 (Amasya – Âşik Mûsi̇ki̇si̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 404– 406. ISBN 978-975-389-430-2 . ^ Sümer, Faruk (2012). "Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 342– 344. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6 . ^ Shukurov, Rustam (2016). The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461 . BRILL. pp. 108– 109. ISBN 978-9004307759 . ^ a b c Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2002). "KAVURD BEY" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 25 (Kasti̇lya – Ki̇le) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 73– 74. ISBN 978-975-389-403-6 . ^ a b c Osman Gazi Özgüdenli (2016). "MÛSÂ YABGU" . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Supplement 2 (Kâfûr, Ebü'l-Misk – Züreyk, Kostantin) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 324– 325. ISBN 978-975-389-889-8 . ^ a b Sevim, Ali (1991). "ATSIZ b. UVAK" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 4 (Âşik Ömer – Bâlâ Külli̇yesi̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 92-93. ISBN 978-975-389-431-9 . ^ a b c Sümer, Faruk (2002). "KUTALMIŞ" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 26 (Ki̇li̇ – Kütahya) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 480– 481. ISBN 978-975-389-406-7 . ^ Beyhakī, Târîḫ, (Behmenyâr), p. 71. ^ Alptekin, Coşkun (1989). "AKSUNGUR" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 2 (Ahlâk – Amari̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 196. ISBN 978-975-389-429-6 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Sümer, Faruk (2009). "KİRMAN SELÇUKLULARI" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 377-379. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8 . ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2012). "TUTUŞ" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 446– 449. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6 . ^ a b c d e f Sümer, Faruk (2009). "SELÇUKS of Syria" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 385– 386. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8 . ^ Sümer, Faruk (1991). "ARSLAN ARGUN" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 3 (Amasya – Âşik Mûsi̇ki̇si̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 399-400. ISBN 978-975-389-430-2 . ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2005). "MUHAMMED TAPAR" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 30 (Misra – Muhammedi̇yye) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 579– 581. ISBN 978-975-389-402-9 . ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2009). "AHMED SENCER" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 507– 511. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8 . ^ Sümer, Faruk (2012). "Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL" (PDF) . TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation , Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 342– 344. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6 . Further reading Dietrich, Richard (2018). "The Names of Seljuk's Sons as Evidence for the Pre-Islamic Religion of the Seljuks". Turkish Historical Review . 9 (1): 54– 70. doi : 10.1163/18775462-00901002 . hdl : 11511/41747 . Grousset, Rene (1988). The Empire of the Steppes: a History of Central Asia . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-8135-0627-2 . Previté-Orton, C. W. (1971). The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. v t e House of Seljuk v t e Early Seljukids Tuqaq Seljuk Mikail Arslan Isra'il Musa Yabghu Tuqaq Seljuk Mikail Arslan Isra'il Musa Yabghu Sultans of the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Tughril I Alp Arslan Malik-Shah I Mahmud I Berkyaruq Malik-Shah II Muhammad I Mahmud II and Ahmad Sanjar Dawud Tughril II Masud Malik-Shah III Muhammad II Suleiman-Shah Arslan-Shah Toghrul III Tughril I Alp Arslan Malik-Shah I Mahmud I Berkyaruq Malik-Shah II Muhammad I Mahmud II and Ahmad Sanjar Dawud Tughril II Masud Malik-Shah III Muhammad II Suleiman-Shah Arslan-Shah Toghrul III Governors of Khorasan (1040–1118) Chaghri Alp Arslan Arslan-Shah Toghan-Shah Arslan-Argun Ahmad Sanjar Chaghri Alp Arslan Arslan-Shah Toghan-Shah Arslan-Argun Ahmad Sanjar Governors of Kerman (1048–1188) Qawurd Kerman-Shah Husein Sultan-Shah Turan-Shah I Iran-Shah Arslan-Shah I Muhammad-Shah I Toghrul-Shah Bahram-Shah Arslan-Shah II Turan-Shah II Muhammad-Shah II Qawurd Kerman-Shah Husein Sultan-Shah Turan-Shah I Iran-Shah Arslan-Shah I Muhammad-Shah I Toghrul-Shah Bahram-Shah Arslan-Shah II Turan-Shah II Muhammad-Shah II Governors of Damascus (1076–1105) Atsiz Tutush I Duqaq Tutush II Irtash Atsiz Tutush I Duqaq Tutush II Irtash Governors of Aleppo (1086–1117) Aq Sunqur Tutush I Ridwan Alp Arslan Sultan-Shah Aq Sunqur Tutush I Ridwan Alp Arslan Sultan-Shah Sultans of Rum (1092–1307) Qutalmish Suleiman I Abu'l-Qasim (self-declared) Kilij Arslan I Malik-Shah Mesud I Kilij Arslan II Kaykhusraw I Suleiman II Kilij Arslan III Kaykaus I Kayqubad I Kaykhusraw II Kaykaus II Kilij Arslan IV Kayqubad II Kaykhusraw III Mesud II Kayqubad III Mesud III (disputed) Kilij Arslan V (disputed) Qutalmish Suleiman I Abu'l-Qasim (self-declared) Kilij Arslan I Malik-Shah Mesud I Kilij Arslan II Kaykhusraw I Suleiman II Kilij Arslan III Kaykaus I Kayqubad I Kaykhusraw II Kaykaus II Kilij Arslan IV Kayqubad II Kaykhusraw III Mesud II Kayqubad III Mesud III (disputed) Kilij Arslan V (disputed) v t e Iran topics v t e History Prehistory Ancient 3400–539 BC Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC) Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC) Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (678–549 BC) Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC–AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226) Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) Frataraka (c.295–220 BC) Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224) Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 632–1090 Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 977–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Kart dynasty (1244–1381) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432) Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) Zand Dynasty (1751–1794) Qajar Empire (1789–1925) Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries) Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 1908 bombardment of the Majlis Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 1921 Persian coup d'état Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) Iran crisis of 1946 Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Interim Government (1979) March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum Iranian Embassy siege (1980) Nojeh coup plot (1980) Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Interim Government of Iran (1981) 1981–1982 Iran Massacres 1987 Mecca incident Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) PJAK conflict (2004–) 2009 Iranian presidential election protests Syrian civil war (2011–) International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) United States withdrawal (2018) 2017–2018 Iranian protests 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests COVID-19 pandemic 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2019–2020 Iranian protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 Iranian protests 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Iran–Israel war 2025–2026 Iranian protests See also Ancient Persians Greater Iran Persianization Persianate society Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Iranic peoples languages Jiroft culture Aryans Azerbaijanis Peoples of the Caucasus Persians Monarchs of Persia Heads of state of Iran History of democracy in classical Iran Military history Electric history Years in Iran History Prehistory Ancient 3400–539 BC Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC) Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC) Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (678–549 BC) Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC–AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226) Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) Frataraka (c.295–220 BC) Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224) Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 632–1090 Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 977–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Kart dynasty (1244–1381) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432) Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) Zand Dynasty (1751–1794) Qajar Empire (1789–1925) Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries) Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 1908 bombardment of the Majlis Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 1921 Persian coup d'état Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) Iran crisis of 1946 Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Interim Government (1979) March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum Iranian Embassy siege (1980) Nojeh coup plot (1980) Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Interim Government of Iran (1981) 1981–1982 Iran Massacres 1987 Mecca incident Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) PJAK conflict (2004–) 2009 Iranian presidential election protests Syrian civil war (2011–) International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) United States withdrawal (2018) 2017–2018 Iranian protests 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests COVID-19 pandemic 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2019–2020 Iranian protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 Iranian protests 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Iran–Israel war 2025–2026 Iranian protests See also Ancient Persians Greater Iran Persianization Persianate society Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Iranic peoples languages Jiroft culture Aryans Azerbaijanis Peoples of the Caucasus Persians Monarchs of Persia Heads of state of Iran History of democracy in classical Iran Military history Electric history Years in Iran Prehistory Ancient 3400–539 BC Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC) Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC) Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (678–549 BC) Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC–AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226) Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) Frataraka (c.295–220 BC) Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224) Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) 3400–539 BC Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC) Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC) Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (678–549 BC) Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC) Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC) Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC) Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC) Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) Urartu (860 BC–590 BC) Median Empire (678–549 BC) Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC) Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) 550 BC–AD 224 Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226) Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) Frataraka (c.295–220 BC) Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224) Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226) Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC) Frataraka (c.295–220 BC) Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224) Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) AD 224–651 Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651) Medieval and early modern 632–1090 Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 977–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Kart dynasty (1244–1381) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432) Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) Zand Dynasty (1751–1794) Qajar Empire (1789–1925) Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries) Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 1908 bombardment of the Majlis Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 1921 Persian coup d'état Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 632–1090 Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) Samanid dynasty (819–999) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090) Buyid dynasty (934–1062) 977–1432 Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Kart dynasty (1244–1381) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432) Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357) Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186) Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215) Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231) Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225) Kart dynasty (1244–1381) Ilkhanate (1256–1335) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432) Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357) 1370–1925 Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) Zand Dynasty (1751–1794) Qajar Empire (1789–1925) Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries) Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 1908 bombardment of the Majlis Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 1921 Persian coup d'état Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) Timurid Empire (1370–1507) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1736) Afsharid Empire (1736–1796) Zand Dynasty (1751–1794) Qajar Empire (1789–1925) Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries) Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries) Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 1908 bombardment of the Majlis Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 1921 Persian coup d'état Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) Modern 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) Iran crisis of 1946 Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Interim Government (1979) March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum Iranian Embassy siege (1980) Nojeh coup plot (1980) Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Interim Government of Iran (1981) 1981–1982 Iran Massacres 1987 Mecca incident Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) PJAK conflict (2004–) 2009 Iranian presidential election protests Syrian civil war (2011–) International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) United States withdrawal (2018) 2017–2018 Iranian protests 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests COVID-19 pandemic 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2019–2020 Iranian protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 Iranian protests 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Iran–Israel war 2025–2026 Iranian protests 1925–1979 Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) Iran crisis of 1946 Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) Iran crisis of 1946 Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 1953 coup d'état Iranian Revolution (1979) Islamic Republic 1979–present History (1979–) Interim Government (1979) March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum Iranian Embassy siege (1980) Nojeh coup plot (1980) Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Interim Government of Iran (1981) 1981–1982 Iran Massacres 1987 Mecca incident Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) PJAK conflict (2004–) 2009 Iranian presidential election protests Syrian civil war (2011–) International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) United States withdrawal (2018) 2017–2018 Iranian protests 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests COVID-19 pandemic 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2019–2020 Iranian protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 Iranian protests 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Iran–Israel war 2025–2026 Iranian protests History (1979–) Interim Government (1979) March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum Iranian Embassy siege (1980) Nojeh coup plot (1980) Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) Interim Government of Iran (1981) 1981–1982 Iran Massacres 1987 Mecca incident Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988) KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) PJAK conflict (2004–) 2009 Iranian presidential election protests Syrian civil war (2011–) International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) United States withdrawal (2018) United States withdrawal (2018) 2017–2018 Iranian protests 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests COVID-19 pandemic 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2019–2020 Iranian protests 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 2021–2022 Iranian protests 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Iran–Israel war 2025–2026 Iranian protests See also Ancient Persians Greater Iran Persianization Persianate society Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Iranic peoples languages Jiroft culture Aryans Azerbaijanis Peoples of the Caucasus Persians Monarchs of Persia Heads of state of Iran History of democracy in classical Iran Military history Electric history Years in Iran Ancient Persians Greater Iran Persianization Persianate society Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Persianate society Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Turco-Persian Indo-Persian Iranic peoples languages languages Jiroft culture Aryans Azerbaijanis Peoples of the Caucasus Persians Monarchs of Persia Heads of state of Iran History of democracy in classical Iran Military history Electric history Years in Iran Geography Borders Cities largest twin towns and sister cities Earthquakes Environmental issues Climate change Iranian Azerbaijan Iranian Balochistan Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus Iranian Kurdistan Iranian plateau Lake Urmia Islands Mountains Provinces Wildlife Geography Borders Cities largest twin towns and sister cities Earthquakes Environmental issues Climate change Iranian Azerbaijan Iranian Balochistan Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus Iranian Kurdistan Iranian plateau Lake Urmia Islands Mountains Provinces Wildlife Borders Cities largest twin towns and sister cities largest twin towns and sister cities Earthquakes Environmental issues Climate change Climate change Iranian Azerbaijan Iranian Balochistan Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus Iranian Kurdistan Iranian plateau Lake Urmia Islands Mountains Provinces Wildlife Politics General Capital punishment Censorship Constitution ( Persian Constitutional Revolution ) Corruption Elections ( 2009 presidential ) Foreign relations Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran Human rights Children's rights LGBT Women's rights Judicial system Military ( Army Air Force Navy ) Ministry of Intelligence Cyberwarfare Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Political parties Political repression Principlists Propaganda Reformists Terrorism ( state-sponsorship allegations ) White Revolution (1963) Women's rights movement Councils Assembly (or Council) of Experts Expediency Discernment Council Guardian Council Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) Local councils Supreme National Security Council Officials Ambassadors President Provincial governors Supreme Leader Politics General Capital punishment Censorship Constitution ( Persian Constitutional Revolution ) Corruption Elections ( 2009 presidential ) Foreign relations Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran Human rights Children's rights LGBT Women's rights Judicial system Military ( Army Air Force Navy ) Ministry of Intelligence Cyberwarfare Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Political parties Political repression Principlists Propaganda Reformists Terrorism ( state-sponsorship allegations ) White Revolution (1963) Women's rights movement Councils Assembly (or Council) of Experts Expediency Discernment Council Guardian Council Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) Local councils Supreme National Security Council Officials Ambassadors President Provincial governors Supreme Leader General Capital punishment Censorship Constitution ( Persian Constitutional Revolution ) Corruption Elections ( 2009 presidential ) Foreign relations Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran Human rights Children's rights LGBT Women's rights Judicial system Military ( Army Air Force Navy ) Ministry of Intelligence Cyberwarfare Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Political parties Political repression Principlists Propaganda Reformists Terrorism ( state-sponsorship allegations ) White Revolution (1963) Women's rights movement Capital punishment Censorship Constitution ( Persian Constitutional Revolution ) Corruption Elections ( 2009 presidential ) Foreign relations Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran Human rights Children's rights LGBT Women's rights Children's rights LGBT Women's rights Judicial system Military ( Army Air Force Navy ) Ministry of Intelligence Cyberwarfare Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Political parties Political repression Principlists Propaganda Reformists Terrorism ( state-sponsorship allegations ) White Revolution (1963) Women's rights movement Councils Assembly (or Council) of Experts Expediency Discernment Council Guardian Council Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) Local councils Supreme National Security Council Assembly (or Council) of Experts Expediency Discernment Council Guardian Council Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) Local councils Supreme National Security Council Officials Ambassadors President Provincial governors Supreme Leader Ambassadors President Provincial governors Supreme Leader Economy General Bonyad (charitable trust) Brain drain Companies ( Automotive industry ) Child labour Corruption Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Economic history Economic Reform Plan Energy Environmental issues Foreign direct investment Intellectual property International oil bourse International rankings Iran and the World Trade Organization Taxation Main economic laws Economy of the Middle East Milad Tower and complex Military equipment manufactured Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Privatization Rial (currency) Space Agency Setad Supreme Audit Court Tehran Stock Exchange Venture capital ( Technology start-ups ) Sectors Agriculture ( fruit ) Banking and insurance Central Bank Shetab Banking System Construction Defense Health care ( Pharmaceuticals ) Industry Mining Petroleum ( Anglo-Persian Oil Company ) Telecommunications and IT ( TCI ) Transport ( airlines metro railways shipping ) Tourism State-owned companies Defense Industries Organization (DIO) Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) National Development Fund Places Asaluyeh industrial corridor Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone Kish Island Free Trade Zone Research centers Economy General Bonyad (charitable trust) Brain drain Companies ( Automotive industry ) Child labour Corruption Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Economic history Economic Reform Plan Energy Environmental issues Foreign direct investment Intellectual property International oil bourse International rankings Iran and the World Trade Organization Taxation Main economic laws Economy of the Middle East Milad Tower and complex Military equipment manufactured Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Privatization Rial (currency) Space Agency Setad Supreme Audit Court Tehran Stock Exchange Venture capital ( Technology start-ups ) Sectors Agriculture ( fruit ) Banking and insurance Central Bank Shetab Banking System Construction Defense Health care ( Pharmaceuticals ) Industry Mining Petroleum ( Anglo-Persian Oil Company ) Telecommunications and IT ( TCI ) Transport ( airlines metro railways shipping ) Tourism State-owned companies Defense Industries Organization (DIO) Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) National Development Fund Places Asaluyeh industrial corridor Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone Kish Island Free Trade Zone Research centers General Bonyad (charitable trust) Brain drain Companies ( Automotive industry ) Child labour Corruption Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Economic history Economic Reform Plan Energy Environmental issues Foreign direct investment Intellectual property International oil bourse International rankings Iran and the World Trade Organization Taxation Main economic laws Economy of the Middle East Milad Tower and complex Military equipment manufactured Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Privatization Rial (currency) Space Agency Setad Supreme Audit Court Tehran Stock Exchange Venture capital ( Technology start-ups ) Bonyad (charitable trust) Brain drain Companies ( Automotive industry ) Child labour Corruption Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Economic history Economic Reform Plan Energy Environmental issues Foreign direct investment Intellectual property International oil bourse International rankings Iran and the World Trade Organization Taxation Main economic laws Economy of the Middle East Milad Tower and complex Military equipment manufactured Nuclear program ( UN Security Council Resolution 1747 ) Privatization Rial (currency) Space Agency Setad Supreme Audit Court Tehran Stock Exchange Venture capital ( Technology start-ups ) Sectors Agriculture ( fruit ) Banking and insurance Central Bank Shetab Banking System Construction Defense Health care ( Pharmaceuticals ) Industry Mining Petroleum ( Anglo-Persian Oil Company ) Telecommunications and IT ( TCI ) Transport ( airlines metro railways shipping ) Tourism Agriculture ( fruit ) Banking and insurance Central Bank Shetab Banking System Central Bank Shetab Banking System Construction Defense Health care ( Pharmaceuticals ) Industry Mining Petroleum ( Anglo-Persian Oil Company ) Telecommunications and IT ( TCI ) Transport ( airlines metro railways shipping ) Tourism State-owned companies Defense Industries Organization (DIO) Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) National Development Fund Defense Industries Organization (DIO) Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO) Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) National Development Fund Places Asaluyeh industrial corridor Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone Kish Island Free Trade Zone Research centers Asaluyeh industrial corridor Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone Kish Island Free Trade Zone Research centers Society Demographics Languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Peoples Iranian citizens ( abroad ) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Religion Islam Baháʼí Faith ( persecution ) Christianity Zoroastrians ( persecution ) Freedom of religion Other Corruption Crime Education ( higher Intellectual movements scientists and scholars universities ) International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Architecture ( Achaemenid architects ) Art ( modern / contemporary ) Astronomy Blogs Calendars ( Persian New Year ( Nowruz ) ) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Cuisine ( wine ) Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam ( Islamization ) Literature Media ( news agencies ( student ) newspapers ) Mythology National Jewels National symbols ( Imperial Anthem ) Opium consumption Persian gardens Paradise garden Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport ( football ) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Iranian diaspora Brain drain Tehrangeles Society Demographics Languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Peoples Iranian citizens ( abroad ) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Religion Islam Baháʼí Faith ( persecution ) Christianity Zoroastrians ( persecution ) Freedom of religion Other Corruption Crime Education ( higher Intellectual movements scientists and scholars universities ) International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Architecture ( Achaemenid architects ) Art ( modern / contemporary ) Astronomy Blogs Calendars ( Persian New Year ( Nowruz ) ) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Cuisine ( wine ) Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam ( Islamization ) Literature Media ( news agencies ( student ) newspapers ) Mythology National Jewels National symbols ( Imperial Anthem ) Opium consumption Persian gardens Paradise garden Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport ( football ) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Iranian diaspora Brain drain Tehrangeles Demographics Languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Peoples Iranian citizens ( abroad ) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Religion Islam Baháʼí Faith ( persecution ) Christianity Zoroastrians ( persecution ) Freedom of religion Other Corruption Crime Education ( higher Intellectual movements scientists and scholars universities ) International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Persian (Farsi) Armenian Azerbaijani Kurdish Hebrew Georgian Neo-Aramaic Iranian languages Peoples Iranian citizens ( abroad ) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Iranian citizens ( abroad ) Ethnic minorities Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Armenians Assyrians Azerbaijanis Circassians Georgians Kurds Jews Turkmen Religion Islam Baháʼí Faith ( persecution ) Christianity Zoroastrians ( persecution ) Freedom of religion Islam Baháʼí Faith ( persecution ) Christianity Zoroastrians ( persecution ) Freedom of religion Other Corruption Crime Education ( higher Intellectual movements scientists and scholars universities ) International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Corruption Crime Education ( higher Intellectual movements scientists and scholars universities ) International rankings Nationality Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Architecture ( Achaemenid architects ) Art ( modern / contemporary ) Astronomy Blogs Calendars ( Persian New Year ( Nowruz ) ) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Cuisine ( wine ) Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam ( Islamization ) Literature Media ( news agencies ( student ) newspapers ) Mythology National Jewels National symbols ( Imperial Anthem ) Opium consumption Persian gardens Paradise garden Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport ( football ) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Architecture ( Achaemenid architects ) Art ( modern / contemporary ) Astronomy Blogs Calendars ( Persian New Year ( Nowruz ) ) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Cuisine ( wine ) Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam ( Islamization ) Literature Media ( news agencies ( student ) newspapers ) Mythology National Jewels National symbols ( Imperial Anthem ) Opium consumption Persian gardens Paradise garden Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport ( football ) Architecture ( Achaemenid architects ) Art ( modern / contemporary ) Astronomy Blogs Calendars ( Persian New Year ( Nowruz ) ) Fashion Chicago Persian antiquities dispute Cinema Cuisine ( wine ) Folklore Intellectual movements Iranians Iranian studies Islam ( Islamization ) Literature Media ( news agencies ( student ) newspapers ) Mythology National Jewels National symbols ( Imperial Anthem ) Opium consumption Persian gardens Paradise garden Paradise garden Persian name Philosophy Public holidays Scouting Sport ( football ) Music Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Folk Jazz Pop Rap and hip-hop Rock Traditional Ey Iran Other topics Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Iranian diaspora Brain drain Tehrangeles Science and technology Anti-Iranian sentiment Iranian diaspora Brain drain Tehrangeles Brain drain Tehrangeles Category Portal Category Portal v t e Turkey v t e History Ancient and Middle Ages Prehistory of Anatolia Classical Anatolia Byzantine Anatolia Seljuks and Beyliks Seljuk Empire Battle of Manzikert Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Ottoman Empire Rise Interregnum Classical Age Conquest of Constantinople Qizilbash Transformation Sultanate of Women Köprülü era Ottoman Old Regime Tulip era Decline and modernization Nizam-i Cedid Tanzimat First Constitutional Era Dissolution Second Constitutional Era Raid on the Sublime Porte Entry into WW1 Partition Republic of Türkiye War of Independence Turkish National Movement Ankara Government Proclamation of the republic Abolition of the Sultanate Abolition of the Caliphate Anthem Emblems Flag Atatürk's reforms Language reform Secularism One-party period Multi-party period Overviews Constitutional Ottoman Economic Ottoman Military Ottoman Topics Turkic migration Oghuz Turks Turkification Ancient peoples of Anatolia History of Anatolia Thrace Ancient and Middle Ages Prehistory of Anatolia Classical Anatolia Byzantine Anatolia Prehistory of Anatolia Classical Anatolia Byzantine Anatolia Seljuks and Beyliks Seljuk Empire Battle of Manzikert Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Seljuk Empire Battle of Manzikert Battle of Manzikert Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Ottoman Empire Rise Interregnum Classical Age Conquest of Constantinople Qizilbash Transformation Sultanate of Women Köprülü era Ottoman Old Regime Tulip era Decline and modernization Nizam-i Cedid Tanzimat First Constitutional Era Dissolution Second Constitutional Era Raid on the Sublime Porte Entry into WW1 Partition Rise Interregnum Interregnum Classical Age Conquest of Constantinople Qizilbash Conquest of Constantinople Qizilbash Transformation Sultanate of Women Köprülü era Sultanate of Women Köprülü era Ottoman Old Regime Tulip era Tulip era Decline and modernization Nizam-i Cedid Tanzimat First Constitutional Era Nizam-i Cedid Tanzimat First Constitutional Era Dissolution Second Constitutional Era Raid on the Sublime Porte Entry into WW1 Partition Second Constitutional Era Raid on the Sublime Porte Entry into WW1 Partition Republic of Türkiye War of Independence Turkish National Movement Ankara Government Proclamation of the republic Abolition of the Sultanate Abolition of the Caliphate Anthem Emblems Flag Atatürk's reforms Language reform Secularism One-party period Multi-party period War of Independence Turkish National Movement Ankara Government Turkish National Movement Ankara Government Proclamation of the republic Abolition of the Sultanate Abolition of the Caliphate Anthem Emblems Flag Abolition of the Sultanate Abolition of the Caliphate Anthem Emblems Flag Atatürk's reforms Language reform Secularism Language reform Secularism One-party period Multi-party period Overviews Constitutional Ottoman Economic Ottoman Military Ottoman Constitutional Ottoman Ottoman Economic Ottoman Ottoman Military Ottoman Ottoman Topics Turkic migration Oghuz Turks Turkification Ancient peoples of Anatolia History of Anatolia Thrace Turkic migration Oghuz Turks Oghuz Turks Turkification Ancient peoples of Anatolia History of Anatolia Thrace Geography Regions (west to east) Marmara region Aegean region Mediterranean region Black Sea region Central Anatolia region Eastern Anatolia region Southeastern Anatolia region Topics Climate Climate change Earthquakes East Anatolian Fault North Anatolian Fault Environmental issues Air pollution Waste management Fauna Flora Geology Lakes Mountains National parks Rivers Turkish Riviera Wildlife Regions (west to east) Marmara region Aegean region Mediterranean region Black Sea region Central Anatolia region Eastern Anatolia region Southeastern Anatolia region Marmara region Aegean region Mediterranean region Black Sea region Central Anatolia region Eastern Anatolia region Southeastern Anatolia region Topics Climate Climate change Earthquakes East Anatolian Fault North Anatolian Fault Environmental issues Air pollution Waste management Fauna Flora Geology Lakes Mountains National parks Rivers Turkish Riviera Wildlife Climate Climate change Climate change Earthquakes East Anatolian Fault North Anatolian Fault East Anatolian Fault North Anatolian Fault Environmental issues Air pollution Waste management Air pollution Waste management Fauna Flora Geology Lakes Mountains National parks Rivers Turkish Riviera Wildlife Government Branches Legislative Executive Cabinet Judicial Constitutional Court Court of Cassation Court of Jurisdictional Disputes Council of State Politics Censorship Elections Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Electoral system Political parties Referendums Topics Administrative divisions Foreign relations Intelligence Services Ministry of the Interior National Police Gendarmerie The constitutional system Turkish Armed Forces Air Force Land Navy Branches Legislative Executive Cabinet Judicial Constitutional Court Court of Cassation Court of Jurisdictional Disputes Council of State Legislative Executive Cabinet Cabinet Judicial Constitutional Court Court of Cassation Court of Jurisdictional Disputes Council of State Constitutional Court Court of Cassation Court of Jurisdictional Disputes Council of State Politics Censorship Elections Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Electoral system Political parties Referendums Censorship Elections Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Electoral system Political parties Referendums Topics Administrative divisions Foreign relations Intelligence Services Ministry of the Interior National Police Gendarmerie The constitutional system Turkish Armed Forces Air Force Land Navy Administrative divisions Foreign relations Intelligence Services Ministry of the Interior National Police Gendarmerie National Police Gendarmerie The constitutional system Turkish Armed Forces Air Force Land Navy Air Force Land Navy Economy Automotive Banking and finance Construction Currency Defense Energy Coal Gas Oil Renewables Free trade agreements Science and technology Telecommunications Tourism World Heritage Sites Intangible Cultural Heritage Transportation Aviation Turkish Airlines Railways Automotive Banking and finance Construction Currency Defense Energy Coal Gas Oil Renewables Coal Gas Oil Renewables Free trade agreements Science and technology Telecommunications Tourism World Heritage Sites Intangible Cultural Heritage World Heritage Sites Intangible Cultural Heritage Transportation Aviation Turkish Airlines Railways Aviation Turkish Airlines Railways Demographics Turkish people Minorities Kurds Languages Turkish language Religion Islam in Turkey Cities and towns Istanbul Ankara İzmir Immigration Migrant crisis Life expectancy Turkish people Minorities Kurds Kurds Languages Turkish language Turkish language Religion Islam in Turkey Islam in Turkey Cities and towns Istanbul Ankara İzmir Istanbul Ankara İzmir Immigration Migrant crisis Migrant crisis Life expectancy Society Education Universities Health care Human rights LGBTQ rights Individuals Law enforcement Crime Corruption Terrorism Marriage Poverty Women in Turkey Culture Architecture Seljuk Ottoman Art Illumination Literature Cinema Folk dance Music Miniature Opera and ballet Painting Theater Carpet Cuisine Ottoman Wine Festivals Folklore Media Newspapers Radio stations TV TV series Video games Names Postage stamps Pottery Public holidays Sports Football Oil wrestling Olympic appearances Education Universities Universities Health care Human rights LGBTQ rights LGBTQ rights Individuals Law enforcement Crime Corruption Terrorism Crime Corruption Terrorism Marriage Poverty Women in Turkey Culture Architecture Seljuk Ottoman Art Illumination Literature Cinema Folk dance Music Miniature Opera and ballet Painting Theater Carpet Cuisine Ottoman Wine Festivals Folklore Media Newspapers Radio stations TV TV series Video games Names Postage stamps Pottery Public holidays Sports Football Oil wrestling Olympic appearances Architecture Seljuk Ottoman Seljuk Ottoman Art Illumination Literature Cinema Folk dance Music Miniature Opera and ballet Painting Theater Illumination Literature Cinema Folk dance Music Miniature Opera and ballet Painting Theater Carpet Cuisine Ottoman Wine Ottoman Wine Festivals Folklore Media Newspapers Radio stations TV TV series Video games Newspapers Radio stations TV TV series Video games Names Postage stamps Pottery Public holidays Sports Football Oil wrestling Olympic appearances Football Oil wrestling Olympic appearances Portal Category Commons WikiProject Outline Portal Category Commons WikiProject Outline Authority control databases International VIAF 2 GND WorldCat 2 VIAF 2 2 GND WorldCat 2 2 National Japan Japan People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other İslâm Ansiklopedisi İslâm Ansiklopedisi Seljuk dynasty First Crusade History of Nishapur Maturidis Pages with reference errors CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr) Webarchive template wayback links Pages with duplicate reference names Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Turkish-language text Articles containing Persian-language text Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 20 December 2025, at 13:55 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-8
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to 2026 in science at Wikimedia Commons v t e 2020s articles v t e History Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Events COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Govt UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size Years Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Categories General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling Wrestling Portal:Current events v t e Overviews of the 2020s v t e History World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history United Kingdom World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history Political history United Kingdom Culture Film Music Latin Fashion Video games Film Music Latin Latin Fashion Video games Societal Society Economy Society Economy Science Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Related Year in topic List of timelines Year in topic List of timelines Science Technology Astronomy Outer space Current events 2026 in science 21st century in science 2020s in technology 2026-related lists Science timelines by year CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2025 Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 02:35 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_in_science#cite_note-9
|
Strona główna Losuj artykuł Kategorie artykułów Najlepsze artykuły Częste pytania (FAQ) O Wikipedii Kontakt Pierwsze kroki Portal wikipedystów Ogłoszenia Zasady Pomoc Strony specjalne Ostatnie zmiany Wspomóż Wikipedię Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Wspomóż Wikipedię Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Spis treści Początek 1 Nazwa 2 Preludium 3 Działania zbrojne Przełącz podsekcję Działania zbrojne 3.1 Agresja III Rzeszy i ZSRR na Polskę 3.2 Konfrontacja japońsko-radziecka 3.3 Front zachodni 1939–1940 3.4 Agresja ZSRR na Finlandię – wojna zimowa 3.5 Bitwa o Atlantyk 3.6 Niemiecka inwazja na Skandynawię 3.7 Niemiecka inwazja na Francję 3.8 Bitwa o Anglię 3.9 Kampania bałkańska 3.10 Kampania afrykańska 1940–1942 3.11 Kampania iracka 3.12 Niemiecka inwazja na ZSRR 3.12.1 Operacja „Barbarossa” 3.12.2 Kierunek bałtycki 3.12.3 Kierunek ukraiński 3.12.4 Kierunek białoruski 3.12.5 Inwazje fińska i rumuńska 3.13 Walki na Bałtyku 1941–1943 3.14 Kampania moskiewska 3.15 Kampania irańska 3.16 Kontrofensywy radzieckie 3.17 Wojna w Azji i na Pacyfiku 3.17.1 Atak na Stany Zjednoczone 3.17.2 Japońska ofensywa w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej 3.17.3 Germany First 3.17.4 Amerykańskie rajdy I połowy 1942 roku 3.17.5 Midway, Guadalcanal i kampania na Wyspach Salomona 3.17.5.1 Guadalcanal 3.18 Kampania afrykańska 1942–1943 3.19 Front wschodni 1942–1943 3.20 Kampania włoska 3.21 Walki na Bałtyku 1944–1945 3.22 Front zachodni 1944–1945 3.23 Front wschodni 1944–1945 3.24 Kres wojny w Europie 3.25 Koniec II wojny światowej 3.1 Agresja III Rzeszy i ZSRR na Polskę 3.2 Konfrontacja japońsko-radziecka 3.3 Front zachodni 1939–1940 3.4 Agresja ZSRR na Finlandię – wojna zimowa 3.5 Bitwa o Atlantyk 3.6 Niemiecka inwazja na Skandynawię 3.7 Niemiecka inwazja na Francję 3.8 Bitwa o Anglię 3.9 Kampania bałkańska 3.10 Kampania afrykańska 1940–1942 3.11 Kampania iracka 3.12 Niemiecka inwazja na ZSRR 3.12.1 Operacja „Barbarossa” 3.12.2 Kierunek bałtycki 3.12.3 Kierunek ukraiński 3.12.4 Kierunek białoruski 3.12.5 Inwazje fińska i rumuńska 3.12.1 Operacja „Barbarossa” 3.12.2 Kierunek bałtycki 3.12.3 Kierunek ukraiński 3.12.4 Kierunek białoruski 3.12.5 Inwazje fińska i rumuńska 3.13 Walki na Bałtyku 1941–1943 3.14 Kampania moskiewska 3.15 Kampania irańska 3.16 Kontrofensywy radzieckie 3.17 Wojna w Azji i na Pacyfiku 3.17.1 Atak na Stany Zjednoczone 3.17.2 Japońska ofensywa w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej 3.17.3 Germany First 3.17.4 Amerykańskie rajdy I połowy 1942 roku 3.17.5 Midway, Guadalcanal i kampania na Wyspach Salomona 3.17.5.1 Guadalcanal 3.17.1 Atak na Stany Zjednoczone 3.17.2 Japońska ofensywa w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej 3.17.3 Germany First 3.17.4 Amerykańskie rajdy I połowy 1942 roku 3.17.5 Midway, Guadalcanal i kampania na Wyspach Salomona 3.17.5.1 Guadalcanal 3.17.5.1 Guadalcanal 3.18 Kampania afrykańska 1942–1943 3.19 Front wschodni 1942–1943 3.20 Kampania włoska 3.21 Walki na Bałtyku 1944–1945 3.22 Front zachodni 1944–1945 3.23 Front wschodni 1944–1945 3.24 Kres wojny w Europie 3.25 Koniec II wojny światowej 4 Galeria Przełącz podsekcję Galeria 4.1 Podstawowe mapy działań zbrojnych 4.2 Kres i skutki wojny 4.1 Podstawowe mapy działań zbrojnych 4.2 Kres i skutki wojny 5 Opór przeciw okupantom Przełącz podsekcję Opór przeciw okupantom 5.1 Polska 5.2 Jugosławia 5.3 Francja 5.4 ZSRR 5.1 Polska 5.2 Jugosławia 5.3 Francja 5.4 ZSRR 6 Holocaust i Porajmos 7 Koalicja antyhitlerowska i jej działalność 8 Skutki II wojny światowej 9 Straty 10 Zobacz też 11 Uwagi 12 Przypisy 13 Bibliografia 14 Linki zewnętrzne II wojna światowa Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Artykuł Dyskusja Czytaj Oczekuje na przejrzenie Edytuj Edytuj kod źródłowy Wyświetl historię Czytaj Oczekuje na przejrzenie Edytuj Edytuj kod źródłowy Wyświetl historię Linkujące Zmiany w linkowanych Prześlij plik Link do tej wersji Informacje o tej stronie Cytowanie tego artykułu Zobacz skrócony adres URL Pobierz kod QR Utwórz książkę Wersja do druku Wikimedia Commons Wikicytaty Element Wikidanych Status wersji strony To jest wersja przejrzana tej strony Od górnego lewego rogu, zgodnie z ruchem wskazówek zegara: czołgi Mk II Matilda w czasie bitwy o Tobruk ; sztukasy nad frontem wschodnim ; radziecka piechota w bitwie pod Stalingradem ; lądowanie w zatoce Lingayen ; zrzucenie bomby atomowej na Nagasaki ; radzieccy żołnierze wywieszają Sztandar Zwycięstwa nad zdobytym Berlinem Czas 1 września 1939 – 8 maja 1945 (Europa) 7 grudnia 1941 – 2 września 1945 (Daleki Wschód) 1 września 1939 – 8 maja 1945 (Europa) 7 grudnia 1941 – 2 września 1945 (Daleki Wschód) Miejsce Europa , Azja , Afryka , Oceania , Arktyka , Ameryka Północna , Ocean Atlantycki , Ocean Spokojny , Ocean Indyjski , Ocean Arktyczny , Ocean Południowy Europa , Azja , Afryka , Oceania , Arktyka , Ameryka Północna , Ocean Atlantycki , Ocean Spokojny , Ocean Indyjski , Ocean Arktyczny , Ocean Południowy Przyczyna dążenia Niemiec , Włoch , ZSRR i Japonii do korzystnej rewizji międzynarodowego ładu wersalskiego i układu sił dążenia Niemiec , Włoch , ZSRR i Japonii do korzystnej rewizji międzynarodowego ładu wersalskiego i układu sił Wynik zwycięstwo aliantów ; bipolarna dominacja USA i ZSRR skutkująca zimną wojną ; obalenie NSDAP , PNF i SWWC ; liczne zmiany na mapie politycznej świata; okupacja Niemiec , Austrii i Japonii ; upadek potęg kolonialnych ; powstanie ONZ ; olbrzymie straty materialne i ludnościowe zwycięstwo aliantów ; bipolarna dominacja USA i ZSRR skutkująca zimną wojną ; obalenie NSDAP , PNF i SWWC ; liczne zmiany na mapie politycznej świata; okupacja Niemiec , Austrii i Japonii ; upadek potęg kolonialnych ; powstanie ONZ ; olbrzymie straty materialne i ludnościowe Strony konfliktu Alianci : (chronologicznie) Polska [ a ] Wielka Brytania Indie Francja [ b ] Australia Nowa Zelandia Nowa Fundlandia Tonga Nepal ZPA Kanada Dania Norwegia Belgia Luksemburg Holandia Egipt Grecja Jugosławia [ c ] ZSRR [ d ] Mongolia Panama Kostaryka Dominikana Salwador Haiti Honduras Nikaragua USA Chiny [ e ] Gwatemala Kuba Peru Meksyk Brazylia Monako Etiopia Irak [ f ] Boliwia Persja [ g ] Włochy [ h ] Kolumbia Liberia Rumunia [ i ] Bułgaria [ i ] San Marino Węgry [ j ] Bahawalpur Ekwador Paragwaj Urugwaj Wenezuela Turcja Syria Liban Arabia Saudyjska Finlandia [ k ] Argentyna Chile Państwa Osi : (chronologicznie) III Rzesza Słowacja ZSRR [ l ] Włochy [ m ] Albania [ n ] Francja Vichy [ o ] Węgry [ p ] Rumunia [ o ] Bułgaria [ o ] Chorwacja Grecja [ o ] Czarnogóra [ o ] Finlandia [ o ] Serbia [ o ] Irak [ q ] Persja [ r ] Japonia Mengjiang [ s ] Filipiny Birma Luang Prabang Kambodża Wietnam Syjam Alianci : (chronologicznie) Polska [ a ] Wielka Brytania Indie Francja [ b ] Australia Nowa Zelandia Nowa Fundlandia Tonga Nepal ZPA Kanada Dania Norwegia Belgia Luksemburg Holandia Egipt Grecja Jugosławia [ c ] ZSRR [ d ] Mongolia Panama Kostaryka Dominikana Salwador Haiti Honduras Nikaragua USA Chiny [ e ] Gwatemala Kuba Peru Meksyk Brazylia Monako Etiopia Irak [ f ] Boliwia Persja [ g ] Włochy [ h ] Kolumbia Liberia Rumunia [ i ] Bułgaria [ i ] San Marino Węgry [ j ] Bahawalpur Ekwador Paragwaj Urugwaj Wenezuela Turcja Syria Liban Arabia Saudyjska Finlandia [ k ] Argentyna Chile Indie Francja [ b ] Australia Nowa Zelandia Nowa Fundlandia Tonga Nepal ZPA Kanada Dania Norwegia Belgia Luksemburg Holandia Egipt Grecja Jugosławia [ c ] ZSRR [ d ] Mongolia Panama Kostaryka Dominikana Salwador Haiti Honduras Nikaragua USA Chiny [ e ] Gwatemala Kuba Peru Meksyk Brazylia Monako Etiopia Irak [ f ] Boliwia Persja [ g ] Włochy [ h ] Kolumbia Liberia Rumunia [ i ] Bułgaria [ i ] San Marino Węgry [ j ] Bahawalpur Ekwador Paragwaj Urugwaj Wenezuela Turcja Syria Liban Arabia Saudyjska Finlandia [ k ] Argentyna Chile Państwa Osi : (chronologicznie) III Rzesza Słowacja ZSRR [ l ] Włochy [ m ] Albania [ n ] Francja Vichy [ o ] Węgry [ p ] Rumunia [ o ] Bułgaria [ o ] Chorwacja Grecja [ o ] Czarnogóra [ o ] Finlandia [ o ] Serbia [ o ] Irak [ q ] Persja [ r ] Japonia Mengjiang [ s ] Filipiny Birma Luang Prabang Kambodża Wietnam Syjam III Rzesza Słowacja ZSRR [ l ] Włochy [ m ] Albania [ n ] Francja Vichy [ o ] Węgry [ p ] Rumunia [ o ] Bułgaria [ o ] Chorwacja Grecja [ o ] Czarnogóra [ o ] Finlandia [ o ] Serbia [ o ] Irak [ q ] Persja [ r ] Japonia Mengjiang [ s ] Filipiny Birma Luang Prabang Kambodża Wietnam Syjam Dowódcy E. Rydz † W. Sikorski † K. Sosnkowski M. Żymierski N. Chamberlain † W. Churchill C. Attlee E. Ironside J. Dill † A. Brooke A. Wavell B. Montgomery H. Alexander C. Newall C. Portal D. Pound A. Cunningham M. Gamelin M. Weygand C. de Gaulle M. Kœnig J. de Tassigny J. Curtin T. Blamey P. Fraser B. Freyberg J. Smuts W. King H. Crerar O. Ruge Leopold III H. Winkelman H. ter Poorten A. Papagos D. Simović J. Broz J. Stalin S. Timoszenko B. Szaposznikow † K. Mierieckow G. Żukow A. Wasilewski A. Antonow P. Żygariew A. Nowikow N. Kuzniecow C. Czojbalsan C. Trường M. Hồ F. Roosevelt † H. Truman W. Leahy G. Marshall D. MacArthur D. Eisenhower O. Bradley H. Arnold H. Stark E. King C. Nimitz K. Czang Y. He Q. Cheng C. Bai C. Chen G. Kim E. Beneš J. Golian † R. Viest † J. Morais P. Badoglio Michał I D. Wełczew E. Hoxha A. Hitler † W. Keitel A. Jodl W. Brauchitsch F. Schörner G. Rundstedt F. Bock † W. Leeb G. Kluge A. Kesselring H. Himmler H. Göring E. Raeder K. Dönitz J. Tiso F. Čatloš C. Israiłow † B. Mussolini † U. Cavallero † R. Graziani M. Roatta V. Ambrosio G. Messe A. Riccardi P. Pétain P. Laval M. Horthy F. Szálasi F. Szombathelyi I. Antonescu A. Ioanițiu † I. Iacobici I. Șteflea Borys III † K. Łukasz † A. Pavelić C. Mannerheim K. Oesch E. Heinrichs A. Airo M. Nedić R. al-Kilani R. Pahlawi † A. Zarghami D. Mihailović A. Własow Hirohito F. Konoe H. Tōjō K. Koiso H. Sugiyama Y. Umezu F. Hiroyasu O. Nagano S. Shimada K. Oikawa S. Toyoda I. Yamamoto † M. Koga † J. Ozawa J. Zhang J. Wang † G. Chen P. Pibulsongkram S. Bose J. Laurel Ba Maw N. Son E. Rydz † W. Sikorski † K. Sosnkowski M. Żymierski N. Chamberlain † W. Churchill C. Attlee E. Ironside J. Dill † A. Brooke A. Wavell B. Montgomery H. Alexander C. Newall C. Portal D. Pound A. Cunningham M. Gamelin M. Weygand C. de Gaulle M. Kœnig J. de Tassigny J. Curtin T. Blamey P. Fraser B. Freyberg J. Smuts W. King H. Crerar O. Ruge Leopold III H. Winkelman H. ter Poorten A. Papagos D. Simović J. Broz J. Stalin S. Timoszenko B. Szaposznikow † K. Mierieckow G. Żukow A. Wasilewski A. Antonow P. Żygariew A. Nowikow N. Kuzniecow C. Czojbalsan C. Trường M. Hồ F. Roosevelt † H. Truman W. Leahy G. Marshall D. MacArthur D. Eisenhower O. Bradley H. Arnold H. Stark E. King C. Nimitz K. Czang Y. He Q. Cheng C. Bai C. Chen G. Kim E. Beneš J. Golian † R. Viest † J. Morais P. Badoglio Michał I D. Wełczew E. Hoxha A. Hitler † W. Keitel A. Jodl W. Brauchitsch F. Schörner G. Rundstedt F. Bock † W. Leeb G. Kluge A. Kesselring H. Himmler H. Göring E. Raeder K. Dönitz J. Tiso F. Čatloš C. Israiłow † B. Mussolini † U. Cavallero † R. Graziani M. Roatta V. Ambrosio G. Messe A. Riccardi P. Pétain P. Laval M. Horthy F. Szálasi F. Szombathelyi I. Antonescu A. Ioanițiu † I. Iacobici I. Șteflea Borys III † K. Łukasz † A. Pavelić C. Mannerheim K. Oesch E. Heinrichs A. Airo M. Nedić R. al-Kilani R. Pahlawi † A. Zarghami D. Mihailović A. Własow Hirohito F. Konoe H. Tōjō K. Koiso H. Sugiyama Y. Umezu F. Hiroyasu O. Nagano S. Shimada K. Oikawa S. Toyoda I. Yamamoto † M. Koga † J. Ozawa J. Zhang J. Wang † G. Chen P. Pibulsongkram S. Bose J. Laurel Ba Maw N. Son Hirohito F. Konoe H. Tōjō K. Koiso H. Sugiyama Y. Umezu F. Hiroyasu O. Nagano S. Shimada K. Oikawa S. Toyoda I. Yamamoto † M. Koga † J. Ozawa J. Zhang J. Wang † G. Chen P. Pibulsongkram S. Bose J. Laurel Ba Maw N. Son brak współrzędnych Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Cytaty w Wikicytatach Cytaty w Wikicytatach Hasło w Wikisłowniku Hasło w Wikisłowniku II wojna światowa – największa i najkrwawsza wojna w dziejach, zaliczana do wojen totalnych , światowych i hegemonicznych , trwająca od 1 września 1939 roku do 2 września 1945 roku. Walki toczyły się głównie w Starym Świecie – Eurazji oraz Afryce , na wszystkich oceanach oraz w Oceanii , choć były też epizody w Ameryce Północnej [ t ] oraz Południowej [ u ] . Brały w niej udział państwa wszystkich kontynentów oraz 1,7 miliarda ludzi, w tym 110 milionów pod bronią [ 1 ] . Spośród nich zginęły dziesiątki milionów, według różnych szacunków od 50 [ 2 ] do 78 [ 3 ] milionów. Rekordowa liczba ofiar cywilnych to skutek między innymi ludobójstw (m.in. Holocaustu ) i zbrodni wojennych pochłaniających miliony ludzkich istnień. Stronami konfliktu były: państwa Osi – nazistowska Rzesza Niemiecka , faszystowskie Królestwo Włoch , Cesarstwo Wielkiej Japonii pod dyktaturą wojskową i ich sojusznicy (m.in. autorytarne Królestwo Węgier , absolutystyczne Carstwo Bułgarii , faszystowskie Królestwo Rumunii , demokratyczna Republika Finlandii ) oraz marionetki , początkowo współpracujące także ze stalinowskim Związkiem Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich ; alianci – państwa koalicji antyhitlerowskiej, zapoczątkowanej przez Zjednoczone Królestwo Wielkiej Brytanii i Irlandii Północnej , III Republikę Francuską (ze swoimi koloniami , dominiami i protektoratami ) i II Rzeczpospolitą Polską , do których dołączyły potem między innymi ZSRR, Stany Zjednoczone i Republika Chińska ( na krwawej wojnie z Japonią od 1937 roku ) oraz liczni pomniejsi sojusznicy, a także część wcześniejszych stronników Osi. Wojna wybuchła 1 września 1939 roku o godzinie 4:34 w Tczewie , gdy III Rzesza zaatakowała Polskę . W odpowiedzi Wielka Brytania i Francja postawiły Niemcom ultimatum w sprawie bezzwłocznego wycofania wojsk z Polski . Zostało ono zignorowane, przez co 3 września oba państwa wypowiedziały wojnę Niemcom, lecz w obawie przed powtórzeniem poprzedniej wojny światowej podjęły bardzo ograniczone działania zaczepne . Do walk przystąpił następnie ZSRR, 17 września atakując Polskę zgodnie z paktem Ribbentrop-Mołotow . Po przełamaniu głównego oporu armii polskiej Niemcy i ZSRR podpisały traktat o granicach i przyjaźni , by zająć się realizacją swoich planów ekspansji. Związek Radziecki spróbował bezskutecznie podbić Finlandię , zajął kraje bałtyckie i przyłączył część Rumunii . Niemcy skutecznie uderzyli na Skandynawię zajmując Danię i Norwegię , dalej Beneluks i w końcu samą Francję, którą pomimo wyrównanych sił błyskawicznie pokonali i okupowali jej północ, z pozostałości tworząc państwo kolaboranckie . Przystąpili też do ofensywy lotniczej na Wielką Brytanię mającej poprzedzić planowaną inwazję . Wykorzystując słabość aliantów, Włosi zaatakowali posiadłości brytyjskie w Afryce , błyskawicznie zajmując Somali Brytyjskie , po czym uderzyli na Egipt , gdzie jednak napotkali opór. Spróbowali też podbić Grecję , lecz zostali pokonani. Na obu frontach musieli ruszyć im na pomoc Niemcy. W ten sposób wojna rozszerzała się na kolejne kraje i regiony. Przełom nastąpił w 1941 roku: 22 czerwca III Rzesza zaatakowała ZSRR – pomimo olbrzymich sukcesów najeźdźców ZSRR dał radę zatrzymać ich pod Moskwą , a po wielu bojach stopniowo przejść do kontrofensywy , wiążąc większość wojsk niemieckich i zadając im straty nie do odrobienia, kosztem o wiele większych własnych; 7 grudnia 1941 roku Japonia zaatakowała Hawaje i wypowiedziała tak wojnę USA, które przystąpiły do walki przeciw Osi, a 11 grudnia III Rzesza także wypowiedziała im wojnę – amerykańska potęga przemysłowo-gospodarcza dała aliantom decydującą przewagę nad Niemcami, a gigantyczna marynarka była w stanie przeciwstawić się potężnej japońskiej . Finalnie państwa Osi, wyniszczone wojną, odcięte od zasobów, przytłoczone wrogą przewagą liczebną i materiałową, dręczone przez ruchy oporu na podbitych ziemiach oraz opuszczone przez większość sojuszników, przegrały. Konflikt zakończyły: podpisany 7 maja 1945 roku w Reims akt bezwarunkowej kapitulacji III Rzeszy , z wejściem w życie 8 maja 1945 roku – formalnie zamknął on walki w Europie; powtórzona kapitulacja III Rzeszy w Berlinie , która nastąpiła 8 maja według czasu miejscowego (według czasu moskiewskiego był to już 9 maja, dlatego właśnie na tę datę ustanowiono w ZSRR (i potem w Rosji) Dzień Zwycięstwa ); akt bezwarunkowej kapitulacji Japonii podpisany 2 września 1945 roku na pokładzie pancernika USS „Missouri” w Zatoce Tokijskiej . Zamknął on wojnę definitywnie, choć poszczególne jednostki (zwłaszcza japońskie) kontynuowały opór na nieznaczną skalę . Japonia nigdy też nie podpisała traktatu pokojowego ze Związkiem Radzieckim ani z Rosją , nie uznając zajęcia Kuryli . Główne skutki II wojny światowej to: katastrofalne straty w ludności i mieniu; radykalne zmiany na mapie politycznej świata: zdenazyfikowane i zdemilitaryzowane Niemcy obciążono reparacjami , podzielono na cztery strefy okupacyjne , tak jak odebraną im Austrię , kraj utracił również ziemie wschodnie ( Śląsk , większość Pomorza , Prusy Wschodnie , wschodnią Brandenburgię ) oraz przyłączone przed wojną Sudetenland i Memelland , a także tereny formalnie anektowane w trakcie wojny ( Eupen i Malmedy , dawna Alzacja-Lotaryngia , Wielkopolska , Luksemburg , część Słowenii, Gdańsk , korytarz polski , Górny Śląsk ), wyłączono z niego także Protektorat Saary oddany pod kontrolę francuską – na gruzach III Rzeszy powstały trzy państwa niemieckie: stojąca po stronie Zachodu Republika Federalna Niemiec (RFN), będąca satelitą ZSRR Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna (NRD) i neutralna Republika Austrii , ponadto quasi- wolnym miastem został Berlin Zachodni ; Japonia została zdemilitaryzowana, dostała się pod aliancką okupację , utraciła Tajwan , Koreę , Peskadory , Liaotung , Spratly , Mikronezję , południowy Sachalin i, czego po dziś dzień nie uznaje, Kuryle oraz kontrolę nad Mandżurią i Mongolią Wewnętrzną – pozostałości dawnego cesarstwa nazwano po prostu Japonią , nie zdetronizowano ani nie pociągnięto też do odpowiedzialności cesarza Hirohito ( urząd cesarski ograniczono jednak do roli symbolicznej), kraj związano pacyfistyczną konstytucją , pozbawiając go sił zbrojnych ; Włochy, w których w 1943 roku obalono faszystów, a kraj przeszedł na stronę aliantów, potraktowane zostały łagodnie – zachowały ciągłość państwową, utraciły jednak Istrię , kolonie afrykańskie (w tym podbitą wcześniej Abisynię ), skrawki terytorium na pograniczu francuskim oraz zdobycze w Albanii i Dalmacji , wyłączono z nich również niepodległe Wolne Terytorium Triestu ; ZSRR zdobył północne Prusy Wschodnie na Niemczech, Kresy Wschodnie na Polsce, Kuryle, południowy Sachalin i Liaotung na Japonii oraz Zakarpacie na Czechosłowacji, zachował również anektowane w trakcie wojny wcześniej niepodległe kraje bałtyckie , rumuńską Besarabię i północną Bukowinę , fińską Karelię , większość Salli i okręg Petsamo , ponadto wymusił dzierżawę Porkkali ; państwowość krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej podtrzymały radzieckie satelity o zmienionych granicach: Bułgaria w 1946 roku przekształcona w Ludową Republikę Bułgarii zatrzymała wcześniej rumuńską południową Dobrudżę , oddając jednak Jugosławii Macedonię Wardarską, a Grecji część Macedonii Egejskiej ; odtworzona jako Trzecia Republika Czechosłowacka (początkowo niezależna, dopiero w 1948 roku przekształcona w komunistyczną Republikę Czechosłowacką ) Czechosłowacja odzyskała od Węgier południową Słowację, Zaolzie od Polski i Sudetenland od Niemiec; Węgry (przekształcone w 1946 roku w ( Drugą Republikę Węgierską ) zwróciły Rumunii (przekształconej w 1947 roku w Rumuńską Republikę Ludową ) północny Siedmiogród , Kriszanę i Marmarosz , a Jugosławii Baczkę , Prekmurje , Baranję i Međimurje ; Rzeczpospolita Polska powstała w prawie zupełnie zmienionych, sztucznych granicach, nawiązujących do zasięgu wczesnośredniowiecznego państwa Bolesława I ; niezależność od Związku Radzieckiego zachowały: Finlandia ( za cenę ustępliwej polityki ), restaurowane Królestwo Grecji (po klęsce komunistów w wojnie domowej ) oraz kraje wyzwolone przez komunistyczne partyzantki, które utworzyły Socjalistyczną Federacyjną Republikę Jugosławii i Albańską Republikę Ludową – ich przywódcy, Josip Broz i Enver Hoxha , zostali samodzielnymi dyktatorami i władali dożywotnio, ponadto, poza Europą, nie powiodła się radziecka próba ustanowienia kontroli nad Iranem ; odtworzono lub zlikwidowano następujące państwa: restaurowano anektowaną przez Japonię w 1910 roku Koreę jako krótkotrwałą Koreańską Republikę Ludową , rozwiązano istniejące od roku 1932 Mandżukuo ( o ograniczonym uznaniu międzynarodowym ), Wolne Miasto Gdańsk wcielono do Polski, a Pierwszą Republikę Słowacką do odrodzonej Czechosłowacji; przyspieszyła dekolonizacja , stopniowo kładąc kres potędze imperium brytyjskiego i francuskiego , większość lub całość swoich posiadłości utracili również Holendrzy [ v ] , Belgowie [ w ] , Portugalczycy [ x ] i Hiszpanie [ y ] – jako pierwsze suwerenność uzyskały: na Bliskim Wschodzie kontrolowane przez Brytyjczyków Królestwo Transjordanii i kontrolowana wcześniej przez Francuzów ( de iure niepodległa od 1943 roku) Republika Syryjska (obie w 1946 roku), ponadto już w trakcie wojny, w 1943 roku usamodzielnił się jako Republika Libańska władany przez Francuzów Liban; w Azji Dalekowschodniej zarządzana przez Amerykanów Republika Filipin (1946 rok), choć już w 1945 roku niepodległość ogłosiła Demokratyczna Republika Wietnamu , lecz do 1954 roku pozostawała ona nieuznawana; w Afryce Zjednoczone Królestwo Libii administrowane po wojnie przez Brytyjczyków i Francuzów (1951 rok); zagłada Żydów nasiliła syjonizm , co doprowadziło do wojny domowej w Palestynie , zakończonej zwycięstwem Żydów i proklamacją w 1948 roku Państwa Izrael – w odpowiedzi kraj nieskutecznie zaatakowała koalicja arabska i rozpoczął się trwający po dziś konflikt izraelsko-arabski ; zdenazyfikowane i zdemilitaryzowane Niemcy obciążono reparacjami , podzielono na cztery strefy okupacyjne , tak jak odebraną im Austrię , kraj utracił również ziemie wschodnie ( Śląsk , większość Pomorza , Prusy Wschodnie , wschodnią Brandenburgię ) oraz przyłączone przed wojną Sudetenland i Memelland , a także tereny formalnie anektowane w trakcie wojny ( Eupen i Malmedy , dawna Alzacja-Lotaryngia , Wielkopolska , Luksemburg , część Słowenii, Gdańsk , korytarz polski , Górny Śląsk ), wyłączono z niego także Protektorat Saary oddany pod kontrolę francuską – na gruzach III Rzeszy powstały trzy państwa niemieckie: stojąca po stronie Zachodu Republika Federalna Niemiec (RFN), będąca satelitą ZSRR Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna (NRD) i neutralna Republika Austrii , ponadto quasi- wolnym miastem został Berlin Zachodni ; Japonia została zdemilitaryzowana, dostała się pod aliancką okupację , utraciła Tajwan , Koreę , Peskadory , Liaotung , Spratly , Mikronezję , południowy Sachalin i, czego po dziś dzień nie uznaje, Kuryle oraz kontrolę nad Mandżurią i Mongolią Wewnętrzną – pozostałości dawnego cesarstwa nazwano po prostu Japonią , nie zdetronizowano ani nie pociągnięto też do odpowiedzialności cesarza Hirohito ( urząd cesarski ograniczono jednak do roli symbolicznej), kraj związano pacyfistyczną konstytucją , pozbawiając go sił zbrojnych ; Włochy, w których w 1943 roku obalono faszystów, a kraj przeszedł na stronę aliantów, potraktowane zostały łagodnie – zachowały ciągłość państwową, utraciły jednak Istrię , kolonie afrykańskie (w tym podbitą wcześniej Abisynię ), skrawki terytorium na pograniczu francuskim oraz zdobycze w Albanii i Dalmacji , wyłączono z nich również niepodległe Wolne Terytorium Triestu ; ZSRR zdobył północne Prusy Wschodnie na Niemczech, Kresy Wschodnie na Polsce, Kuryle, południowy Sachalin i Liaotung na Japonii oraz Zakarpacie na Czechosłowacji, zachował również anektowane w trakcie wojny wcześniej niepodległe kraje bałtyckie , rumuńską Besarabię i północną Bukowinę , fińską Karelię , większość Salli i okręg Petsamo , ponadto wymusił dzierżawę Porkkali ; państwowość krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej podtrzymały radzieckie satelity o zmienionych granicach: Bułgaria w 1946 roku przekształcona w Ludową Republikę Bułgarii zatrzymała wcześniej rumuńską południową Dobrudżę , oddając jednak Jugosławii Macedonię Wardarską, a Grecji część Macedonii Egejskiej ; odtworzona jako Trzecia Republika Czechosłowacka (początkowo niezależna, dopiero w 1948 roku przekształcona w komunistyczną Republikę Czechosłowacką ) Czechosłowacja odzyskała od Węgier południową Słowację, Zaolzie od Polski i Sudetenland od Niemiec; Węgry (przekształcone w 1946 roku w ( Drugą Republikę Węgierską ) zwróciły Rumunii (przekształconej w 1947 roku w Rumuńską Republikę Ludową ) północny Siedmiogród , Kriszanę i Marmarosz , a Jugosławii Baczkę , Prekmurje , Baranję i Međimurje ; Rzeczpospolita Polska powstała w prawie zupełnie zmienionych, sztucznych granicach, nawiązujących do zasięgu wczesnośredniowiecznego państwa Bolesława I ; Bułgaria w 1946 roku przekształcona w Ludową Republikę Bułgarii zatrzymała wcześniej rumuńską południową Dobrudżę , oddając jednak Jugosławii Macedonię Wardarską, a Grecji część Macedonii Egejskiej ; odtworzona jako Trzecia Republika Czechosłowacka (początkowo niezależna, dopiero w 1948 roku przekształcona w komunistyczną Republikę Czechosłowacką ) Czechosłowacja odzyskała od Węgier południową Słowację, Zaolzie od Polski i Sudetenland od Niemiec; Węgry (przekształcone w 1946 roku w ( Drugą Republikę Węgierską ) zwróciły Rumunii (przekształconej w 1947 roku w Rumuńską Republikę Ludową ) północny Siedmiogród , Kriszanę i Marmarosz , a Jugosławii Baczkę , Prekmurje , Baranję i Međimurje ; Rzeczpospolita Polska powstała w prawie zupełnie zmienionych, sztucznych granicach, nawiązujących do zasięgu wczesnośredniowiecznego państwa Bolesława I ; niezależność od Związku Radzieckiego zachowały: Finlandia ( za cenę ustępliwej polityki ), restaurowane Królestwo Grecji (po klęsce komunistów w wojnie domowej ) oraz kraje wyzwolone przez komunistyczne partyzantki, które utworzyły Socjalistyczną Federacyjną Republikę Jugosławii i Albańską Republikę Ludową – ich przywódcy, Josip Broz i Enver Hoxha , zostali samodzielnymi dyktatorami i władali dożywotnio, ponadto, poza Europą, nie powiodła się radziecka próba ustanowienia kontroli nad Iranem ; odtworzono lub zlikwidowano następujące państwa: restaurowano anektowaną przez Japonię w 1910 roku Koreę jako krótkotrwałą Koreańską Republikę Ludową , rozwiązano istniejące od roku 1932 Mandżukuo ( o ograniczonym uznaniu międzynarodowym ), Wolne Miasto Gdańsk wcielono do Polski, a Pierwszą Republikę Słowacką do odrodzonej Czechosłowacji; przyspieszyła dekolonizacja , stopniowo kładąc kres potędze imperium brytyjskiego i francuskiego , większość lub całość swoich posiadłości utracili również Holendrzy [ v ] , Belgowie [ w ] , Portugalczycy [ x ] i Hiszpanie [ y ] – jako pierwsze suwerenność uzyskały: na Bliskim Wschodzie kontrolowane przez Brytyjczyków Królestwo Transjordanii i kontrolowana wcześniej przez Francuzów ( de iure niepodległa od 1943 roku) Republika Syryjska (obie w 1946 roku), ponadto już w trakcie wojny, w 1943 roku usamodzielnił się jako Republika Libańska władany przez Francuzów Liban; w Azji Dalekowschodniej zarządzana przez Amerykanów Republika Filipin (1946 rok), choć już w 1945 roku niepodległość ogłosiła Demokratyczna Republika Wietnamu , lecz do 1954 roku pozostawała ona nieuznawana; w Afryce Zjednoczone Królestwo Libii administrowane po wojnie przez Brytyjczyków i Francuzów (1951 rok); na Bliskim Wschodzie kontrolowane przez Brytyjczyków Królestwo Transjordanii i kontrolowana wcześniej przez Francuzów ( de iure niepodległa od 1943 roku) Republika Syryjska (obie w 1946 roku), ponadto już w trakcie wojny, w 1943 roku usamodzielnił się jako Republika Libańska władany przez Francuzów Liban; w Azji Dalekowschodniej zarządzana przez Amerykanów Republika Filipin (1946 rok), choć już w 1945 roku niepodległość ogłosiła Demokratyczna Republika Wietnamu , lecz do 1954 roku pozostawała ona nieuznawana; w Afryce Zjednoczone Królestwo Libii administrowane po wojnie przez Brytyjczyków i Francuzów (1951 rok); zagłada Żydów nasiliła syjonizm , co doprowadziło do wojny domowej w Palestynie , zakończonej zwycięstwem Żydów i proklamacją w 1948 roku Państwa Izrael – w odpowiedzi kraj nieskutecznie zaatakowała koalicja arabska i rozpoczął się trwający po dziś konflikt izraelsko-arabski ; dokonano masowych przesiedleń ludności: Niemców z ziem włączonych do Polski i ZSRR oraz autochtonicznej ludności niemieckiej z innych regionów Europy Środkowej (Niemców sudeckich , bałtyckich , karpackich , siedmiogrodzkich , naddunajskich i galicyjskich do późniejszych RFN i NRD, Niemców krymskich do Azji), równocześnie rozpoczęła się wewnątrzniemiecka ucieczka ze strefy radzieckiej ; Polaków z ziem włączonych do ZSRR na ziemie poniemieckie , równocześnie nastąpiło wypędzenie Ukraińców z ziem polskich najpierw do ZSRR , później na zachód Polski ; japońskich kolonistów z Korei, Mandżurii, Dongbei , południowego Sachalinu i Tajwanu do Japonii, Włochów z Istrii i Dalmacji do Włoch, Finów z Karelii w głąb kraju, części Węgrów słowackich do Czech ; w związku z powstaniem Izraela i wrogością państw arabskich wobec niego doszło też do wysiedleń Palestyńczyków z zajętych terenów oraz eksodusu ludności żydowskiej z państw muzułmańskich; ponadto, jeszcze w trakcie wojny władze radzieckie dokonały czystek etnicznych poprzez skutkujące setkami tysięcy ofiar deportacje w głąb ZSRR: Wajnachów ( Aardach, rok 1944 ), Tatarów krymskich ( Sürgünlik, rok 1944 ) i Kałmuków ( operacja „Ułus” , rok 1943), a już po niej deportowały Ślązaków ( Tragedia Górnośląska, rok 1945 ) i Estończyków , Łotyszy oraz Litwinów ( operacja „Priboj”, rok 1949 ). Niemców z ziem włączonych do Polski i ZSRR oraz autochtonicznej ludności niemieckiej z innych regionów Europy Środkowej (Niemców sudeckich , bałtyckich , karpackich , siedmiogrodzkich , naddunajskich i galicyjskich do późniejszych RFN i NRD, Niemców krymskich do Azji), równocześnie rozpoczęła się wewnątrzniemiecka ucieczka ze strefy radzieckiej ; Polaków z ziem włączonych do ZSRR na ziemie poniemieckie , równocześnie nastąpiło wypędzenie Ukraińców z ziem polskich najpierw do ZSRR , później na zachód Polski ; japońskich kolonistów z Korei, Mandżurii, Dongbei , południowego Sachalinu i Tajwanu do Japonii, Włochów z Istrii i Dalmacji do Włoch, Finów z Karelii w głąb kraju, części Węgrów słowackich do Czech ; w związku z powstaniem Izraela i wrogością państw arabskich wobec niego doszło też do wysiedleń Palestyńczyków z zajętych terenów oraz eksodusu ludności żydowskiej z państw muzułmańskich; ponadto, jeszcze w trakcie wojny władze radzieckie dokonały czystek etnicznych poprzez skutkujące setkami tysięcy ofiar deportacje w głąb ZSRR: Wajnachów ( Aardach, rok 1944 ), Tatarów krymskich ( Sürgünlik, rok 1944 ) i Kałmuków ( operacja „Ułus” , rok 1943), a już po niej deportowały Ślązaków ( Tragedia Górnośląska, rok 1945 ) i Estończyków , Łotyszy oraz Litwinów ( operacja „Priboj”, rok 1949 ). usiłowano pociągnąć do odpowiedzialności zbrodniarzy i przywódców Osi, w Niemczech m.in. przez procesy norymberskie , które jednak ominęły większość najważniejszych dygnitarzy nazistowskich, którzy popełnili samobójstwa ( Hitler , Himmler , Goebbels ), zginęli w trakcie wojny ( Heydrich ), lub uciekli z Europy ( Pavelić ), w Japonii natomiast był to trybunał tokijski , który dał radę osądzić większą ilość przywódców, aktywnych jeszcze podczas wcześniejszych agresji japońskich (m.in. Tōjō , Hirota , Koiso , Itagaki , Hata , Hiranuma , Doihara ) – również w innych krajach w osobnych procesach skazywano zbrodniarzy, przywódców, jak i kolaborantów (stracono m.in. Antonescu , Tiso , Quislinga , Własowa i Lavala ); wzrost potęgi USA i ZSRR doprowadził do zimnej wojny między blokami ich sojuszników i stref wpływu (granicę tych obozów w Europie nazwano żelazną kurtyną ), skutkiem czego wybuchały liczne krwawe wojny (np. Korea 1950–53 , Wietnam 1955–75 ) i niebezpieczne kryzysy (np. Kuba 1962 ) – zwycięstwo USA zwieńczył rozpad Związku Radzieckiego sfinalizowany w 1991 roku; Pax Americana , pojednanie państw zachodnich (zjednoczonych przeciwko komunistom) skutkujące utworzeniem NATO na mocy traktatu północnoatlantyckiego (1949 rok), w odpowiedzi ZSRR powołał Układ Warszawski (1955 rok); podjęto działania na rzecz pokoju , praw człowieka i mającej je chronić demokracji : Ligę Narodów zastąpiono Organizacją Narodów Zjednoczonych ; powołano Radę Europy i wspólnoty europejskie , które położyły podwaliny pod Unię Europejską ; Ligę Narodów zastąpiono Organizacją Narodów Zjednoczonych ; powołano Radę Europy i wspólnoty europejskie , które położyły podwaliny pod Unię Europejską ; powstały i upowszechniły się nowe technologie, zwłaszcza wojskowe (m.in. broń jądrowa , odrzutowce , radary , czy rakiety ), co doprowadziło do zmiany sposobów prowadzenia walki: wzrosła rola lotnictwa i wojsk powietrznodesantowych , dobiegł kres ery kawalerii oraz wielkich okrętów artyleryjskich (zwłaszcza pancerników ) zastąpionych rakietowymi i lotniczymi – równocześnie, dzięki tym wynalazkom możliwe stały się innowacje takie, jak podróże kosmiczne , czy energetyka jądrowa . Konflikt stał się tematem niezliczonych opracowań naukowych oraz dzieł sztuki : książek , filmów , obrazów , muzyki , gier wideo , czy spektakli . Nazwa Prasa brytyjska po raz pierwszy użyła terminu „II wojna światowa” już 11 września 1939, mimo że dopiero w 1940 roku miała rozlać się na większym obszarze [ 4 ] . Obecnie w Polsce nazywana jest niejednokrotnie po prostu „wojną”, gdyż była to ostatnia wojna (stan na 1 lutego 2025) tocząca się na jej terenie, poza tym odcisnęła nieopisany ślad na kulturze Polaków. Przymiotniki takie jak „powojenny” czy „przedwojenny” opierają się na datach początku i końca II wojny światowej. Preludium Zapowiedzią nadchodzącego konfliktu był wzrost nastrojów nacjonalistycznych i dążeń ekspansywnych ze strony kilku przeważnie totalitarnych , bądź autorytarnych państw, które obecnie określamy jako państwa Osi . Początek agresywnej polityce wobec sąsiadów dała Japonia poprzez aneksję Mandżurii we wrześniu 1931 roku i utworzenie marionetkowego państwa Mandżukuo . Kolejnym krokiem był atak, rządzonych przez Benito Mussoliniego , Włoch na Abisynię ( wojna włosko-abisyńska ) i wojna chińsko-japońska . Polityka głównych państw zachodnich była ustępliwa (np. Czechosłowacji – układ monachijski , październik 1938 roku) prowadząc do przekonania rządów państw Osi o możliwości kolejnych żądań. W Hiszpanii od 1936 roku trwała krwawa wojna domowa , w której starły się interweniujące państwa faszystowskie i wojska republikańskie wspierane przez tysiące ochotników ( także z Polski ). Jawnie po stronie republiki opowiedziały się Meksyk i Związek Radziecki . Ze strony Włoch przykładem złamania prawa międzynarodowego i ekspansjonizmu było zajęcie Albanii wiosną 1939 roku. Główną przyczyną wojny światowej w Europie było jednak świadome dążenie do wojny przez rządzoną przez Adolfa Hitlera III Rzeszę w celu realizacji jego zbrodniczych planów. Początkowo były to kroki mające na celu zniesienie ograniczeń traktatu wersalskiego , jak remilitaryzacja Nadrenii w 1936 roku. Kolejne uzasadniano przyłączeniem obszarów zamieszkałych przez ludność niemieckojęzyczną ( Anschluss Austrii w marcu 1938 roku, przyłączenie Sudetenlandu w październiku 1938 roku oraz aneksja utraconego na rzecz Litwy Memellandu ). Jawną agresją było przyłączenie Czech w marcu 1939 roku. W tym czasie Hitler wysunął żądania wobec Polski, których spełnienie oznaczałoby utratę suwerenności (np. połączenie autostrady Berlin-Königsberg odciętej korytarzem polskim ). Kilka dni przed wybuchem wojny – 23 sierpnia 1939 roku – III Rzesza podpisała z ZSRR tzw. pakt Ribbentrop-Mołotow , którego tajny protokół zakładał podział Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej . Zapowiedzią ataku na Polskę był incydent jabłonkowski w nocy z 25 na 26 sierpnia 1939 roku. Działania zbrojne Agresja III Rzeszy i ZSRR na Polskę Źródła [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] 1 września 1939 roku III Rzesza w porozumieniu ze ZSRR dokonała zbrojnej agresji na Polskę na całej długości granicy międzypaństwowej. Operacją dowodzili generałowie Walther von Brauchitsch , Fedor von Bock oraz Gerd von Rundstedt . Obroną Polski kierowali formalnie Naczelny Wódz Polskich Sił Zbrojnych , marszałek Edward Śmigły-Rydz i szef Sztabu Głównego , generał Wacław Stachiewicz . Symbolicznymi miejscami rozpoczęcia wojny były obrona mostów tczewskich , nalot na Wieluń , przeprowadzony przez eskadrę 4 Floty Powietrznej generała Wolframa von Richthofena oraz ostrzał Wojskowej Składnicy Tranzytowej na Westerplatte przez pancernik „Schleswig-Holstein” . Według odnalezionych w 2022 roku telegramów Armii Kraków pierwszy atak nastąpił na Górnym Śląsku na linii Racibórz – Rydułtowy – Wodzisław Śląski o godzinie 3:14 [ 12 ] . Agresja wzdłuż całej granicy niemiecko-polskiej nastąpiła zgodnie z dyrektywami planu „ Fall Weiss ” [ z ] . W chwili wybuchu wojny Polska miała zawarty układ sojuszniczy z Francją z 1921 roku, układ sojuszniczy z Wielką Brytanią z 25 sierpnia 1939 roku oraz sojusz z Rumunią , obowiązujący jednak tylko w przypadku ataku ze strony Związku Radzieckiego. Niemcy były powiązane paktem antykominternowskim z Japonią i Włochami , tzw. paktem stalowym z Włochami oraz układem ze Związkiem Radzieckim ( pakt Ribbentrop-Mołotow ) z 23 sierpnia 1939 roku, który de facto dzielił Europę Środkową na strefy wpływów obu państw i dawał Niemcom wolną rękę w wojnie z Polską. Formalnie wojna nabrała charakteru światowego z chwilą wypowiedzenia jej Niemcom przez Wielką Brytanię i Francję 3 września 1939 roku. Wraz z Wielką Brytanią do wojny przystąpiły Indie Brytyjskie i główne państwa Wspólnoty Brytyjskiej ( dominia brytyjskie ): Australia , Nowa Zelandia , Nowa Fundlandia i Tonga [ 13 ] (3 września), ZPA (6 września) i Kanada (10 września). Oficjalnie po stronie Niemiec do wojny nie przyłączyły się na tym etapie jednak ani Włochy, ani Japonia. Neutralność zachowały Węgry [ aa ] i Rumunia . Do niemieckiego ataku na Polskę przyłączyła się natomiast Słowacja (siłami Armii Polowej „Bernolák” , która w liczbie pięćdziesięciu tysięcy żołnierzy wkroczyła do Polski kilka godzin po Niemcach), która była wówczas protektoratem Niemiec. Jednym z pierwszych celów najeźdźcy niemieckiego było zajęcie korytarza polskiego . Polska flota dowodzona przez wiceadmirała Józefa Unruga nie mogła konkurować z potężną Kriegsmarine , zdecydowano więc, że lepiej zapobiec jej zniszczeniu i ewakuować cenne niszczyciele do Wielkiej Brytanii jeszcze przed wybuchem walk. Dzięki operacji „Peking” wykonanej pod koniec sierpnia uratowano ORP „Błyskawica” , ORP „Burza” i ORP „Grom” . Z większych jednostek pozostały w Polsce tylko niszczyciel ORP „Wicher” i duży stawiacz min ORP „Gryf” , bezsilne wobec niemieckiej przewagi. W trakcie obrony polskiego wybrzeża doszło tylko do jednej bitwy morskiej z ich udziałem – 3 września wraz z 31 Baterią odpędziły dwa niemieckie niszczyciele, uszkadzając „ Z1 Leberecht Maass ”. Polska flota została szybko zniszczona przez Luftwaffe, a wojska lądowe na Pomorzu błyskawicznie odcięte przez zagony niemieckie. Pomimo to niektóre jednostki broniły się do 2 października. W przełamaniu granicy polskiej pomogło Niemcom zastosowanie strategii blitzkriegu . W obliczu przewagi liczebnej wroga, jego absolutnej dominacji w powietrzu oraz wyższości technologii niemieckiej nad polską, nie było możliwe stawienie skutecznego oporu. Polacy nie prowadzili działań ofensywnych, poza kilkoma wypadami kawalerii do Prus Wschodnich . Ciężkiej sytuacji wojsk polskich nie zmieniło zwycięstwo polskiej kawalerii pod Mokrą . Niemcy parli przed siebie w zastraszającym tempie. Do 6 września opanowali bardzo ważny Górny Śląsk . Polskie armie wycofywały się. 8 września Niemcy dotarli już pod Warszawę, którą zaczęli oblegać . Stolica została obsadzona licznym garnizonem i pod dowództwem generała Waleriana Czumy oparła się pierwszym szturmom. W celu skruszenia morale obrońców Luftwaffe prowadziła naloty na Warszawę . Do największej bitwy kampanii doszło nad rzeką Bzura w dniach 9–22 września. Uczestniczyło w niej po obu stronach około 650 tysięcy żołnierzy. Niemcy dążyli do zamknięcia wojsk polskich w gigantycznym kotle na zachód od Wisły, jednak solą w oku była im wycofująca się na wschód Armia „Poznań” generała Tadeusza Kutrzeby , która w dodatku połączyła się z dywizjami Armii „Pomorze” , tworząc znaczne zgrupowanie wojsk na tyłach pozycji Wehrmachtu . Wojska te stanowiły znaczne zagrożenie dla Niemców, nieunikniona więc była bitwa. Wyjątkowo, pod Bzurą, to Niemcy bronili się. Wojska Kutrzeby uderzyły na północne skrzydło Grupy Armii „Południe” . Choć Polacy ponieśli bardzo ciężkie straty, a zgrupowanie zostało rozbite, to udało się spowolnić pościg za wycofującymi się na przedmoście rumuńskie armiami „Prusy” , „Lublin” , „Kraków” i „Karpaty” [ 14 ] . 11 września Niemcy dotarli do Przemyśla , który zdobyli trzy dni później. 17 września bez określonego w prawie międzynarodowym wypowiedzenia wojny zaatakowała Polskę również Armia Czerwona pod dowództwem komandarma [ ab ] Siemiona Timoszenki . Atak ten złamał polsko-radziecki pakt o nieagresji z 1932 roku , który miał obowiązywać do 1945 roku, jednak nie wywołał ze strony rządu polskiego wypowiedzenia wojny. Związek Radziecki w nocie przedstawionej w nocy 17 września 1939 roku – już w chwili rozpoczęcia agresji – ambasadorowi RP w Moskwie, Wacławowi Grzybowskiemu , stwierdził jednostronnie zaprzestanie istnienia państwa polskiego . Ambasador odmówił przyjęcia noty, polscy dyplomaci wyjechali z terytorium Związku Radzieckiego dopiero po interwencji dziekana korpusu dyplomatycznego, ambasadora Rzeszy Friedricha-Wernera von der Schulenburga . Pierwszy meldunek o agresji radzieckiej dotarł do władz w Warszawie z jednostek polskich w Czortkowie . Naczelny Wódz Edward Rydz-Śmigły wydał dyrektywę [ 15 ] : Sowiety wkroczyły. Nakazuję ogólne wycofanie na Rumunię i Węgry najkrótszymi drogami. Z bolszewikami nie walczyć, chyba w razie natarcia z ich strony lub próby rozbrojenia oddziałów. Zadanie Warszawy i miast, które miały się bronić przed Niemcami – bez zmian. Miasta do których podejdą bolszewicy, powinny z nimi pertraktować w sprawie wyjścia garnizonów do Węgier lub Rumunii. Sowiety wkroczyły. Nakazuję ogólne wycofanie na Rumunię i Węgry najkrótszymi drogami. Z bolszewikami nie walczyć, chyba w razie natarcia z ich strony lub próby rozbrojenia oddziałów. Zadanie Warszawy i miast, które miały się bronić przed Niemcami – bez zmian. Miasta do których podejdą bolszewicy, powinny z nimi pertraktować w sprawie wyjścia garnizonów do Węgier lub Rumunii. Na wieść o agresji ZSRR , wobec natarcia Armii Czerwonej rząd polski, premier generał Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski i prezydent Ignacy Mościcki ewakuowali się w nocy 17 września na terytorium sojuszniczej Rumunii . Wbrew porozumieniu polsko-rumuńskiemu o swobodnym prawie przejazdu ( fr. droit de passage ), pod naciskiem niemiecko-radzieckim i przy porozumieniu Rumunów z rządem francuskim, polscy oficjele zostali bez uprzedzenia internowani . Nazajutrz marszałek Rydz-Śmigły uciekł na Rumunię. On również został internowany. Opuszczenie broniącego się kraju przez Naczelnego Wodza wywołało oburzenie Polaków. Największy opór Armii Czerwonej stawił Korpus Ochrony Pogranicza , który jednak był zbyt nieliczny, by móc zatrzymać wroga. Z miast polskich najsilniej broniły się Lwów (12–22 września, również przed Niemcami) i Grodno (20–22 września). 25 września prezydent Mościcki, korzystając z prerogatyw konstytucji o możliwości wyznaczenia następcy w czasie wojny, wydał dekret o przekazaniu władzy ambasadorowi w Rzymie, generałowi Bolesławowi Wieniawie-Długoszowskiemu [ 16 ] . Był on jednak osobą co najmniej kontrowersyjną i wyborowi sprzeciwili się alianci zachodni. Generał zrzekł się nominacji, a jego stanowisko powierzono Władysławowi Raczkiewiczowi , co zapoczątkowało działalność Rządu RP na uchodźstwie , na czele którego stanął generał Władysław Sikorski . Brak publicznego formalnego ogłoszenia przez Prezydenta i rząd RP faktu istnienia stanu wojny między Związkiem Radzieckim a Polską i brak jednoznacznego rozkazu Naczelnego Wodza stawiania oporu najeźdźcy doprowadził do dezorientacji dowódców i żołnierzy (na przykład podczas obrony Lwowa ), a w konsekwencji do wzięcia do niewoli ok. 250 tysięcy żołnierzy i oficerów, w większości nie stawiających oporu. 28 września skapitulowała Warszawa oraz broniąca jej armia przed dowódcą oblężenia, generałem Johannesem Blaskowitzem . Morale oddziałów polskich, jak i całego społeczeństwa zostały zachwiane. 6 października zakończyła się ostatnia batalia kampanii – bitwa pod Kockiem , przegrana przez Polaków. Kampania wrześniowa dobiegła końca, wojska niemieckie i radzieckie zajęły terytorium Polski i zdławiły zorganizowany opór regularnych wojsk polskich na terenie kraju III Rzesza i Związek Radziecki rozpoczęły okupację terytorium Rzeczypospolitej i likwidację polskiej państwowości według traktatu z 28 września . Mieszkańcy obu okupowanych części państwa polskiego poddani zostali represjom przez okupantów. Jeszcze we wrześniu 1939 roku rozpoczęły działalność podporządkowane Rządowi RP na uchodźstwie struktury państwa podziemnego . Ciągłość państwowa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na arenie międzynarodowej wbrew deklaracjom agresorów i okupantów została zachowana. W okupowanym kraju odtworzono konspiracyjną administrację i podziemne Wojsko Polskie . 28 września w zawartym w Moskwie pakcie o granicach i przyjaźni III Rzesza i Związek Radziecki dokonały wbrew prawu międzynarodowemu ( konwencja haska IV z 1907 roku) wytyczenia granicy niemiecko-sowieckiej na okupowanym terytorium Polski. W stosunku do ustaleń tajnego protokołu do paktu Ribbentrop-Mołotow dwaj agresorzy dokonali jednak pewnej modyfikacji: Związek Radziecki oddał III Rzeszy terytorium Lubelszczyzny w zamian za zgodę Niemiec na podporządkowanie Związkowi Radzieckiemu Litwy . Władza radziecka podzieliła swoje zdobycze między Białoruską i Ukraińską Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką – zostały one wcielone do Związku Radzieckiego. Wileńszczyznę przekazano natomiast Litwie , co było czysto kurtuazyjnym gestem ( Stalin i tak zamierzał zająć Litwę, czego dokonał w 1940 roku). Na zajętych przez siebie ziemiach Niemcy ustanowili Ober-Ost (Naczelne Dowództwo na Wschodzie), tymczasową okupacyjną władzę wojskową [ 17 ] . Hitler zamierzał odzyskać dla Niemiec ziemie utracone po I wojnie światowej – Wielkopolskę , Górny Śląsk i korytarz polski (część Prus Zachodnich ). Ziemie te zostały wcielone do III Rzeszy (ludność polska została wysiedlona , w jej miejsce osadzono Niemców z Rzeszy oraz przesiedleńców z krajów bałtyckich i Rumunii w ramach akcji „ Heim ins Reich ”), z reszty utworzone zostało Generalne Gubernatorstwo . Hitler nagrodził Słowację za udział w inwazji skrawkiem ziem polskich. Wolne Miasto Gdańsk , zdominowane przez ludność niemiecką i zarządzenie przez nazistów pod kierownictwem Alberta Forstera wzięło udział w kampanii wrześniowej po stronie Niemiec – jego policja pod dowództwem pułkownika Williego Bethke zaatakowała Pocztę Polską w Gdańsku , a siły porządkowe wspomagały ataki na Westerplatte . Już 1 września, po kilku godzinach walk miasto-państwo uchwałą własnego senatu i Reichstagu zostało włączone do Niemiec. Konfrontacja japońsko-radziecka Równolegle do tych wydarzeń na Dalekim Wschodzie, w dniach 11 maja do 16 września miała miejsce duża bitwa nad rzeką Chałchin-Goł na granicy okupowanych przez Japonię Chin i Mongolii , państwa satelickiego ZSRR. Japończycy planowali podbój Mongolii Zewnętrznej jako bazy wypadowej w głąb Związku Radzieckiego oraz włączenie jej do marionetkowego Mengjiangu [ 18 ] . Nie spodziewali się jednak, że Mongołowie dowodzeni przez marszałka Chorlogijna Czojbalsana stawią im silny opór. Japończycy ściągnęli więc wsparcie, jednak Czojbalsanowi na pomoc ruszyła Armia Czerwona pod dowództwem komkora [ ac ] Gieorgija Żukowa . Po obu stronach w bitwie udział wzięło ponad 130 tysięcy żołnierzy, liczne lotnictwo, artyleria i siły pancerne [ 19 ] . Dysponujący znaczną przewagą Japończycy zostali pokonani i do końca wojny nie próbowali już uderzać na ZSRR lub Mongolię . Front zachodni 1939–1940 Źródła [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Gdy w Polsce trwały walki, na froncie zachodnim toczyła się nazwana przez Niemców „Sitzkrieg” ( niem . „wojna siedząca”) lub przez Francuzów „Drôle de guerrev ( fr . „dziwna wojna”). 5 września Francuzi podjęli ograniczoną ofensywę w Zagłębiu Saary . Mając znaczną przewagę liczebną i materiałową, wkroczyli jedynie 8 kilometrów w głąb terytorium Niemiec na odcinku frontu o szerokości 32 kilometrów. Mimo że nie napotkali przy tym większego oporu wroga, zgodnie z rozkazem generała Maurice’a Gamelina zatrzymali się przed umocnieniami Linii Zygfryda . Wkrótce potem, 12 września na posiedzeniu Rady Najwyższej Sprzymierzonych w Abbeville Francja i Wielka Brytania postanowiły, że nie udzielą Polsce realnej, wojskowej pomocy. Francuskie dywizje wycofały się więc za umocnienia Linii Maginota , podczas gdy przysłany na kontynent Brytyjski Korpus Ekspedycyjny stał bezczynnie na granicy francusko-belgijskiej. Stan ten trwał aż do maja 1940 roku. W przeciwieństwie do braku istotnych działań wojennych na kontynencie (o których decydowali z natury rzeczy Francuzi), działania wojenne na morzach były od początku intensywne. Już 3 września 1939 roku niemiecki okręt podwodny „U-30” zatopił statek pasażerski SS „Athenia” . Do końca 1939 roku alianci stracili ok. 220 statków oraz kilka dużych okrętów (np. lotniskowiec HMS „Courageous” , pancernik HMS „Royal Oak” , krążownik pomocniczy HMS „Rawalpindi” ). Royal Navy zdołała natomiast doprowadzić do samozatopienia niemieckiego pancernika kieszonkowego „ Admiral Graf Spee ” w okolicy ujścia rzeki La Plata . Agresja ZSRR na Finlandię – wojna zimowa Źródła [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Stalin próbował rozciągnąć swoją strefę wpływów także na Finlandię . Odmiennie niż republiki bałtyckie, odmówiła ona jednak przyjęcia ultimatum ZSRR w sprawie wprowadzenia na swe terytorium baz wojskowych Armii Czerwonej i przesunięcia granicy radziecko-fińskiej na Przesmyku Karelskim , tak by w granicach ZSRR znalazła się obronna Linia Mannerheima , choć oferowano Finlandii dwukrotnie większe tereny w zamian (słabo zaludnionej tajgi ). W konsekwencji po prowokacji radzieckiej – ostrzelaniu terytorium ZSRR przez artylerię Armii Czerwonej – Finlandia została zaatakowana. Pod pretekstem pomocy marionetkowej Fińskiej Republiki Demokratycznej Armia Czerwona, po zbombardowaniu Helsinek zaatakowała Finlandię. Tzw. wojna zimowa toczyła się od 30 listopada 1939 roku do 13 marca 1940 roku. Ze strony radzieckiej operacją dowodził marszałek Klimient Woroszyłow . Obroną Finlandii kierował jej przywódca, marszałek Carl Gustaf Mannerheim oraz generał Hugo Viktor Österman . Pomimo przeprowadzenia prędkiej mobilizacji, armia fińska nie była w stanie dorównać wrogowi pod względem liczebności, ani tym bardziej w kwestii sprzętu (Finlandia: 332 000 ludzi, 80 czołgów, 160 samolotów; ZSRR: ok. 1 mln ludzi, 6541 czołgów i pojazdów opancerzonych, 800-3600 samolotów). Mimo że siły fińskie były zdecydowanie słabsze liczebnie od agresora, zdołały stawić Armii Czerwonej zdecydowany opór i powstrzymać marsz wroga, któremu udało się zająć bardzo małe obszary. Szczególnie zasłużyli się w obronie ojczyzny fińscy strzelcy wyborowi . Najsłynniejszym z nich, a zarazem najskuteczniejszym w historii wojen był Simo Häyhä zwany „Białą Śmiercią”, który zabił ponad 705 przeciwników w mniej niż sto dni. Siły radzieckie dziesiątkowały rozbudowane pola minowe oraz liczne pułapki i miny-fugasy . Działań Armii Czerwonej nie ułatwiały mrozy i wszechobecny śnieg, podczas gdy Finowie od pokoleń uczyli się funkcjonowania w tych warunkach. Słynne pozostają fińskie kamuflaże , które pozwalały ukrywać strzelców i stanowiska ogniowe . Jednym z najważniejszych starć wojny była bitwa pod Suomussalmi , spektakularny sukces Finów. Ostatecznie, dowództwo radzieckie, obawiając się interwencji niemieckiej, zdecydowała się na zakończenie działań zbrojnych. Propozycję pokoju Finlandia zaakceptowała, gdyż Mannerheim wiedział, że znikąd nie nadejdzie żadne wsparcie, a państwo nie wytrzyma przeciągającej się kosztownej wojny. Finowie zadali Armii Czerwonej ogromne straty (126 875 zabitych i zaginionych) wobec małych własnych (29 980 zabitych) i obroniła niezależność. Na podstawie wymuszonego traktatu pokojowego Finlandia utraciła jednak część terytorium, m.in. ufortyfikowany Przesmyk Karelski z ważnym miastem Viipuri , a ZSRR w grudniu 1939 roku został wykluczony z Ligi Narodów . Zagrożenie niepodległości Finlandii w wyniku wojny zimowej i poniesione straty terytorialne spowodowały natomiast, że Finlandia porzuciła przy zmianie koniunktury politycznej politykę neutralności i stała się sojusznikiem III Rzeszy podczas wojny niemiecko-radzieckiej w 1941 roku. Bitwa o Atlantyk Niemiecka inwazja na Skandynawię Aby zapewnić dostawy szwedzkich rud żelaza, niezbędnych dla niemieckiego przemysłu wojennego i uprzedzić spodziewane zajęcie norweskich portów przez aliantów, 9 kwietnia 1940 roku III Rzesza zaatakowała Danię i Norwegię . Operacją o kryptonimie „Weserübung” dowodził generał Nikolaus von Falkenhorst . Dania nie była w stanie stawiać jakiegokolwiek oporu i podporządkowała się Niemcom, broniła się natomiast Norwegia . Armia dowodzona była przez generała Kristiana Laakego , później generała Ottona Rugego . Największym sukcesem norweskim było zatopienie przez artylerię nadbrzeżną krążownika ciężkiego „Blücher” . Pomimo utraty najważniejszych miast, słaba 50-tysięczna armia norweska stworzyła ogniska oporu w głębi kraju, a król Haakon VII uniknął pojmania i wraz z rządem ewakuował się do Wielkiej Brytanii. Brytyjczycy i Francuzi wysadzili desanty w rejonie Åndalsnes i Namsos . Po zaciętych walkach z udziałem polskiej Samodzielnej Brygady Strzelców Podhalańskich został opanowany też Narwik . W trakcie trwania bitwy Kriegsmarine przeprowadziła operację „Juno” , mającą na celu odcięcie zaopatrzenia dla wojsk alianckich. W jej wyniku dwa pancerniki i krążownik ciężki zatopiły kilka okrętów alianckich, w tym lotniskowiec HMS „Glorious” . Sukcesy alianckie nie miały jednak już większego znaczenia w obliczu ataku III Rzeszy na Francję i kraje Beneluksu. W rezultacie w czerwcu Sprzymierzeni wycofali się. Dania i Norwegia pozostały pod okupacją do ostatnich dni wojny. Na terenie Norwegii ustanowiono kolaboracyjny rząd pod przywództwem Vidkuna Quislinga . Kampania norweska była wielkim sukcesem Niemiec. Wraz z Norwegią zdobyte zostały znaczne złoża cennych surowców, a Niemcom udało się uzależnić od siebie gospodarczo Szwecję . Norweskie porty i lotniska stały się odtąd dogodnymi bazami do ataków na Wielką Brytanię i północny Atlantyk. W ręce niemieckie dostała się prawie cała ocalała flota norweska, posiadająca kilka większych okrętów – pancerników obrony wybrzeża . Były to jednak okręty bardzo przestarzałe (np. „Harald Haarfagre” pochodził z końca XIX wieku) i przebudowano je na pływające baterie obrony przeciwlotniczej . Długa linia brzegowa kraju usiana fiordami była doskonałą kryjówką dla większych obiektów, np. dla największego okrętu niemieckiego, pancernika „ Tirpitz ”. Operacja ta przyniosła jednak duże straty Kriegsmarine , która utraciła dziesięć niszczycieli . Przez całą wojnę marynarka niemiecka odczuwała brak tych okrętów. Źle na morale marynarzy niemieckich wpłynęła strata „Blüchera” . Dotkliwym ciosem było także zatopienie dwóch krążowników lekkich – „Königsbergu ” i „Karlsruhe” . Bojąc się dalszego wzrostu potęgi niemieckiej Wielka Brytania uznała, że prawdopodobnym kolejnym celem wroga będzie zajęcie duńskich Wysp Owczych . By temu zapobiec Brytyjczycy wzięli je w okupację podczas operacji „Valentine” 11 kwietnia 1940 roku. Następnie zdecydowali się na podporządkowanie sobie Islandii , związanej unią personalną z Danią. 10 maja siły brytyjskie w sile 746 żołnierzy Royal Marines i 4 krążowników przeprowadziły operację „Fork” , w wyniku której cała wyspa znalazła się pod brytyjską okupacją. Niemiecka inwazja na Francję 10 maja 1940 roku Niemcy zaatakowali Holandię , Belgię i Luksemburg ( Fall Gelb ). Opanowanie przez spadochroniarzy mostów i lotnisk holenderskich pozwoliło armii niemieckiej na zajęcie tego kraju w ciągu sześciu dni . W dniach 12–15 maja Niemcy przerwali front francuski w rejonie Sedanu i ruszyli na zachód. 20 maja dotarli do kanału La Manche pod Abbeville , odcinając lewe skrzydło wojsk alianckich. 28 maja armia belgijska skapitulowała. Od 26 maja do 4 czerwca w rejonie Dunkierki odbywała się ewakuacja wojsk brytyjskich ( operacja „Dynamo” ). Plaże pozostawiono wypełnione sprzętem, ale ludzi zdołano wywieźć na Wyspy Brytyjskie. 10 czerwca Włochy wypowiedziały wojnę Francji, co jednak nie mogło już mieć większego wpływu na losy wojny. W cztery dni później Niemcy wkroczyli do Paryża . 16 czerwca nowym premierem Francji z powierzonymi w sytuacji kryzysowej nadzywczajnymi uprawnienami został marszałek Philippe Pétain , bohater I wojny światowej , który następnego dnia poprosił Berlin o zawieszenie broni. Dzień później BBC nadało odezwę generała Charles’a de Gaulle’a wzywającą do dalszej walki. Zapoczątkowało to działalność Komitetu Wolnej Francji . 22 czerwca pod Compiègne , w tej samej salonce kolejowej, w której podpisano rozejm kończący I wojnę światową , Francuzi sygnowali zawieszenie broni. Północna Francja wraz z Paryżem dostała się pod okupację niemiecką, Alzację i Lotaryngię przyłączono do III Rzeszy, południowa zaś część kraju stała się kolaborującym z Niemcami Państwem Francuskim ze stutysięczną armią i rządem Philippe’a Pétaina i Pierre’a Lavala , ulokowanym w słynnym kurorcie Vichy . Państwo to istniało do 1942 roku, kiedy całe jego terytorium zaanektowane zostało przez Niemców w związku z wydarzeniami w Afryce Północnej . Klęska Francji została wykorzystana przez Związek Radziecki do zajęcia państw bałtyckich , który wprowadził w czerwcu 1940 roku na ich teren znaczne wojska i wymusił rekonstrukcje rządów, obsadziwszy je swoimi ludźmi. W ciągu miesiąca Litwa, Łotwa i Estonia ogłoszone zostały republikami radzieckimi i między 3 a 6 sierpnia przystąpiły do Związku Radzieckiego . Stalin wystosował również ultimatum do rządu rumuńskiego , żądając oddania Besarabii oraz północnej Bukowiny . Rumunia się ugięła, a wkrótce potem oddała Węgrom , pod naciskiem niemieckim (tzw. drugi arbitraż wiedeński ), również część Siedmiogrodu . Latem 1940 roku Moskwa wysunęła wobec Finlandii upokarzające żądania ekonomiczne – Finowie wypełnili je, bojąc się utraty niepodległości, równocześnie jednak zacieśnili stosunki z Niemcami, co zapewniło im swoisty parasol ochronny. Podobną politykę obrał Bukareszt; Niemcy, powoli szykując się do wojny ze Związkiem Radzieckim, blokowały ekspansję Związku Radzieckiego w kierunku europejskim. 10 listopada 1940 roku w Berlinie , podczas wizyty Wiaczesława Mołotowa , Hitler po raz ostatni próbował skłonić Związek Radziecki do wojny z Wielką Brytanią. Zaproponował Moskwie przystąpienie do Paktu Trzech i dokonanie wspólnego rozbioru Imperium Brytyjskiego (wskazując Iran i Indie jako teren potencjalnej ekspansji sowieckiej). Wobec odpowiedzi Mołotowa podtrzymującej zainteresowanie Związku Radzieckiego aneksją Finlandii, bazami wojskowymi w Bułgarii , a także kontrolą nad cieśninami tureckimi i Irakiem , Hitler wydał dyrektywę do opracowania planu agresji III Rzeszy na Związek Radziecki, ostatecznie określoną jako plan „Barbarossa” . Bitwa o Anglię 8 sierpnia 1940 atakiem Luftwaffe na lotniska RAF rozpoczęła się powietrzna bitwa o Anglię , trwająca do 31 października. Celem Niemców było osiągnięcie dominacji w powietrzu oraz osłabienie potencjału militarnego wroga, co miało być wstępem do morskiej inwazji na Wyspy Brytyjskie ( operacja „Lew Morski” ). Oprócz ataków na cele czysto wojskowe, Luftwaffe podjęła także szeroko zakrojoną kampanię nalotów wymierzonych przeciwko ludności cywilnej , mających złamać morale brytyjskiego społeczeństwa. Wskutek dobrze zorganizowanej brytyjskiej obrony (m.in. skuteczne wykorzystanie sieci stacji radarowych ), bitwa zakończyła się jednak porażką Niemiec. W bitwie o Anglię wzięło udział wielu ochotników z innych krajów. Najsłynniejszymi byli Polacy, którzy utworzyli Polskie Siły Powietrzne w Wielkiej Brytanii . Najbitniejszą polską formacją myśliwską był Dywizjon 303 . Spośród wszystkich pilotów myśliwskich, broniących angielskiego nieba, 5% pochodziło z Polski. Przypisuje się im 11% wszystkich zestrzeleń samolotów wroga. Generał Karel Janoušek utworzył natomiast lotnictwo czechosłowackie, którego najsłynniejszą jednostką był Dywizjon 310 . Oprócz działań powietrznych Niemcy rozwinęli ofensywę morską przy pomocy okrętów podwodnych , pragnąc odciąć Wielką Brytanię od dostaw żywności i materiałów wojennych z kolonii i Stanów Zjednoczonych. Bitwa o Atlantyk przybrała na sile. Kampania bałkańska 28 października 1940 roku Włochy zaatakowały Grecję . Wojska włoskie zostały jednak szybko powstrzymane i odrzucone przez siły generała Aleksandrosa Papagosa , które zadały wrogowi znaczne straty. W grudniu oddziały greckie wkroczyły do południowej Albanii . Szerokiego poparcia Grekom udzielili Brytyjczycy, wysyłając swoje siły ekspedycyjne. Obecność Brytyjczyków w Grecji i niepomyślny rozwój sytuacji politycznej w Jugosławii doprowadził do niemieckiej inwazji na oba te kraje (6 kwietnia 1941 roku). Oprócz Włoch do ataku przyłączyły się również Węgry i Bułgaria. Już 12 kwietnia Niemcy wkroczyli do Belgradu (5 dni później skapitulowała jugosłowiańska armia), a do 30 kwietnia opanowali lądową część terytorium Grecji. Brytyjczycy wraz z resztkami greckiej armii wycofali się na Kretę . 20 maja na wyspie wylądowały niemieckie oddziały powietrznodesantowe ( operacja „Merkur” ) i pomimo ciężkich strat zdobyły ją (ostatnie oddziały brytyjskie zostały ewakuowane 31 maja). Grecja znalazła się pod niemiecko-włosko-bułgarską okupacją, utworzono też na jej terenach marionetkowe Państwo Greckie . Wkrótce na terytorium Grecji rozpoczął się masowy głód spowodowany łupieżczą polityką okupantów. Na części terytorium Jugosławii doszło do utworzenia sprzymierzonych z Osią państw marionetkowych. Powstały: Niepodległe Państwo Chorwackie na czele z wodzem ustaszów Ante Paveliciem , Niezależne Państwo Czarnogórskie pod rządami separatystycznego polityka Sekuli Drljevicia oraz tzw. Serbia Nedicia rządzona przez serbskiego generała Milana Nedicia . Resztę Jugosławii podzieliły między siebie III Rzesza, Włochy, Węgry i Bułgaria. Kampania afrykańska 1940–1942 Źródła [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Walki w północnej Afryce rozpoczęły się w chwili przystąpienia Włoch do wojny po stronie Niemiec. 13 września 1940 roku armia włoska pod dowództwem marszałka Rodolfo Grazianiego , atakując z Libii , wtargnęła do Egiptu i zdobyła Sidi Barrani . Mimo zdecydowanej przewagi liczebnej zatrzymała się tam i zaczęła się umacniać, czekając na zaopatrzenie. Brytyjczycy, dowodzeni przez generała Archibalda Wavella , wycofali się do Marsa Matruh . 9 grudnia ruszyła brytyjska kontrofensywa . Włosi zostali wyparci z Egiptu i utracili Cyrenajkę z Bardią i Tobrukiem . Tymczasem w Afryce Wschodniej Włosi w sierpniu zajęli Somali Brytyjskie . Gubernator Gabonu, Georges Masson , pozostał wierny rządowi Vichy. Alianci zdecydowali się więc zająć nadzorowane przezeń posiadłości francuskie. 27 października 1940 roku rozpoczęła się kampania o Gabon . Wojska kolonialne generała Marcela Têtuego były słabe i prędko uległy naporowi liczniejszych Brytyjczyków i Wolnych Francuzów . Zniszczona została tamtejsza flota, licząca tylko okręt podwodny i awizo . 12 listopada poddały się w Port-Gentil ostatnie oddziały wierne rządowi Vichy, a Têtue dostał się do niewoli. Garnizon w znacznej części przeszedł na stronę Wolnej Francji. Masson popełnił samobójstwo. W dniach od 23 do 25 września alianci przeprowadzili operację „Menace”, której celem było przechwycenie pozostającego pod władzą Vichy portu w Dakarze, w którym stacjonowały znaczne siły morskie, zwłaszcza cenny pancernik „ Richelieu ” i dwa krążowniki lekkie. Siły Wolnej Francji dowodzone przez de Gaulle’a wsparte przez Brytyjczyków i Australijczyków zgromadziły potężną flotę, jednak operacja zakończyła się klęską. 19 stycznia 1941 roku ruszyła ofensywa Brytyjczyków przeciwko wojskom włoskim we Włoskiej Afryce Wschodniej . Brytyjczycy zaatakowali z trzech stron, kierując się na stolicę Etiopii – Addis Abebę . 26 marca po 7-tygodniowym oblężeniu upadła twierdza górska Keren . Brytyjskie oraz indyjskie oddziały desantowe odbiły stolicę Somalii Brytyjskiej – Berberę . Główny atak brytyjski wyszedł z Kenii i po 53 dniach stałego marszu i walk wojska tego frontu wyzwoliły Addis Abebę. W II połowie maja 1941 roku cała Etiopia, Erytrea i Somalia były wolne od okupantów włoskich. Przywrócono też niepodległość Etiopii. 9 stycznia 1941 roku Niemcy podjęli decyzję o wsparciu włoskich działań wojennych w Afryce Północnej. W lutym do Libii dotarły pierwsze jednostki Niemieckiego Korpusu Afrykańskiego (niem. „Afrika Korps”) pod dowództwem generała Erwina Rommla . 31 marca ruszyło natarcie wojsk niemiecko-włoskich , przy czym główne uderzenie wyszło od strony pustyni. Rozcięta na dwie części armia brytyjska w pośpiechu wycofała się aż nad granicę libijsko-egipską, pozostawiając jedynie załogę w oblężonym Tobruku. Brytyjczycy, dysponujący znaczną przewagą liczebną i sprzętową usiłowali ruszyć Tobrukowi z odsieczą podczas operacji „Brevity” , jednak ich atak został spektakularnie odparty – siły Rommla zniszczyły 96 alianckich czołgów, tracąc tylko 5 własnych. 25 sierpnia broniących się w Tobruku Australijczyków wsparła polska Samodzielna Brygada Strzelców Karpackich . Dowódca wojsk brytyjskich, generał Archibald Wavell spróbował przerwać linie niemiecko-włoskie po raz drugi ( operacja „Battleaxe” ), jednak znów poniósł znaczną porażkę. Tymczasem Wavella zastąpił nowy dowódca, generał Claude Auchinleck . Ostatnie regularne siły włoskie w Afryce Wschodniej poddały się po bitwie o Gondar 13–27 listopada. Zakończona w ten sposób kampania wschodnioafrykańska była pierwszym, lądowym zwycięstwem aliantów w II wojnie światowej; wojska alianckie z tego obszaru zostały następnie przerzucone do walki na innych teatrach działań wojennych. 18 listopada ruszyła trzecia operacja ofensywna w Afryce Północnej o kryptonimie „Crusader”. Dopiero ona, po ciężkich walkach zlikwidowała oblężenie Tobruku i wyparła wojska Osi z Cyrenajki . Sukces był jednak krótkotrwały. Rommel wycofał swoje wojska i pod Gazalą rozbił Sprzymierzonych w spektakularnej bitwie. Rommel ruszył z ofensywą na Egipt. Nie udało się go zatrzymać pod Mersa Matruh , a dopiero pod El Alamein . Rommel wiedział, że musi zdobyć El Alamein, by ruszyć dalej na Kair . Wobec braku sukcesów, dowództwo brytyjskie zastąpiło Auchinlecka generałem Bernardem Montgomerym . Siły niemiecko-włoskie spróbowały okrążyć Brytyjczyków pod Alam Halfa , jednak trudne warunki terenowe uniemożliwiły manewr. Wojska Osi były już na skraju wytrzymałości – znaczne rozciągniecie się linii zaopatrzeniowych, absolutna dominacja powietrzna aliantów, którzy dziesiątkowali dostawy zapasów oraz słabość włoskiej marynarki , która nie była w stanie zapewnić bezpieczeństwa konwojom z zaopatrzeniem powodowały, że żołnierzom Rommla brakowało wody, żywności, amunicji i leków. Co więcej, włoscy sojusznicy wykazywali się znikomą bitnością. Tymczasem Brytyjczycy mieli wszystkiego pod dostatkiem. Montgomery zwlekał więc z podjęciem ofensywy, zbierając coraz większe zapasy. Rommel wiedział, że jego jedyną szansą na zwycięstwo, wobec braku odzewu na apele do dowództwa o przysłanie posiłków, zaopatrzenia, lotnictwa, lub zastąpienie go generałem Heinzem Guderianem , jest prędkie zdobycie Kairu, musiał więc atakować. Druga próba zdobycia El Alamein okazała się katastrofą. Brytyjczycy, którzy zamienili swe pozycje w twierdzę i ściągnęli wielkie posiłki, odparli atak, w którym zginął jeden z ważniejszych dowódców niemieckich w Afryce, generał Georg Stumme . Wojska Osi musiały wycofać się na zachód. Kampania iracka Źródła [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Dochodząc do władzy 3 kwietnia 1941 roku, nacjonalistyczny rząd irackiego premiera Raszida Alego al-Kilaniego wyrzekł się brytyjsko-irackiego traktatu z 1930 roku i zażądał zamknięcia brytyjskich baz wojskowych na terenie kraju. Premier szukał poparcia wśród III Rzeszy, Włoch i Francji Vichy w usunięciu brytyjskich sił z Iraku . Brytyjczycy nie przystali na te żądania i zdecydowali się usunąć zagrożenie ze strony Iraku drogą zbrojną. Walka pomiędzy irackimi a brytyjskimi wojskami rozpoczęła się 18 kwietnia 1941 roku w brytyjskiej bazie lotniczej nad jeziorem Habbanija . Armia iracka, choć liczniejsza, była jednak zbyt słaba, by stawić skuteczny opór stacjonującym w kraju jednostkom brytyjskim, znanym od 1941 roku jako Iraqforce , którymi dowodził generał Edward Quinan . Państwa Osi wysłały więc dwa dywizjony wsparcia, jeden od niemieckiej Luftwaffe , zaś drugi od Królewskich Sił Powietrznych Włoch . Niemcy i Włosi wykorzystali francuskie bazy w Syrii , doprowadzając do walki między brytyjskimi a francuskimi siłami w Syrii. Dowódcą wydzielonych jednostek Luftwaffe, które miały pomóc irackim rebeliantom, został pułkownik Werner Junck . W maju 1941 roku Al-Hadżdż Muhammad Amin al-Husajni – wielki mufti Jerozolimy i sojusznik al-Kilaniego – ogłosił „ świętą wojnę ” przeciwko Wielkiej Brytanii i wezwał Arabów na całym Bliskim Wschodzie , by stanąć do walki przeciw Brytyjczykom. Solidarność z Irakiem i wsparcie dla tego kraju wyraził osobiście Hitler. 30 maja 1941 roku Brytyjczycy dotarli na przedmieścia Bagdadu . Iracki wojskowy opór zakończył się następnego dnia. Al-Kilani i jego sojusznicy uciekli do Iranu, później do Turcji , Włoch i w końcu do Niemiec, gdzie Ali został mile przyjęty przez Hitlera jako głowa irackiego rządu na emigracji. W audycjach radiowych z Berlina, mufti nawoływał do dalszej walki przeciwko Zjednoczonemu Królestwu i pomocy siłom niemiecko-włoskim. Ponadto na Bałkanach przyjmował muzułmańskich ochotników do Waffen-SS . Nowi przywódcy Iraku przyjęli brytyjskie żądania w sprawie tranzytu wojsk i zaopatrzenia. Przez Irak szła część pomocy amerykańskiej dla ZSRR w ramach umowy Lend-Lease . Kraj ten wypowiedział wojnę państwom Osi w styczniu 1942 roku. Niemiecka inwazja na ZSRR Źródła [ 31 ] W latach 1939–1941 ZSRR prowadził intensywną współpracę gospodarczą i polityczną z Niemcami na podstawie paktu Ribbentrop-Mołotow z 23 sierpnia 1939 i traktatu o granicach i przyjaźni z 28 września 1939, a stosunki pomiędzy obydwoma krajami pozostawały pozornie przyjazne. W rzeczywistości jednak Adolf Hitler od grudnia 1940 przygotowywał plan inwazji na partnera pod kryptonimem „Barbarossa” . Operacja „Barbarossa” 22 czerwca 1941 roku III Rzesza wypowiedziała wojnę i dokonała zbrojnej agresji na Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich , co otworzyło po raz pierwszy od października 1939 roku front wschodni II wojny światowej. Historiografia radziecka, a następnie rosyjska określa wojnę niemiecko-sowiecką jako wielką wojnę ojczyźnianą [ ad ] . W działaniach wojennych sojusznikami Rzeszy były Rumunia , Finlandia , Węgry , Włochy , Słowacja , Chorwacja , Serbia oraz oddziały ochotników z Belgii, Holandii , Francji, Danii , Norwegii i Hiszpanii , a także liczni kolaboranci . W niedzielę 22 czerwca 1941 roku o godz. 3.15 rozpoczęła się operacja „Barbarossa”, uderzenie państw Osi na ZSRR od Bałtyku po Karpaty . Państwa Osi zaangażowały siły wielkości ponad 4 milionów żołnierzy – była to największa operacja sił lądowych w historii. Oprócz 3 milionów Niemców, po stronie Osi walczyło m.in. ćwierć miliona Włochów i 300 tysięcy Rumunów [ 32 ] . W zachodnich okręgach wojskowych ZSRR znajdowało się 2 517 054 żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej, którzy zostali całkowicie zaskoczeni atakiem. Sytuacja byłaby dla nich beznadziejna, gdyby nie trwająca od 14 czerwca 1941 roku sprawnie prowadzona mobilizacja Armii Czerwonej na stopę wojenną. W ciągu 9 dni od wybuchu wojny w różnych częściach ZSRR dodatkowo zmobilizowano pięć milionów ludzi. Spora część z nich uzupełniła straty pierwszego tygodnia wojny. W przemówieniu 3 lipca Józef Stalin wezwał do utworzenia ruchu partyzanckiego i walki przeciwko Niemcom. Równolegle z uderzeniem wojsk lądowych Luftwaffe przypuściła zmasowane naloty na radzieckie lotniska znajdujące się przy granicy niemiecko-radzieckiej. Wojskowe Siły Powietrzne ZSRR straciły 1811 samolotów, podczas gdy Luftwaffe tylko 35 i Rumuńskie Siły Powietrzne 11 [ 33 ] . Armia Czerwona została sparaliżowana. Dzień po rozpoczęciu inwazji powołało do życia Stawkę , organ naczelnego dowództwa Armii Czerwonej , który miał koordynować obronę Związku Radzieckiego. Dowództwo radzieckimi siłami powierzono marszałkowi Siemionowi Timoszence . Oprócz niego członkami Stawki zostali marszałkowie Siemion Budionny i Kliment Woroszyłow , generał Gieorgij Żukow , a także Wasilij Kuzniecow oraz Wiaczesław Mołotow . 10 lipca Timoszenkę zastąpił sam Stalin , który tym samym przejął dowództwo nad armią. Członkiem Stawki został też marszałek Borys Szaposznikow . Do końca wojny skład radzieckiego dowództwa uległ znacznym modyfikacjom i ostatecznie składała się ze Stalina, Żukowa, Kuzniecowa, marszałka Aleksandra Wasilewskiego oraz generałów Aleksieja Antonowa i Nikołaja Bułganina . To w rękach tych ludzi spoczywał na czas wojny los całego państwa [ 34 ] . Kierunek bałtycki Grup Armii „Północ” feldmarszałka Wilhelma von Leeba uderzyła z Prus Wschodnich w kierunku okupowanych państw bałtyckich. Jej oddziały pancerne dowodzone przez generała Ericha Höpnera błyskawicznie parły naprzód. Radziecki generał Fiodor Kuzniecow usiłował zatrzymać ofensywę pod Rosieniami , mobilizując w tym celu 749 czołgów, także najcięższe maszyny radzieckie, czołgi ciężkie KW-2 . Bitwa zakończyła się masakrą Armii Czerwonej – 245 czołgów niemieckich zniszczyło 704 radzieckie, kosztem lekkich strat własnych. Niemcy zdobyli Dyneburg , który Kuzniecow usiłował odzyskać znacznymi siłami, jednak znów poniósł klęskę. Armia Czerwona wycofała się za Dźwinę i na jej linii zdecydowała się skoncentrować obronę. Odwrót wojsk radzieckich był jednak chaotyczny, co spowodowały sprzeczne z poleceniami Kuzniecowa rozkazy generała Żukowa i w chwili, gdy część jednostek wycofywała się za rzekę, Niemcy już ją forsowali. Zdecydowano się skoncentrować obronę na miastach Ostrow i Psków . Ostrow oddano jednak bez walki, po czym usiłowano go odbić, jednak atak radzieckich sił pancernych pozbawionych wsparcia piechoty doprowadził do zniszczenia ich przez niemiecką artylerię. Atak osamotnionej piechoty został odparty. Kolejne jednostki radzieckie dostały rozkaz powstrzymania Niemców. Ciężkie walki rozgorzały pod Opoczką i Porchowem, jednak nie spowolniły one marszu najeźdźców – niedługo później zdobyto Psków. Dowództwo radzieckie zdecydowało się przenieść linię obrony na Ługę i te pozycje na pewien czas udało się utrzymać. Żołnierze niemieccy byli wymęczeni, a jednostki wymagały przegrupowania. Jednostki Grupy Armii „Północ” w ciągu trzech tygodni wkroczyły ponad 600 kilometrów w głąb terytorium Związku Radzieckiego [ 35 ] . W połowie sierpnia ponownie ruszyła ona do walki. Kolejnym celem był Krasnogwardiejsk . Próby uderzenia na przeciwnika przypłaciła Armia Czerwona ciężkimi stratami. Niemcy dążyli do prędkiego opanowania Nowogrodu . Wojska radzieckie próbowały przejąć inicjatywę pod Starą Russą , gromadząc znaczne siły, jednak Niemcy po ściągnięciu wsparcia zmusili je do odwrotu. Podczas walk o miasto po raz pierwszy wykorzystano sławne „ katiusze ”. Niedługo później padł Nowogród, po nalotach Luftwaffe i otoczeniu go przez Niemców. Wielu żołnierzy radzieckich dostało się do niewoli, a w ręce najeźdźcy wpadł liczny i cenny sprzęt. Wkrótce padł Krasnogwardiejsk i otworzyła się droga do głównego celu Leeba – Leningradu , drugiego, po Moskwie, najważniejszego miasta ZSRR. Na początku września natarcie Niemców straciło impet. Powodem były obfite deszcze, które utrudniały marsz, oraz katastrofalny stan sprzętu pancernego. Mordercza dla czołgów pogoda prowadziła do znacznych strat, podczas gdy nie pojawiały się nowe maszyny. Pomimo to, Niemcom udało się zamknąć miasto w kotle. Garnizon Leningradu był jednak zbyt potężny, by pokonać go w bitwie miejskiej, tak więc Leeb zdecydował się na oblężenie . Kierunek ukraiński Grupa Armii „Południe” feldmarszałka Gerda von Rundstedta powierzono zadanie zniszczenia sił radzieckich na Ukrainie. Główne natarcie niemieckie skierowało się na Równe – Żytomierz [ 36 ] . Głównodowodzącym sił radzieckich został Budionny , bohater wojny domowej i polsko-bolszewickiej , który jednak nie okazał się kompetentnym oficerem w prowadzeniu nowoczesnej wojny. Pozycje nadgraniczne 5 Armii generała Michaiła Potapowa zostały rozbite przez oddziały niemieckiej 6 Armii . Niemcom udało się wbić w styk 5 i 6 Armii generała Iwana Muzyczenki . Powstał wyłom o szerokości 60 kilometrów, przez który bez problemu wdarły się czołgi 1 Grupy Pancernej generała Ewalda von Kleista . Niemieckie wojska pancerne miały przeciwko sobie aż trzy korpusy zmechanizowane. Główne starcia miały miejsce w rejonie Beresteczka , gdzie Armia Czerwona wykorzystała swoje potężne KW-1 i KW-2 , użyto także nowej konstrukcji, T-34 . Siły radzieckie nie wykorzystały jednak swojej przewagi. Falowe ataki czołgów załamywały się w silnym ogniu artylerii przeciwpancernej. Przyczyną radzieckich niepowodzeń była słaba taktyka oraz mierne wyszkolenie załóg. Czołgom tym brakowało też amunicji. Ostatecznie dowodzący w regionie generał Michaił Kirponos wycofał się na Linię Stalina , potężny, lecz nieukończony pas umocnień, który nie stanowił dla Niemców większej przeszkody. Padł Żytomierz i najeźdźcy skierowali się na Kijów . Chwilowo ofensywę powstrzymała 26 Armia generała Fiodora Kostienki . Nie powiodła się radziecka próba zlikwidowania wyłomu, co więcej, Kleistowi udało się zepchnąć Kostienkę za linię Dniestru . Wraz z nim musiała się wycofać 5 Armia . Niemcy zorientowali się, że oddziały radzieckie chcą się wycofać, więc postanowili zamknąć im drogę odwrotu. Wojska Kleista doszły do Pierwomajska , odcinając 6 i 12 Armię . Sytuacja Armii Czerwonej była bardzo ciężka. Z rejonu Humania obrońcom zagroziła niemiecka 17 Armia , która przerwała zorganizowaną tam obronę. Dowództwo radzieckie zdecydowało się przerzucić za Dniepr wszystkie możliwe jednostki, organizując linię obrony. Armia Czerwona włączyła do walki zapasową 38 Armię , jednak Niemcy połączyli siły z Grupą Armii „Środek” i wsparła ich 2 Grupa Pancerna Guderiana. Dzięki niej udało się zamknąć wojska broniące Dniestru w wielkim kotle. Działania te przeszły do historii jako bitwa pod Humaniem i przyniosły Armii Czerwonej wielkie straty. 100 tysięcy żołnierzy zostało rannych lub zabitych, a kolejne 100 tysięcy dostało się do niewoli [ 37 ] . Niemcy pod dowództwem generała Ericha von Mansteina ruszyli na południe, docierając do Krymu , na którym odcięli liczne wojska radzieckie . Zbliżyli się również do ważnego ośrodka radzieckiej gospodarki, jakim było Zagłębie Donieckie . Kierunek białoruski Grupa Armii „Środek” feldmarszałka Fedora von Bocka prowadziła natarcie z okupowanych ziem polskich w kierunku Białorusi . 22 czerwca Niemcy przekroczyli Bug . Wojska radzieckie były zaskoczone atakiem i nieprzygotowane do obrony, tak więc nie stanowiły poważniejszego zagrożenia. Broniła się natomiast Twierdza Brzeska , której garnizon, choć mniej liczny i ponoszący znaczne straty, wytrzymała napór wroga do 29 czerwca. Od 22 czerwca do 9 lipca trwała wielka bitwa białostocko-mińska . Generał Dmitrij Pawłow oraz jego 675 000 żołnierzy starł się z siłami von Bocka liczącymi 750 tysięcy ludzi. Niemcy polegali na swoich czołgach i zdolnych dowódcach. 2 Grupa Pancerna generała Heinza Guderiana i 3 Grupa Pancerna generała Hermanna Hotha obeszły wojska radzieckie i zamknęły je w tak zwanym kotle białostockim. Części sił radzieckich udało się z niego wymknąć, jednak wkrótce zostały okrążone w rejonie Nowogródka . Niemcy przystąpili do likwidacji otoczonych wojsk, którym nie powiódł się kontratak. Nie pomogła Pawłowowi nawet miażdżąca przewaga w sprzęcie – w wyniku bitwy białostocko-mińskiej do niewoli dostało się ponad 300 tysięcy żołnierzy, około 40 tysięcy zginęło, a Armia Czerwona straciła 4799 czołgów, 9427 dział i 1669 samolotów. Niemców operacja kosztowała 12 tysięcy zabitych, 101 czołgów i 276 samolotów. Pawłow, który uniknął niewoli został rozstrzelany przez NKWD . Tymczasem w ręce Niemców wpadł Mińsk . Wcześniej Armia Czerwona usiłowała przeprowadzić natarcie pod Małorytą , które jednak zostało powstrzymane. Niemcy ruszyli do ataku na strategicznie ważny Smoleńsk . Już 1 lipca sforsowana została Berezyna . Von Bock przekazał zwierzchnictwo nad 2 i 3 Grupą Pancerną generałowi Güntherowi von Klugemu . Guderian i Hoth przeprowadzili szybki atak na Smoleńsk, do którego obrony zmobilizowano wielkie siły, dowodzone przez Kuzniecowa, Timoszenkę i generała Andrieja Jeriomienkę . Choć bitwa o Smoleńsk okazała się dla Armii Czerwonej kolejną katastrofą (300 tysięcy pojmanych żołnierzy, niemal 3000 straconych czołgów, podczas gdy Niemcy utracili ich tylko ponad 100), oblężenie miasta trwało dwa miesiące, kluczowe dla przygotowania obrony Moskwy i koniec końców bitwa ta pozwoliła wygrać ZSRR wojnę [ 38 ] . Po zdobyciu Smoleńska na terenie dzisiejszej Ukrainy , skoncentrowały się znaczne siły radzieckie, które należało rozbić. Grupa Armii „Środek” skierowała się więc na Kijów i 25 sierpnia dotarła do Desny i poruszając się wzdłuż niej zajęła kilka miejscowości. Następnie Niemcy sforsowali rzekę i rozpoczęli okrążanie Kijowa. Niewyszkolona 40 Armia , naprędce zorganizowana, nie dały rady zatrzymać manewru i miasto zostało odcięte. Rozpoczęła się bitwa o Kijów . Próby przerwania okrążenia przez równoczesne ataki 40 Armii i wojsk okrążonych nie przyniosły rezultatu. 26 września Kijów broniony, którego obroną kierował sam Timoszenko, skapitulował, do niewoli dostało się 665 tysięcy żołnierzy radzieckich [ 39 ] . W walce zginęli ponadto Michaił Burmistienko – wiceprzywódca Ukraińskiej SRR oraz generał Michaił Kirponos [ 40 ] . Odwołany został dowodzący obroną Ukrainy marszałek Siemion Budionny . Niemcy kontynuowali natarcie i dotarli do Kaługi , jednak zaraz potem przerzucili swoje siły pod Moskwę [ 41 ] . Inwazje fińska i rumuńska Po agresji niemieckiej Finlandia pozostawała neutralna. Pomimo tego, w dniach 25–26 czerwca lotnictwo radzieckie dokonało bombardowań miast i lotnisk fińskich. Mannerheim zdecydował się na wojnę, widząc w niej szansę na odzyskanie utraconych w 1940 roku terenów. Wojska dowodzone przez generałów Erika Heinrichsa i Aksela Airo zaatakowały ZSRR i odzyskały fińskie ziemie do końca sierpnia. Ofensywa była jednak kontynuowana, celem zdobycia całej Karelii . Finowie zdobyli miasto Pietrozawodsk , dotarli aż do jeziora Onega i rzeki Świr , odcięli od północy Leningrad i zatrzymali się. Równocześnie pozwolili wojskom niemieckim pod komendą zdobywcy Skandynawii Falkenhorsta na przemarsz przez północ swojego kraju. Finowie i Niemcy wspólnie przeprowadzili operację „Silberfuchs” mającą na celu zdobycie kluczowego dla dalszych walk Murmańska , jednak nie dały rady pokonać mniej garnizonu generała Markiana Popowa [ 42 ] . Wojska rumuńskie od 1 lipca realizowały operację „München” pod dowództwem dyktatora Rumunii , marszałka Iona Antonescu oraz generałów Nicolae’a Ciupercă i Petra Dumitrescu’a zaatakowały ZSRR, odzyskują utraconą Besarabię i północną Bukowinę . Ruszyły jednak dalej w głąb Ukrainy, łącząc się z siłami niemieckimi i docierając do strategicznie ważnej Odessy . Walki o miasto trwały od 8 sierpnia do 16 października, jednak ostatecznie Rumunom udało się je zdobyć [ 43 ] . Walki na Bałtyku 1941–1943 Działania na Bałtyku przez całą wojnę nie były szczególnie intensywne. Podczas wojny zimowej radziecka marynarka ostrzeliwała z okrętów pozycje fińskie. Merivoimat , marynarka fińska, skupiała się na osłanianiu własnych pozycji przed radzieckim desantem. Jej trzon stanowiły dwa silne pancerniki obrony wybrzeża , „Ilmarinen” i „Väinämöinen” [ 44 ] . W 1941 roku do walki ze Związkiem Radzieckim Kriegsmarine oddelegowała stare, pamiętające poprzednią wojnę światową pancerniki „Schlesien” i „Schleswig-Holstein” (które nie wzięły udziału w walkach), 5 okrętów podwodnych, 10 stawiaczy min , nieznaczną liczbę trałowców , 28 kutrów i wiele mniejszych jednostek. Przeciwko tym siłom radziecka Flota Bałtycka admirała Władimira Tribuca wystawiła dwa (równie przestarzałe, co niemieckie) pancerniki „Marat” i „Oktiabrskaja Riewolucija” , krążowniki „Kirow” i „Maksym Gorki”, 2 superniszczyciele , 24 niszczyciele, 65 okrętów podwodnych i mnóstwo mniejszych jednostek. Tribuc nie wykorzystał swojej olbrzymiej przewagi i wraz z błyskawicznymi postępami niemieckich wojsk lądowych wycofywał się na wschód. 6 lipca 1941 roku podczas stawiania min przez radzieckie okręty wywiązała się bitwa pomiędzy zespołem radzieckim a okrętami niemieckimi, z których trzy zostały uszkodzone i zmuszone do wycofania. Kilka dni później w rejonie Parnawy wszedł na minę i zatonął niemiecki trałowiec „M-23”. Straty marynarka radziecka zaczęła ponosić w sierpniu, gdy zatopiono okręty podwodne „S-11” i „S-6” oraz niszczyciele „Karol Marks” oraz „Engels”. 27 sierpnia miała miejsce wielka operacja radzieckiej floty, mająca na celu ewakuowanie otoczonych w Tallinnie wojsk oraz 66 tysięcy ton zapasów. Luftwaffe von Richthofena dokonała jednak masakry wycofujących się wojsk, zatapiając 65 statków i okrętów, w tym 5 niszczycieli, 5 trałowców i 2 okręty podwodne. Spośród 29 dużych transportowców uciekających z miasta do bezpiecznej przystani dotarł tylko jeden, „Kazachstan”. 9 września dowódca Kriegsmarine, wielki admirał Erich Raeder zwrócił uwagę Hitlera na fakt, że Flota Bałtycka może spróbować się przebić do neutralnej Szwecji, gdzie zostanie internowana i uratowana przed zniszczeniem. Dyktator przyznał mu rację i na jego rozkaz sformowany został potężny zespół Baltenflotte (niem. Flota Bałtów) składający się z nowoczesnych okrętów z pancernikiem „ Tirpitz ” i krążownikiem ciężkim „ Admiral Scheer ” na czele. Wraz z nimi na Bałtyk zawitały nowe krążowniki lekkie, niszczyciele i liczne mniejsze jednostki. Były to siły, z jakimi Tribuc nie mógł się mierzyć. Wycofał swoje siły do Leningradu, który od strony morskiej stał się istną fortecą. 13 września wszedł na minę i zatonął wszedł okręt flagowy marynarki fińskiej, „Ilmarinen”. W listopadzie bezczynna Baltenflotte została rozwiązana. Unieszkodliwieniem pancerników radzieckich zająć się miała Luftwaffe, której 23 września udało się zniszczyć „Marata” [ 45 ] . Opadł on jednak na płytkie dno, więc garnizon leningradzki zdołała go podnieść i zamienić w platformę artyleryjską . W 1942 roku prawie nie podejmowano operacji morskich na Bałtyku, poza stawianiem min przez Niemców. Podobnie było w 1943 roku, kiedy Kriegsmarine podjęła jednak próbę całkowitego odcięcia morskiego Leningradu, co nie powiodło się i doprowadziło do zatopienia kilku mniejszych jednostek. Kampania moskiewska Źródła [ 46 ] [ 47 ] 30 września 1941 roku Niemcy dotarli pod Moskwę . Stolica ZSRR była najważniejszym celem dla najeźdźcy, a jej upadek byłby wielkim sukcesem militarnym, politycznym i propagandowym. Stalin nie chciał jednak łatwo poddać miasta, zdecydował się dowodzić obroną osobiście. Moskwa została ufortyfikowana, a jej garnizon zasilony rezerwowymi armiami z Syberii i Dalekiego Wschodu . Ostatecznie przeciw Niemcom Armia Czerwona wystawiła ponad milion i dwieście tysięcy żołnierzy. Historycy nie są zgodni co do liczby wojsk niemieckich. Zdaniem niektórych było ich mniej od obrońców, inni mówią o prawie dwóch milionach. Dowodził nimi osobiście feldmarszałek Walther von Brauchitsch , naczelny dowódca wojsk lądowych. Wraz z nim operację o kryptonimie „Tajfun” poprowadził feldmarszałek Fedor von Bock [ 48 ] . Siłami powietrznymi miał dowodzić feldmarszałek Albert Kesselring . Obrońców prowadzili: generał Aleksandr Wasilewski , marszałek Borys Szaposznikow oraz marszałek Gieorgij Żukow . Niemcy chcieli zamknąć miasto w kleszcze manewru okrążającego dokonanego przez 3 i 4 Armię Pancerną w kierunku linii kolejowej łączącej Moskwę z Leningradem oraz 2 Armię Pancerną, która miała ruszyć w kierunku Tuły . W tym czasie 4 Armia miała zająć miasto. Stalin liczył na powodzenie obronnej operacji moskiewskiej – wiedział, że od jej powodzenia zależy los kraju. Niemcom nie udało się zdobyć Moskwy. Walki przeciągały się i zatraciły charakter wojny błyskawicznej , jaką próbowali prowadzić najeźdźcy. Zima 1941/1942 była najostrzejsza w XX wieku, a temperatura nie raz spadała do –45 °C. Taka pogoda była zabójcza dla sprzętu pancernego, który nie był przystosowany do walk zimowych. Piechota niemiecka nie posiadła ciepłych mundurów. Szczególnie dawała się we znaki broniąca się z wielką zawziętością 16 Armia generała Konstantego Rokossowskiego . 27 listopada niemiecka 7 Dywizja Pancerna zajęła przyczółek przez Kanał Moskwa–Wołga – ostatnią poważną przeszkodę naturalną przed Moskwą – i stanęła mniej niż 35 kilometrów od Kremla , ale potężny kontratak wykonany przez 1 Armię Uderzeniową odepchnął ją z powrotem. Nie powiódł się manewr okrążający – 2 Armia Pancerna Guderiana poczyniła znaczne postępy, zdobyła nawet Stalinogorsk , acz zatrzymał ją kontratak 2 Korpusu Kawalerii generała Pawła Biełowa pod Kaszyrą [ 49 ] . Nie udał się niemiecki atak od strony autostrady Mińsk – Moskwa . Atakujący utknęli na przedpolach stolicy ZSRR bez perspektyw na jej zdobycie. Kampania irańska Iran pod panowaniem szacha Rezy Szacha Pahlawiego stał się od początku II wojny światowej terenem infiltracji wielkich mocarstw, w tym niemieckiej . Obecność niemieckich obywateli niepokoiła władze Wielkiej Brytanii i ZSRR , mimo ogłoszenia przez kraj neutralności. Brytyjczycy chcieli ponadto zająć roponośne obszary Iranu oraz korzystać z kolei transirańskiej do dostarczania materiałów wojennych do ZSRR. Ze względów strategicznych operacja okupowania tego kraju zabezpieczyłaby tyły sił brytyjskich stacjonujących w Egipcie oraz południową granicę ZSRR przed niespodziewanym uderzeniem wojsk niemieckich [ 50 ] . W tej sytuacji generał Quinan , dowódca Iraqforce , otrzymał rozkaz przygotowania się do okupacji pól naftowych w Abadanie i Naft-Shah oraz portów Bushirem i Bandar-e-Szachpur . 12 sierpnia 1941 roku władze ZSRR i Wielkiej Brytanii wręczyły rządowi Iranu notę, w której wyraziły nadzieję, że Irańczycy sami podejmą kroki wobec niemieckich agentów. Sowieci dołączyli listę rzekomych szpiegów. Żądano też zgody na wkroczenie wojsk obu krajów do Iranu. Odpowiedź z 21 sierpnia okazała się dla obydwu państw niesatysfakcjonująca. Następnego dnia ogłoszono pogotowie bojowe w wojskach brytyjskich, a 25 sierpnia w wojskach radzieckich. Siły brytyjskie miały zająć porty i obszary roponośne na południu Iranu, zaś radzieckie – północną część kraju z miejscowościami Ardabil , Tebriz i Urmia . Kampania irańska rozpoczęła się rankiem 25 sierpnia, kiedy flota brytyjska zaatakowała okręty irańskie w strategicznych portach w Abadanie i Khorramshar . Jednocześnie z dwóch stron na terytorium Iranu wkroczyły brytyjskie siły lądowe. Działania te wspierało z powietrza Royal Air Force , atakując irańskie bazy lotnicze i linie komunikacyjne oraz wspierając siły lądowe. Większość irańskich samolotów została zniszczona na ziemi. Siły Armii Czerwonej , rzucone przeciwko Irańczykom, były zdecydowanie od nich silniejsze, stąd postępy wojsk radzieckich były szybkie. Pierwszego dnia walk miejscowość Maku została silnie zbombardowana (zginęło kilkuset cywilów), co złamało morale Irańczyków [ 51 ] . 28 sierpnia Reza Szach Pahlawi rozkazał podległym wojskom wstrzymać opór, ogłaszając zawieszenie broni. W ciągu 30 i 31 sierpnia wojska brytyjskie i radzieckie spotkały się w miejscowościach Senna i Kazwin . Reza Szach Pahlawi usiłował bezskutecznie uzyskać mediację amerykańskiego prezydenta Franklina Delano Roosevelta , powołując się na zapisy Karty Atlantyckiej . W tej sytuacji rozpoczęto negocjacje, które do 6 września przyniosły zgodę irańskiego rządu na okupację brytyjską południa, a sowiecką północy kraju. Z Iranu mieli być wydaleni Niemcy podejrzewani o działalność szpiegowską, a linie kolejowe wykorzystane do przewozu sprzętu i wyposażenia wojskowego do ZSRR w ramach Lend-Lease . Ze względu jednak na niewykonanie niektórych żądań wojska brytyjskie i sowieckie wznowiły swój marsz w głąb Iranu, grożąc okupacją Teheranu . W nocy z 15 na 16 września radzieckie radio oskarżyło Irańczyków o nieszczere zamiary, „niewybaczalną powolność” i niechęć do wyrzucenia z kraju hitlerowskich agentów. Następnego dnia Reza Szach Pahlawi na nadzwyczajnym posiedzeniu parlamentu abdykował na rzecz swojego syna Mohammada Rezy Pahlawiego , a następnie został uwięziony przez Brytyjczyków. Kontrofensywy radzieckie Zatrzymanie niemieckiego marszu na Moskwę pozwoliło Armii Czerwonej na podjęcie szeregu ofensyw pod koniec 1941 roku i na początku roku 1942. Pierwsza z kontrofensyw radzieckich, ofensywna operacja tichwińska , okazała się sukcesem. W dniach od 10 listopada do 30 grudnia trzy radzieckie armie pod dowództwem generała Kiriłła Mierieckowa uderzyły na mniej liczne wojska niemiecko- hiszpańskie pod komendą generała Ernsta Buscha i przez związanie ich krwawymi walkami odciążyły garnizon Lenigradu [ 52 ] . 17 listopada siły Frontu Południowego usiłowały rozbić nadmiernie rozciągniętą 1 Armię Pancerną generała Ewalda von Kleista i uderzyły w kierunku Rostowa nad Donem . Niemcy zadali Armii Czerwonej duże straty wobec małych własnych, a już 21 listopada zdobyli Rostów. Ich dowódca, feldmarszałek Gerd von Rundstedt zdecydował się jednak wycofać za rzekę Mius w celu zajęcia lepszych pozycji obronnych. Hitler uznał ten manewr za przejaw tchórzostwa i odwołał Rundstedta, zastępując go feldmarszałkiem Waltherem von Reichenauem . On jednak kontynuował działania poprzednika. Hitler był wściekły, więc Reichenaua musiał wziąć pod protekcję generał Franz Halder , szef sztabu Naczelnego Dowództwa Wojsk Lądowych . 28 listopada wojska radzieckie odbiły Rostów oraz zmusiły Niemców do odwrotu. Była to pierwsza udana kontrofensywa radziecka II wojny światowej, jednak nie wpłynęła znacząco na dalsze działania zbrojne. Nie ustawały walki pod Moskwą. Chociaż ofensywa na stolicę została zatrzymana, niemiecki wywiad wciąż szacował, że wojska radzieckie nie miały już rezerw, a zatem nie będą w stanie przeprowadzić kontrofensywy. Szacunki te okazały się błędne, ponieważ Stalin przeniósł ze wschodu gigantyczne posiłki. Armia Czerwona zgromadziła rezerwę 58 dywizji na początku grudnia, kiedy ofensywa zaproponowana przez Żukowa i Wasilewskiego została ostatecznie zatwierdzona przez Stalina. 5 grudnia rozpoczęła się ofensywna operacja moskiewska mająca na celu usunięcie zagrożenia dla Moskwy. Rozpoczęła się poprzez stopniowe wchodzenie do walki kolejnych armii między 5 a 7 grudnia. Po odbiciu miast Kalinin , Klin , Sołniecznogorsk do akcji wkroczyły wojska Frontu Południowo-Zachodniego co spowodowało dalsze zdobycze: Jelec , Tuła , Kaługa , Naro-Fominsk . Niemcy zostali zmuszeni do odwrotu spod bram Moskwy , jednak nie dalej. Za klęskę moskiewską zapłacił feldmarszałek von Brauchitsch . 19 grudnia został odwołany ze stanowiska, a naczelnym dowódcą wojsk lądowych został sam Hitler . 26 grudnia 1941 roku Armia Czerwona przeprowadziła wielką operację desantową kerczeńsko-teodozyjską . Miała ona na celu przysłanie drogą morska wsparcia dla obleganych przez siły Ericha von Mansteina wojsk radzieckich na Krymie oraz odepchnięcia Niemców i Rumunów w głąb Ukrainy. Zakończyła się rzezią wysłanych z odsieczą oddziałów, które zaatakowała Luftwaffe generała Wolframa von Richthofena , acz część wsparcia dotarła do obrońców. Nie zmieniło to sytuacji wojsk radzieckich na Krymie, które skapitulowały 4 lipca 1942 roku. Również rzezią Armii Czerwonej zakończyła się operacja lubańska w styczniu 1942 roku, nieudana próba przerwania blokady Leningradu przez wojska Mierieckowa , pokonane przez mniej liczne siły generała Georga von Küchlera [ 53 ] . Niemcy wciąż trzymali się mocno pod Moskwą. Generałowie Żukow i Iwan Koniew bezskutecznie usiłowali pokonać wroga w trwającej do kwietnia 1942 roku operacji rżewsko-wiaziemskiej . Nie udało się rozbić generała Günthera von Klugego , a konfrontacja pozostała nierozstrzygnięta. Była to jedna z najbardziej krwawych bitew frontu wschodniego, po obu stronach zginęło ponad milion żołnierzy, choć Armia Czerwona poniosła dużo większe straty. Jej istotną częścią była ofensywna operacja diemiańska . 8 lutego 1942 roku generał Pawieł Kuroczkin bezskutecznie usiłował zniszczyć część 16 Armii . Udało się okrążyć jej część, ale pomimo wielu prób aż do 20 maja nie udało się jej zniszczyć. Wojska niemieckie były skutecznie zaopatrywane przez Luftwaffe , a następnie wykonano przeciwuderzenie i odblokowano okrążone wojska. Nie ustały walki w regionie Rostowa nad Donem . 18 stycznia 1942 roku generał Rodion Malinowski przegrał z Bockiem operację barwienkowsko-łozowską , ponosząc około dziesięciokrotnie większe straty od wroga. Nie dość, że nie udało mu się odepchnąć przeciwnika, to jeszcze doprowadził do powstania wyłomu we froncie radzieckim w rejonie Barwinkowych [ 54 ] . W maju 1942 roku Armia Czerwona usiłowała dokonać wielkiej ofensywy na Charków , by odzyskać to strategicznie ważne miasto. Generałowie Filipp Golikow i Nikołaj Watutin zebrali w tym celu ok. 346 tysięcy żołnierzy. Naprzeciw nim stanęło 70 tysięcy Niemców pod komendą feldmarszałka Mansteina . Po początkowych sukcesach, ofensywa została powstrzymana przez niemieckie kontrataki. Tragiczne błędy głównych oficerów sztabu i samego Stalina , którzy niedokładnie oszacowali potencjał Niemców i ich sojuszników, a także zbytnio przeceniali swoje nowo wyszkolone jednostki, doprowadził do udanego niemieckiego kontrnatarcia, które odcięło przednie atakujące jednostki radzieckie od reszty frontu. Zwycięstwo siłom Osi umożliwił właśnie wyłom w rejonie Barwinkowych . Bitwa o Charków była wielką klęską Armii Czerwonej, która straciła ponad 45 tysięcy żołnierzy, jednak to nie zasoby ludzkie ucierpiały w największym stopniu, a organizacja sił radzieckich. Manstein zniszczył trzy wrogie armie i korpus pancerny, co skutecznie zapobiegło dalszym atakom radzieckim. Oprócz wybitnych umiejętności dowódczych zwycięstwo kosztem ok. czterokrotnie mniejszych od radzieckich strat zapewniło mu użycie nowych czołgów ciężkich PzKpfw VI Tiger , z którymi radzieckie T-34 nie były sobie w stanie poradzić [ 55 ] . Po tej serii ofensyw siły na froncie wschodnim wyrównały się. Wojna w Azji i na Pacyfiku Cesarstwo Wielkiej Japonii dążyło do poszerzenia strefy swoich wpływów i utworzenia drogą podbojów militarnych „ Strefy Wspólnego Dobrobytu Wielkiej Azji Wschodniej ” na obszarze Chin i Azji Południowo-Wschodniej [ 56 ] . Uważająca się za upokorzoną postanowieniami traktatu waszyngtońskiego z 1922 roku Japonia [ ae ] , dążyła też do wykluczenia z regionu europejskich mocarstw kolonialnych , toteż 27 września 1940 roku zawarła sojusz zwany Paktem Trzech z III Rzeszą i Włochami Mussoliniego [ 57 ] . Za oficjalny początek drugiej wojny światowej na obszarze Pacyfiku umownie uznaje się japoński atak na Pearl Harbor 7 grudnia 1941 roku, w rzeczywistości jednak, konflikt zapoczątkowany został w 1937 roku incydentem na moście Marco Polo , który posłużył jako pretekst do japońskiego ataku na Chiny [ 56 ] . W tym czasie Chiny były obok Wielkiej Brytanii największym amerykańskim sojusznikiem w regionie Pacyfiku. Toteż wydarzenia w Chinach – w tym masakra nankińska i inne zbrodnie ludobójstwa oraz morderstwa amerykańskich misjonarzy w Chinach, których dopuszczała się cesarska armia japońska , jak również incydent z USS Panay , w którym wojska japońskie zatopiły amerykańską kanonierkę USS „Panay” – powodowały wzrost napięcia między Japonią a Stanami Zjednoczonymi [ 58 ] . Japońska agresja w Chinach spotkała się początkowo z dyplomatycznymi protestami Stanów Zjednoczonych, gdy jednak środki dyplomatyczne nie ograniczyły japońskiej agresji, w 1938 roku amerykański Departament Stanu zalecił amerykańskim bankom w kraju i za granicą nie przedłużanie linii kredytowych dla japońskich przedsiębiorstw [ 59 ] . W 1939 roku rząd amerykański wycofał się z umowy handlowej z Japonią z 1911 roku, po czym wprowadził embargo na dostawy do Japonii samolotów, części zamiennych, maszyn i paliwa lotniczego . Po przystąpieniu zaś Japonii do Paktu Trzech oraz wymuszeniu na francuskim rządzie Vichy militarnej okupacji Indochin Francuskich , przez co Japonia uzyskała dostęp do bogatych złóż surowców naturalnych tym rejonie, amerykańskie embargo zostało rozszerzone o ropę naftową , żelazo i złom . Podzielając amerykańskie obawy, do embarga dołączyły wkrótce także Wielka Brytania i Holandia [ 60 ] . Atak na Stany Zjednoczone Nie chcąc zgodzić się na zaprzestanie agresji na Chiny i wycofanie z tego kraju swoich wojsk, rząd Japonii przewidywał że bez dostaw ropy z USA, zgromadzone dotąd przez cesarstwo zapasy ropy wystarczą w warunkach wojennych na około 12 miesięcy [ 60 ] . Brał dodatkowo pod uwagę fakt, że zaangażowane w wojnę z Niemcami mocarstwa europejskie, nie będą w stanie stawiać skutecznego oporu siłom japońskim w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej [ 60 ] . Przy wzroście tendencji nacjonalistycznych i rasistowskich w samej Japonii, przy częstych aktach terroru politycznego w samym Tokio , doprowadziło to do silnego nurtu konfrontacyjnego ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi oraz Wielką Brytanią i Holandią. Toteż zakładając relatywnie krótką wojnę ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi z wymuszonym na USA pokoju na korzystnych dla Japonii warunkach, kierowany przez premiera Hideki Tōjō rząd Japonii zdecydował się na zaatakowanie Stanów Zjednoczonych [ 61 ] . Tymczasem japońska marynarka wojenna już od 1923 roku uważała Stany Zjednoczone za głównego „hipotetycznego wroga”, co oznaczało że plany japońskiej ekspansji bazowały na założeniu konieczności walki i pokonania United States Navy [ 62 ] . Zgodnie z japońską kalkulacją, Japonia powinna wygrać wojnę, dzięki lepszej taktyce, lepszej broni, oraz wyższej jakości okrętów i personelu wojskowego [ 61 ] . Oparta na doktrynie Mahana i wywodząca się z czasów wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej strategia walnej bitwy, nosząca w Japonii nazwę Zengen-sakusen , zakładała pokonanie amerykańskiej floty w jednej decydującej bitwie, która zmusi USA do zawarcia pokoju [ 61 ] . Dowodzący jednak japońską Połączoną Flotą admirał Isoroku Yamamoto , wbrew stanowisku większości członków naczelnego dowództwa japońskiej floty , w tym swojego przełożonego admirała Osami Nagano , przeforsował plan zaskakującego ataku na bazę amerykańskiej floty w Pearl Harbor na Hawajach [ 63 ] . Celami tego ataku miały być wyłączenie z użytku amerykańskich pancerników (które uważane były wówczas jeszcze za podstawowy element przyszłej walnej bitwy) oraz unieruchomienie zgromadzonej tam floty na okres przynajmniej sześciu miesięcy, co da japońskiej Armii i flocie czas na zrealizowanie ekspansji na terenie Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i w Holenderskich Indiach Wschodnich , oraz umocnienie się na wysuniętych posterunkach na zdobytych wyspach, i utworzenie w ten sposób bariery przed ewentualnym amerykańskim kontratakiem [ 61 ] . Przeprowadzony 7 grudnia 1941 roku (czasu lokalnego) siłami sześciu lotniskowców atak na Pearl Harbor , stanowił pierwszy akt właściwej wojny na Pacyfiku [ 63 ] . W jego rezultacie zginęło lub zostało rannych 3581 żołnierzy amerykańskich i 189 japońskich, zniszczonych lub uszkodzonych zostało 347 samolotów amerykańskich i 29 japońskich, nieodwracalnie zniszczone zostały dwa amerykańskie pancerniki, 15 zaś innych okrętów – w tym trzy pancerniki i trzy ciężkie krążowniki – musiało przejść remonty, które wyłączyły je ze służby na okres od kilku tygodni do 34 miesięcy [ 64 ] . Szczęściem dla amerykańskiej Floty Pacyfiku , w dniu ataku na bazę nie znajdował się w niej żaden z jej zyskujących wówczas na znaczeniu lotniskowców, które zostały wysłane z misjami zaopatrzeniowymi celem dostarczenia samolotów bojowych na wyspy Wake i Midway , USS „Saratoga” zaś znajdowała się w remoncie na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu Stanów Zjednoczonych [ 65 ] [ af ] . Atak 7 grudnia faktycznie pozbawił amerykańską marynarkę trzonu jej sił morskich. W okresie międzywojennym Stany Zjednoczone, podobnie jak Japonia, hołdowały doktrynie Mahana, w której główną rolę odgrywały okręty liniowe . Zatopienie pancerników na Hawajach , uczyniło bezprzedmiotowym przygotowywany na wypadek wojny z Japonią plan „Orange” , zakładający konieczność pokonania floty japońskiej w bitwie w obronie Filipin , gdzie upatrywano największego zagrożenia ze strony japońskiej [ 66 ] . Pozbawiona operacyjnych pancerników Flota Pacyfiku, musiała opierać się odtąd na niedostatecznej jeszcze przez 1,5 roku flocie kilku lotniskowców, które przewidywane dotąd były jedynie do pełnienia roli skautów przed głównymi zgrupowaniami floty oraz okrętach podwodnych . Tymczasem 8 grudnia 1941 roku, w przemówieniu do Kongresu , prezydent Franklin Delano Roosevelt poprosił Kongres o formalne wypowiedzenie wojny Cesarstwu Wielkiej Japonii [ 67 ] . Japońska ofensywa w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej Japoński rajd na Hawaje nie był jednak odizolowaną operacją. Niemal równocześnie Japonia przeprowadziła bowiem symultaniczne operacje zajęcia wysp Guam i Wake , wkrótce potem dokonali inwazji na Hongkong , a następnie wylądowali na Półwyspie Malajskim oraz na Filipinach , pod Kuantanem zaś zatopili brytyjskie pancerniki HMS „Prince of Wales” i „Repulse” , rozpoczynając marsz w kierunku Singapuru . Sukces tych przeprowadzonych w ciągu kilku dni operacji , spowodował przyśpieszenie ich drugiej serii, które skutkowały zajęciem Rabaul w Archipelagu Bismarcka , serią bitew na Morzu Jawajskim i rajdem na Darwin w Północnej Australii . W połowie lutego 1942 roku upadł Singapur i na przełomie lutego i marca, było oczywiste, iż Japonia osiągnie wszystkie swoje ekonomiczne cele wojny, z bogatymi w surowce naturalne obszarami „bariery malajskiej” [ 68 ] . Dotychczasowe zdobycze terytorialne zapewniały bowiem Japonii swobodny dostęp do ropy naftowej , kauczuku i innych surowców naturalnych . Z polityczno-ekonomiczno-ideologicznego punktu widzenia, Japończycy byli na najlepszej drodze do zniszczenia „ białego kolonializmu ” na obszarze ich operacji. Japońskie dowództwo wojskowe zaczęło wówczas rozważać dalsze kroki, rozważając różnorakie operacje zastanawiano się nad inwazją na Australię, skierowaniem się na obszar Oceanu Indyjskiego , uderzenia na południe – na Wyspy Salomona w kierunku Fidżi i Samoa , celem odcięcia od zaopatrzenia Australii. W japońskich kręgach wojskowo-politycznych, w styczniu 1942 roku ścierały się jednak różne opcje [ 68 ] . Germany First W tym samym czasie, gdy wojska japońskie – armia i marynarka – dokonywały swojego własnego blitzkriegu w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej, podczas odbytej od 22 grudnia 1941 do 14 stycznia 1942 roku konferencji w Waszyngtonie , zwanej Konferencją Arcadia bądź też I Konferencją Waszyngtońską, prezydent Roosevelt ustalił z Winstonem Churchillem zasady współpracy między Stanami Zjednoczonymi a Wielką Brytanią w walce z Japonią oraz III Rzeszą, która 11 grudnia 1941 roku wypowiedziała wojnę Stanom Zjednoczonym [ 69 ] [ 70 ] . Jednym z najważniejszych postanowień konferencji, było ustalenie zasady Germany First (Niemcy Pierwsze), bądź też Europe First (Europa Pierwsza), oznaczającej że wojna w Europie przeciw III Rzeszy ma priorytet przed wojną przeciw Japonii, do czasu zaś pokonania hitlerowskich Niemiec, alianci będą prowadzić jedynie działania powstrzymujące Japonię, główny zaś wysiłek włożą w pokonanie III Rzeszy [ 69 ] . Amerykańskie rajdy I połowy 1942 roku Cel rajdu Data Okręty Zespół Dowodzący Wyspy Marshalla 1 lutego 1942 „Enterprise” Task Force 8 William Halsey Wyspy Gilberta 1 lutego 1942 „Yorktown” Task Force 17 Frank Fletcher Rabaul 21 lutego 1942 „ Lexington ” Task Force 11 Wilson Brown Wake 24 lutego 1942 „Enterprise” Task Force 16 William Halsey Marcus 4 marca 1942 „Enterprise” Task Force 16 William Halsey Salamaua i Lae 10 marca 1942 „ Yorktown ” „Lexington” Task Force 17 Frank Fletcher Wyspy Japońskie 18 kwietnia 1942 „Enterprise” „ Hornet ” Task Force 16 William Halsey Podział US Navy na Flotę Atlantyku i Flotę Pacyfiku, zniszczenie trzonu tej ostatniej w Pearl Harbor oraz zasada Germany First spowodowały, że w pierwszych miesiącach 1942 roku, US Navy nie była w stanie prowadzić znaczących operacji przeciw Japonii. Co więcej, wobec wzmagającej się ofensywy podwodnej Kriegsmarine w bitwie o Atlantyk , admirał Chester Nimitz – który dowodził Flotą Pacyfiku po zdymisjonowaniu obwinionego za klęskę w Pearl Harbor admirała Husbanda Kimmela , zmuszony został do wysłania części okrętów osłabionej Floty Pacyfiku na Atlantyk . Spowodowało to że amerykańska marynarka zdolna była do przeprowadzania na Pacyfiku jedynie szybkich uderzeń pojedynczych lotniskowców na wysunięte placówki japońskie na Pacyfiku [ 71 ] [ 72 ] . Najbardziej znanym z nich był rajd lotniskowców USS „Hornet” i „Enterprise” na Tokio i inne miasta na macierzystych Wyspach Japońskich , zwany rajdem Doolittle’a , który nie wyrządził wprawdzie znaczących szkód materialnych, wpłynął jednak pozytywnie na nadszarpnięte morale amerykańskiego społeczeństwa wobec klęsk aliantów na wszystkich frontach II wojny światowej w 1942 roku, miał także duże znaczenie psychologiczne dla społeczeństwa japońskiego oraz dowództw japońskich sił zbrojnych [ 73 ] [ ag ] [ ah ] . Midway, Guadalcanal i kampania na Wyspach Salomona Japoński atak na Pearl Harbor unieruchomił na wiele miesięcy amerykańskie pancerniki Floty Pacyfiku, nie wyłączył jednak z walki amerykańskich lotniskowców. Seria przeprowadzonych przez nie rajdów w pierwszych miesiącach 1942 roku, dobitnie ukazała dowództwu japońskiej floty konieczność ich zniszczenia [ 73 ] . Na domiar złego, w maju 1942 roku amerykańskie lotniskowce USS „Yorktown” i „Lexington” pod dowództwem adm. Franka Fletchera – mimo utraty drugiego z nich – zatrzymały na Morzu Koralowym , japońską próbę desantu w Port Moresby na Nowej Gwinei [ 74 ] . Admirał Yamamoto wyszedł więc z planem wciągnięcia amerykańskich lotniskowców w pułapkę, wciągając je w bitwę na swoich warunkach, w obronie położonego 1135 mil morskich od Pearl Harbor atolu Midway [ 75 ] . Dzięki pracy specjalistów wywiadu radiowego z ośrodka HYPO na Hawajach, adm. Nimitz poznał jednak z wyprzedzeniem japońskie plany, i zastawił własną pułapkę na japońskie lotniskowce Kidō-Butai admirała Chūichiego Nagumo [ 76 ] [ 77 ] . W stoczonej od 4 do 7 czerwca 1942 roku bitwie pod Midway , samoloty z dowodzonych ponownie przez adm. Franka Fletchera lotniskowców „Enterprise” i „Hornet”, zatopiły cztery japońskie lotniskowce „ Akagi ”, „ Kaga ”, „ Sōryū ” i „ Hiryū ”. Samoloty tego ostatniego ciężko uszkodziły wprawdzie okręt flagowy adm. Fletchera USS „Yorktown” (CV-5), poniesione jednak przez Połączoną Flotę straty, wyrównały stosunek sił na Pacyfiku [ 78 ] [ ai ] . Zmniejszyły też polityczne ciśnienie na prezydencie Roosevelcie – który zgodnie z zasadą Europe First , skupiony był na utrzymaniu ZSRR przy życiu w walce Niemcami – na przerzucenie większych zasobów na pacyficzny teatr wojny [ 78 ] . Guadalcanal Wbrew popularnemu poglądowi, japońska klęska pod Midway nie stanowiła przełomowego momentu wojny, a mimo wywołanego nią szoku, japońska armia i marynarka wojenna wciąż zachowały inicjatywę strategiczną [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] . Mimo strat materialnych poniesionych przez flotę na środkowym Pacyfiku, japońska armia kontynuowała na szlaku Kokoda atak od strony lądu na Port Moresby [ 80 ] [ 81 ] . Celem wykorzystania jednak zwycięstwa pod Midway, najwyższy wojskowy dowódca United States Navy, CNO adm. Ernest King , zainicjował pierwszą amerykańską ofensywę w II wojnie światowej, skierowaną ku Wyspom Salomona operację lądowania na wyspie Guadalcanal , jako pierwszej fazy planu opanowania Wysp Salomona, Nowej Gwinei, Archipelagu Bismarcka , Wyspy Marshalla i Wysp Karolińskich , przed inwazją na Holenderskie Indie Wschodnie i Filipiny [ 80 ] [ 83 ] [ aj ] . Bitwa pod Savo 8 na 9 sierpnia 1942 Nocna bitwa morska Bitwa koło wschodnich Wysp Salomona 24–25 sierpnia 1942 Dwudniowa bitwa powietrzno-morska Bitwa koło przylądka Ésperance 11–12 października 1942 Nocna bitwa morska Bitwa pod Santa Cruz 26 października 1942 Największa bitwa powietrzno-morska kampanii I bitwa pod Guadalcanalem 12–13 listopada 1942 Nocna, najkrwawsza bitwa morska kampanii II bitwa pod Guadalcanalem 14–15 listopada 1942 Nocna bitwa morska Bitwa pod Tassafarongą 30 listopada 1942 Nocna bitwa morska Bitwa pod Rennell 29–30 stycznia 1943 Bitwa powietrzno-morska 7 sierpnia 1942 roku, realizując plan operacji Watchtower , jednostki 1. dywizji marines wylądowały na Guadalcanalu na Wyspach Salomona, opanowując budowane tam przez armię japońską lotnisko, po którego ukończeniu, japońskie samoloty mogły zagrażać amerykańskim liniom komunikacyjnym z Australią [ 84 ] [ 85 ] . Rozpoczęta tym lądowaniem kampania na Wyspach Salomona , była najdłuższą kampanią wojny na Pacyfiku i jedną z najdłuższych kampanii całej II wojny światowej. Przez sześć miesięcy, cierpiący często na niedostatek zaopatrzenia – skutkiem równoległych przygotowań do operacji Torch w Afryce – żołnierze 1. dywizji marines, odpierali na Guadalcanalu ataki japońskiej 17. Armii . W jej trakcie doszło do ośmiu dużych bitew morskich i powietrzno-morskich, w tym dwóch wielkich bitew lotniskowców – bitwy koło wschodnich Wysp Salomona oraz w pobliżu wyspy Santa Cruz . Walczący na samym Guadalcanalu marines, stoczyli w tropikalnych warunkach siedem znaczących bitew z oddziałami japońskiej 17. Armii, usiłującej odzyskać przemianowane na Henderson Field lotnisko, z największą z nich zwaną bitwą o Henderson Field na czele [ 86 ] . W październiku 1942 roku, sytuacja marines była tak trudna, że dowodzący całą kampanią z Numei w Nowej Kaledonii admirał Robert Ghormley , autoryzował już dowódcę marines na wyspie generała Alexandera Vandegrifta , do poddania swoich żołnierzy [ 87 ] . Sytuację Amerykanów na wyspie pogarszały codzienne naloty japońskich bombowców startujących z okolicznych wysp w archipelagu, a także ostrzał artyleryjski lotniska i pozycji marines z japońskich okrętów. Największy z nich miał miejsce nocą z 14 na 15 października, gdy japońskie pancerniki „ Kongō ” i „ Haruna ” wystrzeliły w lotnisko 973 pociski kalibru 356 mm [ 88 ] [ 89 ] . Po zmianie jednak dowódcy kampanii na admirała Williama Halseya , przy wsparciu marynarki wojennej utrudniającej flocie adm. Yamamoto dostawy zaopatrzenia dla japońskich jednostek na Guadalcanalu, szala zwycięstwa zaczęła z czasem przechylać się na stronę amerykańską. Znaczącą rolę odegrały w tym także operujące z Henderson Field samoloty myśliwskie i bombowe „ Cactus Air Force ”, które w ciągu dnia atakowały rozbijane nocami przez okręty US Navy konwoje japońskie [ ak ] . Nocą z 12 na 13 listopada 1942 roku doszło do najkrwawszej bitwy morskiej kampanii , w której amerykańskie krążowniki i niszczyciele usiłowały powstrzymać japoński konwój z zaopatrzeniem eskortowany przez japońskie krążowniki ciężkie , niszczyciele oraz pancerniki „ Hiei ” oraz „ Kirishima ”. W bitwie tej zatopiony został japoński lekki krążownik oraz „Hiei”, który był pierwszym japońskim pancernikiem utraconym podczas II wojny światowej, z drugiej jednak strony ciężkie straty poniósł także dowodzony przez admirała Daniela Callaghana zespół Task Group 67, który utracił dwa lekkie krążowniki i cztery niszczyciele [ 90 ] . Już jednak dwie noce później doszło do pierwszej z jedynie dwóch bitew pancerników całej wojny na Pacyfiku. W II bitwie pod Guadalcanalem – która w Stanach Zjednoczonych uzyskała popularne miano The Night the Giants Rode (Noc gdy nadeszły giganty) [ 91 ] – dowodzony przez adm. Willisa Lee amerykański pancernik USS „Washington” zatopił japoński pancernik „Kirishima” [ 92 ] . Ogniem japońskich okrętów poważnie uszkodzony został wprawdzie pancernik USS „South Dakota” , dzięki jednak akcji amerykańskich pancerników, niepowodzeniem zakończyła się jedna z największych japońskich prób zaopatrzenia Guadalcanalu, które noszą dziś zbiorczą nazwę „ Tokyo Express ” [ 92 ] . Trudne, tropikalne warunki klimatyczne, choroby oraz brak niezakłóconych dostaw dla japońskiej armii walczącej na Guadalcanalu, stopniowo pogarszały sytuację 17. Armii, doprowadzając nie tylko do braku odpowiednich dostaw amunicji, lecz także do powszechnego głodu wśród japońskich żołnierzy. Sześciomiesięczna obrona Guadalcanalu przybrała charakter wojny na wyczerpanie , która przy lepszej logistyce amerykańskiej, wyczerpała zasoby Japonii. W każdej z dwóch bitew lotniskowców, Połączona Flota straciła więcej wysoko wyszkolonych pilotów pokładowych, niż w bitwach na Morzu Koralowym i pod Midway, co rozpoczęło spiralę upadku japońskiego lotnictwa pokładowego [ 82 ] . Alianci Japonia Tonaż Tonaż Pancerniki 0 2 73 200 Ciężkie krążowniki 6 76 600 3 31 500 Krążowniki lekkie 2 16 800 1 5700 Niszczyciele 14 22 815 11 20 930 Okręty podwodne 0 6 11 300 Lotniskowce 2 44 600 1 12 700 Ogółem 24 160 815 24 155 330 Straty osobowe US Navy 5 041 30 343 (ogółem) Straty osobowe US Marines / Armia 1 592 Dwie z siedmiu bitew morskich tej kampanii, bitwa pod Savo i bitwa koło przylądka Tassafaronga , okazały się dwoma z trzech – obok Pearl Harbor – największych klęsk w historii amerykańskiej marynarki wojennej, zaś bitwa pod Savo była największą amerykańską klęską kiedykolwiek poniesioną w morzu [ 94 ] . W wodach wokół Guadalcanalu, zatopione zostały ogółem 3 lotniskowce , 2 pancerniki, 9 krążowników ciężkich , 3 krążowniki lekkie , 25 niszczycieli i 6 okrętów podwodnych [ 93 ] . Łącząca zaś Guadalcanal z wyspą Florida cieśnina, z powodu zatopionych w niej około 50 amerykańskich i japońskich jednostek morskich, zyskała nazwę Ironbottom Sound (Cieśnina Żelaznego Dna). Tempo utraty statków transportowych przez Japonię było tak duże, że w japońskim rządzie zaczęły pojawiać się obawy o możliwości zaopatrzeniowe samych Wysp Japońskich, w razie utrzymania takiego tempa strat. Ostatecznie, wkrótce po bitwie pod Tassafarongą, mimo japońskiego zwycięstwa w niej, japońskie dowództwo podjęło decyzję o wycofaniu się z Guadalcanalu, co zapewniło Stanom Zjednoczonym zwycięstwo w całej kampanii i otworzyło drogę do rozpoczęcia strategicznej ofensywy przeciw Japonii. Według wielu ocen, to właśnie kampania na Salomonach stanowiła punkt zwrotny wojny na Pacyfiku i decydującą o jej wyniku walną bitwę [ 95 ] [ 96 ] . Kampania na Salomonach stanowiła pierwszą amerykańską operację w II wojnie światowej, w której amerykańskie wojsko wyzwoliło terytorium zajęte wcześniej przez Państwa Osi, pierwszą też zwycięską kampanię aliantów po 2,5 roku poniżających klęsk na wszystkich frontach [ 97 ] . Ze strategicznego punktu widzenia, ważnym jej osiągnięciem było odepchnięcie Japonii od szlaków żeglugowych, wiodących z Ameryki do Nowej Zelandii i Australii [ 98 ] . Była też pierwszą kampanią w rejonie Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i basenie Oceanu Spokojnego, w której niezwyciężona dotąd armia japońska została pokonana, z bardzo z dużym odsetkiem strat w śród żołnierzy japońskich [ 95 ] . Japońskie straty wyniosły nie mniej niż 25 600 żołnierzy na lądzie, w dużej mierze z głodu i chorób, przynajmniej 3543 w morzu oraz około 1200 w powietrzu [ 95 ] [ 97 ] . Z drugiej strony, to właśnie na Guadalcanalu amerykańscy żołnierze po raz pierwszy spotkali się z niespotykanym na zachodzie sposobem walki, nie uznającym poddania się, lecz raczej walkę do samej śmierci [ 95 ] . Kampania Salomonach, była zapowiedzią przyszłości. Już w pierwszych dniach po amerykańskim lądowaniu, podczas bitwy nad Alligator Creek , japońscy żołnierze nawet po odniesieniu ciężkich ran strzelali do marines usiłujących po bitwie nieść im pomoc medyczną [ 96 ] [ al ] . W 1943 roku Amerykanie odzyskali archipelag Wysp Salomona , część zajętych wcześniej przez Japończyków terytoriów Nowej Gwinei i Wyspy Gilberta . 1 lutego 1944 roku Amerykanie wylądowali na Archipelagu Marshalla , 15 czerwca na Marianach . 19-20 czerwca 1944 roku miała miejsce wielka lotniczo-morska bitwa na Morzu Filipińskim , zakończona amerykańskim zwycięstwem. 20 lipca Amerykanie wylądowali na Guam , a 20 października na wyspie Leyte na Filipinach (będących wtedy marionetką japońską), gdzie między 23 a 26 października doszło do wielkiej bitwy morskiej zwanej bitwą o zatokę Leyte stoczonej między Flotą Stanów Zjednoczonych a Cesarską Marynarką Wojenną , usiłującą zniszczyć przyczółek sformowany przez lądujące w zatoce wojska amerykańskie. W czasie tej bitwy Japończycy pierwszy raz użyli samobójczych oddziałów lotniczych – kamikaze . Operacja w Leyte była próbą realizacji japońskiej strategii rozbicia aliantów w jednej, decydującej bitwie morskiej. Plan ten okazał się katastrofą, Japończycy utracili wiele potężnych i cennych okrętów, w tym dumę swojej floty – superpancernik „Musashi” . Strat tych nie byli już w stanie odbudować, przez co trwale utracili zdolność operacyjną. 19 maja 1945 ustał opór japoński na Filipinach (choć oddziały generała Yamashity przetrwały do końca wojny). W czerwcu Amerykanie po wielkiej bitwie zdobyli strategicznie ważną Okinawę . Kampania afrykańska 1942–1943 7 listopada siły angielsko-amerykańskie w ramach operacji „Torch” wylądowały w Maroku i Algierii . Ich celem było zajęcie kolonii Francji Vichy, bronionych przez wojska admirała François Darlana , który został pod koniec roku zabity przez zamachowca . W odpowiedzi na klęski wojsk francuskich Niemcy dokonali likwidacji Państwa Francuskiego, które stało się terytorium okupowanym. Po zajęciu kluczowych miast alianci dotarli do Tunezji. Równolegle trwał odwrót wymęczonych, zdziesiątkowanych, a także odciętych od wsparcia oraz zapasów Niemców i Włochów. Nieudolnie wydawane dyrektywy Hitlera nie pozwalały Rommlowi przegrupować się lub zająć dogodnych pozycji obronnych. Frustrowało to feldmarszałka, który był zupełnie bezsilny i zaczął krytykować autorytet przywódcy III Rzeszy. Ostatnią ważniejszą bitwą w Libii była ta pod El Agheila , zwycięska dla Montgomery’ego. Rommel był zmuszony wycofać się do Tunezji, atakowanej z drugiej strony przez Amerykanów. Siły Sprzymierzonych połączyły się, a w rękach Osi pozostał tylko skrawek terytorium afrykańskiego z miastem Tunis . Rommlowi udało się zadać jeszcze klęskę liczniejszym aliantom na przełęczy Kasserine . Była to pierwsza w historii wojny bitwa Amerykanów z Niemcami. Feldmarszałek zadał aliantom znaczne straty i zdruzgotał morale amerykańskie, jednak nie był w stanie odwrócić losów kampanii [ 100 ] . Sprzymierzeni przeprowadzili skuteczną operację „Capri” , która jeszcze bardziej odepchnęła siły Osi. Ostatnim punktem oporu niemiecko-włoskiego były umocnienia Linii Mareth . Dowództwo niemieckie odwołało Rommla, a jego miejsce zajął niezbyt zdolny generał Hans Jürgen von Arnim . Wraz z włoskim generałem Giovannim Messe usiłował prowadzić obronę Linii Maretha , jednak wobec olbrzymiej przewagi przeciwnika poniósł klęskę. Oddziały niemiecko-włoskie znalazły się w potrzasku. Nie można było już prowadzić obrony, a ewakuację ich uniemożliwiało panowie aliantów w przestworzach i na morzu. Alianci wciąż spychali Arnima i Messego bliżej morza, a ich kolejnym zwycięstwem była operacja „Scipo” . Żołnierze Osi tysiącami dostawali się do niewoli. Hitler wciąż jednak zakazywał się wycofywać. Ostatnim bastionem Osi pozostał Tunis, który Sprzymierzeni zdobyli dzięki operacjom „Vulcan” (22 kwietnia–6 maja 1943 roku) i „Strike” (od 6 maja). 12 maja skapitulował Arnim i żołnierze niemieccy. Następnego dnia świeżo awansowany marszałek Messe poddał wojska włoskie. Obaj dowódcy dostali się do niewoli, a alianci wzięli ponad 230 tysięcy jeńców. Zakończyła się II wojna światowa wojna w Afryce. Równolegle do wydarzeń w Afryce kontynentalnej, alianci przeprowadzili operację „Ironclad” , czyli inwazję na Madagaskar, którego gubernator, generał Armand Léon Annet pozostał wierny rządowi w Vichy. Generał Robert Sturges zdesantował na północy wyspy od 10 do 15 tysięcy żołnierzy. Broniło jej 8000 Francuzów, wspieranych przez marynarkę japońską, która zapuszczała się w te strony. Madagaskaru nie udało się jednak obronić i wyspę zajęli Brytyjczycy. Front wschodni 1942–1943 Wiosną 1942 roku Niemcy, uderzając na południu Rosji w kierunku Wołgi i roponośnych terenów Kaukazu , doszli do Stalingradu . Bitwa stalingradzka skończyła się jednak klęską niemieckiej 6 Armii feldmarszałka Friedricha Paulusa . Nie tylko nie zdołała ona opanować miasta (bronionego przez 62 Armię generała Wasilija Czujkowa ), ale sama została otoczona i zmuszona do poddania się 2 lutego 1943 roku. Idąc za ciosem, Sowieci wyparli Niemców aż na wschodnią Ukrainę. Ich dalsze postępy powstrzymała dopiero marcowa porażka pod Charkowem zadana im przez feldmarszałka Ericha von Mansteina , która spowodowała tymczasową stabilizację frontu. Pragnąc po raz kolejny odzyskać inicjatywę na froncie, w lipcu 1943 roku Niemcy przeszli do zmasowanego kontrataku w okolicach Kurska , rzucając do walki większość swych sił pancernych. Tak zwana bitwa na łuku kurskim , pomimo początkowych sukcesów niemieckich i zadania siłom radzieckim znacznych strat, skończyła się przegraną atakujących i ostatecznym przejęciem przez Armię Czerwoną inicjatywy strategicznej, której nie oddała ona już do końca wojny. Kampania włoska Źródła [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Po pokonaniu sił niemiecko-włoskich w północnej Afryce, alianci dokonali inwazji na Sycylię 10 lipca 1943 roku ( operacja „Husky” ), a 3 września w ramach operacji „Baytown” w południowych Włoszech. Całymi siłami alianckimi we Włoszech dowodził amerykański generał Dwight Eisenhower , od stycznia 1944 roku zastąpili go brytyjscy generałowie – Henry Maitland Wilson sprawujący funkcję do grudnia, a po nim Harold Alexander . Ich niemieckimi odpowiednikami byli rotacyjnie feldmarszałek Albert Kesselring i generał Heinrich von Vietinghoff . Wojskami włoskimi dowodził marszałek Rodolfo Graziani . Wobec kolejnych klęsk na frontach rosło zmęczenie wojną społeczeństwa włoskiego. Przedstawiciele włoscy podpisali 3 września 1943 roku rozejm z aliantami. W Rzymie rozwiązano Wielką Radę Faszystowską i powołano nowy rząd marszałka Pietro Badoglio . Generał Vittorio Ambrosio zażądał, by dyktator Benito Mussolini oddał władzę. Ostatecznie pozbawił go jej król Wiktor Emanuel III , który również pozbawił go stopnia Pierwszego Marszałka Imperium . Mussolini został aresztowany. Włosi zgodzili się na podpisanie kapitulacji oraz zaproponowali wspólną walkę z Niemcami. W tym celu postanowi ewakuować swoją flotę na brytyjską Maltę . Zaatakowało ją niemieckie lotnictwo, które zatopiło pancernik „ Roma ” i uszkodziło „ Italię ”. Po ogłoszeniu przez Eisenhowera rozejmu Niemcy rozbroili wszystkie wojska włoskie, a król wraz z rządem musieli uciekać na tereny pod władzą aliantów. 29 września 1943 roku Badoglio podpisał akt bezwarunkowej kapitulacji wojsk włoskich. W odpowiedzi na zatopienie Romy król wypowiedział wojnę Osi. W międzyczasie Niemcy zajęli Albanię włoską , tworząc w jej miejsce własną marionetkę, Królestwo Albanii . Początkowo uwięziony dyktator Włoch Benito Mussolini uwolniony został przez niemieckich spadochroniarzy pułkownika Otta Skorzenego i uciekł na północ kraju, gdzie ogłosił powstanie sprzymierzonej z Niemcami Włoskiej Republiki Socjalnej , zwanej Republiką Salò – państwa marionetkowego Niemiec. Na części spiskowców wykonano wyroki śmierci. Życie stracili między innymi Galeazzo Ciano , prominentny polityk, minister spraw zagranicznych, a prywatnie zięć Mussoliniego oraz marszałek Emilio De Bono . Zorganizowane zostały nowe wojska włoskie walczące u boku Niemiec – Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano . 9 września na obcasie włoskiego buta ( operacja „Slapstick” ), wylądowała brytyjska 8 Armia dowodzona przez generała Montgomery’ego , zaś w okolicach Salerno na południe od Rzymu wylądowała 5 Armia amerykańska generała Marka Clarka ( operacja „Avalanche” ). Zaciekłe walki na tym froncie toczyły się na liniach obronnych: Gustawa , Hitlera i Gotów . Przełamywanie ich było krwawymi operacjami, gdyż Niemcy bronili się zażarcie. W celu obejścia Linii Gustawa Amerykanie wysadzili desant pod Anzio ( operacja „Shingle” ). Zagrożenie ze strony wojsk niemiecko-włoskich usunęła ostatecznie operacja „Grapeshot” , zwana częściej ofensywą wiosenną. Trwała od 6 kwietnia do 4 maja 1945 roku, kiedy Niemcy ogłosiły kapitulację tego frontu, jeszcze przed końcem wojny w Europie. Na froncie włoskim odznaczyły się wojska polskie, które zdobyły potężną fortecę Monte Cassino oraz wyzwoliły Bolonię . Warty wspomnienia jest również udział Brazylijskiego Korpusu Ekspedycyjnego generała Mascarenhasa de Moraisa . Walki na Bałtyku 1944–1945 Dominację niemiecką na Bałtyku zakończył rok 1944 . Niemcy znalazły się w zasięgu lotnictwa alianckiego, które zatopiło okręt podwodny „U-108”. „ U-2 ” zatonął po zderzeniu z inną jednostką, a „ U-803 ” został zniszczony po wejściu na minę. W międzyczasie ruszyła radziecka ofensywa na lądzie. Radzieckie samoloty podczas ataku na bazę minowców w Kirkkomaansaari zatopiły 2 niemieckie transportowce min, „Otter” i „Pargas” wraz z 270 minami na ich pokładach. W celu opóźnienia radzieckich desantów w Zatoce Wyborskiej Niemcy wysłali tam dwa nowe niszczyciele: „T-30” i „T-31”. W gęstej mgle na północ od Narwi zostały one zaatakowane przez radzieckie kutry torpedowe . „T-31” został zatopiony, a drugi okręt wycofał się. Po przejściu Finlandii na stronę aliantów, by kontynuować blokadę marynarki radzieckiej, Kriegsmarine wspomagała nieudaną operację „Tanne Ost” , mająca na celu zajęcie ważnej fińskiej wyspy Suursaari . Aktywność swą rozpoczęło lotnictwo radzieckie. 31 października za jego sprawą na dno poszedł statek SS „Bremerhaven” , a 12 grudnia zniszczyło pod Tallinnem niszczyciele „Z-35” i „Z-36”. Do końca roku Niemcy stracili jeszcze trzy okręty podwodne. W nocy z 18 na 19 grudnia RAF przeprowadził nalot na Gdynię, w wyniku którego zniszczono kompleksy budowlane Kriegsmarine, zginęło też bardzo wielu wykwalifikowanych inżynierów. Była to strata nie do odrobienia. Rok 1945 przyniósł rzeź okrętów niemieckich na Bałtyku. Kriegsmarine skupiła się na wspieraniu obrońców Prus Wschodnich , a do walk skierowano krążowniki ciężkie „ Prinz Eugen ”, „ Lützow ” i „ Admiral Scheer ”, jednak nie były one w stanie odwrócić losów wojny. W calu zablokowania atakowanego portu w Königsbergu zatopiono w nim przebudowywany na lotniskowiec krążownik ciężki „ Seydlitz ”. Jedną z największych akcji Kriegsmarine była ewakuacja ludności niemieckiej z Prus Wschodnich , Kurlandii i korytarza polskiego ( operacja „Hannibal” ), przeprowadzona przy wysokich stratach, gdyż flota i lotnictwo radzieckie polowały na statki z cywilami. W ciągu 15 tygodni od 494 do 1080 okrętów i statków transportowych wszystkich typów, w tym łódki rybackie i inne statki, wykorzystując także niemieckie największe jednostki morskie, przetransportowały od 800 000 do 900 000 uchodźców oraz 350 000 żołnierzy przez Morze Bałtyckie do III Rzeszy oraz okupowanej przez Niemców Danii [ 103 ] . Szczególnie krwawe były radzieckie ataki na duże statki pasażerskie, jak SS „General von Steuben” (4500 ofiar) [ 104 ] , SS „Cap Arcona” (5000 ofiar) [ 105 ] , MS „Goya” (6000 ofiar) [ 106 ] , czy też MS „Wilhelm Gustloff” (6600 ofiar, największa tragedia morska w historii ludzkości) [ 107 ] . Armia Czerwona parła na zachód. Szczególnie zażarcie broniły niemieckie okręty Gdańska i Gdyni . Dla zablokowania gdyńskiego portu Niemcy dokonali samozatopienia pancerników „ Gneisenau ” i „ Zähringen ”, zniszczono też ciężko uszkodzonego „ Schleswiga-Holsteina ”. 24 kwietnia Niemcy zatopili nieukończony lotniskowiec „ Graf Zeppelin ” w obawie przed jego przejęciem przez siły radzieckie. 3 maja RAF uszkodził krążownik ciężki „ Admiral Hipper ”. Następnego dnia lotnictwo radzieckie zatopiło uszkodzony pancernik „ Schlesien ”, a Kriegsmarine zdecydowała się na samozatopienie pancernika kieszonkowego „Lützow”. W obliczu nieuchronnej klęski marynarka niemiecka na Bałtyku dokonała masowego niszczenia okrętów podwodnych. Front zachodni 1944–1945 Źródła [ 108 ] [ 109 ] [ 110 ] 6 czerwca 1944 roku alianci dokonali wielkiej operacji desantowej we francuskiej Normandii , w ramach operacji „Overlord” . Umocnienia Wału Atlantyckiego nie wytrzymały naporu wojsk inwazyjnych pod dowództwem generała Dwighta Eisenhowera , wspieranych przez siły morskie, powietrzne oraz powietrznodesantowe. 29 czerwca Amerykanie wyzwolili Cherbourg , a w połowie lipca wojska brytyjskie opanowały po krwawych o bojach Caen . W sierpniu doszło do załamania się obrony Niemców w Normandii i okrążenia ich sił w kotle pod Falaise , z czym zbiegło się lądowanie aliantów na południu Francji . 19 sierpnia w Paryżu wybuchło powstanie , któremu przyszły z odsieczą czołgi generała Philippe’a Leclerca . 25 sierpnia, po czteroletniej okupacji, miasto zostało wyzwolone. Trzy dni później padł garnizon Marsylii . Pierwszy tydzień września przyniósł również wyzwolenie Calais , Rouen , Lyonu oraz znacznej części Belgii z Antwerpią i Brukselą . 17 września rozpoczęła się aliancka operacja „Market Garden” . Miała ona na celu uchwycenie mostów na wielkich przeszkodach wodnych w Holandii i otwarcie drogi do przemysłowego serca Niemiec, Zagłębia Ruhry , co zdaniem jej pomysłodawcy, marszałka Montgomery’ego dawało szansę zakończenia wojny przed końcem 1944 roku. Operacja zakończyła się jednak niepowodzeniem, o czym zadecydowała klęska brytyjskich spadochroniarzy pod Arnhem . Porażka ta oraz nadmiernie rozciągnięte linie zaopatrzeniowe aliantów spowodowały zastój na froncie aż do zimy. Dało to Niemcom czas na odbudowanie sił; w grudniu 1944 roku rozpoczęli oni kontrofensywę w Ardenach , która po początkowych sukcesach zakończyła się klęską, m.in. dzięki amerykańskiej obronie Bastogne i przerwaniu pierścienia okalającego miasto przez wojska generała George’a Pattona . Zachodni alianci wkroczyli na terytorium Niemiec i w marcu 1945 roku sforsowali Ren , dokonując wielkiego okrążenia wojsk niemieckich w Zagłębiu Ruhry. W kotle zamknięto znaczne siły niemieckie, choć były to jednostki w większości improwizowane (tylko 75 tysięcy żołnierzy było uzbrojonych). Ostatecznie, bitwa o Zagłębię Ruhry doprowadziła do pojmania ponad 300 tysięcy Niemców. Ich dowódca, feldmarszałek Walther Model odebrał sobie życie. Następnie czołowe oddziały alianckie dotarły do Łaby , gdzie 25 kwietnia 1945 roku nastąpiło spotkanie z idącą od wschodu Armią Czerwoną. Front wschodni 1944–1945 6 stycznia 1944 roku Sowieci przekroczyli dawną granicę Polski. 22 czerwca, w trzecią rocznicę inwazji Niemiec na Związek Radziecki, rozpoczęli ofensywę strategiczną na Białorusi , zakończoną rozbiciem niemieckiej Grupy Armii „Środek” . Dzięki temu w lipcu sforsowali Bug i wyszli na linię Wisły . 1 sierpnia wybuchło powstanie warszawskie , zainicjowane przez Armię Krajową w celu opanowania stolicy Polski przed nadejściem Armii Czerwonej. Po 63 dniach walki upadło, nie doczekawszy się pomocy ze strony radzieckiej. We wrześniu wyczerpana wojną Finlandia poprosiła Związek Radziecki o podpisanie rozejmu i wkrótce potem podjęła działania zbrojne przeciwko swym niedawnym sojusznikom, Niemcom. Następnie, po ich pokonaniu, razem z siłami radzieckimi wkroczyła do okupowanego norweskiego Finnmarku . W październiku Sowieci po raz pierwszy od wybuchu wojny przekroczyli przedwojenną granicę III Rzeszy (w Prusach Wschodnich ). W regionie tym toczono bardzo ciężkie walki , szczególnie zażarcie bronili Niemcy Königsbergu . W styczniu 1945 roku ruszyła ich kolejna wielka ofensywa , która odrzuciła Niemców od Wisły aż do umocnień Wału Pomorskiego oraz rzek Odry i Nysy Łużyckiej . Na południu fronty radzieckie po zajęciu Rumunii (jej rząd oraz rząd bułgarski przeszły na stronę aliantów) wkroczyły na terytorium Węgier i Jugosławii. W październiku 1944 roku został wyzwolony Belgrad , a w lutym 1945 roku po długotrwałych i krwawych walkach padł Budapeszt . W marcu Niemcy podjęli nieudaną ofensywę strategiczną nad Balatonem – swoją ostatnią w tej wojnie. Miesiąc później liczne siły radziecko-bułgarskie pod komendą marszałka Fiodora Tołbuchina zaatakowały Wiedeń , który udało jej się zdobyć pomimo ciężkich strat (ponad 41 tysięcy zabitych i 136 tysięcy rannych, podczas gdy Niemcy tylko 19 tysięcy zabitych). Po kapitulacji miasta do niewoli dostało się 130 tysięcy Niemców. 27 kwietnia, za aprobatą władz radzieckich, były kanclerz Austrii Karl Renner powołał rząd, na którego czele stanął. Ogłosił on odłączenie kraju od III Rzeszy [ 111 ] . Propaganda niemiecka zapowiadała użycie nowych rodzajów broni, tzw. Wunderwaffe , lecz losów wojny nie było już w stanie nic zmienić. Kres wojny w Europie Przełamanie Wału Pomorskiego oraz przekroczenie Odry i Nysy Łużyckiej przez fronty radzieckie (w ich skład wchodziły również 1 i 2 Armia Wojska Polskiego ) dało początek operacji berlińskiej . Po ciężkich walkach, 2 maja 1945 roku załoga miasta skapitulowała. Wcześniej, 30 kwietnia Adolf Hitler popełnił samobójstwo . Na mocy jego testamentu władza nad państwem i siłami zbrojnymi przeszła w ręce wielkiego admirała Karla Dönitza , dowódcy Kriegsmarine , który powołał we Flensburgu ostatni rząd III Rzeszy z Johannem Ludwigiem von Krosigkiem jako kanclerzem . Pomimo upadku Berlina 2 maja 1945 roku, wiele oddziałów niemieckich nie składało broni. Do 4 maja trwały walki w Brandenburgii . 6 maja upadła Festung (niem. Twierdza ) Breslau , jedno z najważniejszych miast Niemiec [ 112 ] . 7 maja Niemcy w jednym ze szkolnych budynków we francuskim Reims skapitulowali na froncie zachodnim przed przedstawicielami armii Stanów Zjednoczonych i Wspólnoty Brytyjskiej. Dzień później w Berlinie podpisali również akt kapitulacji w obecności przedstawicieli ZSRR [ 113 ] . Tym samym II wojna światowa w Europie oficjalnie dobiegła końca, choć na niektórych obszarach działania zbrojne trwały jeszcze przez jakiś czas. W dniach 7–9 maja trwał radziecki desant na Bornholm . 10 maja skapitulowały wojska niemieckie broniące się w kotle kurlandzkim od 9 października 1944 roku. Dzień później jako ostatni niemiecki związek operacyjny poddała się na terenie Czech Grupa Armii „Środek” feldmarszałka Ferdinanda Schörnera [ 114 ] . Do 15 maja dogorywały walki na froncie jugosłowiańskim. Kriegsmarine zdążyła przeprowadzić jeszcze operację „Regenbogen” (inne języki) , akcję masowego zatapiania U-Bootów, by nie wpadły w ręce wroga. Ostatnią operacją zbrojną II wojny światowej była operacja „Doomsday” , trwające do 4 września 1945 roku rozbrajanie licznych sił okupacyjnych stacjonujących w Norwegii. W różnych incydentach życie straciło 47 żołnierzy alianckich i kilku niemieckich. W latach 1945–1946 alianci przeprowadzili operację „Deadlight” , polegającą na zniszczeniu przejętych U-Bootów [ 113 ] . Przez pewien czas na okupowanych terenach niemieckich działała partyzantka niemiecka Werwolf , na terenach polskich zajętych przez Armią Czerwoną walczyli tzw. żołnierze wyklęci , a na ziemiach państw bałtyckich ich włączeniu do ZSRR opierali się zbrojnie Leśni Bracia [ 115 ] . Równocześnie przeciw władzom radzieckim działała na Białorusi Zielona Armia , a na Ukrainie UPA . Ostatnim partyzantem opierającym się zbrojnie władzy radzieckiej był szeregowiec estońskich Leśnych Braci, August Sabbe zabity w czasie próby ujęcia przez KGB 28 września 1978 roku [ 116 ] . Koniec II wojny światowej Naloty dywanowe amerykańskich „latających fortec” zniszczyły Tokio i inne miasta japońskie. 8 sierpnia Związek Radziecki wypowiedział wojnę Japonii, a radzieckie i mongolskie dywizje pod dowództwem marszałka Aleksandra Wasilewskiego wkroczyły do Mandżurii , rozbijając szybko japońską Armię Kwantuńską generała Otozō Yamady , kładąc kres istnieniu Mandżukua i Mengjianu . 6 i 9 sierpnia Amerykanie zrzucili bomby atomowe na Hiroszimę i Nagasaki , co walnie przyczyniło się do złamania ducha oporu i do podpisania aktu bezwarunkowej kapitulacji Japonii 2 września 1945 roku (1 września czasu środkowoeuropejskiego). Decyzję o użyciu broni jądrowej spowodowały prognozowane bardzo wysokie straty w planowanej inwazji na Japonię ( operacja „Downfall” ) [ 117 ] . Po wojnie kilka grup żołnierzy japońskich, często nieświadomych zakończenia konfliktu, prowadziło opór lub ukrywało się w trudno dostępnych terenach. Zgodnie z doniesieniami medialnymi ostatni dwaj żołnierze japońscy poddali się w 2005 roku [ 118 ] . Galeria Podstawowe mapy działań zbrojnych Kampania wrześniowa i dziwna wojna Inwazja na Danię , Norwegię , Belgię , Holandię , Luksemburg , aneksja krajów bałtyckich i Besarabii , zajęcie Islandii Kampania bałkańska i inwazja na ZSRR Kontrofensywy radzieckie, kampania włoska , lądowanie w Normandii i ofensywa aliancka Ofensywa Osi w Azji Ofensywa aliancka w Azji Kres i skutki wojny Statystyczno-liczbowe ujęcie ogromu ofiar II wojny światowej. Ostatnie pozycje wszystkich alianckich armii w Europie 10 maja 1945 roku: radzieckich (czerwone), amerykańskich (zielone), brytyjskich (pomarańczowe), francuskich (niebieskie), polskich (flaga polska), rumuńskich (flaga rumuńska), bułgarskich (zielono-białe), jugosłowiańskich (granatowo-białe) i kanadyjskich (białe). Obecność wojskowa i kontrola terytorialna poszczególnych sił w Europie po zaprzestaniu przez Niemców oporu: pozycje radzieckie (czerwony), brytyjsko-kanadyjsko-polskie (fioletowy), amerykańskie (ciemnoczerwony), francuskie (niebieski), jugosłowiańskie (pomarańczowy), albańskie (jasnozielony), greckie (ciemnozielony) i norweskie (różowy). Powojenny podział ziem niemieckich w ich granicach z 1933 roku . Podział Berlina na sektory okupacyjne . Brytyjski, francuski i amerykański utworzą Berlin Zachodni , enklawę bloku zachodniego w NRD , którego stolicą stanie się sektor radziecki jako wschodni Berlin . Okupacja aliancka Austrii oraz wyodrębnione sektory okupacyjne w Wiedniu . Ziemie utracone przez Włochy w wyniku wojny (na czerwono). Grafika nie obejmuje kontrolowanej wcześniej przez Włochów jeszcze w trakcie wojny Albanii (pozostającej wcześniej w unii personalnej z Włochami), ani ich byłych kolonii . Przesunięcia granic w Europie Środkowej , Wschodniej i na Bałkanach , w radzieckiej strefie wpływów . Straty terytorialne i okupacja Japonii. 1: Wyspy Japońskie pod okupacją amerykańską. 2: Tajwan i Spratly przekazane Chinom. 3: Prefektura Karafuto (południowy Sachalin ) i Kuryle przekazane ZSRR. 4: Południe Generalnego Gubernatorstwa Korei pod amerykańską administracją wojskową (dziś niepodległa Korea Południowa ). 5: Liaotung przekazany ZSRR. 6: Północ Generalnego Gubernatorstwa Korei pod radziecką administracją wojskową (dziś niepodległa Korea Północna ). 7: Mandat Południowego Pacyfiku przekształcony w Powiernicze Wyspy Pacyfiku , administrowane przez Amerykanów. Nowy podział granic w Afryce po odebraniu Włochom kolonii i wyzwoleniu Abisynii . 18 grudnia 1944 roku. Zakończenie okupacji Osi nie przyniosło Grekom pokoju. Już pod koniec 1944 roku rozgorzały tam walki między siłami rządowymi, a częścią byłych partyzantów pod przywództwem komunistów. Wydarzenia eskalowały do wybuchu brutalnej wojny domowej . Na zdjęciu żołnierze brytyjscy wspierający rząd grecki, walczący z komunistami na ulicach oswobodzonych Aten . Wczesny 1945 rok. Holendrzy radują się na widok nadlatujących alianckich samolotów podczas wyzwalania kraju. 7 stycznia 1945 roku. Żołnierze radzieccy wyprowadzają ocalałych więźniów niemieckiego obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz-Birkenau po wkroczeniu do niego. Kilkutysięczna załoga wymordowała w nim ponad 1 300 000 osób, przeważnie Żydów z okupowanej Europy. Styczeń 1945 roku. Ruiny Warszawy widziane z pokładu samolotu. 4 luty 1945 roku. Kocioł kolmarski , amerykańscy żołnierze zatrzymują Niemców podtrzymujących rannego kompana. 10 marca 1945 roku. Ofiary i zniszczenia spowodowane alianckimi nalotami na Tokio . Lotnicy alianccy zabili w nich między 80 000 a 130 000 cywilów. 17 kwietnia 1945 roku. Jeden z tak zwanych białych autobusów , transportów humanitarnych wysłanych w ostatnich dniach wojny w porozumieniu z Niemcami przez Szwecję do ewakuacji duńskich i norweskich więźniów obozów koncentracyjnych. Był to przejaw upadku systemu państwowego w ostatnich dniach III Rzeszy . 19 kwietnia 1945 roku. Oficer Volkssturmu , który wolał popełnić samobójstwo, niż dostać się do niewoli. Za nim leży podarty portret Hitlera . 24 kwietnia 1945 roku. Niemieckie łupy, kosztowności i dzieła sztuki odnalezione w kościele w Ellingen . 24 kwietnia 1945 roku. Ciała więźniów zamordowanych przez strażników w wyzwolonym obozie Bergen-Belsen . Stoi na nich Fritz Klein , obozowy lekarz, stracony pod koniec roku za zbrodnie wojenne. W Bergen-Belsen zabito około 70 000 osób. 25 kwietnia 1945 roku. Amerykański żołnierz pilnuje jeńców wziętych do niewoli w Ruhrze . 29 kwietnia 1945 roku. Zbezczeszczone zwłoki Mussoliniego (drugi od lewej) i jego towarzyszy, powieszone na mediolańskiej stacji benzynowej, po ich schwytaniu i rozstrzelaniu przez antyfaszystowskich partyzantów. 5 maja 1945 roku. Tysiące obrączek ślubnych ofiar obozu Buchenwald . Ich właściciele znaleźli się wśród 56 500 jego ofiar. 6 maja 1945 roku. Amerykańscy żołnierze przymusowo pokazują niemieckim cywilom z Ludwigslustu ofiary obozu Neuengamme . Zabito w nim około 55 000 osób. 7 maja 1945 roku. Grafika górna: szef sztabu OKW Alfred Jodl i dowódca Kriegsmarine Hans-Georg von Friedeburg podpisują wstępny akt kapitulacji Niemiec w Reims . Ilustracja dolna: uradowani dowódcy alianccy przyglądają się im, wśród nich między innymi Arthur Tedder , Walter Bedell Smith i Dwight Eisenhower . 7 maja 1945 roku. W obliczu końca wojny w Europie i zwycięstwa, szwedzcy studenci postanowili zorganizować manifestację będącą wyrazem hołdu dla sąsiedniej Norwegii i dojść wraz z nią pod ambasadę norweską w Sztokholmie . Kolumna rozrosła się do gigantycznych rozmiarów. 8 maja 1945 roku. Tłum dziennikarzy pragnie uwiecznić ogłoszenie przez prezydenta USA Harry’ego Trumana zakończenia II wojny światowej w Europie. 8 maja 1945 roku. Pełniący urząd premiera Wielkiej Brytanii przez większość wojny Winston Churchill pozdrawia tłum celebrujących kres wojny w Europie obywateli gestem zwycięstwa . 8 maja 1945 roku. Mieszkańcy Jerozolimy świętują upadek III Rzeszy i, co za tym idzie, kres Holocaustu . 8 maja 1945 roku. Tłum gapiów z San Sebastián ogląda wrak niemieckiego He 111 , którym dopiero co uciekł do Hiszpanii prominentny nazista Léon Degrelle , przywódca walońskich kolaborantów . Pomimo zaocznego wyroku śmierci w rodzimej Belgii nigdy nie poniósł żadnej odpowiedzialności za swoje czyny, został za to aktywnym działaczem neonazistowskim . 8 maja 1945 roku. Amerykańscy piechurzy zwiedzają podziemny kompleks fabryczny Mittelwerk , w którym produkowano m.in. rakiety V-2 . Noc z 8 na 9 maja 1945 roku. Londyńczycy świętowali kres wojny w Europie tak radośnie, że gdy zapadł zmrok na ulicach rozpalono ogniska, by bawić się dalej. 9 maja 1945 roku. Żołnierze amerykańscy służący w Birmie odrywają się od zajęć by przeczytać informację o zakończeniu walk w Europie. 9 maja 1945 roku. Mieszkańcy miasta Gorki w ZSRR dowiadują się o zakończeniu wojny z III Rzeszą. 9 maja 1945 roku. Mieszkańcy Montrealu świętują na ulicach kapitulację Niemiec. 9 maja 1945 roku. Czerwonoarmiści przejeżdżają triumfalnie przez zajętą Pragę . 12 maja 1945 roku. Denazyfikacja w Trewirze , mężczyzna zdejmuje tabliczkę z nazwą Adolf Hitler-Straße (ulica Adolfa Hitlera) i zakłada Bahnhofstraße (ulica Dworcowa). 15 maja 1945 roku. W obliczu klęski, tysiące żołnierzy Chorwackich Sił Zbrojnych podległych Niepodległemu Państwu Chorwackiemu , ruszyło pieszo w kierunku Austrii, by poddać się Brytyjczykom. Zatrzymano ich w okolicach miejscowości Bleiburg , gdzie oficerowie brytyjscy przekazali ich do dyspozycji zorganizowanej przez komunistycznych partyzantów Jugosłowiańskiej Armii Ludowej , która jednak zaczęła jeńców rozstrzeliwać. W sumie wymordowano nawet kilkadziesiąt tysięcy bezbronnych ludzi . 16 maja 1945 roku. Triumfalny powrót Edvarda Beneša , prezydenta Czechosłowacji na emigracji, do wolnej od Niemców Pragi. Beneš kontynuował rządy w odrodzonej ojczyźnie, w której sytuacja wyglądała inaczej, niż np. w Polsce. Pomimo tego, że Związek Radziecki zamierzał wciągnąć kraj w swoją orbitę, przez pierwsze lata po wojnie pozwolił na funkcjonowanie w nim rzeczywistej demokracji, bez fałszowania wyborów, czy zbytniej ingerencji w sprawy wewnętrzne. Komunistyczna Partia Czechosłowacji pozostawała w głównym nurcie polityki, jednak funkcjonowała jako jedna z wielu legalnych partii, tocząc zwyczajną walkę polityczną. 23 maja 1945 roku. Alianci transportują samolotem do Wielkiej Brytanii wzięty do niewoli ostatni rząd III Rzeszy z jej nowym prezydentem, wielkim admirałem Karlem Dönitzem (w czarnym mundurze marynarskim). Obok niego jeden z czołowych dygnitarzy Niemiec, Albert Speer . 24 maja 1945 roku. Heinrich Himmler , współtwórca i jeden z przywódców III Rzeszy , dowódca Schutzstaffel i policji oraz minister spraw wewnętrznych, jeden z współautorów Holocaustu, po zażyciu trucizny podczas próby przesłuchania. Maj 1945 roku. Pojmani niemieccy żołnierze, którzy do końca wojny bronili się odcięci w kotle kurlandzkim , idą przez Rygę . Maj 1945 roku. Koniec wojny na Bliskim Wschodzie był tylko początkiem napięć. Już w maju 1945 roku wybuchł kryzys lewantyński , zbrojna konfrontacja armii francuskiej i brytyjskiej, która zdecydowała się wesprzeć protestujących przeciwko obecności francuskiej Syryjczyków. Kapitulacja III Rzeszy wywołała entuzjazm wśród domagających się samostanowienia Arabów, skonfliktowanych z zarządzającymi regionem Brytyjczykami i Francuzami, jak i osadnikami żydowskimi szykującymi się do budowy własnego państwa. Tu brytyjski samochód opancerzony Staghound jedzie ulicami Damaszku . Maj 1945 roku. Golenie i oblewanie smołą amsterdamskich kobiet, które rzekomo sypiały z okupantami. Maj 1945 roku. Ruiny Manili , stolicy Filipin , po jej wyzwoleniu. Pod sam koniec wojny, w trakcie walk o miasto , Japończycy dopuścili się masakr ludności cywilnej . Tomoyuki Yamashita , oficer dowodzący japońskimi siłami na Filipinach, zadecydował o wycofaniu garnizonu z gęsto zaludnionego miasta, by uniknąć ofiar cywilnych, jednak jego podwładny, dowodzący siłami w mieście Sanji Iwabuchi odmówił mu, tłumacząc się honorem, który nie pozwalał mu porzucić pozycji. Wybuchła więc krwawa bitwa. Choć Iwabuchi miał raptem 18 000 żołnierzy, podjął skuteczną, miesięczną obronę około milionowego miasta przed ponad dwukrotnie liczniejszym przeciwnikiem, dysponującym przewagą na morzu i w powietrzu. Doprowadził przy tym do śmierci blisko 100 000 cywilów i 17 000 swoich podkomendnych, zabijając tylko nieco ponad tysiąc przeciwników. W obliczu klęski, Iwabuchi odebrał sobie życie. Bitwy takie, jak ta o Manilę, uświadomiły aliantom z jakimi gigantycznymi stratami wiązałaby się inwazja na kontynentalną Japonię , dlatego decydowali się jej za wszelką cenę uniknąć. Z kolei Yamashita został po wojnie stracony za przypisane mu zbrodnie wojenne Japończyków, którym nie zdołał zapobiec. Ok. maja 1945 roku. Przetrzymywani w okupowanej Norwegii brudni, schorowani i stłoczeni jeńcy radzieccy po ich uwolnieniu. 3 czerwca 1945 roku. Niemiecki cywil spogląda na „ołtarz” Stalina w zdobytym Berlinie . 17 czerwca 1945 roku. Spotkanie powracających do Moskwy zdemobilizowanych czerwonoarmistów z bliskimi. 17 czerwca 1945 roku. Po przejściu na stronę aliantów Bułgaria sformowała kilka przeznaczonych do walki z Niemcami armii, w tym 1 Armię Bułgarską , tu witaną w Sofii podczas triumfalnego powrotu z Austrii, gdzie zakończyła swój szlak bojowy. 18 czerwca 1945 roku. Brytyjski oficer wygłaszający mowę pożegnalną do wrenek przed ich demobilizacją. Ich działalność położyła podwaliny pod przyszłą służbę wojskową kobiet w Wielkiej Brytanii. 21 czerwca 1945 roku. Proces szesnastu , wydarzenie będące symbolem radzieckich planów wobec Europy Środkowej – proces pokazowy szesnastu przywódców polskiego podziemia, które walczyło z okupacją, skazanych za fikcyjną współpracę z Niemcami przeciw Związkowi Radzieckiemu. Na zdjęciu ostatni dowódca Armii Krajowej , generał brygady Leopold Okulicki , skazany na dziesięć lat więzienia i zamordowany w celi. 22 czerwca 1945 roku. Raport z zatrzymania Hermanna Göringa , jednego z czołowych dygnitarzy hitlerowskich Niemiec i wieloletniego dowódcy Luftwaffe . 24 czerwca 1945 roku. Parada Zwycięstwa w Moskwie . Żołnierze radzieccy ciągną po ziemi zdobyte sztandary Wehrmachtu . 26 czerwca 1945 roku. Delegacja holenderska na obradach konferencji w San Francisco , podczas której powstała Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych . Czerwiec 1945 roku. Czterdzieści dwa niemieckie okręty podwodne przejęte przez Brytyjczyków i składowane w Derry . 12 lipca 1945 roku. Spotkanie dowódców brytyjskich i radzieckich pod Bramą Brandenburską . Pierwszy od prawej marszałek Rokossowski , czwarty marszałek polny Montgomery , szósty generał Malinin , siódmy marszałek Żukow , ósmy przyszły marszałek Sokołowski . 15 lipca 1945 roku. Ocalali z Buchenwaldu Żydzi dopływają statkiem do portu w Hajfie . 21 lipca 1945 roku. Defilada brytyjska w zdobytym Berlinie. 24 lipca 1945 roku. Obrady konferencji poczdamskiej , delegacje radziecka, brytyjska i amerykańska decydują o przyszłym kształcie Europy. Na zdjęciu James Francis Byrnes , Anthony Eden i Wiaczesław Mołotow . 28 lipca 1945 roku. Tłumy radosnych Belgów oglądają defiladę aliancką w wyzwolonej Brukseli . Lipiec 1945 roku. Alianccy rzeczoznawcy odnajdują ukryty przez hitlerowców w kopalni soli w Altaussee Ołtarz Gandawski van Eycka , zrabowany z Katedry Świętego Bawona . 2 sierpnia 1945 roku. Przejęte przez aliantów niemieckie samoloty wielozadaniowe Ju 88 na lotnisku Grove w Danii oczekują zniszczenia. 8 sierpnia 1945 roku. Brytyjski żołnierz rozmawia z chińską dziewczynką zmuszoną do świadczenia usług seksualnych japońskim żołnierzom . 9 sierpnia 1945 roku. Zrównane z ziemią w wyniku wybuchu jądrowego Nagasaki . 11 sierpnia 1945 roku. Niemiecki jeniec zmuszony do własnoręcznego usuwania min przeciwpiechotnych w norweskim mieście Stavanger . 14 sierpnia 1945 roku. Amerykanie radują się na wieść, że kończy się II wojna światowa. 15 sierpnia 1945 roku. Mieszkańcy Szanghaju świętują kres trwającej od 1937 roku agresji japońskiej , jakim było dla nich ogłoszenie przez cesarza Hirohito woli kapitulacji, jeszcze przed jej sformalizowaniem. 15 sierpnia 1945 roku. Ostatnie zdjęcie japońskiego wiceadmirała Matome Ugakiego . Nie godząc się na klęskę ojczyzny, odpiął insygnia z munduru, wziął swój miecz i, chociaż sam nie był pilotem, poleciał samolotem wykonać ostatni w dziejach atak kamikaze , w wyniku którego poniósł uważaną za honorową śmierć. 15 sierpnia 1945 roku. Mieszkaniec Sydney tańczy na ulicy na wieść o jeszcze niesformalizowanej kapitulacji Japonii i zakończeniu II wojny światowej. 16 sierpnia 1945 roku. Żołnierze kanadyjscy stacjonujący w okupowanych Niemczech dowiadują się o kresie II wojny światowej z gazety. 16 sierpnia 1945 roku. Początki zjednoczonej, demokratycznej Korei, której nigdy nie dane było powstać. Tu, na krótko przed proklamacją Koreańskiej Republiki Ludowej , jeden z głównych przywódców ruchu niepodległościowego, Yo Un-hyong , jej przyszły wiceprezydent, a wtedy przewodniczący Komitetu Przygotowawczego Niepodległości Korei, przemawia podczas jego posiedzenia. Mające być podstawą nowej władzy komitety ludowe zaczną być jednak przejmowane przez komunistów, działających na zlecenie ZSRR, który zajął północ Korei i zamierzał w ten sposób przejąć całą. W odpowiedzi na to organizowana przez kontrolujących południe Amerykanów administracja zacznie je zwalczać, co doprowadzi do powstania dwóch nieuznających się rządów koreańskich i upadku młodej republiki. Sam Yo zostanie zamordowany przez prawicowych bojówkarzy dwa lata później. 17 sierpnia 1945 roku. Po japońskim ataku holenderska administracja kolonialna w Indiach Wschodnich została błyskawicznie rozbita, a upadek Japonii pozwolił ją przywrócić, jednak ośmieleni słabością kolonizatora indonezyjscy działacze narodowowyzwoleńczy ogłosili niepodległość Indonezji. Na zdjęciu pierwsze wciągnięcie na masz flagi indonezyjskiej i moment wybuchu wojny o niepodległość , która choć do 1949 roku przegrana, wymusiła politycznie na Holendrach uznanie niepodległej Indonezji. Widoczni przywódcy ruchu wolnościowego, Mohammad Hatta i Sukarno , obaj w trakcie wojny członkowie kolaborującego z Japończykami komitetu niepodległościowego BPUPKI . 24 sierpnia 1945 roku. Chiński przywódca, generalissimus Czang Kaj-szek ratyfikuje w imieniu swojego państwa Kartę Narodów Zjednoczonych . 28 sierpnia 1945 roku. Japoński pilot nawiguje amerykańskim okrętem-bazą wodnosamolotów USS „Cumberland Sound”, by uniknąć wejścia na minę podczas wpływania do Zatoki Tokijskiej . Ok. 30 sierpnia 1945 roku. Japońscy wojskowi idą do obozu jenieckiego po odzyskaniu przez Brytyjczyków kontroli nad Hongkongiem . Sierpień 1945 roku. Kolaboranci i pojmani niemieccy oficerowie przydzieleni do prac nad ekshumacjami masowych grobów ofiar okupacji. Sierpień 1945 roku. Niemiecki okręt podwodny „ U-977 ” zacumowany w porcie w Mar del Plata , po tym, jak jego operująca wokół Ameryki Południowej załoga poddała się argentyńskiej marynarce wojennej . W ostatnich dniach wojny wiele państw, w tym Argentyna, wypowiedziało wojnę III Rzeszy. 2 września 1945 roku. Pokład amerykańskiego pancernika USS „Missouri” . Delegacja japońska przybywa podpisać kapitulację państwa . 2 września 1945 roku. Wietnamska organizacja Việt Minh prowadziła walkę o wyzwolenie kraju z Francuzami i Japończykami. Po pokonaniu tych drugich była już dość silna, by 2 września 1945 roku jej przywódca Hồ Chí Minh mógł ogłosić na zajętych przez nią terenach niepodległość Demokratycznej Republiki Wietnamu . Ta jednak nie została uznana na arenie międzynarodowej, wybuchła długa wojna z osłabioną po wojnie Francją , która zamierzała utrzymać swoje posiadłości kolonialne w Wietnamie za wszelką cenę. 11 września 1945 roku. Zdjęcie zrobione w momencie, gdy żołnierze amerykańscy wkroczyli do domu Hidekiego Tōjō , czołowego przywódcy japońskiego, który po okrążeniu rezydencji usiłował odebrać sobie życie. Odratowano go, po czym zgodnie z prawem osądzono i stracono w 1948 roku. Ok. 15 września 1945 roku. Żołnierze japońscy w amerykańskim szpitalu na Wyspach Marshalla, wyniszczeni bronieniem się na atolach Mili , Qotji i Maloelap , pomimo odcięcia ich od świata przez amerykańską blokadę. 27 września 1945 roku. Cesarz Japonii Hirohito i dowódca amerykańskich sił okupacyjnych, Douglas MacArthur w Tokio . Do końca wojny władca Japonii uważany był w niej za boga, ponieważ według państwowej religii shintō , linia cesarska wywodzić się ma od bogini Amaterasu . Był to jeden z powodów dlaczego tak wielu japońskich żołnierzy decydowało się umrzeć za swojego władcę. MacArthur zadecydował, by nie stawiać Hirohito przed trybunałem, a zamiast tego współpracować z nim przy ustanawianiu okupacji oraz budowie nowej, pokojowej i demokratycznej Japonii. Wymógł też na władcy, by ten ogłosił publicznie, że nie jest bogiem. W nowym systemie rola cesarza ograniczona został do czysto symbolicznej, przestał być rzeczywistym władcą i zwierzchnikiem sił zbrojnych. Wrzesień 1945 roku. Czerwonoarmiści na tronie cesarza Mandżukuo w zdobytej stolicy Xinjing . Utworzone przez Japończyków państwo marionetkowe zostało zlikwidowane, a do niewoli radzieckiej dostał się mandżurski cesarz, Puyi . Wcześniej, jako dziecko i pod imieniem Xuantong, był on ostatnim cesarzem z władającej Chinami dynastii Qing . Wrzesień 1945 roku. Rozmowy w Chongqing , spotkanie twarzą w twarz Czanga i Mao Zedonga , przywódcy chińskich komunistów . W obliczu japońskiej inwazji, toczące wojnę domową o kontrolę nad Chinami frakcje zjednoczyły się, walcząc ramię w ramię, jednak wraz z pokonaniem wspólnego wroga wrogość nie zniknęła i nie udało się zawrzeć rozejmu. Armie Czanga i Mao walczyły dalej, prowadząc do milionów ofiar i upadku rządu nacjonalistów, co za tym idzie, powstania komunistycznej Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej i ograniczenia władzy Czanga do resztek jego państwa, jakie zachowały się na wsypie Tajwan . Wrzesień 1945 roku. Pojmani przez Japończyków , wychudzeni żołnierze alianccy wychodzą z obozu jenieckiego, który znajdował się osiem kilometrów od zniszczonego przez bombę atomową Nagasaki. Ok. września 1945 roku. Operacja „Magic Carpet” , czyli masowe powroty żołnierzy amerykańskich do ojczyzny z Azji i Europy. Tu zatłoczony do granic możliwości lotniskowiec USS „Saratoga” , który po zakończeniu wojny na Pacyfiku przewiózł w sumie 29 204 weteranów, więcej, niż jakakolwiek inna jednostka. Między 4 a 9 października 1945 roku. Pierre Laval , jeden z prominentnych przedwojennych polityków francuskich i były premier , który objął też urząd premiera rządu kolaboracyjnego, broni swoich racji na własnym procesie. Zostanie jednak skazany na śmierć i stracony kilka dni później. Sam przywódca kolaborantów, Philippe Pétain , również skazany został na śmierć, jednak karę zamieniono mu na dożywocie, ponieważ Pétain był bohaterem I wojny światowej. 9 października 1945 roku. Prowincja Shanxi , wznowione walki między komunistami a nacjonalistami w chińskiej wojnie domowej, jeszcze w trakcie prób negocjacji między frakcjami. 10 października 1945 roku. Japońscy działacze komunistyczni wychodzą z więzienia w ramach końca represji politycznych. 19 października 1945 roku. Amerykańscy żołnierze w Sasebo . 25 października 1945 roku. Chińscy studenci witający rządowe siły Kuomintangu wkraczające na przekazywany przez pokonanych Japończyków Tajwan. Historia pokaże, że wyspa stanie się ostatnim bastionem Kuomintangu po przegraniu przez niego wojny domowej. Październik 1945 roku. Odbudowa zniszczonego i zablokowanego przez zatopione jednostki portu w Genui . Październik 1945 roku. Dokarmianie sierot wojennych z Holandii, gdzie w 1944 roku wybuchła klęska głodu . 10 listopada 1945 roku. Japoński żołnierz idzie w beznadziei przez zniszczoną Hiroszimę . 29 listopada 1945 roku. Przywódcy jugosłowiańskiego ruchu komunistycznego, Tito i Kardelj , podczas proklamacji Socjalistycznej Federacyjnej Republiki Jugosławii , która była możliwa dzięki sukcesom ich partyzantki. Listopad 1945 roku. Oskarżeni hitlerowcy podczas procesów norymberskich . 5 grudnia 1945 roku. Niemieckie ciężarówki wojskowe przejęte przez siły brytyjskie zwożone do Wiednia , by rozdzielić je pomiędzy przewoźników cywilnych wobec niedostatku transportu drogowego w okupowanej Austrii , paraliżującego funkcjonowanie regionu. 10 grudnia 1945 roku. Cztery i pół tysiąca australijskich żołnierzy bierze udział w proteście przeciwko opóźnieniom ich powrotów do ojczyzny. 31 grudnia 1945 roku. Spadochroniarze z Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w Wielkiej Brytanii w portowym Tilbury czekają na załadunek na statek SS „Banfora”, który przewiezie ich do odrodzonej ojczyzny. Do roku 1947 formacje polskie zostały rozwiązane, a wielu weteranów (zwłaszcza oficerów) nie zdecydowało się na powrót do rządzonej przez komunistów Polski. 1945 rok. Niewybuchy i resztki amunicji ułożone pod ścianą podczas sprzątania po zakończonej bitwie, prawdopodobnie na Węgrzech 1945 rok . Francuscy i belgijscy jeńcy pojmani przez Niemców, oczekujący powrotów do ojczyzn drogą lotniczą, na lotnisku w Lüneburgu 1945 rok. Ustanawianie granicy polsko-niemieckiej na Odrze i Nysie Łużyckiej 1945 rok. Zniszczony i porzucony sprzęt niemiecki w norweskim mieście Tromsø , tu łódź latająca Bv 138 1945 rok. Ogrom jeńców wojennych w Związku Radzieckim, zwłaszcza Niemców, zmuszany był do niewolniczej pracy na rzecz państwa radzieckiego. Dziesiątki tysięcy z nich zesłanych zostało do Azerbejdżanu . Ci na zdjęciu zmuszeni zostali do budowy ukończonego w 1948 roku miasta Mingeczaur , ulokowanego w pobliżu mającego powstać sztucznego zbiornika wodnego . 1945 rok. Restauracja Newskiego Prospektu , głównej ulicy Leningradu , który ucierpiał podczas niemieckiej blokady miasta . 1945 rok. Rany Japonki, która padła ofiarą poparzeń jądrowych. 1945 rok. Stanisław Mikołajczyk , jeden z przywódców rządu londyńskiego , odwiedza wyzwolony Poznań po powrocie do powojennej Polski . Mikołajczyk, tak jak wielu polskich działaczy, początkowo uwierzył w odbudowę demokratycznej Polski, jednak nowe władze wykorzystały go do legitymowania się jako legalne i praworządne, a gdy przestał być już potrzebny, musiał uciekać z kraju w obawie o własne życie. 1945 rok . W wyniszczonym wojną i okupacją, rabowanym Wietnamie w 1944 roku wybuchł głód, który w roku 1945 eskalował i doprowadził do śmierci nawet dwóch milionów osób. 1945 rok. Młoda Włoszka z dobytkiem życia spakowanym na wozie oczekuje wygnania, podczas usuwania Włochów z Istrii i Dalmacji . Jej bagaże przykrywa flaga narodowa . Ok. 1945 roku. Spotkanie grupy nazistów w Chile . Ameryka Południowa była jednym z głównych kierunków powojennej ucieczki zbrodniarzy. 2 stycznia 1946 roku. Wyniszczeni jeńcy japońscy wracają z Syberii do ojczyzny. 3 stycznia 1946 roku. Tułaczka rodziny wypędzonych Niemców . 5 stycznia 1946 roku. Leningrad, publiczna egzekucja szeregowych żołnierzy niemieckich i generała majora Heinricha Remlingera, uznanych winnych popełnienia zbrodni wojennych podczas oblężenia miasta. Luty 1946 roku. Sama wojna doprowadziła gospodarki przegrywających ją państw Osi na skraj upadku, który nastąpił wraz z ostateczną klęską, wraz z nimi załamały się przedwojenne waluty. W okupowanej przez Amerykanów Japonii wycofano stare, a wprowadzono nowe jeny , co okazało się doskonałą decyzją, umożliwiającą odbudowę kraju i położenie podwalin pod gospodarkę, w której jeny stały się jedną z globalnych, potężnych walut. Na zdjęciu japońscy cywile wymieniający walutę na nową. Marzec 1946 roku. Panorama zniszczonej Hiroszimy. 17 kwietnia 1946 roku. Moment kształtowania się mapy powojennego świata – wojska francuskie wycofują się z Latakii , opuszczając tym samym Syrię. Chwila uzyskania suwerenności przez Republikę Syryjską . Kwiecień 1946 roku. Żołnierze brytyjscy przekazują żołnierzom polskim odzyskaną zrabowaną przez Niemców „ Damę z gronostajem ” Leonarda da Vinci . 1 maja 1946 roku. Pierwsza rocznica zakończenia II wojny światowej w Europie, obchodzona na Węgrzech. Dzień ten stał się w bloku wschodnim jednym z ważniejszych świąt. 3 maja 1946 roku. Najcenniejsi jeńcy japońscy przewożeni autobusem, aby osądził ich Międzynarodowy Trybunał Wojskowy dla Dalekiego Wschodu . Na zdjęciu m.in. były minister edukacji, generał Sadao Araki (dożywocie), były premier Kuniaki Koiso (dożywocie), były generalny gubernator Korei, generał Jirō Minami (dożywocie), były minister marynarki i jej szef sztabu generalnego, admirał Shigetarō Shimada (dożywocie), bliski doradca cesarza, Kōichi Kido (dożywocie), inny były minister marynarki i jej szef sztabu generalnego, marszałek-admirał Osami Nagano (zmarł w celi, nie doczekał wyroku) czy wreszcie sam Hideki Tōjō. 10 maja 1946 roku. Produkowane dla Wehrmachtu czołgi średnie Panther w służbie wojsk Rumunii pod narzuconą władzą komunistyczną , biorą udział w defiladzie. W tle widać niemiecki niszczyciel czołgów Nashorn i wielkie portrety komunistycznych notabli. 28 maja 1946 roku. Amerykanie przygotowują egzekucję niemieckiego lekarza Clausa Schillinga , który przeprowadzał eksperymenty medyczne na więźniach Dachau . 1 czerwca 1946 roku. Ion Antonescu , faszystowski dyktator Rumunii, słucha wyroku śmierci na miejscu rozstrzelania. Chwilę po wykonaniu tego zdjęcia już nie żył. 3 czerwca 1946 roku. Po wojnie, skompromitowana współpracą z Mussolinim monarchia włoska znalazła się w kryzysie. Król Wiktor Emanuel III zdecydował się nawet abdykować, a zastąpił go jego syn, Humbert II , który jednak jeszcze jako książę był czynnym oficerem i osobiście dowodził włoską inwazją na Francję . Tu Humbert II bierze udział w będącym odpowiedzią na żądania społeczeństwa referendum w sprawie ewentualnego ogłoszenia republiki, które położyło kres istnieniu Królestwa Włoch . 8 czerwca 1946 roku. Londyńska Parada Zwycięstwa , przemarsz jednostek z Transjordanii i Sudanu Anglo-Egipskiego . Związek Radziecki nie wysłał swoich jednostek, dlatego, by nie drażnić Moskwy, nie zezwolono też na udział żołnierzom polskim. 10 czerwca 1946 roku. Wygnani z Mandżurii japońscy osadnicy przybywają do Japonii. 2 lipca 1946 roku. Niemiecki torpedowiec „T 21” załadowany ogromną ilością gazów bojowych , szykowany do samozatopienia na Morzu Północnym , celem ich utylizacji. 4 lipca 1946 roku. Moment opuszczenia flagi amerykańskiej i wciągnięcia filipińskiej w Manili, moment narodzin niepodległej Republiki Filipin i likwidacji Wspólnoty Filipin , amerykańskiego terytorium zależnego. Podczas II wojny światowej Japończycy zajęli archipelag i postanowili wykorzystać przeciwko Amerykanom nastroje niepodległościowe, powołując marionetkową Drugą Republikę Filipin , nominalnie niezależną. Państwo upadło wraz z japońską kapitulacją, jednak nie był to koniec dążeń Filipińczyków do samostanowienia. Wspólnotę Filipin Amerykanie odtworzyli tymczasowo, by przygotować właściwą niepodległość kraju, jednak zachowali kontrolę nad jego gospodarką. 25 lipca 1946 roku. Okręt flagowy Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun , pancernik „ Nagato ”, wykorzystywany po zdobyciu przez Amerykanów jako cel w teście jądrowym. Przetrwał go. 7 listopada 1946 roku. Radziecka defilada w Rydze , stolicy zachowanej po nielegalnym zajęciu przez ZSRR Łotwy . 7 listopada 1946 roku. Wizytę w ambasadzie radzieckiej składają Nikodem , patriarcha Rumunii i jej król, Michał I . Władca w 1944 roku dokonał zamachu stanu, w wyniku którego przejął władzę w będącej jednym z głównych państw Osi Rumunii, by sprowadzić ją na stronę aliantów. Siły radzieckie weszły więc do kraju, który miał stać się marionetką ZSRR, a władany był przez młodego, popularnego monarchę-bohatera. Z początku wymuszono więc tylko na królu przyjęcie komunistów do rządu, a gdy ci rośli w siłę, Michał I starał się ograniczać ich wpływy. Ostatecznie jednak zmuszono go do abdykacji w 1947 roku, gdy komuniści zagrozili zastrzeleniem setek jego młodych zwolenników. W ten sposób Rumunia dostała się w orbitę Związku Radzieckiego. W roku 1948 król musiał wyjechać z kraju. 1946 rok. Most Elżbiety w Budapeszcie , jeden z symboli miasta, zniszczony przez wycofujące się wojska niemieckie. 1946 rok. Radość młodych japońskich żołnierzy wracających do domów po demobilizacji, tu już na stacji Shinagawa w Tokio. 1946 rok. Codzienność w zrujnowanym Zweibrücken . W zrujnowanych Niemczech pojawiło się masowe zjawisko Trümmerfrau , czyli kobiet sprzątających gruzy i przeszukujące je w poszukiwaniu drewna opałowego, drobnych przedmiotów, które mogłyby sprzedać, lub nadających się do ponownego użytku cegieł. 1946 rok. Związek Radziecki, w wyniku wspólnego uderzenia na Iran z Brytyjczykami, uzyskał tymczasową obecność wojskową w regionie, którą zamierzał utrzymać po zakończeniu wojny. W tym celu wykorzystał zamieszkujących te ziemie Kurdów i Azerów , pomagając stworzyć lokalnym komunistom nieuznawane republiki, które chciał wciągnąć do swojej strefy wpływów. Doprowadziło to do wybuchu wojny z wspieranym przez aliantów zachodnich rządem . Tu irańscy wieśniacy mobilizujący się do stawienia zbrojnego oporu separatystom. 1946 rok. Polscy partyzanci zgrupowania „Pogoń” stawiający opór radzieckiej dominacji w kraju na zdjęciu grupowym. 1946 rok. Konferencja poprzedzająca pokój paryski . Rumuński dyplomata przedstawia punkt widzenia swojego kraju na przebieg granicy z Węgrami . 1946 rok. Dragoljub Mihailović , przywódca czetników , na procesie w którym zostaje skazany na śmierć za zdradę ojczyzny. Między 1946 a 1948 rokiem. Wrak pancernika „ Gneisenau ” w gdyńskim porcie , dookoła niego toczy się już normalne życie. Pozostałości zniszczonej podczas wojny polskiej wsi, dokładna data nieznana. Jeńcy japońscy oddelegowani do zatapiania amunicji przejętej po odzyskaniu przez Brytyjczyków kontroli nad Singapurem , dokładna data nieznana. Rehabilitacja wracającego do zdrowia rannego żołnierza. dokładna data nieznana. Josef Dietrich , jeden z dwóch najwyższych rangą dowódców Waffen-SS , w celi, dokładana data nieznana. Niemieckie hełmy przerabiane na rondle w berlińskiej fabryce pod okupacją aliancką, dokładna data nieznana. 5 lutego 1947 roku. Belgrad , proces dowódców Wehrmachtu oskarżonych o zbrodnie wojenne popełnione w Jugosławii. Wśród nich generał pułkownik Luftwaffe Alexander Löhr , który skazany zostanie na śmierć przez rozstrzelanie za kierowany przez niego zmasowany nalot na miasto w 1941 roku . 14 marca 1947 roku. Rozbiórka nieukończonego japońskiego lotniskowca lekkiego „ Ibuki ”. 31 marca 1947 roku. Niemcy protestują przeciwko katastrofalnym warunkom bytowania, na transparencie hasło „Chcemy węgla, chcemy chleba”. Kwiecień 1947 roku. Żołnierze polscy przeprowadzający deportację Ukraińców w ramach akcji „Wisła” . 29 czerwca 1947 roku. Obchody Święta Morza w wciąż zrujnowanym mieście Stettin , przemianowanym po włączeniu do Polski na Szczecin. 17 października 1947 roku. Wysłannicy kanadyjskiego Czerwonego Krzyża przekazują lokalnym władzom indyjskim przywiezioną przez siebie panicylinę , opracowany i rozpowszechniony podczas II wojny światowej antybiotyk , który nie tylko uratował życia niezliczonym rannym żołnierzom, ale zrewolucjonizował światową medycynę. Jej odkrywcy, Australijczyk Howard Florey oraz Brytyjczycy Alexander Fleming i Ernst Boris Chain , otrzymali za swoje osiągnięcie Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie medycyny w 1945 roku. 1 listopada 1947 roku. Zapowiedź końca imperium brytyjskiego . Pomimo tego, że Churchill stał się symbolem brytyjskiego oporu w trakcie wojny, w 1945 roku, jeszcze przed jej zakończeniem Partia Konserwatywna , którą kierował, przegrała wybory. Do władzy doszła popierająca dekolonizację Indii (gdzie narastał opór przeciwko kolonialistom) Partia Pracy i tak w 1947 roku zadecydowano o nadaniu Indiom niepodległości, jednak po podziale ich na dwa zależne od Londynu i uznające zwierzchność monarchy brytyjskiego dominia : przeznaczone dla indyjskich muzułmanów Dominium Pakistanu (usamodzielniło się jako Islamska Republika Pakistanu w 1956 roku, po czym w 1971 roku oderwała się od niego Ludowa Republika Bangladeszu ) i skupiającą całą resztę ziem Unię Indyjską (usamodzielniła się jako Republika Indii w 1950 roku). Tu Louis Mountbatten , gubernator generalny Indii, rozmawia na temat ich podziału z czołowym przywódcą separatystów, przyszłym premierem Indii Jawaharlalem Nehru i reprezentującym muzułmanów przyszłym gubernatorem generalnym Pakistanu Muhammadem Alim Jinnahem . 1947 rok. Ocalali z Holocaustu Żydzi we włoskim obozie dla osób przemieszczonych w Barletcie . 1947 rok. Na kilka miesięcy przed wybuchem II wojny światowej Węgry zaatakowały i zdobyły tereny południowej Słowacji zamieszkałe przez etnicznych Węgrów , tak więc by pozbyć się zagrożenia dla integralności terytorialnej, nowe władze czechosłowackie deportowały część z nich w głąb Czech . 1947 rok. Żydowscy bojownicy o niepodległość na pozycjach obronnych w Tel Awiwie podczas wojny z Arabami . 1 stycznia 1948 roku. Wciąż nieuprzątnięte zniszczenia w belgijskim La Roche-en-Ardenne . Luty 1948 roku. Zamach stanu czechosłowackich komunistów , wydarzenie, które zakończyło pokojową koegzystencję Zachodu ze Związkiem Radzieckim w Europie. Na plecenie ZSRR partia komunistyczna pod przywództwem Klementa Gottwalda siłowo odsunęła demokratycznego prezydenta Beneša (który zmarł kilka miesięcy później), przejęła całość władzy i rozpoczęła czystki, po czym proklamowała komunistyczną Republikę Czechosłowacką . Wydarzenie to było szokiem dla światowej opinii publicznej i pokazało prawdziwe zamiary ZSRR. Blok zachodni zaczął się konsolidować i przygotowywać do konfrontacji z blokiem wschodnim . 19 kwietnia 1948 roku. Działacze przedwojennego koreańskiego ruchu niepodległościowego Sunwoo Jin (po lewej) i Kim Shin (po prawej), pośród nich jego przywódca, Kim Gu , stoją na linii 38 równoleżnika, stanowiącej rozgraniczenie terenów zajętych po upadku Japonii przez ZSRR i USA. Obie strony utworzyły już konkurujące ze sobą, wrogie sobie administracje i wizja zjednoczonej, niepodległej Korei zdawała się oddalać, choć Kim usiłował mediować między stronami. Tu czeka na udział we wspólnej południowo-północnej konferencji ostatniej szansy, która jednak nie zakończy się porozumieniem. Sam Kim zostanie 26 czerwca przyszłego roku zamordowany przez porucznika armii południowej Ahna Doo-hee , niewykluczone, że na zlecenie południowego rządu lub Amerykanów. 1 maja 1948 roku. Dwa dni przed wykonaniem tego zdjęcia działające na północy Najwyższe Zgromadzenie Ludowe , kontrolowane przez Komunistyczną Partię Korei , ogłosiło powstanie Koreańskiej Republiki Ludowo-Demokratycznej , uznając, że państwo ma zająć całą Koreę, również administrowane przez Amerykanów i ich lokalnych sojuszników południe. Odpowiedzialni za to ludzie działali z woli Stalina (widocznego na wielkim portrecie z tyłu), który na ich przywódcę wskazał Kima Tu Bonga . Jego zastępcą (i jak się okazało, następcą) został natomiast były partyzant z okresu walk z Japończykami, mianowany marszałkiem Kim Ir Sen . 1 maja 1948 roku. Mieszkańcy koreańskiej wyspy Czedżu oczekują na egzekucję. Była ona bastionem poparcia dla ideałów socjalistycznych oraz komunistycznych, a także oporu przeciwko Rhee Syng-manowi , działającemu z woli Amerykanów dyktatorowi zarządzającemu wraz z nimi południem Korei, głównie dzięki temu, że ocalały na niej rozwiązywane na południu komitety ludowe. 3 kwietnia miejscowa policja ostrzelała demonstrację upamiętniającą opór przeciwko Japończykom. Wydarzenia eskalowały do wybuchu krwawo stłumionego powstania – siły bezpieczeństwa wymordowały prawie 28 000 mieszkańców Czedżu. 14 maja 1948 roku. Dawid Ben Gurion ogłasza niepodległość Izraela . Nad zgromadzonymi symboliczny portret Theodora Herzla , twórcy współczesnego syjonizmu . 15 sierpnia 1948 roku. Dzień proklamacji niepodległości Republiki Korei na zajętym przez Amerykanów południu półwyspu. MacArthur na ceremonii formalnego przekazania władzy aktywiście niepodległościowemu Rhee Syng-manowi, który od razu po wojnie podjął współpracę z USA. Rhee zostanie pierwszym prezydentem Korei Południowej, kontynuując swoje dyktatorskie rządy. Sierpień 1948 roku. Codzienne powojenne życie zorganizowane w wciąż zrujnowanym, choć uprzątniętym Berlinie. 1948 rok. W 1944 roku władze radzieckie zdecydowały się ukarać Tatarów krymskich za rzekomą współpracę z Niemcami wysiedleniem ich w głąb ZSRR , co w praktyce stanowiło formę ludobójstwa i skutkowało ogromną ilością ofiar. Tu zmarznięci Tatarzy w Krasnowiszersku , obwód mołotowski (później permski) . Ok. 1948 roku. Rozładunek zapasów dostarczanych mostem powietrznym do odciętego Berlina Zachodniego podczas radzieckiej blokady miasta , eskalującej napięcia między Zachodem a ZSRR. Między 1948 a 1955 rokiem. Huta żelaza w Völklingen w granicach Protektoratu Saary pracuje na rzecz gospodarki francuskiej. Między 1948 a 1955 rokiem. Domy dla włoskich rolników z Matery , wznoszone w ramach Planu Marshalla . 1 maja 1949 roku. Żołnierz norweski stacjonujący w okupowanych Niemczech stoi przy znaku informującym, że w 1945 roku w tym oto miejscu pochowano pięć tysięcy ciał. 6 luty 1949 roku. Wiceprezydent Stanów Zjednoczonych Alben Barkley przemawia do tłumu zgromadzonego pod „Pociągiem Wdzięczności”, wysłanym do USA przez Francję udekorowanym składem czterdziestu dziewięciu wagonów transportowych z czasów I wojny światowej , będącym symbolicznym podziękowaniem Francuzów za wsparcie amerykańskie podczas II wojny światowej i w powojennej odbudowie kraju. 7 września 1949 roku. Początki powojennej niemieckiej niepodległości i demokracji. Wystąpienie w parlamencie utworzonej z trzech zachodnich stref okupacyjnych Republiki Federalnej Niemiec , w momencie wykonania fotografii istniejącej raptem kilka miesięcy. Jako że Berlin znalazł się poza jej granicami, na stolicę wyznaczono prowincjonalne miasto Bonn , podkreślając w ten sposób tymczasowość podziału Niemiec. Wrzesień 1949 roku. Oddział rumuńskich partyzantów złożony z byłych członków i sympatyków Żelaznej Gwardii , stawiający opór radzieckiej dominacji w kraju i władzom komunistycznym . 4 października 1949 roku. Podczas II wojny światowej nastąpił błyskawiczny rozwój nowego typu samolotów, odrzutowców . Tu wyprodukowany w roku wykonania fotografii brytyjski de Havilland Comet , pierwszy odrzutowiec pasażerski w historii. Typ ten eksploatowany był do późnych lat dziewięćdziesiątych. 7 października 1949 roku. Uchwała proklamacyjna NRD , formalny kres powojennej okupacji Niemiec. 1949 rok. Początki dekolonizacji Afryki . W 1949 roku Zgromadzenie Ogólne Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych uchwaliło rezolucję o konieczności nadania niepodległości przed początkiem roku 1952 Libii, byłej kolonii włoskiej administrowanej po wojnie przez Francuzów i Brytyjczyków. Tu lokalny przywódca Idris as-Sanusi dokonuje przeglądu tworzących się wojsk libijskich. Dwa lata później zostanie on ogłoszony królem Idrisem I, władcą Zjednoczonego Królestwa Libii , pierwszego z państw Afryki, które uzyskało po II wojnie światowej niepodległość. 1949 rok. Polacy odbudowujący Warszawę, tu Mariensztat . Lata pięćdziesiąte XX wieku. Nadmiar okrętów US Navy budowanych masowo w trakcie wojny stoi bezczynnie. Wraz z upadkiem Japonii nie było już przeciwko komu utrzymywać równie potężnej i kosztownej floty, ZSRR nie był potęgą morską i ewentualna walka z nim toczyłaby się na lądzie oraz w powietrzu. Czerwiec 1950 roku. 25 czerwca 1950 roku wojska Korei Północnej zaatakowały dużo słabsze siły Korei Południowej, chcąc zniszczyć ją i zjednoczyć kraj jako KRLD. Choć błyskawicznie zdobyli Seul , plan nie powiódł się, gdyż Rada Bezpieczeństwa Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych zarządziła wysłanie na pomoc sił międzynarodowych, wystawionych głównie przez USA, choć znaczne kontyngenty wysłały również m.in. Wielka Brytania, Kanada, Australia, Filipiny, czy Turcja. Wybuchła zatem kolejna wielka wojna międzynarodowa . Tu żołnierze południowokoreańscy ruszający odeprzeć inwazję. 1950 rok. Symbol podziału powojennego świata, granica wewnątrzniemiecka , opisana na tablicy informacyjnej jako linia demarkacyjna . 8 września 1951 roku. Powojenny, demokratyczny premier Japonii Shigeru Yoshida podpisuje traktat z San Francisco , formalnie znoszący stan wojny między Japonią a państwami alianckimi. Zgodnie z jego literą, Japonia zrzekła się praw do wszystkich ziem utraconych w wyniku II wojny światowej, zobowiązała się wypłacić reparacje i wypowiedzieć stare traktaty zapewniające jej imperialną pozycję. W zamian siły alianckie miały opuścić jej terytorium. 19 grudnia 1951 roku. Amerykański oficer tłumaczy tamtejsze zwyczaje płynącym do USA Japonkom, które poślubiły stacjonujących w okupowanej Japonii Amerykanów. 1951 rok. Pozbawienie Japonii jakichkolwiek sił zbrojnych czyniło ją całkowicie zależną od wojsk amerykańskich w kwestii bezpieczeństwa, co za tym idzie, podatną na agresję ze strony bloku wschodniego . Po wybuchu wojny koreańskiej podjęto decyzję o utworzeniu pierwszej formacji uzbrojonej, Narodowej Rezerwy Policji, która wyewoluowała w Japońskie Siły Samoobrony . 1952 rok. Pomoc w ramach Planu Marshalla dociera do Grecji . 25 lutego 1952 roku. Izraelski polityk (a przed wojną obywatel polski) Menachem Begin , późniejszy premier, zwraca się do tłumu protestującego w Tel Awiwie przeciwko negocjowaniu odszkodowań za Holocaust od Niemców. Na transparencie hasła: „Nie godzi się oddawać naszego honoru za pieniądze! Nie wolno odkupywać naszej krwi dobrami! Sprzeciwmy się wstydowi!”. 10 marca 1953 roku. Reżim komunistyczny w NRD był jednym z najbardziej opresyjnych w całym bloku wschodnim. Niemców, którzy kilka lat wcześniej zagrozili istnieniu Związku Radzieckiego, starano się stłamsić oraz narzucić im zupełnie nową, nominalnie pokojową ideologię. Silną rolę w tej narracji odgrywał antymilitaryzm , dlatego bardzo ważną kwestią było to, by Niemcy Wschodnie nie posiadały sił zbrojnych. Zarazem, w obliczu zimnej wojny, kraj potrzebował ich. Zanim pojawiła się wola polityczna budowy rzeczywistej armii, obejściem problemu była utworzona w 1952 roku Kasernierte Volkspolizei , formalnie „skoszarowana policja”, a w rzeczywistości armia. Jej dowódcą został Heinz Hoffmann , przed wojną przebywający w Związku Radzieckim weteran Brygad Międzynarodowych . 17 czerwca 1953 roku. Wymiana jednej opresyjnej dyktatury na drugą była dla mieszkańców NRD trudnym doświadczeniem. Nowa władza utrzymywała się dzięki terrorowi i protekcji ZSRR, który na zajętych przez siebie ziemiach niemieckich zorganizowała olbrzymią akcję rabunku mienia . Armia Czerwona dopuszczała się również masowych gwałtów na Niemkach, w tym również na dzieciach . Co więcej, większość zajętych przez ZSRR ziem niemieckich została oczyszczona z Niemców, po czym wcielona do Polski, częściowo również do ZSRR. W NRD wprowadzano też, kosztem obywateli, reformy gospodarcze, a kraj obciążony był reparacjami i kosztami utrzymania licznej (choć formalnie nieistniejącej) armii. Beznadzieja i rozpacz doprowadziły w czerwcu 1953 roku do wybuchu powstania robotniczego , które jednak krwawo stłumiły władze komunistyczne wraz z siłami radzieckimi. Represje dodatkowo zaostrzono, tłumiąc opór Niemców. Było to jednak pierwsze masowe wystąpienie przeciwko władzy w całym bloku wschodnim. Grudzień 1953 roku. Siły francuskie używają opracowanej przez Amerykanów podczas II wojny światowej substancji zapalającej, napalmu . Kampania mająca na celu utrzymanie Indochin Francuskich przeciągała się, gdyż Wietnamczycy powszechnie popierali głoszący hasła narodowowyzwoleńcze Việt Minh. Ten połączył też siły z laotańskim odpowiednikiem, Pathet Lao . Ostatecznie Francuzi przegrali wojnę pomimo poparcia części miejscowych sił oraz twórców napalmu, Amerykanów. Ci mieli w przyszłości masowo stosować go właśnie przeciwko Việt Minhowi, podczas własnej wojny z tym ruchem , która wybuchła w roku 1955. 1953 rok. Litewscy Leśni Bracia ukryci w leśnym bunkrze. Walcząca z radzieckimi okupantami partyzantka litewsko-łotewsko-estońska zdołała stawiać zbrojny opór do 1953 roku, choć ostatni z partyzantów, Estończyk August Sabbe kontynuował walkę do 1978 roku, gdy został zabity przez organy bezpieczeństwa ZSRR. Przywódca partyzantów litewskich , pułkownik Adolfas Ramanauskas został pośmiertnie na niepodległej już Litwie uznany za głowę państwa w okresie prowadzenia walk. 20 października 1954 roku. Kanclerz RFN Konrad Adenauer negocjuje z przedstawicielami mocarstw zachodnich pozwolenie na ponowne uzbrojenie Niemiec w obliczu zimnej wojny . 11 listopada 1954 roku. Trzydziestu dziewięciu niemieckich naukowców pracujących dla III Rzeszy pozyskanych przez USA w ramach operacji „Paperclip” składa przysięgę wierności przed otrzymaniem obywatelstwa Stanów Zjednoczonych. 1954 rok. Uroczystości z okazji powrotu Triestu w granice Włoch . Po wojnie to przygraniczne miasto było stolicą niepodległego państwa, Wolnego Terytorium Triestu . 26 września 1955 roku. Wielki admirał Erich Raeder , odwołany w trakcie wojny naczelny dowódca niemieckiej marynarki wojennej, który w procesach norymberskich skazany został na dożywocie za planowanie wojny napastniczej, wychodzi z więzienia w wieku siedemdziesięciu dziewięciu lat po zwolnieniu ze względu na zły stan zdrowia, u boku jego żona. Raeder umrze ze starości pięć lat później. 11 listopada 1955 roku. Odrodzenie niemieckich sił zbrojnych i narodziny Bundeswehry . Generałowie porucznicy Wehrmachtu , współpracujący z Hitlerem sztabowiec Adolf Heusinger (wyznaczony na dowódcę wojska) i opozycjonista antyhitlerowski Hans Speidel (mający stać się czołową postacią odbudowy armii) składają przysięgę pierwszemu powojennemu ministrowi obrony, Theodorowi Blankowi . 1955 rok. Powrót ocalałych jeńców niemieckich z niewoli w ZSRR, jeden z nich informuje kobietę, że jej syn nie przeżył. 1955 rok. Argentyńska nauczycielka trzymająca niepozorny wynalazek z okresu II wojny światowej, długopis . To właśnie w tym kraju opracowano go, jako narzędzie ułatwiające wykonywanie notatek przez pilotów wojskowych. 24 stycznia 1956 roku. Radziecki generał lejtnant Siergiej Kabanow podnosi szlaban umożliwiając fińskiemu prezydentowi Urho Kekkonenowi wjazd na teren dotychczas zamkniętej i pilnie strzeżonej Porkkali . Po II wojnie światowej ZSRR wymusił na Finlandii pięćdziesięcioletnią dzierżawę tych ziem, lecz zwrócił je już w 1956 roku m.in. za sprawą uległości Kekkonena . 1 marca 1957 roku. Przywódca NRD, Wilhelm Pieck , wita się z czołowymi dowódcami sformowanej niecały rok wcześniej Nationale Volksarmee , będącej siłami zbrojnymi Niemiec Wschodnich. Mężczyzna, którego rękę ściska to Vincenz Müller , wzięty do niewoli w Związku Radzieckim generał porucznik Wehrmachtu, który podjął kolaborację z ZSRR i dzięki temu został pierwszym szefem Sztabu Generalnego NV. Na zdjęciu również inny weteran Wehrmachtu, Willi Stoph i etatowy radziecki szpieg Friedrich Dickel . 1957 rok. NRD, przepełniony opisami rzekomych zbrodni, zarzutami o faszyzm i imperializm plakat propagandowy z Berlina wschodniego zatytułowany „Faszystowscy mordercy znów w akcji!”. Zawiera zdjęcia przedwojennych niemieckich oficerów będących ówczesną elitą Bundeswehry: Heusingera, Speidla, Kretschmera , Kammhubera , Baudissina , jak i porucznika Wehrmachtu Straußa , wtedy ministra obrony RFN oraz oficera wywiadu III Rzeszy Gehlena , powojennego twórcę wywiadu zachodnioniemieckiego, a także dodanych dla wzmocnienia przekazu hitlerowskich zbrodniarzy wojennych, Mansteina i Kesselringa . Dla kontrastu, po drugiej stronie uśmiechnięci, młodzi kadeci z NRD z podpisami identyfikującymi ich jako „robotniczo-chłopskich synów”, wpisujących się w wyidealizowany wzór „nowego Niemca”. Propaganda NRD oraz reszty bloku wschodniego regularnie przedstawiała RFN jako państwo faszystowskie. 1957 rok. W ramach kary za powstanie antyradzieckie w Czeczenii-Ikczerii władze radzieckie zarządziły skutkujące gigantyczną liczbą ofiar deportacje ludności tubylczej do Azji Centralnej , a Czeczeńsko-Inguską ASRR zlikwidowano. Odtworzono ją dopiero w roku 1957, wtedy też zaczęto zezwalać na powroty do ziemi ojczystej. Tu Czeczeni oczekujący na pociąg do domu w mieście Frunze , stolicy radzieckiego Kirgistanu . 1959 rok. Spotkanie Charlesa de Gaulle'a z obywatelami w Clermont-Ferrand . Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej przywódca Wolnej Francji został bohaterem narodowym i do stycznia 1946 roku sprawował urząd Przewodniczącego Rządu Tymczasowego Republiki Francuskiej, będąc de facto prezydentem. Potem jednak do władzy doszli socjaliści, którzy utworzyli rząd z komunistami i wspólnie zmodyfikowali ustrój, ograniczając rolę prezydenta. De Gaulle spróbował odnaleźć się w wielkiej polityce, jednak po początkowych sukcesach, każde kolejne wybory były dla jego partii większą klęską, a on sam tracił popularność. Równocześnie kraj nękały wojny narodowowyzwoleńcze w koloniach i trudności gospodarcze, a Francja straciła dawną pozycję wielkiego mocarstwa. Kraj znalazł się na skraju wojny domowej, tak więc prezydent René Coty zwrócił się do de Gaulle'a z propozycją powołania rządu ocalenia narodowego. Ten odzyskał władzę, w 1959 roku sam został prezydentem, po czym zmienił konstytucję, wzmacniając pozycję prezydenta i powołując V Republikę Francuską , która zdołała dźwignąć się z kolan, choć nie odzyskała już dawnej potęgi. 1959 rok. Kanadyjska stacja radarowa będąca częścią Mid-Canada Line , systemu służącego wykrywaniu potencjalnych ataków rakietowych ze strony ZSRR. Radary opracowano podczas II wojny światowej jako środek radzenia sobie z wrogimi nalotami. Prędko upowszechniły się, rewolucjonizując sposób toczenia walk powietrznych, znalazły też szerokie zastosowanie cywilne. 9 marca 1961 roku. Wydarzenie będące swoistym symbolicznym rozliczeniem z Holocaustem dla mieszkańców Izraela – proces Adolfa Eichmanna , Niemca będącego jednym z głównych pomysłodawców i organizatorów ostatecznego rozwiązania kwestii żydowskiej . Po wojnie uciekł do Argentyny , gdzie żył pod fałszywym nazwiskiem, dopóki nie został w 1960 roku rozpoznany i uprowadzony przez izraelskich agentów, by w Izraelu móc go osądzić, po czym skazać na śmierć. 1965 rok. Generałowie, Amerykanin Clarke (po lewej) i Niemiec Manteuffel omawiają bitwę o Sankt Vith z grudnia 1944 roku, w której dowodzili walczącymi stronami. 24 stycznia 1967 roku. Zdjęcie w pewien sposób symboliczne. Kanclerz RFN Willy Brandt przemawia na zgromadzeniu powołanej w 1949 roku jako forma ochrony pokoju na kontynencie Rady Europy , w budynku, który mieści się we francuskim Strasburgu , mieście o które Francja i Niemcy latami toczyły wojny. II wojna światowa długotrwale położyła kres wojnom w Europie Zachodniej. 1 lipca 1969 roku. Były major SS Wernher von Braun , główny konstruktor rakiet III Rzeszy, a wtedy główny współtwórca amerykańskiego programu kosmicznego, stoi przed zaprojektowaną przez siebie rakietą Saturn V . Dziewiętnaście dni po wykonaniu tego zdjęcia za pomocą tej właśnie maszyny wykonano pierwsze w dziejach lądowanie na Księżycu . 8 stycznia 1971 roku. Niemiecka Kilonia , łańcuch kotwiczny szwedzkiego frachtowca płynącego po Łabie zahaczył o coś i w ten sposób wyciągnięto z wody wrak miniaturowego okrętu podwodnego typu Moloch . 11 marca 1974 roku. Kontynuujący walkę dwadzieścia dziewięć lat po zakończeniu wojny japoński podporucznik Hirō Onoda poddaje się, składając swój miecz na ręce filipińskiego prezydenta Ferdinanda Marcosa . 1980 rok. Spotkanie estońskich weteranów 41 Gwardyjskiego Korpusu Strzeleckiego Armii Czerwonej pod pomnikiem we wsi Tehumardi , ku czci ich formacji. 8 listopada 1981 roku. Pozdrawiający obywateli Enver Hoxha , dyktator Albanii , a wcześniej przywódca komunistycznej partyzantki, która zdołała wyzwolić kraj w 1944 roku. Od tego czasu Hoxha rządził państwem, w momencie wykonania fotografii już ponad trzydzieści siedem lat. Ostatecznie jego rządy zakończyła dopiero jego śmierć w 1985 roku. 2 czerwca 1984 roku. Czterdziestą rocznicę D-Day zdecydowano się uczcić ponownym nadmuchaniem oryginalnego balonu, z którego skakali alianccy spadochroniarze w Normandii i symbolicznym ponownym zrzutem skoczka w tym samym miejscu i w ten sam sposób, co w 1944 roku – tu ćwiczenia do pokazu. 1 sierpnia 1987 roku. Siły Royal Air Force na lotnisku w Gütersloh , jednej z licznych zachodnich baz wojskowych na ziemiach niemieckich utrzymywanych po II wojnie światowej. Gütersloh alianci zajęli w kwietniu 1945 roku, natomiast ostatni żołnierze brytyjscy opuścili je dopiero we wrześniu 2016 roku. Sierpień 1987 roku. Gruzy więzienia Spandau , gdzie po wojnie przetrzymywano wyłącznie siedmiu z ocalałych czołowych dygnitarzy III Rzeszy. Chociaż dwóch przedostatnich zwolniono w 1966 roku, to ostatniego więzienia, Rudolfa Heßa , przetrzymywano w nim aż do jego samobójstwa, popełnionego w wieku dziewięćdziesięciu trzech lat. Spandau niezwłocznie zniszczono, w obawie przed pielgrzymkami neonazistów. 14 marca 1990 roku. Uczestnicy konferencji dwa plus cztery , która zakończyła się podpisaniem traktatu ostatecznie regulującego status Niemiec po II wojnie światowej. Oficjalnie potwierdzono między innymi zrzeczenie się przez Niemcy ziem utraconych w wyniku wojny, zredukowano ich armię, pozbawiono ją możliwości posiadania broni masowego rażenia, zniesiono status Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii, ZSRR i USA jako byłych okupacyjnych mocarstw mających wpływ na funkcjonowanie kraju, zadecydowano o wycofaniu z niego sił radzieckich, a przede wszystkim, otworzono drogę do ponownego zjednoczenia Niemiec w ich współczesną formę . 6 lutego 1991 roku. Drugowojenny, zbudowany w 1944 roku, amerykański pancernik USS „Missouri” (ten sam, na którym podpisano kapitulację Japonii po II wojnie światowej) oddaje salwę w kierunku celów irackich , podczas I wojny w Zatoce Perskiej . II wojna światowa była ostatnią, w której walczyły ze sobą wielkie okręty artyleryjskie . Okazały się one być o wiele mniej skuteczne w zwalczaniu jednostek wroga od lotnictwa oraz mniej na jego ataki odporne. Pancerniki i podobne klasy okrętów (np. krążowniki ciężkie ) wycofywano ze służby i nie budowano już nowych. W latach osiemdziesiątych jednak US Navy opracowała program rozbudowy floty , który zakładał przywrócenie do służby drugowojennych pancerników typu Iowa . Okręty te skierowano w 1991 roku przeciwko Irakowi, by atakować nimi cele lądowe dokładnie tak, jak podczas II wojny światowej. Była to ostatnia tego typu operacja w dziejach wojskowości. 7 sierpnia 1991 roku. Ośmiusetletni zamek w Dreźnie zniszczono podczas alianckiego bombardowania miasta , a jego skomplikowana i kosztowna odbudowa trwała do 2004 roku. Na zdjęciu wciąż trwa, widać plac budowy zasłonięty wizualizacjami jak kiedyś wyglądał, w tle jego ruiny. Wczesne lata dziewięćdziesiąte XX wieku. Operacja wydobycia odnalezionego wraku bombowca nurkującego SBD Dauntless z czasów II wojny światowej. 23 maja 2002 roku. Amerykańskie miejsce pamięci nad wrakiem pancernika USS „Arizona” , gdzie wciąż spoczywają szczątki 1102 marynarzy. 9 maja 2006 roku. Białoruscy weterani II wojny światowej świętujący Dzień Zwycięstwa w Mińsku . 10 września 2006 roku. Rosyjscy turyści zwiedzający Muzeum Czołgów w Kubince oglądają niemiecki jedyny zachowany czołg superciężki Panzerkampfwagen VIII Maus , najcięższy i największy czołg, jaki kiedykolwiek zbudowano. Podobnie jak znaczna część ekspozycji muzeum, jest on radziecką zdobyczą wojenną z II wojny światowej. 2 października 2006 roku. Przekształcona w pomnik symbolizujący pokój, odbudowę i pojednanie Katedra w Coventry , zniszczona w 1940 podczas niemieckich nalotów na Wielką Brytanię . 18 lipca 2007 roku. W odwecie za śmierć oficera SS Helmuta Kämpfego z rąk ruchu oporu , żołnierze Waffen-SS wymordowali wszystkich mieszkańców francuskiej miejscowości Oradour-sur-Glane (642 osoby), po czym zburzyli ją. Oradour-sur-Glane zachowano jako miejsce pamięci, dokładnie w takim stanie, jak w dniu popełnienia zbrodni, 10 czerwca 1944 roku. 20 lutego 2008 roku. Tokio . Bilbord przypominający obywatelom o tym, że Wyspy Kurylskie są integralną częścią terytorium Japonii, jedynie znajdują się pod okupacją rosyjską. Armia Czerwona zajęła archipelag już po zakończeniu działań zbrojnych, więc Japonia nie uznała utraty tych ziem i do dziś (stan na rok 2025) nie podpisała najpierw z ZSRR, a potem z Rosją, traktatu pokojowego po II wojnie światowej. 3 lipca 2009 roku. Wycieczka przyjeżdża obejrzeć elektrownię jądrową Obinsk , pierwszą cywilną elektrownię jądrową na świecie. Powstanie energetyki jądrowej stanowi bezpośredni skutek II wojny światowej, podczas której rozwijano badania nad energią atomową celem stworzenia potężnej broni. 23 lipca 2009 roku. Cywilny nurek odwiedza wrak U-Boota „ U-701 ”, zatopionego w 1942 roku w okolicy Przylądka Hatteras . 13 września 2009 roku. Nurkowie brytyjskiego Ministerstwa Obrony transportowani w specjalnej klatce do wraku zatopionego w 1939 roku pancernika HMS „Royal Oak” , który wraz z 833 załogantami pociągnął na dno również ogromne ilości wyciekającego stopniowo oleju opałowego . W obawie przed katastrofą ekologiczną przez ponad dekadę umieszczano w kadłubie specjalne krany i stopniowo spuszczano substancję. Na zdjęciu widoczna jest plama oleju. 13 listopada 2009 roku. Ślady po walkach o miasto na murach zabytkowej cytadeli na Górze Gellerta w Budapeszcie . 17 lipca 2010 roku. Zachowane w stanie zdatnym do lotu myśliwce II wojny światowej. Od góry: niemiecki Bf-109 , dwa brytyjskie Spitfire'y i brytyjski Hawker Hurricane . 1 sierpnia 2010 roku. Reichswald Forest War Cemetery , aliancki cmentarz w Niemczech, na którym pochowano 7 594 żołnierzy. 4 września 2010 roku. Rząd cenotafów na „Klifie Banzai ” na amerykańskiej wyspie Saipan . Nazwano go tak, gdyż w obliczu klęski setki japońskich żołnierzy rzuciło się z niego, by uniknąć niewoli i zachować honor. 29 stycznia 2011 roku. Pamiętająca bitwę stalingradzką radziecka artyleria ustawiona pod ocalałym „ Domem Pawłowa ”, improwizowaną twierdzą z czasów walki o miasto. 21 sierpnia 2011 roku. Wyprawa archeologiczna US Navy mająca na celu potwierdzenie losu zaginionych w akcji lotników odnajduje wrak samolotu B-24 w Papui-Nowej Gwinei . 3 grudnia 2011 roku. Niemieccy saperzy rozbrajają odnalezioną w Koblencji brytyjską bombę lotniczą z czasów, gdy RAF bombardowało miasto. 20 października 2012 roku. Nowozelandzcy weterani odwiedzający groby towarzyszy z okazji siedemdziesiątej rocznicy II bitwy pod El Alamein . 12 kwietnia 2014 roku. Baku , stolica niepodległego Azerbejdżanu i jeden z licznych budynków zbudowanych przez jeńców niemieckich po II wojnie światowej. 30 maja 2014 roku. Brytyjski rybak na małej przystani zbudowanej na wraku statku SS „Reginald”, zatopionego podczas II wojny światowej przez Royal Navy u wejścia do bazy marynarki w Scapa Flow , by uniemożliwić dostanie się tam U-Bootom. 24 września 2014 roku. Podczas II wojny światowej australijskie miasto Darwin było celem japońskich nalotów . Dla zabezpieczenia przed wrogim lotnictwem zapasów paliwa, zbudowano pod nim sieć tuneli przeznaczonych do zalewania ich ropą. Zachowano je jako symbole przeszłości miasta i służą one za atrakcję turystyczną. 1 stycznia 2015 roku. Życie morskie na wraku japońskiego samolotu rozpoznawczego C6N . 22 lutego 2015 roku. Rekonstrukcja historyczna zdobywania poznańskiej Cytadeli z wykorzystaniem oryginalnego, sprawnego czołgu T-34-85 z II wojny światowej. 25 maja 2015 roku. Eksplozja drugowojennej miny morskiej na Bałtyku , siedemdziesiąt lat po zakończeniu wojny. 31 lipca 2015 roku. Wciąż zachowane, lecz niszczejące fortyfikacje Linii Maginota . 18 października 2015 roku. Pomnik Pokoju w Hiroszimie , ruiny centrum wystawowego zniszczonego w ataku jądrowym zachowane dokładnie w takim stanie, jak tuż po ataku. W promieniu dwóch kilometrów od hipocentrum eksplozji zniszczone zostały wszystkie budynki, poza tym jednym, który oddalony był od niego o raptem sto pięćdziesiąt metrów. W 1996 roku miejsce to wpisane zostało na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO . 6 maja 2016 roku. Ukraiński weteran zwiedzający muzeum II wojny światowej ogląda broń, jaką widział przed laty na froncie. 11 marca 2017 roku. Bombardowanie jądrowe zniszczyło historyczny zamek Hiroshima , przetrwała jednak rosnąca pod nim wierzba , zachowana jako pamiątka i przestroga dla przyszłych pokoleń. 19 marca 2017 roku. Ulica w Madrycie , której nadano imię poległych członków Błękitnej Dywizji , hiszpańskiej formacji walczącej jako część Wehrmachtu na froncie wschodnim. Frankistowska , ustanowiona z pomocą III Rzeszy dyktatura Franco , utrzymała się do jego śmierci w 1975 roku. Pierwszy dowódca Błękitnej Dywizji, usunięty za zbytnią proniemieckość Agustín Muñoz Grandes , był w latach 1951–1957 hiszpańskim ministrem armii, z kolei w latach 1962–1967 I wicepremierem, podczas gdy jej drugi dowódca Emilio Esteban Infantes został w latach pięćdziesiątych szefem sztabu wojsk lądowych. 1 sierpnia 2017 roku. Powstaniec warszawski i harcerz na uroczystościach z okazji siedemdziesiątej trzeciej rocznicy wybuchu powstania. 5 września 2017 roku. Londyn , niepozorne ogrodzenie, w rzeczywistości wykonane z ram noszowych używanych przez służbę medyczną podczas II wojny światowej. 27 sierpnia 2017 roku. Monumentalna wieża obrony przeciwlotniczej wzniesiona w trakcie wojny przez Niemców góruje nad Wiedniem. 22 kwietnia 2019 roku. Urodzony w 1928 roku w Chorzowie Nate Leipciger, ocalały z Holocaustu, który więziony był w Auschwitz (gdzie zamordowano jego matkę i siostrę) i Dachau, spotyka się z młodzieżą w jednym z baraków Auschwitz z okazji Marszu Żywych . 27 grudnia 2019 roku. Turyści zwiedzający jeden z nielicznych zachowanych dużych okrętów II wojny światowej, amerykański pancernik USS „Alabama” . 24 czerwca 2020 roku. Sprawny drugowojenny radziecki sprzęt pancerny na moskiewskiej paradzie z okazji Dnia Zwycięstwa . II wojna światowa stała się ważnym elementem polityki w wielu państwach, w tym w Rosji, w której Dzień Zwycięstwa stał się jednym z najważniejszych świąt państwowych. Była ona również aktywnie używana w propagandzie państwowej , m.in. agresję na sąsiednią Ukrainę tłumaczono fałszywie koniecznością ponownej walki z nazizmem. 19 czerwca 2022 roku. Wciąż istniejące ufortyfikowane pozycje japońskie na wyspie Guam . 8 lipca 2022 roku. Zniszczone podczas wojny sześciodowniowej z Izraelem , wyprodukowane w III Rzeszy , syryjskie działo pancerne StuG III stoi porzucone na izraelskim polu. 11 września 2022 roku. Drugowojenny karabin maszynowy Maxim wz. 1910 wykorzystywany przez Siły Obrony Terytorialnej Sił Zbrojnych Ukrainy do ćwiczeń strzeleckich, by zaoszczędzić niezbędną na froncie nowoczesną broń podczas rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę . 24 września 2023 roku. Wciąż użytkowana stacja łącznościowa, wybudowana w Northumberland jako część brytyjskiego systemu ostrzegania podczas bitwy o Anglię . Opór przeciw okupantom II wojna światowa to okres szczególnej aktywności różnorodnych ruchów oporu przeciw okupantom – Niemcom, ZSRR i Japonii. Przybierał on formę sabotażu , dywersji , prowadzenia walk partyzanckich , uprawiania szkodliwej dla zaborcy propagandy , lub też stosowania mniej jawnego oporu. Działania ruchów oporu monitorowała i wspierała brytyjska organizacja SOE [ 119 ] . Polska Polska była pierwszą ofiarą Państw Osi w Europie. Polski ruch oporu rozpoczął swoją działalność niemal natychmiast po zaprzestaniu regularnych działań wojennych. Również od samego początku jedną z jego form była walka zbrojna. 16 września 1939 roku marszałek Edward Śmigły-Rydz nakazał w Czerniowcach ( Rumunia ) uruchomienie podległej mu części sieci dywersji pozafrontowej . Ten przekazał 26 września w Warszawie generałowi Juliuszowi Rómmlowi upoważnienie-rozkaz do zainicjowania na terenie całego kraju konspiracji wojskowej. Następnego dnia generał Wacław Stachiewicz nakazał zorganizować Tajną Organizację Wojskową . 26 września przyniósł zawiązanie Służby Zwycięstwu Polski (SZP) , która miała zostać główną polską organizacją oporu przeciw Niemcom. Nazajutrz Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego przeistoczył się w Szare Szeregi . W listopadzie SZP została przeorganizowana w Związek Walki Zbrojnej (ZWZ) , na czele której stanął generał Stefan Rowecki posługujący się pseudonimem „Grot”. Utworzony został Główny Komitet Polityczny zrzeszający przedstawicieli najważniejszych polskich partii, co miało gwarantować jedność Polaków wobec zagrożenia. Zwierzchnictwo nad ruchami oporu sprawował rząd na uchodźstwie . W 1942 roku przemianowano ZWZ na Armię Krajową (AK) , która była integralną częścią Polskich Sił Zbrojnych , podporządkowaną Naczelnemu Wodzowi . AK była zbrojnym ramieniem Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego , tajnych struktur państwowych. PPP miało większość atrybutów normalnego państwa – centralną administrację, armię (AK) i produkcję zbrojeniową, wymiar sprawiedliwości, bogate życie kulturalne (podziemne wydawnictwa) oraz namiastkę administracji w każdym powiecie (powiatowi delegaci rządu). Siły Armii Krajowej ocenia się na 380 000 ludzi, jednak przeważnie nieuzbrojonych i bardzo słabo wyszkolonych, jednak bardzo oddanych sprawie. Polskich organizacji narodowowyzwoleńczych było znacznie więcej, a najważniejszymi były Bataliony Chłopskie (około 170 000 ludzi) [ 120 ] oraz Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (około 75 000 ludzi) [ 121 ] , Armia Ludowa (około 60 000 ludzi) i Gwardia Ludowa WRN (około 42 000 ludzi). Partyzantka polska zaopatrywała się w sprzęt na drodze akcji bojowych (wyposażenie niemieckie), alianckich zrzutów oraz własnej produkcji [ 122 ] . Na terenach polskich funkcjonowało tajne nauczanie podtrzymujące ciągłość szkolnictwa. Polskie podziemie zlokalizowało bazy U-Bootów w całej Europie, zlokalizowało wszystkie zakłady Focke-Wulfa , rozpracowało produkcję bomb latających V-1 i rakiet V-2 . Udało mu się wykraść rakietę V-2, której najważniejsze części wysłano do Wielkiej Brytanii. Zdobyto plany bitwy na łuku kurskim i przekazano je sojusznikom. Wspólnie z francuskim ruchem oporu zlokalizowano 162 wyrzutnie V-1 we Francji. Przekazano dowództwu radzieckiemu plany obrony Gdyni, zdobyto plany Grupy Armii „Środek” . Wywiad ofensywny AK systematycznie obserwował przemieszczenia jednostek niemieckich. Analizy przesłane były do Sztabu Naczelnego Wodza w Londynie. Wywiad gospodarczy również zanotował sukcesy. Specyficznym środkiem walki z okupantem była działalność informacyjno-propagandowa. Najważniejszym zadaniem propagandy było podtrzymywanie oporu ludności i mobilizowanie do walki. Wydawano prasę konspiracyjną, wydawnictwa i ulotki. W ramach akcji „N” szerzono destrukcję w wojsku oraz wśród ludności niemieckiej. Polscy partyzanci dokonywali zamachów na zbrodniarzy niemieckich, a ich najsłynniejszą akcją był zamach na dowódcę SS i Policji na dystrykt warszawski Generalnego Gubernatorstwa Franza Kutscherę , dokonany 1 lutego 1944 roku w Warszawie . Likwidowani i prześladowani byli kolaboranci polscy (np. Igo Sym , Wacław Krzeptowski [ 123 ] ), co miało na celu zniechęcenie społeczeństwa do podejmowania prób współpracy z okupantem. Szczególnie popularne było malowanie znaków i haseł podnoszących Polaków na duchu w przestrzeni miejskiej. Szczególną popularność zdobyła tak zwana „kotwica” . W czerwcu 1943 roku Rowecki został aresztowany przez Niemców. Jego miejsce zajął generał Tadeusz Komorowski , ps. „Bór”. Tego samego roku w stronę Polski ruszyła ofensywa Armii Czerwonej. W obawie przed wkroczeniem wojsk radzieckich, które podporządkowałyby powojenne państwo Stalinowi oraz wcieliły do Związku Radzieckiego Kresy Wschodnie , zdecydowano się opracować plan akcji „Burza” . Miała to być operacja wojskowa, polegająca na wznieceniu powstania narodowego przez AK oraz podległe jej organizacje i przejęcie władzy w Polsce (lub przynajmniej w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie) przed wkroczeniem Armii Czerwonej. Rozpoczęła się w styczniu 1944 roku, gdy wojska Stalina dotarły już do Polski. Jedną z najważniejszych operacji zrealizowanych podczas akcji była operacja „Ostra Brama” , w wyniku której Polacy wraz z żołnierzami radzieckimi oswobodzili Wilno . Stalin nie zamierzał oddawać swojej zdobyczy, za jaką uważał Polskę. Jego tajna policja NKWD rozbroiła partyzantów i uwięziła ich oficerów, w tym dowódcę walk o Wilno, pułkownika Aleksandra Krzyżanowskiego . Od 1 sierpnia do 3 października 1944 roku trwało największe wystąpienie zbrojne ruchu oporu w Europie – powstanie warszawskie , w którym, poza AK, udział wzięły także oddziały innych organizacji zbrojnych, takich jak NSZ , AL oraz ochotnicy z 1. Armii Wojska Polskiego , którzy uchwycili ważne przyczółki na Wiśle . Celem zrywu było wyzwolenie stolicy i utworzenie rządu niepodległej od ZSRR Polski i zapobiegnięcie wkroczeniu Armii Czerwonej w roli wyzwoliciela, który mógłby z łatwością zainstalować w stolicy podległy sobie rząd. Choć propaganda radziecka usilnie namawiała Polaków do chwycenia za broń, to Stalin nie zamierzał udzielić wsparcia AK. Ofensywa radziecka zatrzymała się na linii Wisły, lecz Polacy byli pewni, że gdy tylko zaatakują okupanta, Armia Czerwona i Ludowe Wojsko Polskie pomogą im. Plan Stalina przewidywał jednak związanie walką AK i silnego garnizonu niemieckiego. W ten sposób podziemie niepodległościowe wykrwawiłoby się i nie byłoby w stanie przeciwstawić się skutecznie narzuceniu Polsce zwierzchnictwa ZSRR. Siły okupacyjne również zostałyby mocno uszczuplone i ich zniszczenie byłoby łatwiejsze. Powstańcy, słabo wyszkoleni, nieposiadający dostatecznej ilości broni lub amunicji, związali garnizon warszawski bardzo zaciętymi walkami ulicznymi. Powstanie upadło z powodu słabego przygotowania oraz braku pomocy z zewnątrz, której się spodziewano (poza dostawami sprzętu poprzez zrzuty z samolotów alianckich nikt nie wspomógł walczących). Partyzanci byli bezsilni wobec niemieckiego lotnictwa i czołgów. Ludność stolicy została wysiedlona, a miasto zburzone na osobisty rozkaz Hitlera. Do niewoli dostał się Komorowski, którego zastąpił generał Leopold Okulicki , ps. „Niedźwiadek”. Plan Stalina powiódł się – AK nie miała już sił na walkę z Armią Czerwoną, a Niemcy byli już w stanie wystawić przeciw niej tylko improwizowaną Dywizję Forteczną Warszawa , która nie stanowiła poważnego zagrożenia dla wojsk radzieckich, a rozbicie jej zajęło dwa dni. Stalin utworzył w Moskwie podległy sobie rząd polski, który następnie został przeniesiony do Chełma , a kilka dni później do Lublina (tzw. PKWN ). Część polskiej partyzantki kontynuowała opór zbrojny przeciw władzy radzieckiej. Jugosławia Po agresji wojsk Osi i kapitulacji Jugosławii w kwietniu 1941 roku, natychmiast rozpoczął się opór przeciwko okupantom. Już w połowie maja pułkownik Dragoljub Mihailović , były dowódca jugosłowiańskiej 2 Armii, zaczął organizować w rejonie Ravnej Gory w środkowej Serbii ruch konspiracyjny znany jako Królewskie Wojska Jugosłowiańskie w Ojczyźnie , choć częściej używana jest nazwa czetnicy. Czetnicy byli wierni dynastii Karadziordziewiciów i opowiadali się za przywróceniem monarchii po wojnie. Głosili jednak hasła wielkoserbskie , które nie odpowiadały innym narodom Jugosławii. Mihailović prędko objął dowodzenie nad wszystkimi organizacjami czetników [ 124 ] . Obok nich wyrosła druga, jeszcze potężniejsza organizacja Narodowa Armia Wyzwolenia Jugosławii (NOVJ) , podporządkowana Związkowi Komunistów Jugosławii . 22 czerwca 1941 roku w lesie Brezovica koło Sisaku założony został pierwszy oddział partyzancki, który dał początek NOVJ. Była to pierwsza antyfaszystowska formacja na Bałkanach . W przeciwieństwie do serbskich nacjonalistów czetniknów, NOVJ głosiła hasła odbudowy Jugosławii na zasadzie federacji i zniesienia monarchii. Była organizacją wielonarodową. Zorganizował ją i dowództwo objął Chorwat Josip Broz posługujący się pseudonimem Tito, który przyjął stopień marszałka. Do powstania wezwano 4 lipca wówczas na znak rozpalono ogniska co według prasłowiańskiego zwyczaju było wezwaniem do wojny [ 125 ] . Czetnicy uznali za wrogów dążących do powstania państwa wielonarodowego żołnierzy NOVJ i to głównie z nimi podejmowali walkę. W tym celu często kolaborowali z Osią. Ponadto w październiku 1941 roku Mihailović zawarł porozumienie sojusznicze z generałem Milanem Nediciem , przywódcą marionetkowej Serbii [ 126 ] . Już 13 lipca rozpoczęło się powstanie w Czarnogórze i w ciągu kilku dni region został prawie w całości wyzwolony. Dziewięć dni później wybuchło powstania w Słowenii, 27 w Chorwacji oraz w Bośni i Hercegowinie, najpóźniej, bo 11 października w Macedonii. Walki sił Osi z partyzantami często przypomniały regularne bitwy. Już we wrześniu wyzwolone zostały rejony Šabaca i Užice . Partyzanci powołali na tych obszarach Republikę Užičką . Na jej tereny przybyły całe rzesze uchodźców. Z mężczyzn przybyłych na ten teren po przeszkoleniu wojskowym utworzono oddziały. Na wyzwolonym terenie powołano komitety narodowowyzwoleńcze, otwierane były szkoły, rozdawano broń i żywność, budowano szpitale polowe i przygarniano sieroty po zabitych partyzantach. Niemcy przystąpili do ataku na republikę. Na Bałkany sprowadzono dywizje z całej Europy oraz licznych kolaborantów. Atak na Republikę Užičką przerwał negocjacje Tity z czetnikami, które mogły doprowadzić do pojednania między nimi. Z Užic ewakuowano fabryki, magazyn broni, dokumenty, rannych i chorych oraz wywieziono zapasy żywności i leków. Pokaźne sumy pieniężne partyzantów spakowano w worki, które ukryto. Broz opuścił miasto w obliczu nieuchronnej porażki broniących wojsk partyzanckich. Wraz z częścią oddziałów wycofał się do Zlatiboru . 1 grudnia 1941 roku państwo przestało istnieć. NOVJ kontynuowała jednak walkę zbrojną. 4 października 1942 roku partyzanci w okolicach miasta Bihać utworzyli kolejne państwo, Republikę Bihacką . Została ona zniszczona w wyniku dużej bitwy nad Neretwą . 29 stycznia 1943 roku i to państwo przestało istnieć. Niemcy i ich sojusznicy aktywnie prowadzili operacje przeciwpartyzanckie, prowadzące często do bitew, jak ta nad Sutjeską . Na wyzwolonych przez siebie terenach organizowano komitety ludowe, które miały działać jako rządy cywilne. Organem naczelnym była Antyfaszystowska Rada Wyzwolenia Narodowego Jugosławii – AVNOJ, która zebrała się w Bihaciu 26 listopada 1942 roku i w Jajcach 29 listopada 1943 roku. Podczas sesji zostały określone podstawy powojennego federacyjnego państwa jugosłowiańskiego. Prezydentem AVNOJ wybrano Broza. 4 grudnia 1943 roku proklamowano tymczasowy demokratyczny rząd Jugosławii. W Jajcu wybrano „prezydencję” i ustanowiono liczący dziewięć osób Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego pełniący funkcję rządu tymczasowego. Prezesem Narodowego Komitetu Wyzwolenia został Broz. W 1943 roku powołana została na zajętych ziemiach Demokratyczna Federacyjna Jugosławia , trzecie państwo, którego już nie dali rady zniszczyć Niemcy. Dowódcy wojsk okupacyjnych uważali, że dadzą radę zniszczyć ducha bojowego Jugosłowian, jeśli zabiją Broza. W tym celu w dniach od 25 maja do 3 czerwca 1944 roku generał Lothar Rendulic przeprowadził operację „Rösselsprung” , która miała na celu zniszczenie Sztabu Naczelnego NOVJ i zgładzenie marszałka. Zakończyła się ona niepowodzeniem. Tymczasem wojska Broza zajmowały coraz to większe tereny. Ostatecznie, na mocy konferencji w Teheranie , Broz otrzymał poparcie zarówno ze strony Stalina, jak i zachodnich mocarstw. Jesienią 1944 roku jego Narodowa Armia Wyzwolenia Jugosławii liczyła 500 tysięcy ludzi i kontrolowała znaczną część kraju, dysponując nawet własnym lotnictwem oraz marynarką wojenną. Choć Armia Czerwona wkroczyła do Jugosławii, niemal całe terytorium kraju zostało wiosną 1945 roku opanowane przez siły NOVJ, których liczebność pod koniec wojny wzrosła do 800 tysięcy żołnierzy [ 127 ] . Dzięki temu po wojnie Jugosławia zachowała niezależność [ 128 ] . Francja Francuski Ruch Oporu był barwną zbieraniną różnorakich środowisk politycznych (m.in. gaulliści, socjaliści , narodowcy , skrajna lewica , anarchiści , prawica i od ataku Niemiec na Związek Radziecki również komuniści ), które zakładały liczne, większe i mniejsze tajne organizacje, często złożone ze zwalczających się przed wojną frakcji [ 129 ] . Łączyła Francuzów opozycja zarówno wobec niemieckiego i włoskiego okupanta, jak i kolaboranckiego rządu z Vichy . Za początek ruchu oporu we Francji uznaje się manifestacje studentów i uczniów w Paryżu w 1940 roku. Ruch Oporu rozwinął się silniej w strefie południowej , a słabiej w strefie północnej . We Francji cały ruch oporu stopniowo podporządkował się emigracyjnym władzom Francji ( Komitet Wolnej Francji , następnie CFLN ), kierowanym przez Charles’a de Gaulle’a . Organizowano pomoc jeńcom wojennym, propagandę, sabotaż i dywersję, partyzantkę (zwaną maquis ) oraz akcje zbrojne przy wsparciu państw alianckich , w tym brytyjskiego SOE i amerykańskiego OSS . Ruch oporu często angażował się w ratowanie Żydów. W 1944 roku, gdy sprzymierzeni przygotowywali inwazję w Normandii i Prowansji , danych o plażach, na których mieli lądować, dostarczył francuski ruch oporu. Podejmowano próby zjednoczenia Francuskiego Ruchu Oporu w jedną organizację. Proces scaleniowy rozpoczął się dzięki delegatowi de Gaulle’a Jeanowi Moulinowi . W maju 1943 roku w skład Krajowej Rady Ruchu Oporu weszli walczący komuniści, socjaliści, chrześcijańscy demokraci i konserwatyści. W lutym 1944 roku, w ślad za zjednoczeniem politycznym, nastąpiło zjednoczenie militarne przez scalenie wszystkich organizacji, w tym AS , FTP i ORA , we Francuskie Siły Wewnętrzne (FFI) pod dowództwem generała Marie Pierre’a Kœniga . Partyzanci z FFI paraliżowali ruchy przerzucanych przez Niemców w stronę miejsc desantów posiłków, atakując linie komunikacyjne i zaopatrzeniowe, a następnie wzięli aktywny udział w wyzwalaniu kraju, wzniecając powstanie narodowe (m.in. w sierpniu rozpoczęli udane powstanie w Paryżu ) [ 130 ] . W październiku ich siły osiągnęły liczbę 400 tys. członków i zostały włączone w skład odtwarzanych francuskich sił zbrojnych. W działalność ruchu aktywnie angażowały się kobiety. Szacuje się, że stanowiły one 15–20% składu osobowego wszystkich organizacji oporu. Walka Francuzek oprócz antyfaszyzmu i patriotyzmu niosła za sobą emancypację. W III Republice nie posiadły one praw wyborczych, które zostały im przyznane dopiero 21 kwietnia 1944 roku przez Francuski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego (potwierdzone dekretem Rządu Tymczasowego z 5 października 1944 roku) [ 131 ] . ZSRR Silne oddziały partyzanckie , szczególnie na terenie Białorusi , mniej liczne na Ukrainie , tworzyli Sowieci (w sumie ponad 500 tys. ludzi). Były one podporządkowane trzem ośrodkom dyspozycyjnym: Centralnemu Sztabowi Ruchu Partyzanckiego w Moskwie , dowództwu frontu i KPZR i zaopatrywane drogą lotniczą. Od 1942 roku konne i piesze zgrupowania partyzanckie dokonywały głębokich rajdów na terenach okupowanych (np. rajd konnicy Sidora Kowpaka z okolic Kijowa do Karpat ). Głównym ich zadaniem było paraliżowanie linii komunikacyjnych na zapleczu frontu poprzez niszczenie torów, mostów i wykolejanie pociągów, a pod koniec wojny także zwalczanie niekomunistycznej partyzantki. Holocaust i Porajmos Mianem Holocaustu lub też Szoa określa się zagładę Żydów, jaka miała miejsce na terenach III Rzeszy, państw z nią sprzymierzonych i przez nią okupowanych [ 132 ] . Jej ofiarą padło około 6 milionów europejskich Żydów , w większości przeprowadzona została na okupowanych przez III Rzeszę ziemiach polskich . Stanowiła, łącznie z Zagładą Cyganów [ am ] ( Porajmos ), która pochłonęła 500–600 tysięcy ofiar [ 133 ] , bezprecedensową próbę wymordowania całych narodów przy użyciu metod przemysłowych ( obozy koncentracyjne ), która nigdy wcześniej i później nie była przeprowadzona w takiej skali. Obie zbrodnie stanowiły systematyczny i realizowany przez aparat państwowy proces likwidacji całych narodów. Koalicja antyhitlerowska i jej działalność Upadek Polski i Francji, jednych z głównych państw alianckich w pierwszej fazie wojny, sprawił, że główny ciężar działań wojennych w Europie spoczął na Wielkiej Brytanii, która w pojedynkę nie była zdolna do przeprowadzenia poważnej operacji przeciwko panującym na kontynencie Niemcom. Nadzieję na zmianę sytuacji przyniosły pogłoski o planowanym ataku niemieckim na Związek Radziecki. Brytyjczycy starali się już wiosną 1941 roku nawiązać kontakty z Kremlem w celu przedsięwzięcia zbrojnej akcji przeciwko III Rzeszy, jednak rozmowy nie przyniosły skutku aż do chwili ataku Niemiec na Związek Radziecki 22 czerwca 1941 roku. W tym dniu Związek Radziecki znalazł się w sytuacji całkowitego osamotnienia. Nie wiązały go z Zachodem żadne układy gwarantujące jego bezpieczeństwo – Sowieci byli sceptycznie nastawieni do wiązania się z zachodnimi „imperialistami” . Plan „Barbarossa” przesunął jednak wzajemną niechęć ideologiczną na dalszy plan, czego wyrazem było m.in. brytyjskie pośrednictwo w rozmowach polsko-radzieckich, zwieńczonych tzw. układem Sikorski-Majski . Kolejnym krokiem do budowy wielkiej koalicji antyhitlerowskiej było podpisanie Karty Atlantyckiej 14 sierpnia 1941 roku na pancerniku HMS „ Prince of Wales” przez Winstona Churchilla i Franklina Delano Roosevelta . Określała ona cele polityki Wielkiej Brytanii i Stanów Zjednoczonych w okresie II wojny światowej i po jej zakończeniu oraz zasady powojennych stosunków międzynarodowych. Za jej najważniejsze cele uznano prawo wszystkich narodów do posiadania własnych rządów i własnego niepodległego państwa, do rozwoju gospodarczego i życia w pokoju po pokonaniu tyranii faszystowskiej. Zdecydowanie eksponowała zasadę pokojowego rozstrzygania sporów międzynarodowych, zgodnie z zasadami sprawiedliwości i prawa międzynarodowego, wyrażała nadzieję na ustanowienie po ostatecznym zniszczeniu „tyranii nazistowskiej” trwałego pokoju, wspominała o potrzebie zaprowadzenia w przyszłości „stałego systemu bezpieczeństwa na szerszą skalę” oraz o potrzebie zmniejszenia zbrojeń. 24 września 1941 roku na konferencji międzynarodowej w Londynie została podpisana przez członków koalicji antyhitlerowskiej , m.in. Związek Radziecki (z zastrzeżeniem uznania przez Sprzymierzonych granic istniejących w czerwcu 1941 roku). Pierwszy okres trwania koalicji polegał głównie na wspieraniu zaopatrzeniowym walczących państw, w szczególności Związku Radzieckiego, gdyż aż do początku 1943 roku sytuacja na froncie wschodnim była dla aliantów nad wyraz niekorzystna. W dniach 22–26 listopada 1943 roku w Kairze miała miejsce konferencja Churchilla, Roosevelta i chińskiego przywódcy, generalissimusa Czang Kaj-szeka . Debatowano nad powojennym ładem w Azji. Zapadła decyzja o zwrocie Chinom wszystkich zajętych przez Japonię ziem, w tym Mandżukua , a także Tajwanu i Peskadorów . Zdecydowano też o powołaniu do życia niepodległego państwa koreańskiego. W drugiej połowie 1943 roku, gdy Armia Czerwona przejęła inicjatywę strategiczną, pojawiły się problemy dotyczące czasu po zakończeniu wojny. Wyrazem tego stało się zwołanie konferencji przedstawicieli trzech walczących mocarstw w Teheranie w dniach 28 listopada-1 grudnia 1943 roku. Dalsza współpraca doprowadziła do marginalizacji pozostałych sojuszników, takich jak Francja, Polska, czy Czechosłowacja. Rozbieżne cele trzech przywódców wpływały niekorzystnie na losy powojennej Europy. Determinacja Stalina i względna uległość Churchilla oraz obojętność Roosevelta na losy państw Europy Wschodniej wpłynęła na tworzenie radzieckiej strefy wpływów, która miała sięgać tak daleko, jak daleko zajdzie Armia Czerwona. W czasie ogromnych sukcesów operacji wiślańsko-odrzańskiej w styczniu i lutym 1945 roku odbyła się kolejna konferencja Wielkiej Trójki. Tym razem miejscem spotkania był krymski kurort Jałta . Schyłek wojny odznaczył się wyraźnie pogłębiającą się przepaścią pomiędzy zachodnimi aliantami a Związkiem Radzieckim. Stalin, posiadając argument w postaci wielomilionowej Armii Czerwonej, nadawał ton działaniom dyplomatycznym Wielkiej Koalicji. Ostatecznym tego skutkiem było zrezygnowanie Anglosasów z walki o wpływy na terenach zajętych przez Armię Czerwoną, a więc w Polsce, Czechosłowacji, Rumunii, Bułgarii i republikach nadbałtyckich. Ostatnim spotkaniem Wielkiej Trójki (chociaż już w innym składzie) była konferencja poczdamska , która przypieczętowała kształtujący się już od Teheranu porządek powojenny. Skutki II wojny światowej Źródła [ 134 ] II wojna światowa miała tragiczne skutki dla obywateli państw biorących udział w wojnie. Straty wśród ludności cywilnej wyniosły łącznie prawie 33 miliony ludzi. Wojna (zarówno bezpośrednie działania wojenne, jak naloty dywanowe czy zaplanowane akcje pacyfikacyjne ze strony Niemców) doprowadziła do wielkich zniszczeń w miastach – wśród najciężej dotkniętych aglomeracji znajdowały się Warszawa (85% zniszczonej zabudowy lewobrzeżnej części miasta), Leningrad , Stalingrad , Cherbourg , Caen , Hamburg , Drezno , Manila , Tokio czy Berlin . Konflikt przyczynił się do powstania nowej broni masowego rażenia – broni jądrowej . Użyli jej Amerykanie przeciwko ludności Hiroszimy i Nagasaki , wskutek czego bezpośrednio zginęło co najmniej 150 tysięcy osób, kilkadziesiąt tysięcy zostało ciężko rannych (znaczna ich część wkrótce potem zmarła), a dalsze zgony nastąpiły wskutek promieniowania . Niektóre walczące strony dopuściły się licznych zbrodni wojennych oraz zbrodni przeciwko ludzkości. Szczególnie dobrze udokumentowana jest zbrodnicza działalność Niemców zakładających obozy koncentracyjne , będące narzędziem ludobójstwa podbitych narodów. Wskutek wojny z powodu zniszczeń i strat materialnych pozycję na arenie międzynarodowej straciły Wielka Brytania , Japonia , Niemcy i Francja . Od teraz los Europy zależał w głównej mierze od Stanów Zjednoczonych i Związku Radzieckiego . Po konferencji w Jałcie w lutym 1945 roku nastąpił polityczny podział Europy na blok zachodni i blok wschodni (początek zimnej wojny ). Na zebraniu Wielkiej Trójki potwierdzającym spotkanie w Teheranie ustalono, że terytoria, zdobyte przez Armię Czerwoną znajdą się w strefie wpływów Związku Radzieckiego, a te wyzwolone przez aliantów zachodnich – w strefie wpływów państw zachodnich. W ten sposób Polska i pozostałe kraje Europy środkowo-wschodniej stały się zależne od Związku Radzieckiego, natomiast Grecja, Włochy, Francja i Benelux , a po kilku latach także cała Austria – w bloku zachodnim. Jugosławia i Albania , opanowane po wycofaniu się Niemców i Włochów przez armię partyzantów Josipa Broza Tity , pozostały po wojnie zasadniczo niezależne od Związku Radzieckiego, choć oba te kraje poszły w następnych latach drogą komunistyczną. Alianci podjęli działania mające na celu zapobiec powstawaniu konfliktów na arenie międzynarodowej. W miejsce Ligi Narodów powołana została Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych mająca przeciwstawiać się przejawom łamania praw człowieka. Państwa należące do ONZ zobowiązały się nie dopuszczać do władzy partii o poglądach nazistowskich , a nawet je delegalizować [ 135 ] . Zakazano propagowania symboli swastyki . Zajęto się także sprawą części narodu żydowskiego okaleczonego przez szoa . Zdecydowano się na podział brytyjskiego Mandatu Palestyny na dwa niepodległe państwa, żydowskie i arabskie . W 1947 roku w Palestynie wybuchło powstanie sił żydowskich i arabskich, które próbowały utworzyć własne kraje. 14 maja 1948 roku w Tel Awiwie Żydzi proklamowali powstanie Państwa Izrael , pominięta została jednak niezależność Palestyńczyków . Pobratymcom przyszła więc na pomoc koalicja państw arabskich i w ten sposób wybuchła wojna . Izrael zwyciężył, a jego konflikt z Arabami trwa po dziś dzień [ 136 ] . Ustalono także [ 137 ] [ 138 ] : Niemcy i Austria zostały podzielone na cztery strefy okupacyjne: brytyjską (która zawierała w sobie również nieoficjalną polską ), francuską , amerykańską (gdzie w 1946 roku w Norymberdze odbyły się procesy norymberskie skazujące zbrodniarzy wojennych) i radziecką . Według takiej samej zasady podzielono Berlin i Wiedeń . Stany Zjednoczone dodatkowo przejęły kontrolę nad miastami Bremą i Bremerhaven w strefie brytyjskiej. W 1947 roku utworzony został ponadto Protektorat Saary pod zarządem francuskim, który miał zostać w przyszłości anektowany przez Francję, co uniemożliwił jednak opór ludności niemieckiej. W 1947 roku strefy amerykańska i brytyjska zjednoczono w Bizonię , którą w 1949 roku poszerzono o strefę francuską i przekształcono w Trizonię [ 139 ] . 7 września 1949 roku z Trizonii powstała Republika Federalna Niemiec (RFN). 7 października ze strefy radzieckiej utworzono satelicką Niemiecką Republikę Demokratyczną (NRD). Włoska Republika Socjalna została rozwiązana. Nowe władze tymczasowe Włoch zgodziły się na przekazanie włoskiej części Dalmacji Jugosławii oraz Dodekanezu Grecji. Anektowana wcześniej Albania stała się ponownie niepodległym państwem. Zdominowane etnicznie przez Włochów miasto Triest , do którego prawa rościła sobie Jugosławia, wraz z przylegającymi do siebie ziemiami zostało przekształcone w Wolne Terytorium Triestu , państwo, pod zarządem alianckim. Uległo likwidacji w roku 1954, podzielone między Włochy (miasto Triest) i Jugosławię (reszt ziem) [ 140 ] . Znacznie zmieniono granice państw w radzieckiej strefie wpływów. Zachodnia granica Polski miała przebiegać wzdłuż biegu rzek Odry i Nysy Łużyckiej , południowa granicami w Sudetach i dalej na wschód według stanu z 1938 roku, wschodnia rzeką Bug i wzdłuż tzw. linii Curzona oraz północna na północnych Mazurach . Polacy zyskali także miasto Gdańsk kontrolowane przed wojną przez Ligę Narodów . Związek Radziecki zajął ponadto północne Prusy Wschodnie . Czechosłowacja , ponownie niepodległa, zjednoczona ze Słowacji i Protektoratu Czech i Moraw , odzyskała Ruś Zakarpacką od Węgier (ale odstąpiła ją pod naciskami Stalina Związkowi Radzieckiemu) oraz zajęty przez Niemcy Sudetenland , skąd wypędzono prawie wszystkich Niemców sudeckich . Węgry utraciły Siedmiogród na rzecz Rumunii . Ta zaś utraciła Besarabię na rzecz Związku Radzieckiego. Na Bułgarię wielkie mocarstwa nałożyły sankcje gospodarcze za przyłączenie w 1940 roku Dobrudży kosztem Rumunii. Finlandia musiała zwrócić zdobycze w wojnie kontynuacyjnej i uznać granicę z 1940 roku, została ponadto zmuszona wydzierżawić ZSRR półwysep Porkkala na 50 lat [ 141 ] . Na Dalekim Wschodzie Japonia , okupowana przez Stany Zjednoczone do 1952 roku, straciła, oprócz zdobytych od Amerykanów archipelagów, wszystkie swoje zamorskie terytoria, począwszy od Tajwanu , Hajnanu , Mandżurii i wschodnich Chin na rzecz Republiki Chińskiej , Sachalinu i Kuryli na rzecz Związku Radzieckiego (zajęcia Kuryli dokonanego już po zakończeniu wojny Japonia nie uznała po dziś dzień, przez co nigdy nie podpisała pokoju z ZSRR, ani jego sukcesorem, Rosją [ 142 ] ), Birmę i Malaje na rzecz Wielkiej Brytanii, Indochiny na rzecz Francji, Indie Wschodnie na rzecz Holandii , Timor Portugalski na rzecz Portugalii , kończąc na stracie Korei , którą podzieliły między siebie USA i ZSRR. Cesarz Hirohito musiał zrzec się statusu boga , w 1946 roku uchwalono konstytucję zmieniającą diametralnie ustrój kraju. Zbrodniarze wojenni zostali skazani w Międzynarodowym Trybunale Wojskowym dla Dalekiego Wschodu w Tokio w 1948 roku. Japonii narzucono pacyfistyczną konstytucję i zakazano posiadania sił zbrojnych [ an ] . Wszystkie utworzone z inicjatywy japońskiej państwa zależne [ ao ] uległy likwidacji. Wojna stworzyła sprzyjające warunki do uzyskania niepodległości przez Wietnam Północny (1945 rok), Indonezję (lata 1945–1949), Filipiny (1946 rok) i Birmę (1948 rok). W Afryce Północnej Libia i Somalia , dawne posiadłości włoskie, dostały się pod okupację aliantów zachodnich (w 1951 roku Libia, kontrolowana przez Francję i Wielką Brytanię, ogłosiła niepodległość, a w 1950 roku Somalia znalazła się pod władzą ONZ ). W 1941 roku niepodległość odzyskała Etiopia (od 1936 roku włoska). Na Bliskim Wschodzie niezależność względem Francji uzyskały Liban (1943 rok) i Syria (1946 rok). Straty II wojna światowa zebrała najobfitsze żniwo życia ludzkiego w historii świata. W ciągu 6 lat wojny zginęło ponad 60 milionów ludzi, co stanowiło około 2,6% całkowitej liczby ludności na świecie (ok. 2,3 miliarda) [ 143 ] . Zobacz też I wojna światowa kalendarium II wojny światowej Uwagi ↑ Po 1939 roku kontynuowana jako rząd uchodźczy w Londynie i podległe mu Polskie Państwo Podziemne wraz z Polskimi Siłami Zbrojnymi na Zachodzie . Na wschodzie od 1944 równolegle jako zależna od ZSRR tzw. Polska Ludowa i podległe jej Ludowe Wojsko Polskie . ↑ W latach 1939–1940 III Republika Francuska , w latach 1940–1944 Wolna Francja , od 1944 roku do końca wojny roku Rząd Tymczasowy Republiki Francuskiej . ↑ Od 6 kwietnia 1941 roku, pod okupacją powstały partyzanckie republiki komunistyczne: Republika Užicka , Republika Bihacka oraz Demokratyczna Federacyjna Jugosławia . ↑ Od 1941 roku. ↑ Na wojnie z Japonią od 1937 roku. ↑ Od 1943 roku pod okupacją brytyjską. ↑ Od 1943; od sierpnia 1941 pod okupacją brytyjsko-sowiecką. ↑ Od 1943 roku. ↑ a b Od 1944 roku. ↑ Od 1945 roku. ↑ Formalnie od 1945 roku, de facto na wojnie przeciw Osi od 1944 roku. ↑ Do 1941 roku. ↑ Do 1943 roku. W latach 1943-1945 jako Włoska Republika Socjalna ↑ Od 1943 pod okupacją niemiecką . ↑ a b c d e f g Do 1944 roku. ↑ Do 1945 roku. ↑ W 1941 roku, operacja Sabine . ↑ W 1941 roku, operacja Y . ↑ W 1940 roku inkorporowany do Zreorganizowanego Narodowego Rządu Republiki Chińskiej jako region autonomiczny . ↑ Walki o Wyspy Aleuckie w latach 1942–1943 i ataki japońske na terytorium USA, np. bombardowanie Fortu Stevensa . ↑ Bitwa u ujścia La Platy w 1939. ↑ Główną posiadłość, Holenderskie Indie Wschodnie utracili już w 1949 roku, a ich pozostałości, Nową Gwineę Holenderską , w roku 1962. Ponadto, do 1975 roku utrzymali Gujanę Holenderską . Pozostałości imperium kolonialnego do 2010 roku nosiły nazwę Antyle Holenderskie , później zostały podzielone na mniejsze jednostki administracyjne, wciąż pod władzą niderlandzką. ↑ Główną posiadłość, Kongo Belgijskie , utracili w roku 1960. Pozostałości, Ruanda-Urundi , usamodzielniły się dwa lata później. ↑ Jako pierwsze utracili Indie Portugalskie , które w 1961 roku zaatakowały i zdobyły niepodległe Indie . W roku 1974 utracili Gwineę Portugalską , a rok później swoje kluczowe posiadłości: Portugalską Afrykę Wschodnią i Portugalską Afrykę Zachodnią oraz Wyspy Zielonego Przylądka . Ponadto, w 1999 roku zwrócili ChRL Makau , a w roku 2002 przestali kontrolować Timor Portugalski . Zachowali tylko Maderę i Azory . ↑ W 1956 roku utracili Maroko Hiszpańskie , zachowując jednak po dziś Ceutę i Melillę , później w 1958 roku utracili Hiszpańską Afrykę Zachodnią , w roku 1968 Gwineę Hiszpańską , natomiast w roku 1976 Saharę Hiszpańską . Do dziś utrzymali kontrolę nad Wyspami Kanaryjskimi . ↑ Jako pierwszy obiekt zbombardowano most w Tczewie „Jednostki Wehrmachtu, Luftwaffe i Kriegsmarine ruszyły do natarcia rankiem 1 września. Aby w pełni wyzyskać zaskoczenie, o 4.34, a więc na 11 min. przed oficjalnym terminem ataku na Polskę, 3 eskadra 1 pułku bombowców nurkowych („ Stukasów ”) por. Bruno Dilleya zbombardowała przyczółki mostu kolejowego w Tczewie, co miało sterroryzować ich obsadę i umożliwić przejęcie obiektu w nienaruszonym stanie” – Paweł Piotr Wieczorkiewicz, Kampania 1939 roku , Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza , wydanie pierwsze, Warszawa 2001. ↑ Rząd Węgier na czele z regentem Horthym odmówił Niemcom wykorzystania linii kolejowych biegnących przez terytorium Węgier dla agresji na Polskę, zaminował tunele i zagroził ich wysadzeniem w przypadku próby użycia siły przez III Rzeszę . ↑ W Armii Czerwonej istniały unikatowe stopnie oficerskie , zastąpione w 1940 roku generalskimi. Komandarm był odpowiednikiem generała armii . ↑ Komkor był odpowiednikiem generała broni . ↑ Aby wymazać z pamięci wcześniejszy sojusz Hitlera i Stalina. Było to pierwotnie określenie propagandowe nawiązujące świadomie do wojny z 1812 roku prowadzonej przez Rosję z koalicją napoleońską tak określanej w tradycyjnej historiografii rosyjskiej. ↑ Który sama wynegocjowała. ↑ USS „Enterprise” (CV-6) dostarczał wówczas samoloty marines na wyspę Wake - które kilka dni później wzięły udział w jej obronie, zaś USS „Lexington” (CV-2) na atol Midway [ 65 ] . ↑ Sukcesy Wehrmachtu w Afryce i na froncie wschodnim oraz błyskawiczne postępy Japonii i seria poniżających porażek aliantów w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej . ↑ Stacjonujący w tym czasie na południowym Pacyfiku Saburō Sakai – jeden z najsłynniejszych japońskich asów myśliwskich , pisał o listach od członków rodziny w Japonii, którzy pisali mu, że „życie zmieniło się odtąd, a front domowy niczym nie różni się od prawdziwego frontu” [ 73 ] . Po raz pierwszy bowiem w historii, Japonia została zaatakowana na własnej ziemi [ 73 ] . ↑ Cięzko uszkodzony w pierwszym dniu bitwy pod Midway „Yorktown”, dwa dni później otrzymał podczas próby uratowania okrętu coup de grâce od japońskiego okrętu podwodnego I-168 i zatonął 7 czerwca [ 79 ] . ↑ Adm. King objął swoją funkcję na miejsce zdymisjonowanego po Pearl Harbor admirała Harolda Starka . ↑ Nazwa „Cactus” była amerykańskim kryptonimem wyspy Guadalcanal. ↑ W iluś przypadkach, ranni japońscy żołnierze wzywali pomocy, po czym strzelali do śpieszących im z pomocą amerykańskich sanitariuszy [ 99 ] . Inni udawali martwych, ukrywając odbezpieczony granat, po czym detonowali go po zbliżeniu się amerykańskich żołnierzy, usiłujących sprawdzić ich stan. [ 99 ] ↑ Przed II wojną światową i w jej trakcie mianem Cyganów określano nie tylko Romów , ale i Sinti . ↑ Na straży japońskich granic stoją Japońskie Siły Samoobrony , nie będące de iure wojskiem (ich członkowie są cywilami, choć posiadają stopnie, mundury, nowoczesną broń itp.). Do 2014 roku JSS nie mogły być wykorzystywane poza granicami kraju i w celach ofensywnych, co zmieniła „reinterpretacja” artykułu 9 konstytucji . – Jarosław Giziński, Japonia zmienia konstytucję i zegna się z pacyfizmem , „Rzeczpospolita” , 03.07.2014 rok. ↑ Mandżukuo , Mengjang , Cesarstwo Wietnamu , Druga Republika Filipin , Królestwo Kambodży , Państwo Birma , Królestwo Luang Phrabang , Rząd Tymczasowy Republiki Chińskiej (rząd nankiński), Azad Hind. Przypisy ↑ wojna światowa II , [w:] Encyklopedia PWN [online], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [dostęp 2010-10-09] . ↑ Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls . ↑ Straty II wojny światowej . [dostęp 2010-10-07]. [zarchiwizowane z tego adresu (2012-03-24)]. ↑ „II wojna światowa rozpoczęła się w zeszłym tygodniu (!), w piątek 1 września o godzinie 5:20 (polskiego czasu); niemiecki bombowiec zrzucił bomby na wioskę rybacką i bazę lotniczą Puck, oraz na umocniony półwysep Hel” World War: Grey Friday , „Time”, 11 września 1939]. ↑ Henryk H. Piątkowski Henryk H. , Kampania wrześniową w Polsce 1939 r. , Wydawnictwo Swiatowego Związku Polaków z Zagranicy, 1946 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Kampania wrześniowa 1939 , Inst. Historyczny im. Gen. Sikorskiego [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Eugeniusz E. Guz Eugeniusz E. , Zagadki i tajemnice kampanii wrześniowej: plany Hitlera wobec Polski; mity i fantazje wokół prowokacji gliwickiej; nieznane szczegóły obrony Warszawy , Bellona, 2009 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Marszałek Edward Śmigły-Rydz, 1886–1986 [online] [dostęp 2020-12-04] . ↑ Zbigniew Z. Nowakowski Zbigniew Z. , II wojna swiatowa, 1939–1945: fakty, zdarzenia, okoliczności, przeżycia , Wydawnictwo Zakonu Pijarów, 1996, ISBN 978-83-85958-49-9 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Piotr P. Żaroń Piotr P. , Agresja Związku Radzieckiego na Polskę 17 września 1939: los jeńców polskich , Wyd. Adam Marszałek, 1998, ISBN 978-83-7174-164-7 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Dziennik Bałtycki : Niemcy na przejściu granicznym... . [dostęp 2022-02-05]. ↑ II wojna światowa nie rozpoczęła się w Wieluniu? Dokumenty odkryte w Londynie rzucają nowe światło . tysol.pl, 22.10.2022. [dostęp 2025-09-01]. . ↑ Tongan Defence Force , [w:] aucklandmuseum.com [online], Auckland Museum . ↑ Marszałek Edward Śmigły-Rydz, 1886–1986 , Instytut Józefa Piłsudskiego, 1986, s. 30 [dostęp 2020-12-21] . ↑ Atak ZSRR na Polskę – Muzeum Historii Polski [online], muzhp.pl [dostęp 2020-12-21] . ↑ Zarządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 17 września 1939 r. o wyznaczeniu następcy Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej (M.P. z 1939 r. nr 214-217, poz. 3). ↑ Tadeusz T. Wroński Tadeusz T. , Kronika okupowanego Krakowa , 1974, s. 39 . ↑ Халхин-гольское сражение: пересмотр статистики [online], web.archive.org [dostęp 2020-11-26] . ↑ Bawden , Modern History Mongolia Hb , Routledge, 28 października 2013, s. 323, ISBN 978-1-136-18822-0 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . ↑ Davies 2012 ↓ . ↑ Chris Ch. Millington Chris Ch. , France in the Second World War: Collaboration, Resistance, Holocaust, Empire , Bloomsbury Publishing, 23 lipca 2020, ISBN 978-1-350-09498-7 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Paweł P. Przymusiała Paweł P. , Wojna zimowa: 1939 – 1940 ; działania lotnicze w czasie wojny sowiecko-fińskiej , Wyd. Militaria, 1997, ISBN 978-83-86209-91-0 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Bernard B. Piotrowski Bernard B. , Wojna Radziecko-Fińska (zimowa): 1939–1940 : legendy, niedomówienia, realia , Wyd. Naukowe, 1997, ISBN 978-83-232-0770-2 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ G.F. G.F. Krivosheev G.F. G.F. , Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century , Greenhill Books, 1997, ISBN 978-1-85367-280-4 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Eloise E. Engle Eloise E. , Lauri L. Paananen Lauri L. , The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland, 1939–1940 , Stackpole Books, 1 lutego 2014, ISBN 978-0-8117-1401-3 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Charles F. Ch.F. Marshall Charles F. Ch.F. , Życie i śmierć Lisa Pustyni: jak zamordowano Erwina Rommla? , L&L, 2002, ISBN 978-83-88595-66-0 [dostęp 2020-11-26] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Chris Ch. Bishop Chris Ch. , Niemieckie Wojska Pancerne W Ii Wojnie Światowej , Bellona, 2009 [dostęp 2020-12-03] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Terry T. Brighton Terry T. , Gry wojenne. Patton. Monty i Rommel , Otwarte, 6 kwietnia 2011, ISBN 978-83-240-1605-1 [dostęp 2020-12-03] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ John J. Broich John J. , Blood, Oil, and the Axis: The Allied Resistance against a Fascist State in Iraq and the Levant, 1941 , 2019 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Marek M. M.M. Dziekan Marek M. M.M. , Historia Iraku , Dialog, 2007, ISBN 978-83-89899-77-4 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Allen F. A.F. Chew Allen F. A.F. , Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies , 1981 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Kampania radziecka – operacja Barbarossa, wojna na wschodzie 1941–1945 [online], sww.w.szu.pl [dostęp 2020-12-06] . ↑ Lotnictwo wojskowe Niemiec i ZSRR w przeddzień operacji Barbarossa – analiza sił [online] [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Ставка Верховного Главнокомандующего [online], bse.sci-lib.com [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Lexikon der Wehrmacht – Heeresgruppe Nord [online], lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Lexikon der Wehrmacht – Heeresgruppe Süd [online], lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Julien J. Steinberg Julien J. , Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism: 1917–1950 , 1971, s. 411 . ↑ Cawthorne 2009 ↓ , s. 88. ↑ Adolf A. Hitler Adolf A. , Rozmowy przy stole 1941–1944 , Warszawa 1996, s. 60 . ↑ Кирпонос Михаил Петрович [online], warheroes.ru [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Timothy T. Snyder Timothy T. , Black Earth , 2015, s. 195 . ↑ Alan A. Taylor Alan A. , Finland in World War II – The Atlantic [online], theatlantic.com [dostęp 2020-12-14] ( ang. ) . ↑ Manstein’s Romanians in the Crimea [online], Feldgrau, 4 sierpnia 2020 [dostęp 2020-12-06] ( ang. ) . ↑ Kosiarz 1988 ↓ , s. 174. ↑ Kosiarz 1988 ↓ , s. 409. ↑ Cawthorne 2009 ↓ . ↑ James J. Lucas James J. , War on the Eastern Front: The German Soldier in Russia, 1941–1945 , Frontline Books, 30 października 2014, ISBN 978-1-4738-4122-2 [dostęp 2020-12-08] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Cawthorne 2009 ↓ , s. 89. ↑ Guderian attacks , [w:] Niklas N. Zetterling Niklas N. , Anders A. Frankson Anders A. , The Drive on Moscow, 1941 , Open Road Media, 7 maja 2013, ISBN 978-1-4804-0662-9 [dostęp 2020-12-21] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Elton L. E.L. Daniel Elton L. E.L. , The History of Iran , Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 978-0-313-30731-7 [dostęp 2020-12-03] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Touraj T. Daryaee Touraj T. , Tūraǧ T. Daryāyī Tūraǧ T. , The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History , Oxford University Press, USA, 16 lutego 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-973215-9 [dostęp 2020-12-03] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Г.Ф. Г.Ф. Кривошеев Г.Ф. Г.Ф. , Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил: Статистическое исследование , 2001, s. 320 . ↑ Ленинград Блокада Подвиг [online], blokada.otrok.ru [dostęp 2021-01-12] . ↑ Военная литература --[Мемуары] -- Рябышев Д. И., Первый год войны [online], militera.lib.ru [dostęp 2020-12-22] . ↑ PzKpfw VI Tiger – pięść niemieckiej Panzerwaffe [online], Nowa Strategia [dostęp 2020-12-21] . ↑ a b Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 209 ↑ Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 580–581. ↑ Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 404–405 ↑ The Embargoes That Blocked Japanese Expansion and Led to War . Defense Media Network. [dostęp 2023-08-13]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b c Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 450–452 ↑ a b c d Zimm 2011 ↓ , s. 19–24 ↑ Toll 2011 ↓ , s. 120. ↑ a b Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 465–474 ↑ Zimm 2011 ↓ , s. 381. ↑ a b Stille 2021 ↓ , s. 46 ↑ Zimm 2011 ↓ , s. 385–386. ↑ Toll 2011 ↓ , s. 35–36. ↑ a b Parshall i Tully 2005 ↓ , s. 22 ↑ a b Sandler 2001 ↓ , s. 316 ↑ Stanisław Żerko. Dlaczego Hitler porwał się na Amerykę . „Polityka”, 6 grudnia 2011. brak numeru strony ↑ Trent Hone: Mastering the Art of Command: Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and Victory in the Pacific . Naval Institute Press, 2022, s. 35. ISBN 978-1682475959 . ( ang. ) . ↑ Stille 2021 ↓ , s. 68–69 ↑ a b c d Toll 2011 ↓ , s. 299–301 ↑ Parshall i Tully 2005 ↓ , s. 60–65 ↑ Craig L. Symonds: The Battle of Midway . Oxford University Press, 2013, s. 97–101. ISBN 978-0199315987 . ( ang. ) . ↑ Stille 2021 ↓ , s. 116–117 ↑ Lisle A. Rose: The Ship that Held Line: The USS Hornet and the First Year of the Pacific War . Naval Institute Press, 2012, s. 107–111, seria: Bluejacket Books. ISBN 978-1557500083 . ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Toll 2011 ↓ , s. 476–477 ↑ Toll 2011 ↓ , s. 470. ↑ a b c Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 598–599 ↑ a b Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 43–44 ↑ a b Parshall i Tully 2005 ↓ , s. 416–420 ↑ Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 15–17 ↑ Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 59–62 ↑ Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 31. ↑ Stille 2015 ↓ , s. 70. ↑ Hornfischer 2012 ↓ , s. 142. ↑ Hornfischer 2012 ↓ , s. 195 ↑ Stille 2013 ↓ , s. 57 ↑ Stille 2013 ↓ , s. s. ↑ Eyewitness to Pearl Harbor and the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The National II World War II Museum. [dostęp 2023-08-19]. ( ang. ) . ↑ a b Stille 2013 ↓ , s. 84 ↑ a b Hornfischer 2012 ↓ , s. 437 ↑ Stille 2013 ↓ , s. 43. ↑ a b c d Stille 2015 ↓ , s. 90 ↑ a b Stille 2015 ↓ , s. 50 ↑ a b Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 614 ↑ Frank 1992 ↓ , s. 24. ↑ a b Toll 2016 ↓ , s. 72–75 ↑ Bruce Allen B.A. Watson Bruce Allen B.A. , Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942-43 , Stackpole Books, 15 listopada 2006, str. 41, ISBN 978-0-8117-3381-6 [dostęp 2020-12-03] ( ang. ) . ↑ Zbigniew Z. Wawer Zbigniew Z. , Monte Cassino 1944 , Bellona, 2009 [dostęp 2020-12-03] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Kazimierz K. Rosen-Zawadzki Kazimierz K. , Balkańskie koncepcje strategiczne a kampania we Włoszech, 1943–1945 , Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1964 [dostęp 2020-12-03] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Maria M. Podlasek Maria M. , Wypędzenie Niemców z terenów na wschód od Odry i Nysy Łużyckiej: Relacje świadków , 1995 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Steuben Wreck @ National Geographic Magazine [online], archive.is, 29 czerwca 2012 [dostęp 2020-12-20] . ↑ Tadeusz Maria T.M. Gelewski Tadeusz Maria T.M. , Zbrodnie wojenne na morzu w drugiej wojnie światowej , 1976 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Pomnik ofiar tragedii Wilhelma Gustloffa, Goyi i Steubena-Katedra Mon… [online], archive.is, 9 grudnia 2012 [dostęp 2020-12-20] . ↑ A Memorial To The Wilhelm Gustloff [online], Feldgrau, 4 sierpnia 2020 [dostęp 2020-12-20] ( ang. ) . ↑ Derek S. D.S. Zumbro Derek S. D.S. , Battle for the Ruhr: The German Army’s Final Defeat in the West , University Press of Kansas, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7006-1490-5 [dostęp 2020-11-26] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Ian I. Kershaw Ian I. , Do piekła i z powrotem: Europa 1914–1949 , Otwarte, 19 października 2016, ISBN 978-83-240-4166-4 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Stuart S. Cooper Stuart S. , Christopher Ch. Hudson Christopher Ch. , Overlord: Codename: D-Day, June 6, 1944 , iUniverse, maj 2007, ISBN 978-0-595-45123-4 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Bogdan Koszel , Renner Karl , [w:] Stanisław Sierpowski (red.), Leksykon historii powszechnej 1900–1945 , Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, Poznań, 1996, ISBN 83-232-0712-7 , s. 369. ↑ Alfred A. Konieczny Alfred A. , „Festung Breslau.” dokumenty oble̜żenia 16. II.-6. v. 1945 , Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1962 [dostęp 2020-12-03] ( niem. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ a b Mcateer 2009 ↓ . ↑ Ostatnie starcia II wojny światowej w Europie [online], polska-zbrojna.pl [dostęp 2020-11-26] . ↑ James J. Lucas James J. , Kommando: German Special Forces of World War Two , Frontline Books, 24 lutego 2014, ISBN 978-1-84832-737-5 [dostęp 2020-11-23] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Mart M. Laar Mart M. , Wojna w lesie. Walka Estonii o przetrwanie 1944–1956 , 2008 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Transcript of „Operation Downfall [US invasion of Japan]: US Plans and Japanese Counter-Measures” by D.M. Giangreco, US Army Command and General Staff College [online], mtholyoke.edu [dostęp 2020-11-23] . ↑ Myśleli, że II wojna światowa trwa [online], rmf24.pl [dostęp 2020-11-23] . ↑ SOE , [w:] Encyklopedia PWN [online], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [dostęp 2020-12-22] . ↑ Słownik historii Polski i świata , 2001, s. 25 . ↑ Leksykon historii Polski po II wojnie światowej 1944–1997 , 2003, s. 130,131 . ↑ Bogumił B. Karaszewski Bogumił B. , Partyzancka broń. O uzbrojeniu w Batalionach Chłopskich , 1980, s. 140 . ↑ Goralenvolk. Nazistowski „naród” w Polsce [online], menway.interia.pl [dostęp 2020-12-22] . ↑ Wacław W. Felczak Wacław W. , Tadeusz T. Wasilewski Tadeusz T. , Historia Jugosławii , Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1985, ISBN 978-83-04-01638-5 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Josip Broz J.B. Tito Josip Broz J.B. , Walka narodów okupowanej Jugosławji , Wydawnictwo literatury z jezykach obcych, 1944 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Roberts 1987 ↓ . ↑ Roberts 1987 ↓ , s. 263. ↑ Zofia Z. Rutyna-Frelek Zofia Z. , Jugosławia na arenie międzynarodowej, 1943–1948 , Książka i Wiedza, 1981 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Michael M. Johnson Michael M. , French Resistance: Individuals Versus the Company in French Corporate Life , Routledge, 4 lipca 2013, s. 24, ISBN 978-1-135-07521-7 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . ↑ France Secrétariat d’État aux anciens combattants (1974–1981), Pologne Ministerstwo do spraw kombatantów, Polska i Francja w wojnie i ruchu oporu w latach 1939–1945 , Sekretariat stanu ds. byłych kombatantów, 1978 [dostęp 2020-12-04] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ David D. Schoenbrun David D. , Soldiers of the Night: The Story of the French Resistance , Plunkett Lake Press, 9 sierpnia 2019 [dostęp 2020-12-04] ( ang. ) . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Holocaust , [w:] Encyklopedia PWN [online], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [dostęp 2020-12-21] . ↑ Roma in Auschwitz [online], Jewish Virtual Library [dostęp 2020-12-20] . ↑ Jane Burbank, Frederick Cooper: Empires in world history. Power and the politics of difference . Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2010, s. 370. ISBN 978-0-691-12708-8 . OCLC 436358445 . ( ang. ) . ↑ Longin L. Pastusiak Longin L. , Świat kapitalistyczny po II wojnie światowej , Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1983, ISBN 978-83-02-01965-4 [dostęp 2020-12-18] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Arab-Israeli conflict – Role of religion [online], science.co.il [dostęp 2020-12-22] . ↑ Skutki II wojny światowej – Epodreczniki.pl [online], epodreczniki.pl [dostęp 2020-12-18] . ↑ Antoni A. Czubiński Antoni A. , II wojna światowa i jej następstwa: praca zbiorowa , Wielkopolska Agencja Wyd., 1996, ISBN 978-83-85524-24-3 [dostęp 2020-12-18] . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Trizonia , [w:] Encyklopedia PWN [online], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN [dostęp 2020-12-20] . ↑ Tomasz T. Wituch Tomasz T. , Terytoria sporne w Europie po roku 1815 , 2001 . Brak numerów stron w książce ↑ Hanko 1940-41 and Porkkala 1944-56 [online], histdoc.net [dostęp 2020-12-21] . ↑ Bartłomiej B. Mroczkowski Bartłomiej B. , Spór mocarstw o Kuryle [online], geopolityka.org [dostęp 2020-12-18] . ↑ Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls [online], necrometrics.com [dostęp 2020-12-14] . Bibliografia Druga Wojna Światowa , Pavel Andreevič P.A. Žilin (red.) i inni , Warszawa: KiW, 1987, ISBN 83-05-11472-4 , OCLC 69492172 . Brak numerów stron w książce Pierre Buhler: Polska Droga do Wolności, 1939–1995 . Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, 1999. ISBN 83-86483-95-4 . Brak numerów stron w książce Nigel Cawthorne: Decydujące Bitwy II Wojny Światowej . Bellona, 2009. ISBN 978-83-11-11527-9 . ( ang. ) . Norman Davies : Europa Walczy 1939–1945. Nie takie proste zwycięstwo . Kraków: 2012. ISBN 978-83-240-1560-3 . Eugeniusz Duraczyński, Jerzy Janusz Terej: Europa podziemna 1939–1945 . Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1974. Brak numerów stron w książce Richard B. Frank: Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . Penguin Books, 1992. ISBN 0-14-016561-4 . ( ang. ) . James Hornfischer: Neptune’s Inferno: The U.S. Navy at Guadalcanal . Bantam, 2012. ISBN 978-0553385120 . ( ang. ) . Edmund Kosiarz: Druga wojna światowa na Bałtyku . Wyd. Morskie, 1988, s. 174. ISBN 978-83-215-3268-4 . [dostęp 2020-12-21]. Sean M. Mcateer: 500 Days: The War in Eastern Europe, 1944–1945 . Dorrance Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-4349-6159-4 . [dostęp 2020-12-03]. ( ang. ) . Jonathan Parshall, Anthony Tully: Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway . Potomac Books, 2005. ISBN 1-57488-923-0 . ( ang. ) . Walter R. Roberts: Tito, Mihailović, and the Allies, 1941–1945 . Duke University Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-8223-0773-0 . [dostęp 2020-12-04]. ( ang. ) . Stanley Sandler: World War II in the Pacific An Encyclopedia . New York & London: Garland Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-8153-1883-9 . ( ang. ) . Mark Stille: Guadalcanal 1942–43: America's first victory on the road to Tokyo . Cz. 284. Osprey Publishing, 2015, seria: Campaign. ISBN 978-1472806932 . ( ang. ) . Mark Stille: Pacific Carrier War: Carrier Combat from Pearl Harbor to Okinawa . Osprey, 2021. ISBN 1-4728-2633-7 . ( ang. ) . Mark Stille: The naval battles for Guadalcanal 1942: Clash for supremacy in the Pacific . Cz. 255. Osprey Publishing, 2013, seria: Campaign. ISBN 978-1780961545 . ( ang. ) . Ian W. Toll: Pacific Crucible . T. War at Sea in the Pacific, 1941-1942. Nowy Jork: Norton & Company, 2011, seria: Pacific War Trilogy. ISBN 978-0393068139 . ( ang. ) . Ian W. Toll: The Conquering Tide: War in the Pacific Islands, 1942–1944 . T. 2. Nowy Jork: Norton & Company, 2016, seria: The Pacific War Trilogy. ISBN 978-0393353204 . ( ang. ) . Alan Zimm: The Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deceptions . Casemate Publishers, 2011. ISBN 978-1-61200-010-7 . ( ang. ) . Linki zewnętrzne Zobacz galerię związaną z tematem: Mapy miesiąc po miesiącu Strona internetowa Muzeum II Wojny Światowej w Gdańsku Serwis sww.w.szu.pl II wojna światowa – Dws.org.pl II wojna światowa – Historycy.org p d e teatry działań w Europie Kampania wrześniowa Front zachodni Wojna zimowa Kampania śródziemnomorska Front wschodni Kampania włoska Kampania wrześniowa Front zachodni Wojna zimowa Kampania śródziemnomorska Front wschodni Kampania włoska teatry działań na morzach i oceanach Bitwa o Atlantyk Walki w Arktyce Wojna na Pacyfiku Bitwa o Atlantyk Walki w Arktyce Wojna na Pacyfiku inne teatry działań Wojna w Afryce Wojna w Afryce LCCN : sh85148273 GND : 4079167-1 NDL : 00570524 LIBRIS : 64jlkvmq4b77rq1 BnF : 11996115g BNCF : 16826 NKC : ph117270 BNE : XX526764 PLWABN : 9810648182205606 J9U : 987007566075005171 KRNLK : KSH1998001372 PWN : 3997520 Britannica : event/World-War-II Treccani : seconda-guerra-mondiale Universalis : seconde-guerre-mondiale , guerre-mondiale-seconde stara БРЭ : 2335018 nowa БРЭ : vtoraia-mirovaia-voina-1939-1945-480c9b ЕСУ : 21884 NE.se : andra-världskriget SNL : andre_verdenskrig VLE : antrasis-pasaulinis-karas Catalana : 0031535 DSDE : 2._Verdenskrig II wojna światowa Uniwersalny szablon cytowania – brak strony Szablon cytowania czasopisma – brak numeru strony Szablony lokalizacyjne – brak współrzędnych – Wojna infobox Artykuły wymagające uzupełnienia źródeł od 2025-04 Artykuły z brakującymi przypisami od 2025-04 Szablon odn bez numeru strony Artykuły z propozycjami tłumaczeń Artykuły wymagające uzupełnienia źródeł od 2024-03 Szablon Układ wielokolumnowy bez szerokości Układ wielokolumnowy - 2 kolumny Szablon cytowania książki – brak numeru strony Artykuły, które powinna mieć każda Wikipedia (powyżej 30k) Tę stronę ostatnio edytowano 7 sty 2026, 17:13. Tekst udostępniany na licencji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na tych samych warunkach , z możliwością obowiązywania dodatkowych ograniczeń. Zobacz szczegółowe informacje o warunkach korzystania . Polityka prywatności O Wikipedii Korzystasz z Wikipedii tylko na własną odpowiedzialność Kontakty prawne i dotyczące bezpieczeństwa Powszechne Zasady Postępowania Dla deweloperów Statystyki Oświadczenie o ciasteczkach Wersja mobilna
|
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_wojna_%C5%9Bwiatowa
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . Archived from the original on 21 February 2008 . Retrieved 27 August 2004 . ^ a b "Dame Jilly Cooper: Undisputed queen of the joyous British bonkbuster" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b c d e f Sherratt, Adrian (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary: Sunday Times columnist and prolific author" . The Times . Archived from the original on 6 October 2025. ^ a b Rose, Hilary (24 October 2020). "Between the Covers: The World According to Jilly Cooper" . The Times . ^ a b c Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "The books interview" . The Guardian . pp. A13 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ a b Sellers, Sue (12 October 1972). "It's Jolly Sooper to be a girl" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly and her scorpion pen" . Hull Daily Mail . 5 November 1974. p. 10 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Rosindell, Vincent (22 December 1972). "Some meaty paperbacks" . Evening Despatch . p. 6 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ James, Clive (8 December 1974). "Grinning and bearing it" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ Randal, Linda (3 January 1975). "Columnist Cooper makes mornings madly meandering" . The Expositor . p. 5 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Reynolds, Stanley (29 November 1973). "Barrels of pun" . The Guardian . p. 16 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ James, Clive (11 December 1977). "Loads of laughter" . The Observer . p. 28 . Retrieved 9 December 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and wedlock . Internet Archive. London : Magnum Books. Title page. ISBN 978-0-417-01820-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ MacPhee, Maggie (24 June 1978). "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . p. 17 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Hern, Anthony (2 September 1977). "What's in a name?" . Evening Standard . p. 26 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Dahrendorf, Ralf (11 October 2024). "Ralf Dahrendorf · Our Sort and Their Sort" . London Review of Books . Vol. 01, no. 5. Archived from the original on 11 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 May 2025 . ^ Cannadine, David (30 March 2000). Class in Britain . Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-024954-5 . ^ a b "Paperbacks" . The Sydney Morning Herald . 23 October 1976. p. 14 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (17 October 1981). "Pablo ... the master" . Liverpool Echo . p. 5 . Retrieved 12 December 2025 . ^ Walton, Mike (5 June 1983). "Journalism's hyena priestess at prowl" . The Toronto Star . p. 94 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ a b "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . Sunday Telegraph . 3 March 2013. p. 21 . Retrieved 3 July 2025 . ^ Bradley, Fay (4 November 1983). "Jilly's loyal best friends" . Southall Gazette . p. 11 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ O'Hara, Monica (29 October 1983). "Paperbacks" . Liverpool Echo . p. 20 . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Patmore, Angela (1984). Your Obedient Servant: The Story of Man's Best Friend . Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-155310-4 . ^ Jack, Sybil (8 November 2020). "Some reflections on the employment of animals in war" . ISAA Review . 15 (1): 55– 59. ^ Larsen, Ruth; Whitehead, Ian (6 November 2017). Popular Experience and Cultural Representation of the Great War, 1914–1918 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-5275-0526-1 . ^ Sharp, Lesley A. (6 November 2018). Animal Ethos: The Morality of Human–Animal Encounters in Experimental Lab Science . Univ of California Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-520-29925-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ "Violets And Vinegar by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ a b Cooke, Rachel (27 October 2020). "Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Cartland, Barbara (25 November 1976). "Could this be love? Don't be such a Silly Jilly" . Daily Express . p. 4. ^ a b "Bella by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 11 July 1976. p. 23. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Boggan, Steve (26 October 1993). "Jilly falls at old hurdle" . The Independent . p. 3. ^ Conlan, Tara (19 July 2007). "ITV rides high with Cooper" . The Guardian . ^ "In brief" . The Observer . 28 August 1977. p. 24. Archived from the original on 20 June 2025 . Retrieved 20 June 2025 . ^ Waugh, Auberon (30 July 1977). "Glib Jilly in turgid mood about love". Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh Edition) . p. 4. ^ "Pru's problems" . The Bolton News . 11 March 1978. p. 6. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_ref-186
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 1.1 January 1.2 February 1.3 March 1.4 April 1.5 May 1.6 June 1.7 July 1.8 August 1.9 September 1.10 October 1.11 November 1.12 December 1.13 Date unknown 2 Births Toggle Births subsection 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 2.1 January 2.2 February 2.3 March 2.4 April 2.5 May 2.6 June 2.7 July 2.8 August 2.9 September 2.10 October 2.11 November 2.12 December 3 Deaths Toggle Deaths subsection 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 3.1 January 3.2 February 3.3 March 3.4 April 3.5 May 3.6 June 3.7 July 3.8 August 3.9 September 3.10 October 3.11 November 3.12 December 4 Nobel Prizes 5 References 6 Further reading 1945 Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deutsch Dolnoserbski Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho sa Leboa Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 19th century 20th century 21st century 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s Years 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e 1945 by topic Subject Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American British Animation Archaeology Architecture Art Aviation Awards Comics Film Literature Poetry Poetry Meteorology Music Country Jazz Country Jazz Rail transport Radio Science Spaceflight Sports Football Television American American British British By country Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Afghanistan Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Denmark France Germany India Indonesia Ireland Italy Japan Malaya Netherlands New Zealand Norway Palestine Mandate Philippines Portugal South Africa South Korea Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Venezuela Lists of leaders Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Sovereign states Sovereign state leaders Territorial governors Religious leaders Law Birth and death categories Births Deaths Births Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments Disestablishments Establishments Disestablishments Works category Works Introductions Works Introductions v t e v t e Gregorian calendar 1945 MCMXLV Ab urbe condita 2698 Armenian calendar 1394 ԹՎ ՌՅՂԴ Assyrian calendar 6695 Baháʼí calendar 101–102 Balinese saka calendar 1866–1867 Bengali calendar 1351–1352 Berber calendar 2895 British Regnal year 9 Geo. 6 – 10 Geo. 6 Buddhist calendar 2489 Burmese calendar 1307 Byzantine calendar 7453–7454 Chinese calendar 甲申 年 (Wood Monkey ) 4642 or 4435 — to — 乙酉年 (Wood Rooster ) 4643 or 4436 Coptic calendar 1661–1662 Discordian calendar 3111 Ethiopian calendar 1937–1938 Hebrew calendar 5705–5706 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 2001–2002 - Shaka Samvat 1866–1867 - Kali Yuga 5045–5046 Holocene calendar 11945 Igbo calendar 945–946 Iranian calendar 1323–1324 Islamic calendar 1364–1365 Japanese calendar Shōwa 20 (昭和２０年) Javanese calendar 1875–1876 Juche calendar 34 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 13 days Korean calendar 4278 Minguo calendar ROC 34 民國34年 Nanakshahi calendar 477 Thai solar calendar 2488 Tibetan calendar ཤིང་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Wood- Monkey ) 2071 or 1690 or 918 — to — ཤིང་མོ་བྱ་ལོ་ (female Wood- Bird ) 2072 or 1691 or 919 1945 ( MCMXLV ) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar , the 1945th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 945th year of the 2nd millennium , the 45th year of the 20th century , and the 6th year of the 1940s decade. A turning point [ 1 ] in human history , 1945 marked the end of World War II , ending with the defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan by the United States and the Soviet Union in the world of two superpowers which has led the beginning of the Cold War (1945–1991). It is also the year the Nazi concentration camps were liberated and the only year in which atomic weapons have been used in warfare . Events World War II will be abbreviated as "WWII" January January 1 – WWII: Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. Germany begins Operation Bodenplatte , an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries . [ 2 ] Chenogne massacre : German prisoners are allegedly killed by American forces near the village of Chenogne, Belgium. January 6 – WWII: A German offensive recaptures Esztergom , Hungary from the Soviets. January 9 – WWII: American and Australian troops land at Lingayen Gulf on western coast of the largest Philippine island of Luzon , occupied by Japan since 1942. January 12 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German Army . [ 3 ] January 13 – WWII: The Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive , to eliminate German forces in East Prussia . January 16 – WWII: Adolf Hitler takes residence in the Führerbunker in Berlin. [ 4 ] January 17 WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Warsaw , Poland. The Holocaust : Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg , who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publicly. [ 5 ] January 18 – The Holocaust : The SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp . Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributed. January 19 – The Holocaust : Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto ; only 877 Jews of the initial population of 164,000 remain at this time. [ 6 ] January 20 – Germany begins the Evacuation of East Prussia . January 21 – 22 (night) – At the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing , collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing between 140 and 150 people. January 23 – WWII: Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies . German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the start of Operation Hannibal , the mass evacuation by sea of German troops and civilians from the Courland Pocket , East Prussia and the Polish Corridor , evacuating an estimated 800,000-900,000 German civilians and 350,000 soldiers from advancing Soviet forces. Evacuation of Germans from Grünhagen . January 24 – WWII: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton , nine OSS men, and four SOE agents are executed by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp under Hitler's Commando Order of 1942, which stipulates the immediate execution of all captured Allied commandos or saboteurs without trial, even those in proper uniforms. Morton is the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during the war. January 25 – WWII: Hitler appoints Heinrich Himmler as commander of the hastily formed Army Group Vistula ( Heeresgruppe Weichsel ) to halt the Soviet Red Army 's Vistula–Oder offensive into Pomerania , despite Himmler's lack of military experience. [ 7 ] January 26 – WWII: 19-year-old U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Audie Murphy sees action at Holtzwihr , France, for which is awarded the Medal of Honor . January 27 The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] The Holocaust : The Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps. WWII: The Soviet Red Army reaches to Wolf's Lair former Hitler headquarter [ 8 ] January 30 – WWII: MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. MV Wilhelm Gustloff , with over 10,000 mainly civilian Germans from Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) is sunk in Gdańsk Bay by three torpedoes from Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea ; up to 9,400, 5,000 of whom are children, are thought to have died – the greatest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Raid at Cabanatuan : 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in the city of Cabanatuan , in the Philippines . Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph. January 31 – WWII: The Battle of Hill 170 in the Burma Campaign ends with the British 3rd Commando Brigade defeating the Imperial Japanese Army 54th Division , causing the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army to withdraw from the Arakan Peninsula. February February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid 's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut , announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin . [ 9 ] February 3 – WWII: Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. Battle of Manila : United States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army , starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the city. The Soviet Union agrees to enter the Pacific War against Japan, once hostilities against Germany are concluded. February 4 – 11 – WWII: President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta Conference . February 7 – WWII: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila . February 8 – The Alaska Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945, championed by charismatic native leader Elizabeth Peratrovich , is passed by the territorial Senate, after the legislature defeated a previous bill in 1943. February 9 Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. Walter Ulbricht becomes leader of the German Communists in Moscow. WWII: " Black Friday ": A force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffers heavy casualties in an unsuccessful attack on German destroyer Z33 and escorting vessels sheltering in Førde Fjord , Norway. February 10 – WWII: German troopship SS General von Steuben is sunk by the Soviet submarine S-13 ; 3,608 drown. [ 10 ] February 10 – 20 – WWII: Operation Kita : The Imperial Japanese Navy returns "Completion Force", containing both its Ise -class battleships , safely from Singapore to Kure in Japan despite Allied attacks. February 12 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others. [ 11 ] February 13 – WWII: The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. The Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet -Romanian forces. Bombing of Dresden (Germany) by the British Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces ; 25,000-35,000 are estimated to have died. February 16 – WWII: The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. The Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three days. American and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . Combined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan Peninsula. Venezuela declares war on Germany. February 18 – March 5 – WWII: American and Brazilian troops kick off Operation Encore in Northern Italy, a successful limited action in the Northern Apennines that prepares for the western portion of the Allied Spring offensive . [ 12 ] February 19 – 20 – 980 (actual figure is disputed) [ 13 ] Japanese soldiers die as a result of being attacked by long saltwater crocodiles in Ramree, Burma . [ 14 ] February 19 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima – About 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo Jima . February 21 – The last V-2 rocket is launched from Peenemünde . February 22 – WWII: Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. Italian Front : The Battle of Monte Castello ends after nearly three months of fighting when the Brazilian Expeditionary Force expels German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines where their artillery was impeding the advance of the British Eighth Army toward Bologna . Uruguay declares war on Germany and Japan. February 23 – WWII: Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . Battle of Iwo Jima : A group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag . The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal ), later wins a Pulitzer Prize . The 11th Airborne Division , with Filipino guerrillas, free the captives of the Los Baños internment camp. The capital of the Philippines , Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troops. The suburb of Intramuros is devastated. [ 15 ] The German garrison in Poznań capitulates to Red Army and Polish troops. Bombing of Pforzheim : The heaviest of a series of bombing raids on Pforzheim , Germany by Allied aircraft is carried out by the British Royal Air Force . As many as 17,600 people, or 31.4% of the town's population, are killed in the raid and about 83% of the town's buildings destroyed, two-thirds of its complete area and between 80 and 100% of the inner city. Turkey joins the war on the side of the Allies . February 24 – Egyptian premier Ahmad Mahir Pasha is assassinated in Parliament after declaring war on Germany and Japan. February 27 – The Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyed. February 28 – In Bucharest , a violent demonstration takes place, during which the Bolşevic group opens fire on the army and protesters. In response, Andrei Y. Vishinsky , USSR vice commissioner of foreign affairs and president of the Allied Control Commission for Romania , travels to Bucharest to compel Nicolae Rădescu to resign as premier. March March 1 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives what will be his last address to a joint session of the United States Congress , reporting on the Yalta Conference . March 2 Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] Former U.S. vice-president Henry A. Wallace starts his term of office as United States Secretary of Commerce , serving under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The rocket-propelled Bachem Ba 349 Natter is first test launched at Stetten am kalten Markt . The launch fails and the pilot, Lothar Sieber , dies. [ 16 ] WWII: Allied troops lead by 10th Armored Division captures Trier oldest city in Germany. [ 17 ] March 3 – WWII: Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. Finland declares war on the Axis powers . United States and Filipino troops take Manila , Philippines . Pawłokoma massacre : A Polish Home Army unit massacres between 150 and 500 Ukrainian civilians in the Polish village of Pawłokoma . Bombing of the Bezuidenhout : The British Royal Air Force accidentally bombs the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague , Netherlands, killing 511 people. March 4 In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] In the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanic in London. The Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich are accidentally bombed by the United States. [ 18 ] March 5 – WWII: Brazilian troops take Castelnuovo ( Vergato ), in the last operations of the Allied Operation Encore . March 6 A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. A Communist-led government is formed in Romania under Petru Groza , following Soviet intervention. Resistance fighters accidentally ambush and attempt to execute SS general Hanns Albin Rauter , the arch-persecutor of the Dutch. March 7 WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] WWII: At the end of Operation Lumberjack , American troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen , Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to cross. 10th Armored Division captures city of Cologne [ 19 ] March 8 Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . Josip Broz Tito forms a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia , in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Nazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin Rauter . Operation Sunrise : Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff meets with Allen Welsh Dulles of the United States Office of Strategic Services at Lucerne , Switzerland, to negotiate the surrender of the Axis forces in Italy to the Allies . March 9 – 10 – WWII: Bombing of Tokyo : USAAF B-29 bombers attack Tokyo, Japan, with incendiary bombs , killing 100,000 citizens in the firebombing. It is the single most destructive conventional air attack of the war. March 11 The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] The Empire of Japan establishes the Empire of Vietnam , a puppet state which will last only until August 23, with Bảo Đại as its ruler. The Sammarinese general election gives San Marino the world's first democratically elected communist government, which will hold power until 1957 . [ 20 ] March 12 – WWII: Swinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation Hannibal . March 15 – 31 – WWII: The Soviet Red Army carries out the Upper Silesian Offensive . March 15 – The 17th Academy Awards ceremony is held, broadcast via radio in the United States for the first time. Best Picture goes to Going My Way . March 16 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. The Battle of Iwo Jima unofficially ends. The Bombing of Würzburg , as part of the Allied strategic bombing campaign against Nazi Germany, destroys 89% of the city and causes 4,000 deaths. March 17 – WWII: Kobe , Japan is fire-bombed by 331 B-29 bombers, killing over 8,000 people. March 18 – WWII: The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] The 40th Infantry Division, spearheaded by the 185th US Infantry Regiment, lands unopposed in Tigbauan forcing the Japanese forces to surrender and General Macario Peralta and Gen. Gen. Eichelberger to declare the Liberation of Panay, Romblon and Guimaras . [ 21 ] 1,250 American bombers attack Berlin. [ 22 ] Battle of Kolberg concludes with the Baltic seaport (designated a key Festung (fortress) by the Germans) taken by Polish and Soviet forces and ethnic Germans evacuated or expelled. [ 23 ] March 19 – WWII: Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. Adolf Hitler issues the " Nero Decree " ordering that all industries, military installations, machine shops, transportation facilities and communications facilities in Germany be destroyed ahead of Allied advances, but Albert Speer , placed in charge of the implementation, deliberately disobeys it. Off the coast of Japan, bombers hit the aircraft carrier USS Franklin , killing about 800 of her crewmen and crippling the ship. March 20 – WWII: Hitler dismisses Heinrich Himmler from his military command. [ 3 ] March 21 – WWII: British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. British troops liberate Mandalay , Burma . Bulgarian and Soviet troops successfully defend the north bank of the Drava River , as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. March 22 The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . The Arab League is formed, with the adoption of a charter in Cairo , Egypt. The Cathedral and the historic centre of Hildesheim in Germany are destroyed in a bombing of the city . March 24 WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . WWII: Operation Varsity – Two airborne divisions capture bridges across the river Rhine to aid the Allied advance. The cartoon character Sylvester the cat debuts in Life with Feathers . March 26 – WWII: The Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistance, although there are Japanese holdouts here until 1949. March 27 – WWII: The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . The United States Army Air Forces begins Operation Starvation , laying naval mines in many of Japan's seaways. Argentina declares war on Germany and Japan . March 29 WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . WWII: The Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army , in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East Prussia . WWII: American troops lead by 5th Infantry Division and 6th Armored Division captures city of Frankfurt after three days of battle [ 24 ] The "Clash of Titans": George Mikan and Bob Kurland duel at Madison Square Garden in New York, as Oklahoma State University defeats DePaul 52–44 in basketball . March 30 – WWII: The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . The Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into Austria. American official Alger Hiss is congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing the positions of the Western powers and the Soviet Union closer to each other, at the Yalta Conference . April April 1 – WWII: Battle of Okinawa : The Tenth United States Army lands on Okinawa . April 4 – WWII: American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. American troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in Germany. The Soviet Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna , taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fighting. April 6 – WWII: Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. Sarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state ) by Yugoslav Partisans . The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville Island concludes with a decisive victory for the Australian Army 's 7th Brigade . Allied forces reach Merkers Salt Mines in Thuringia where gold reserves of the Nazi German Reichsbank and art treasures are stored. April 7 – WWII: The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . The only flight of the German ramming unit known as Sonderkommando Elbe takes place, resulting in the loss of some 24 B-17s and B-24s of the United States Eighth Air Force . Japanese battleship Yamato and nine other warships take part in Operation Ten-Go , a suicide attack on Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa. Yamato is sunk by U.S. Navy aircraft in the East China Sea 200 miles (320 km) north of Okinawa with the loss of 2,055 of 2,332 crew, together with five other Japanese warships. Kantarō Suzuki becomes Prime Minister of Japan . April 8 – The SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp ; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guards. April 9 WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . WWII: The Battle of Königsberg , in East Prussia , ends with Soviet forces capturing the city. Abwehr conspirators Wilhelm Canaris , Hans Oster and Hans von Dohnányi are hanged at Flossenberg concentration camp, along with pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer . Johann Georg Elser , would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler , is executed at Dachau concentration camp . April 10 – WWII: Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] Visoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forces. American troops lead by 84th Division captures city of Hanover after thousands of German troops surrenders [ 25 ] April 11 – Buchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army . April 12 Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes the 33rd president of the United States upon the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Little White House in Warm Springs, Georgia of an intracerebral hemorrhage . President Truman is sworn in later this evening in the White House . A devastating tornado outbreak occurs across the United States, which kills 128 people and injures over 1,000 others. This is heavily overshadowed by the death of President Roosevelt. [ 26 ] WWII: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg , and reaches Tangermünde — only 50 miles from Berlin . Richard Strauss completes composition of his Metamorphosen . April 14 – WWII: The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam The First Canadian Army assumes military control of the Netherlands, where German forces are trapped in the Atlantic Wall fortifications along the coastline. [ 27 ] Razing of Friesoythe : The 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division deliberately destroys the German town of Friesoythe , on the orders of Major General Christopher Vokes . Bombing of Potsdam April 15 – WWII: The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forces. The Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands , and captures Arnhem . April 16 – WWII: The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. The Battle of Berlin begins, opening with the Red Army launching the Battle of the Oder–Neisse and the Battle of the Seelow Heights . Canadian forces take Harlingen and occupy Leeuwarden and Groningen in the Netherlands. MV Goya is sunk by Soviet submarine L-3 in the Baltic Sea while evacuating German troops and civilians as part of Operation Hannibal ; 7,000–8,000 drown. Death marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp begin. April 17 – WWII: Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. Battle of Montese : Brazilian forces liberate the town of Montese , Italy, from German forces. Inundation of the Wieringermeer in the Netherlands by occupying German forces. April 18 – American war correspondent Ernie Pyle is killed by Japanese machine gun fire on the island of Ie Shima off Okinawa . April 19 – Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Carousel , a musical play based on Ferenc Molnár 's Liliom , opens on Broadway , and becomes their second long-running stage classic. It includes the standard " You'll Never Walk Alone ". April 20 – WWII: On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] On his 56th birthday, Adolf Hitler leaves his Führerbunker , to decorate a group of Hitler Youth soldiers in Berlin. It will be his last trip to the surface from his underground bunker. The German city of Nuremberg , previously the site of the Nuremberg rallies , is occupied by American troops. American troops lead by 2nd Infantry Division and 69th Infantry Division captures city of Leipzig [ 28 ] " Morotai Mutiny ": members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai in the Dutch East Indies tender their resignations to protest their belief that they are being assigned to missions of no military importance and in which they are not specialists; a subsequent inquiry effectively vindicates them. [ 29 ] April 22 – WWII: Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. Heinrich Himmler , through Folke Bernadotte , Count of Wisborg, puts forth an offer of German surrender to the Western Allies, but not the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler finally concedes that "everything is lost" [ 30 ] at a meeting in the Führerbunker after learning that SS-Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner cannot mobilize enough men to launch a counterattack on the Soviet forces which are surrounding Berlin. April 23 – WWII: Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. Hermann Göring sends the Göring telegram to Hitler, seeking confirmation that he should take over leadership of Germany, in accordance with the decree of June 29, 1941. Hitler regards this as treason. The main Flossenbürg concentration camp is liberated by the United States Army. April 24 – WWII: Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . Battle of Berlin : Red Army troops complete encirclement of Berlin. [ 31 ] Retreating German troops destroy all the bridges over the Adige in Verona , including the historic Ponte di Castelvecchio and Ponte Pietra . April 25 Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. Founding negotiations for the United Nations begin in San Francisco . WWII – Elbe Day : United States and Soviet troops link up at the river Elbe , cutting Germany in two. April 25 – 26 – WWII: The last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command , the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro Lancasters . April 26 – WWII: Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . Battle of Bautzen : The last "successful" German panzer-offensive in Bautzen ends with the city recaptured. The British 3rd Infantry Division , under General Whistler , captures Bremen. [ 32 ] Nazi surrenders mean the British and Canadians now control the German border with Switzerland, from Basel to Lake Constance . April 27 The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland , comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. The provisional government of Austria headed by Karl Renner asserts its independence from Germany. [ 33 ] U.S. Ordnance troops find the coffins of Frederick William I of Prussia , Frederick the Great , Paul von Hindenburg and his wife in a salt mine in Germany. [ 34 ] April 28 The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . The bodies of Benito Mussolini , his mistress, Clara Petacci , and other followers are hung by their heels at a gas station in the public square of Milan , Piazzale Loreto, following their execution by Italian partisans after an attempt to flee the country. The Canadian First Army captures Emden and Wilhelmshaven . April 29 At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . At the royal palace in Caserta , Lieutenant-Colonel Viktor von Schweinitz (representing General Heinrich von Vietinghoff ) and SS- Obersturmbannführer Eugen Wenner (representing Waffen-SS General Karl Wolff ) sign an unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis powers forces in Italy, taking effect on May 2 . Italian General Rodolfo Graziani orders the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano forces under his command to lay down their arms. [ 35 ] Dachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of Webling. [ 36 ] Brazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro , Italy, from German forces. Operation Manna : British Avro Lancaster bombers drop food into the Netherlands to prevent the starvation of the civilian population. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun , in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker , and signs his last will and testament . April 30 – WWII: Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . Death of Adolf Hitler : Adolf Hitler and his wife of one day, Eva Braun , commit suicide as the Red Army approaches the Führerbunker in Berlin. Großadmiral Karl Dönitz succeeds Hitler as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Joseph Goebbels succeeds as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany) , in accordance with Hitler's political testament the day earlier. American forces enter the Bavarian capital of Munich . May May – Interpol (being headquartered in Berlin) effectively ceases to exist (it is recreated on June 3 , 1946 ). May 1 – WWII: Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. Reichssender Hamburg 's Flensburg radio station announces that Hitler has died in battle, "fighting up to his last breath against Bolshevism ." Joseph Goebbels carries out his sole official act as Chancellor of Germany, dictating a letter to the Soviet commander in Berlin advising of Hitler's death and requesting a ceasefire. When the latter is refused, he and his wife Magda kill their six children and commit suicide themselves. Karl Dönitz appoints Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk as the new de facto Chancellor of Germany , in the Flensburg Government . Troops of the Yugoslav 4th Army, together with the Slovene 9th Corpus NOV, enter Trieste . Mass suicide in Demmin : An estimated 700–2,500 suicides take place, after 80% of the town has been destroyed by the Soviets during the past three days. May 2 – WWII: The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. The Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin . The famous picture of Raising a Flag over the Reichstag was taken at this date. Lübeck is liberated by the British Army . The surrender of Axis troops in Italy comes into effect. A Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all- Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisoners. [ 37 ] Troops of the New Zealand Army 2nd Division enter Trieste a day after the Yugoslavs ; the German Army in Trieste surrenders to the New Zealand Army . Following the death or resignation of the Hitler Cabinet in Germany, the Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet first meets. Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this date. Expatriate American poet Ezra Pound is arrested by the Italian resistance movement but soon released by them as of no interest; on May 5 he turns himself in to the United States Army and is imprisoned as a traitor. May 3 – WWII: The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] The prison ships Cap Arcona (5,000 dead), Thielbek (2,750 dead) and Deutschland (all survive) are sunk by the British Royal Air Force in Lübeck Bay. Rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and 120 members of his team surrender to U.S. forces (later going on to help start the U.S. space program). German Protestant theologian Gerhard Kittel is arrested by the French forces in Tübingen, Germany. Operation Dracula : British troops liberate the Burmese capital of Rangoon from Japanese forces. Capture of Hamburg : British troops of VIII Corps and XII Corps capture city of Hamburg [ 38 ] May 4 – WWII: German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] German surrender at Lüneburg Heath : All German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , effective on May 5 at 08:00 hours British Double (and German) Summer Time. The Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troops. [ 39 ] Denmark is liberated. [ 40 ] Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to bases in Norway. [ 41 ] The Holy Crown of Hungary is found in Mattsee , Austria, by the United States Army 86th Infantry Division . The U.S. government keeps the crown in Fort Knox for safekeeping from the Soviets until it is returned to Hungary on January 6 1978 . [ 42 ] German auxiliary cruiser Orion is sunk on her way to Copenhagen carrying refugees, with a loss of over 3,800 lives. American troops captures city of Salzburg [ 43 ] May 5 – WWII: Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. Prague uprising : Prague rises up against occupying Nazi forces, encouraged by radio broadcasts (giving rise to the Battle for Czech Radio ). The US 11th Armored Division liberates the prisoners of Mauthausen concentration camp , including Simon Wiesenthal . Canadian soldiers liberate the city of Amsterdam from Nazi occupation. A Japanese fire balloon kills six people, Elsie Mitchell and five children, near Bly, Oregon , when it explodes as they drag it from the woods. These are the only people killed by an enemy attack on the American mainland during WWII. May 6 WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] WWII: Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally") delivers her last propaganda broadcast to Allied troops (the first was on December 11, 1941 ). Holocaust : Ebensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United States) . WWII: American troops of 16th Armored Division reaches city of Plzeň in Czech [ 44 ] May 6 – 7 – The government of the Independent State of Croatia , the Nazi-affiliated fascist puppet state established in occupied Yugoslavia , flees Zagreb for a location near Klagenfurt in Austria, but is captured in the Bleiburg repatriations that then leads to mass executions. [ 45 ] May 7 – WWII: At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. At 02:41, General Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims , France, to end Germany's participation in the war. Surrender is effective on May 8 at 23:01 hours Central European Time (00:01 hours May 9 German Summer Time). This afternoon Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , Leading Minister in the rump Flensburg Government , makes a broadcast announcing the German surrender and American journalist Edward Kennedy breaks an Allied embargo on news of the signing. [ 46 ] Numerous RAF Lancasters land in Germany to repatriate British prisoners of war. Some 4,500 ex-POWs are flown back to Great Britain over the next 24 hours. May 8 – WWII: Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] Victory in Europe Day (VE Day) is observed by the western European powers as Nazi Germany surrenders, marking the end of WWII in Europe. Shortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin- Karlshorst , attended by Allied representatives. Canadian troops move into Amsterdam , after German troops surrender. The surrender of the Dodecanese is signed in Symi . The Prague uprising ends with a ceasefire. The Eighth British Army , together with Slovene partisan troops and a motorized detachment of the Yugoslav 4th Army, arrives in Carinthia and Klagenfurt . The Croatian Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia are ordered by their commanders not to surrender to the Yugoslav Partisans , but to attempt to retreat to Austria and surrender to the British, part of the events leading to the Bleiburg repatriations . Hermann Göring surrenders himself to the United States Army near Radstadt . [ 47 ] May 8 – 29 – Sétif and Guelma massacre : in Algeria , thousands die as French troops and released Italian POWs kill an estimated 6,000 to 40,000 Algerian citizens. May 9 – WWII: The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . The Soviet Union marks VE Day as the Red Army enters Prague. [ 48 ] Vidkun Quisling and other members of the collaborationist Quisling regime in Norway surrender to the Resistance ( Milorg ) and police at Møllergata 19 in Oslo, as part of the legal purge in Norway after World War II . General Alexander Löhr , Commander of German Army Group E near Topolšica, Slovenia , signs the capitulation of German occupation troops. Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : British forces take the surrender of the occupying troops, with Royal Navy ships HMS Bulldog arriving in St Peter Port , Guernsey , and HMS Beagle in St Helier , Jersey . May 10 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Sark ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops and leaving them under the orders of Dame Sibyl Hathaway . May 12 Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. Argentinian labour leader José Peter declares the Meat Industry Workers Federation dissolved. Rev. W. V. Awdry 's children's book The Three Railway Engines , first of The Railway Series , is published in England. May 14 – 15 – WWII: Battle of Poljana : The last battle of the War in Europe is fought at Poljana near Slovenj Gradec , Slovenia . May 15 – WWII: Surrender at Bleiburg – Retreating troops of the Croatian Armed Forces of the former puppet Independent State of Croatia (intermingled with fleeing civilians) attempt to surrender to the British Army at Bleiburg , but are directed to surrender to Yugoslav Partisans , who open fire on them. The remainder, after orders are given by Tito , are force-marched through Croatia and Serbia , interned or massacred, with thousands dying. [ 49 ] May 16 – WWII: Liberation of the German-occupied Channel Islands : Occupation of Alderney ends, with British forces taking the surrender of the occupying troops, the civilian population having been evacuated. May 18 – WWII: Operation Unthinkable – British prime minister Winston Churchill secretly requests his military chiefs of staff to consider a plan for British, American and reactivated German forces to attack the Soviet Red Army on July 1 to preserve the independence of Poland. The operation is ruled militarily unfeasible. [ 50 ] May 23 The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. The Flensburg Government is dissolved by the Allies, and German president Karl Dönitz and German chancellor Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk are arrested by British RAF Regiment personnel at Flensburg . They are respectively the last German head of state and head of government until 1949 . Heinrich Himmler , former head of the Nazi SS , commits suicide in British custody. May 28 – U.S.-born Irish-raised William Joyce (" Lord Haw-Haw ") is captured on the German border. He is later charged in London with high treason for his earlier English-language wartime broadcasts from German radio, convicted, and then hanged in January 1946. May 29 German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. German communists, led by Walter Ulbricht , arrive in Berlin. Dutch painter Han van Meegeren is arrested for collaboration with the Nazis, but the "Dutch Golden Age" paintings he has sold to Hermann Göring (Koch) are later proved to be his own fakes. May 30 – The Iranian government demands that all Soviet and British troops leave the country. June June 1 – The British take over Lebanon and Syria . June 5 – The Allied Control Council , the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes power. June 7 – King Haakon VII of Norway returns to Norway five years to the day after leaving for exile in Britain. June 11 William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] William Lyon Mackenzie King is re-elected as Canadian prime minister. The Franck Committee recommends against a surprise nuclear bombing of Japan. [ 51 ] June 12 – The Yugoslav Army leaves Trieste , leaving the New Zealand Army in control. June 21 – WWII: The Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972 . June 24 – WWII: A victory parade is held in Red Square in Moscow. June 25 – Seán T. O'Kelly is elected the second president of Ireland . June 26 – The United Nations Charter is signed in San Francisco. June 29 – Czechoslovakia cedes Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union . June 30 – John von Neumann 's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC is distributed, containing the first published description of the logical design of a computer, with stored-program and instruction data stored in the same address space within the memory ( von Neumann architecture ). July July 1 WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . WWII: Germany is divided between the Allied occupation forces. WWII: Australian and other Allied forces launch an invasion of the east coast of Japanese-occupied Borneo near Balikpapan . July 2 – The 1945 Sheikh Bashir rebellion breaks out in Burao and Erigavo in British Somaliland , led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader. [ 52 ] July 4 – Brazilian cruiser Bahia is sunk by an accidentally induced explosion, killing more than 300 and stranding the survivors in shark-infested waters. July 5 The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. The 1945 United Kingdom general election is held, though some constituencies delay their polls for local holiday reasons. Counting of votes and declaration of results are delayed until July 26 to allow for voting by the large number of service personnel still overseas. John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia , dies in office from heart failure at the age of 60. He is briefly replaced by his deputy Frank Forde , who serves as the 15th Prime Minister until a Labor Party leadership election is held to replace Curtin. WWII: The Philippines are declared liberated. July 6 – 7 – Schio massacre : 54 prisoners, mostly fascist sympathisers, are killed by members of the Italian resistance movement in Schio . July 8 – WWII: Harry S. Truman is informed that Japan will talk peace if it can retain the reign of the Emperor. [ 51 ] July 12 – Ben Chifley is elected leader of the Labor Party , and consequently becomes the 16th Prime Minister of Australia , defeating Frank Forde as well as Norman Makin and H.V. Evatt . As a result, Forde becomes the shortest-serving prime minister in Australian history; nevertheless, he retains his post as deputy leader. July 14 – WWII: Italy declares war on Japan. July 16 The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. The Trinity Test , the first of an atomic bomb , using about six kilograms of plutonium , succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNT. A train collision near Munich , Germany kills 102 war prisoners. July 17 – August 2 – WWII: Potsdam Conference – At Potsdam , the three main Allied leaders hold their final summit of the war. President Truman officially informs Stalin that the U.S. has a powerful new weapon. July 21 – WWII: President Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against Japan. [ 51 ] July 23 – WWII: French marshal Philippe Pétain , who headed the Vichy government during WWII, goes on trial for treason. July 26 Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , after his Conservative Party is soundly defeated by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election . Clement Attlee becomes the new prime minister. It is the first time that Labour has governed Britain with a majority in the House of Commons . [ 53 ] The Potsdam Declaration demands Japan's unconditional surrender; Article 12, permitting Japan to retain the reign of the Emperor, has been deleted by President Truman. [ 51 ] July 27 – WWII: Bombing of Aomori – Two USAAF B-29s drop a total of 60,000 leaflets on the city of Aomori , Japan, warning civilians of an air raid and urging them to leave immediately. The city was firebombed the next day, killing more than 1,700 people. July 28 WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] WWII: Japan ambiguously rejects the Potsdam Declaration . [ 51 ] A North American B-25 Mitchell crashes into The Empire State Building , killing 14 people. [ 54 ] July 29 The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched in the United Kingdom, aimed at mainstream light entertainment and music . WWII: Bombing of Aomori : The Japanese city of Aomori is firebombed by 63 USAAF B-29 heavy bombers , killing 1,767 civilians and destroying 18,045 homes. July 30 – WWII: Heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis is hit and sunk by torpedoes from the Japanese submarine I-58 in the Philippine Sea . Some 900 survivors jump into the sea and are adrift for up to four days. Nearly 600 die before help arrives. Captain Charles B. McVay III of the cruiser is later court-martialed and convicted; in 2000, he is posthumously exonerated. [ 55 ] August August 6 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Hiroshima : United States Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay drops a uranium-235 atomic bomb , codenamed " Little Boy ", on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. local time, resulting in between 90,000 and 146,000 deaths. August 7 – U.S. President Harry Truman announces the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, while he is returning from the Potsdam Conference aboard the U.S. Navy heavy cruiser USS Augusta (CA-31) , in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. August 8 The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. The United Nations Charter is ratified by the United States Senate, and this nation becomes the third to join the new international organization. WWII: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. August 9 – WWII: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] Atomic bombing of Nagasaki : United States B-29 Bockscar drops a plutonium-239 atomic bomb, codenamed " Fat Man ", on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. The Soviet–Japanese War opens: The Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held puppet region of Manchuria including the northern peninsula of Korea that became involved with the 25th Army . [ 56 ] August 10 – WWII: Japan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the Emperor". August 11 WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. WWII: The Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer by stating that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces . The Holocaust : Kraków pogrom – Róża Berger is shot dead by Polish militia. August 11 – 25 – Soviet troops complete the occupation of Sakhalin . August 13 – The Zionist World Congress approaches the British government to discuss the founding of the country of Israel . August 14 – WWII: Emperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace . At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT ), U.S. president Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrender. August 15 WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . WWII: Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. Bombing of Kumagaya , Japan, by the United States using conventional bombs, beginning at 00:23. Hirohito surrender broadcast (Gyokuon-hōsō) : Emperor Hirohito 's announcement of the unconditional surrender of Japan is broadcast on the radio a little after noon (12:00 Japan Standard Time is 03:00 GMT). This is probably the first time an Emperor of Japan has been heard by the common people. Delivered in formal classical Japanese , without directly referring to surrender and following official censorship of the country's weak position, the recorded speech is not immediately easily understood by ordinary people. The Allies call this day Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day). This ends the period of Japanese expansionism , and begins the period of the Occupation of Japan and sets the stage for Korean independence. The August Revolution in Vietnam begins, with the Viet Minh taking over the capital Hanoi , taking advantage of the collapse of Japanese power. The Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization is founded, as a specialized agency of the United Nations . August 17 Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . Philippines President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to the Second Philippine Republic , thus ending his term as President of the Philippines. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence : Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declare the independence of the Republic of Indonesia , with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire . August 18 – WWII: Death of Subhas Chandra Bose : Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose is killed as a result of his overloaded Japanese plane crashing in Japanese Taiwan . August 19 – Chinese Civil War : Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the Nationalists . August 22 – Kim Il Sung as the guerilla fighter returned to the Soviet-occupied capital Pyongyang after the Red Army entered the northern peninsula of Korea . August 23 – Soviet–Japanese War : Joseph Stalin orders the detention of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union . August 25 – Bảo Đại abdicates as Emperor of Vietnam , ending 2,000 years of dynastic and monarchic rule in the country and 143 years of the Nguyễn dynasty , Paris marked the first anniversary of liberation from Nazi rule by the French Resistance as a momentous event at the Battle of Normandy against Dietrich von Choltitz . August 30 – WWII: Vietnam 's capital Hanoi is taken by the Viet Minh , which ends the French occupation in what becomes North Vietnam , and thus the southern provinces become South Vietnam . This ends the August Revolution . August 31 WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] WWII: Allied troops arrest German field marshal Walther von Brauchitsch . A team at American Cyanamid 's Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, New York , led by Yellapragada Subbarow , announces they have obtained folic acid in a pure crystalline form. [ 57 ] This vitamin is abundant in green leaf vegetables , liver , kidney , and yeast . [ 58 ] September September 2 – World War II ends: Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita surrenders to Philippine and American forces at Kiangan, Ifugao . The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur , and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United States, and delegates from the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu , on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay . General Douglas MacArthur is given the title of Supreme Commander Allied Powers , and is also tasked with the occupation of Japan. [ 59 ] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam is officially established, by Ho Chi Minh . [ 59 ] September 4 – WWII: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island , after hearing word of their country's surrender. September 5 Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. Iva Toguri D'Aquino , a Japanese American suspected of being wartime radio propagandist " Tokyo Rose ", is arrested in Yokohama . Russian code clerk Igor Gouzenko comes forward with numerous documents implicating the Soviet Union in many spy rings in North America, both in the United States and in Canada. September 8 U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] U.S. troops arrive in Southern Korea , while the Soviet Union occupies the north , with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitude. This arrangement proves to be the indirect beginning of a divided Korea, which will lead to the Korean War when North Korea invades in 1950 . The Afghan government defeats a rebel force at Kunar Khas ; Gerald Crichton, the British Charge de 'affairs in Kabul, later describes the victory as the "turning point" of the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 . [ 60 ] September 9 Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at Nanking . [ 59 ] Japanese troops in Keijō (present day Seoul ) formally relinquish control over Southern Korea to the United States, effectively ending Japan's 35-year rule of Korea. [ 61 ] September 10 – Vidkun Quisling is sentenced to death for being a Nazi collaborator in Norway. [ 59 ] September 11 Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. Hideki Tojo , Japanese prime minister during most of World War II, attempts to commit suicide to avoid facing an Allied war crimes tribunal. Radio Republik Indonesia starts broadcasting. The Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak , Borneo is liberated by Australian forces. September 12 Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. Operation Tiderace : The Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in Singapore . The office of governor-general of Korea is disbanded by the United States Army Military Government in Korea, formally ending Japan's 35-year rule in Korea. September 18 Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . Typhoon Makurazaki kills 3,746 people in Japan. The Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in Wuhan . September 20 – Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru demand that all British troops depart India. September 24 – Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia : The Topoľčany pogrom is carried out in Czechoslovakia. October October – Arthur C. Clarke puts forward the idea of a geosynchronous communications satellite , in a Wireless World magazine article. October 1 – 15 – Operation Backfire : Three A4 rockets are launched near Cuxhaven , in a demonstration to Allied forces. October 2 – George Albert Smith becomes president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . October 4 – The Partizan Belgrade sports club is founded in Belgrade , Serbia . October 5 – Hollywood Black Friday : A strike by the Set Decorator's Union in Hollywood results in a riot. October 8 – 15 – Hadamar Trial: Personnel of the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre , now in the American zone of Allied-occupied Germany , are the first to be tried for systematic extermination in Nazi Germany . October 9 – Former prime minister Pierre Laval is sentenced to death, for collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France . [ 59 ] October 10 – The Nazi Party is dissolved by the Allied Powers. October 14 – Czechoslovakia : A new provisional national assembly is elected, Kim Il Sung made his first major public appearance in Pyongyang as the celebration of liberation where he was officially introduced to the public by the Soviet authorities as a national hero, a legendary guerrilla fighter and leader. [ 59 ] October 15 – 21 – The Fifth Pan-African Congress is held in Manchester . October 16 – The Food and Agriculture Organization is established at a meeting in Quebec City , as a specialized agency of the United Nations , Syngman Rhee returned to the southern peninsula of Korea as he arrived in Seoul by becoming a prominent figure under the U.S. occupation. October 17 – A massive number of people, headed for the General Confederation of Labour (Argentina) , gather in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires to demand Juan Perón 's release. This is known to the Peronists as the Día de la lealtad ( Loyalty Day ) and considered the founding day of Peronism . October 18 – Isaías Medina Angarita , president of Venezuela , is overthrown by a military coup . [ 59 ] October 19 – Members of the Indonesian People's Army attack Anglo-Dutch forces in Indonesia . [ 59 ] October 20 – Mongolians vote for independence from China. [ 59 ] October 21 – Women's suffrage : Women are allowed to vote in the French Legislative Election for the first time. October 22 – Rómulo Betancourt is named provisional president of Venezuela . [ 59 ] October 24 The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter , by 29 nations such as the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Canada , Egypt , Brazil , Haiti , Luxembourg , Russia (former USSR ) and others. [ 59 ] The International Court of Justice ("World Court") is established by the United Nations Charter . Norwegian Nazi leader Vidkun Quisling is executed by firing squad , for treason against Norway. [ 59 ] October 25 WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. WWII: Japanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the Allies. Getúlio Vargas is deposed as president in Brazil; José Linhares is named temporary president. [ 59 ] Osijek prison massacre by Yugoslav secret police. October 27 – November 20 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia fight British and British Indian troops in Surabaya . October 29 Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. Getúlio Vargas resigns as president of Brazil. At Gimbels Department Store in New York City, the first ballpoint pens go on sale at $12.50 each. October 30 – The undivided country of India joins the United Nations . November November 1 International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . International Labour Organization 's new constitution comes into effect. Telechron introduces the model 8H59 Musalarm, the first clock radio . Australia joins the United Nations . November 5 – Colombia joins the United Nations . November 6 – Indonesians reject an offer of autonomy from the Dutch . [ 59 ] November 7 – South Africa and Mexico both joined the United Nations . November 9 – Soo Bahk Do and Moo Duk Kwan martial arts are founded in Korea . November 10 – Indonesian National Revolution : Battle of Surabaya – Following the killing of British officer Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby on October 30, the British Indian Army (in support of its allied Dutch colonial administration) begins an advance on Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies against Indonesian nationalists; although most of the city is retaken in 3 days of heavy fighting, the strength of the resistance leads to today being celebrated as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) in Indonesia. November 11 – 1945 Yugoslavian parliamentary election : Marshal Josip Broz Tito and the People's Front win a decisive majority (90%) in the Yugoslavian Assembly. [ 59 ] November 15 Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] Harry S. Truman , Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King share nuclear information with the U.N. and call for a United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . [ 51 ] [ 59 ] An offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Chinese Communist Party . [ 59 ] November 16 Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional government . [ 59 ] The United States controversially imports 88 German scientists to help in the production of rocket technology. The foundation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is agreed at a meeting in London. November 18 – The Tudeh party starts a bloodless coup, and will form Azerbaijan within days. Soviet troops prevent Iranian troops from getting involved. November 20 – The Nuremberg trials begin: Trials against 22 Nazis for war crimes of World War II start at the Palace of Justice, Nuremberg . [ 59 ] November 26 – U.S. ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigns after he is unable to broker a deal between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Tse-tung . [ 59 ] November 28 The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] The 1945 Balochistan earthquake causes a tsunami and kills 4,000. British fascist John Amery pleads guilty to treason, and is condemned to death. [ 62 ] November 29 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is declared (this day is celebrated as Republic Day until the 1990s). Marshal Tito is named president. Assembly of the world's first general purpose electronic computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer ( ENIAC ), is completed in the United States, covering 1,800 square feet (170 m 2 ) of floor space, and the first set of calculations is run on it. December December 1 – German general Anton Dostler is executed by firing squad in Italy for the war crime of ordering the summary execution of captured U.S. commandos. The U.S. military tribunal which has tried him has not accepted his plea of " superior orders ", setting a precedent for future Allied war crimes trials . [ 63 ] December 2 General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. General Eurico Gaspar Dutra is elected president of Brazil. French banks ( Bank of France , BNCI , CNEP , Crédit Lyonnais and Société Générale ) are nationalized. December 3 – Communist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil War . December 4 – The United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7. December 5 – Flight 19 of United States Navy Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers disappears on a training exercise from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale . December 9 – American General George S. Patton is involved in a car accident in Germany, resulting in his death on December 21. December 21 – Iraq joins the United Nations . December 27 – Twenty-one nations ratify the articles creating the World Bank . [ 64 ] Date unknown A team at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (led by Charles D. Coryell ) discovers chemical element 61, the only one still missing between 1 and 96 on the periodic table , which they will name promethium . [ 65 ] Found by analysis of fission products of irradiated uranium fuel, its discovery is not made public until 1947. The Australian government introduces an Assisted Passage Migration Scheme to encourage the immigration of British subjects, at a fare of £ 10, hence they become known as " Ten Pound Poms ". [ 66 ] The first geothermal milk pasteurization is done in Klamath Falls, Oregon , United States. Births Births January · February · March · April · May · June · July · August · September · October · November · December January January 1 Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver Pietro Grasso , Italian politician Jacky Ickx , Belgian racing driver January 3 – Stephen Stills , American rock singer-songwriter ( Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young ) January 4 Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate Sima Bina , Iranian vocalist Richard R. Schrock , American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate January 5 Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist Júlio Isidro , Portuguese television presenter Robert Pindyck , American economist January 7 Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) Shulamith Firestone , Canadian American feminist, writer (d. 2012 ) Raila Odinga , prime minister of Kenya (d. 2025 ) January 10 – Sir Rod Stewart , British rock singer January 12 – André Bicaba , Burkinabé sprinter January 14 – Einar Hákonarson , Icelandic painter January 15 Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family Vince Foster , American deputy White House counsel during the first term of President Bill Clinton (d. 1993 ) Princess Michael of Kent , German-born member of the British Royal Family January 17 – Javed Akhtar , Indian political activist, poet, lyricist and screenwriter January 20 – Robert Olen Butler , American writer January 21 Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor Arthur Beetson , Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2011 ) Martin Shaw , British actor January 24 – Subhash Ghai , Indian film director, producer and screenwriter January 25 – Leigh Taylor-Young , American actress January 26 Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) Jacqueline du Pré , English cellist (d. 1987 ) Graham Williams , New Zealand rugby union player (d. 2018 ) January 27 – Harold Cardinal , Cree political leader, writer and lawyer (d. 2005 ) January 28 Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Karen Lynn Gorney , American actress ( Saturday Night Fever ) Chuck Pyle , American country-folk singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) January 29 Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) Jim Nicholson , Northern Irish politician Tom Selleck , American actor ( Magnum, P.I. ) January 31 – Joseph Kosuth , American artist February February 1 – Yasuhiro Takai , Japanese professional baseball player (d. 2019 ) February 3 Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer Bob Griese , American football player Philip Waruinge , Kenyan boxer February 4 – John P. Jumper , United States Air Force general February 5 – Sarah Weddington , American attorney (d. 2021 ) February 6 – Bob Marley , Jamaican reggae singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981 ) February 7 – Gerald Davies , Welsh rugby player February 9 Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] Mia Farrow , American actress Yoshinori Ohsumi , Japanese cell biologist [ 67 ] February 10 – Koo Bon-moo , South Korean business executive (d. 2018 ) February 12 Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist Luiz Carlos Alborghetti , Italian-Brazilian radio commenter, showman and political figure (d. 2009 ) Maud Adams , Swedish actress David D. Friedman , American economist February 13 – Simon Schama , English historian [ 68 ] February 14 Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein Adiss Harmandian , Lebanese-Armenian pop singer (d. 2019 ) Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein February 15 – Douglas Hofstadter , American cognitive scientist February 17 – Brenda Fricker , Irish actress [ 69 ] February 18 – Hashem Mahameed , Israeli politician (d. 2018 ) February 22 – Oliver , American singer ( Good Morning Starshine ) (d. 2000 ) February 24 – Barry Bostwick , American actor February 25 – Roy Saari , American swimmer (d. 2008 ) February 26 – Marta Kristen , Norwegian actress ( Lost In Space ) February 27 – Carl Anderson , American singer, actor ( Jesus Christ Superstar ) (d. 2004 ) February 28 Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) Alexey Ekimov , Russian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 70 ] Bubba Smith , American football player and actor (d. 2011 ) March March 1 – Dirk Benedict , American actor March 3 – George Miller , Australian film director March 4 Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player Dieter Meier , Swiss singer, writer Tommy Svensson , Swedish football manager, player March 7 – Arthur Lee , American musician (d. 2006 ) March 8 Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter Micky Dolenz , American actor, director and rock musician ( The Monkees ) Anselm Kiefer , German painter March 9 Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer Katja Ebstein , German singer Dennis Rader , American serial killer March 10 – Nobuhiko Higashikuni , Japanese Imperial prince (d. 2019 ) March 13 Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician Othman Abdullah , Malaysian footballer (d. 2015 ) Anatoly Fomenko , Russian mathematician March 14 – Michael Martin Murphey , American country singer-songwriter March 16 – Douglas Ahlstedt , American tenor March 17 Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) Hassan Bechara , Lebanese wrestler (d. 2017 ) March 18 Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist Michael Reagan , American television personality, political commentator and Republican strategist Marta Suplicy , Brazilian politician and psychologist March 20 Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach Jay Ingram , Canadian television host, author and journalist Bobby Jameson , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) Pat Riley , American basketball coach March 21 – Charles Greene , American Olympic athlete (d. 2022 ) March 26 – Mikhail Voronin , Russian gymnast (d. 2004 ) March 27 – Władysław Stachurski , Polish football player, manager (d. 2013 ) March 28 Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress Rodrigo Duterte , 16th President of the Philippines Raine Loo , Estonian actress March 29 Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) Walt Frazier , African-American basketball player Willem Ruis , Dutch game show host (d. 1986 ) March 30 – Eric Clapton , English rock guitarist and singer-songwriter [ 71 ] March 31 Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] Nana Ampadu , Ghanaian musician (d. 2021 ) [ 72 ] Edwin Catmull , American computer scientist, President of Walt Disney Animation Studios [ 73 ] April April 2 – Linda Hunt , American actress [ 74 ] April 4 – Daniel Cohn-Bendit , French political activist [ 75 ] April 5 Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) Cem Karaca , Turkish musician (d. 2004 ) Tommy Smith , English footballer (d. 2019 ) April 12 – Lee Jong-wook , South Korean Director-General of the World Health Organization (d. 2006 ) April 13 Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) Lucha Corpi , Mexican poet Tony Dow , American actor, producer and director (d. 2022 ) Lowell George , American rock musician ( Little Feat ) (d. 1979 ) April 14 Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa Ritchie Blackmore , English rock guitarist Tuilaʻepa Saʻilele Malielegaoi , 6th Prime Minister of Samoa April 20 – Naftali Temu , Kenyan Olympic long-distance runner (d. 2003 ) April 21 – Ana Lúcia Torre , Brazilian actress April 24 – Larry Tesler , American computer scientist (cut, copy, paste) (d. 2020 ) April 25 – Björn Ulvaeus , Swedish rock songwriter ( ABBA ) April 29 – Tammi Terrell , African-American soul singer (d. 1970 ) April 30 – Lara Saint Paul , Eritrean-born Italian singer (d. 2018 ) May May 1 – Rita Coolidge , American pop singer May 2 – Bianca Jagger , Nicaraguan social activist [ 76 ] May 3 – Jeffrey C. Hall , American geneticist and chronobiologist, Nobel Prize laureate May 4 David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist David Magson , Australian-British mathematician and businessman Narasimhan Ram , Indian journalist May 6 – Bob Seger , American rock singer May 7 – Robin Strasser , American actress May 8 – Keith Jarrett , American musician [ 77 ] May 9 – Jupp Heynckes , German footballer and manager May 11 Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist Mary Cooney , American politician Hilda Pérez Carvajal , Venezuelan biologist May 13 – Tammam Salam , 34th Prime Minister of Lebanon May 14 – Yochanan Vollach , Israeli footballer and president of Maccabi Haifa, CEO May 15 – Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza , heir to the Portuguese crown May 17 – Tony Roche , Australian tennis player May 19 – Pete Townshend , English rock guitarist, lyricist ( The Who ) May 20 – Anton Zeilinger , Austrian quantum physicist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 78 ] May 21 Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut Richard Hatch , American actor ( Battlestar Galactica ) (d. 2017 ) Ernst Messerschmid , German physicist, astronaut May 22 – Victoria Wyndham , American actress ( Another World ) May 23 Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer Lauren Chapin , American child actress, evangelist Doris Mae Oulton , Canadian community developer May 24 – Priscilla Presley , American actress, businesswoman May 28 Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) Patch Adams , American physician, comedian, social activist, clown and author John Fogerty , American rock singer ( Creedence Clearwater Revival ) May 29 Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) Gary Brooker , English rock keyboardist and singer-songwriter ( Procol Harum ) (d. 2022 ) [ 79 ] Jean-Pierre Van Rossem , Belgian businessman, fraudster and politician (d. 2018 ) May 30 Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) Andrea Bronfman , American philanthropist (d. 2006 ) Gladys Horton , American singer ( The Marvelettes ) (d. 2011 ) May 31 Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire Rainer Werner Fassbinder , German film director (d. 1982 ) Laurent Gbagbo , President of Côte d'Ivoire June June 1 – Frederica von Stade , American mezzo-soprano June 2 – Jon Peters , American film producer June 3 – Hale Irwin , American professional golfer June 4 – Anthony Braxton , American composer and musical instrumentalist June 5 John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) John Carlos , American athlete Théophile Georges Kassab , Catholic prelate (d. 2013 ) Nechama Rivlin , Israeli socialite, 10th First lady of Israel (d. 2019 ) June 6 – David Dukes , American actor (d. 2000 ) June 7 – Wolfgang Schüssel , Chancellor of Austria June 9 – Nike Wagner , German woman of the theater June 10 – Benny Gallagher , Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist, half of duo Gallagher and Lyle June 11 – Adrienne Barbeau , American actress, television personality and author ( Maude ) June 12 – Pat Jennings , Northern Irish footballer June 14 – Jörg Immendorff , German painter June 15 Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) Françoise Chandernagor , French writer Miriam Defensor Santiago , Filipino politician (d. 2016 ) June 16 Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician Claire Alexander , Canadian ice hockey player Ivan Lins , Latin Grammy-winning Brazilian musician June 17 P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist P. D. T. Acharya , Secretary General, Indian Lok Sabha Art Bell , American radio talk show host ( Coast to Coast AM ) (d. 2018 ) Ken Livingstone , British politician Eddy Merckx , Belgian cyclist June 19 Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient Radovan Karadžić , Serbian politician Aung San Suu Kyi , Myanmar politician and poet, Nobel Peace Prize recipient June 20 – Anne Murray , Canadian singer June 21 Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter Roberto D'Angelo , Italian slalom canoeist Luis Castañeda Lossio , Peruvian politician Thiagarajan , Indian actor, director and producer Nirmalendu Goon , Bangladeshi poet Marijana Lubej , Slovenian sprinter June 22 Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) Juma Kapuya , Tanzanian politician Dieter Versen , German football defender (d. 2025 ) June 23 Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer Ana Chumachenco , Italian violinist Kim Småge , Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories and children's writer June 24 George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician George Pataki , Governor of New York Betty Stöve , Dutch tennis player [ 80 ] Ali Akbar Velayati , Iranian physician, politician June 25 Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army Lali Armengol , Spanish playwright, professor and theater director [ 81 ] Mohammed Bakar , Malaysian footballer Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick , American politician Baba Gana Kingibe , Nigerian politician Guillermo Mendoza , Mexican cyclist Chaiyasit Shinawatra , commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army June 26 – Paul Chun , Hong Kong actor June 27 Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School Jose Miguel Arroyo , First Gentleman of the Philippines Ami Ayalon , Israeli politician Norma Kamali , American fashion designer Catherine Lacoste , French amateur golfer Lu Sheng-yen , Taiwanese leader of the True Buddha School June 28 Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) Ken Buchanan , Scottish undisputed world lightweight boxing champion (d. 2023 ) Raul Seixas , Brazilian rock singer (d. 1989 ) June 29 – Chandrika Kumaratunga , 5th President of Sri Lanka June 30 Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician Kevin Jackman , Australian rules footballer Jerry Kenney , American Major League Baseball infielder Sean Scully , Irish-American-based painter, printmaker James Snyder Jr. , American author, attorney and politician July July 1 Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) Jane Cederqvist , Swedish freestyle swimmer Visu , Indian writer, director, stage, actor and talk-show host (d. 2020 ) Billy Rohr , American Major League Baseball player Debbie Harry , American rock singer ( Blondie ) July 2 – Linda Warren , American author July 3 – Thomas Mapfumo , Zimbabwean musician July 4 Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist Tiong Thai King , Malaysian politician Steinar Amundsen , Norwegian sprint canoeist July 5 Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor Nurul Islam Nahid , Bangladeshi politician Miroslav Mišković , Serbian business magnate, investor July 6 – Burt Ward , American actor ( Batman ) July 7 Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer Heloísa Pinheiro , Brazilian model, businesswoman Moncef Marzouki , Tunisian politician; 4th President of Tunisia Li Chi-an , North Korean football striker Matti Salminen , Finnish bass singer July 8 – Micheline Calmy-Rey , Swiss Federal Councilor July 9 Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer Dean Koontz , American writer Mohammad Reza Nematzadeh , Iranian politician, engineer July 10 Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) Zlatko Tomčić , Croatian politician Daniel Ona Ondo , Gabonese politician Virginia Wade , English professional tennis player Ron Glass , African-American actor (d. 2016 ) July 11 – Richard Wesley , American playwright, screenwriter July 12 Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player Leopoldo Mastelloni , Italian actor, comedian and singer Thor Martinsen , Norwegian ice hockey player July 14 – Antun Vujić , Croatian politician, philosopher, political analyst, lexicographer and author July 15 Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) Hong Ra-hee , South Korean billionaire businesswoman, philanthropist Jürgen Möllemann , German politician (d. 2003 ) Jan-Michael Vincent , American actor (d. 2019 ) July 16 Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter Victor Sloan , Irish artist Çetin Tekindor , Turkish actor Roy Ho Ten Soeng , Dutch politician Jos Stelling , Dutch film director, screenwriter July 17 Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia Eduardo Olivera , Mexican modern pentathlete Kim Won-hong , North Korean politician, military leader Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia July 19 Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician Oleg Fotin , Russian swimmer Richard Henderson , Scottish molecular biologist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 82 ] Uri Rosenthal , Dutch politician July 20 Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat Kim Carnes , American singer-songwriter ( Bette Davis Eyes ) Lothar Koepsel , German sailor Simbarashe Mumbengegwi , Zimbabwean politician and diplomat July 21 John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman John Lowe , English darts player Barry Richards , South African batsman July 23 – Edie McClurg , American actress July 24 – Azim Premji , Indian businessman July 26 Helen Mirren , British actress Helen Mirren , British actress July 28 – Jim Davis , American cartoonist ( Garfield ) July 30 Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) Roger Dobkowitz , American producer Patrick Modiano , French novelist, Nobel Prize laureate [ 83 ] David Sanborn , American saxophonist (d. 2024 ) August August 1 – Douglas Osheroff , American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate August 4 – Alan Mulally , American businessman, CEO of the Ford Motor Company August 5 – Loni Anderson , American actress ( WKRP in Cincinnati ) (d. 2025 ) August 8 – Julie Anne Robinson , British theatre, television, film director and producer August 9 – Posy Simmonds , English cartoonist August 12 Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) Ron Mael , American musician ( Sparks ) [ 84 ] J. D. McClatchy , American poet and literary critic (d. 2018 ) August 14 Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer Steve Martin , American actor and comedian Valeriy Shmarov , Ukrainian politician (d. 2018 ) Eliana Pittman , Brazilian singer, actress Faustin Twagiramungu , Prime Minister of Rwanda (d. 2023 ) Wim Wenders , German film director, producer August 15 Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] Bobby Treviño , Mexican baseball player (d. 2018 ) Miyuki Matsuhisa , Japanese artistic gymnast Khaleda Zia , Bangladesh politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2025 ) [ 85 ] August 17 – Katri Helena , Finnish singer August 19 – Ian Gillan , English rock singer ( Deep Purple ) August 22 David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) David Chase , American writer, director and television producer Ron Dante , American rock singer-songwriter and record producer ( The Archies ) August 24 – Vincent K. "Vince" McMahon , American professional wrestling promoter, chairman and CEO of WWE August 25 – Daniel Hulet , Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011 ) August 26 – Tom Ridge , American politician August 27 – Marianne Sägebrecht , German film actress August 29 Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete Alyosha Abrahamyan , Armenian football player (d. 2018 ) Wyomia Tyus , American Olympic athlete August 31 Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor Sir Van Morrison , Irish rock musician Itzhak Perlman , Israeli-born American violinist, conductor September September 1 – Mustafa Balel , Turkish writer September 5 K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) K. N. T. Sastry , Indian film critic, director and writer (d. 2018 ) Al Stewart , Scottish singer-songwriter ( Year of the Cat ) September 6 – Victor Ramahatra , 5th Prime Minister of Madagascar September 7 – Jacques Lemaire , Canadian ice hockey coach September 8 Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player Ron "Pigpen" McKernan , American musician ( Grateful Dead ) (d. 1973 ) Rogatien Vachon , Canadian ice hockey player September 10 – José Feliciano , Puerto Rican-American singer (" Feliz Navidad ") September 11 – Franz Beckenbauer , German footballer and manager (d. 2024 ) September 12 – Richard Thaler , American economist September 14 – Benjamin Harjo Jr. , Native American artist September 15 – Jessye Norman , American soprano (d. 2019 ) September 16 – Pat Stevens , American voice actress (d. 2010 ) September 17 Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor Phil Jackson , American basketball coach Bruce Spence , Australian actor September 18 John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) John McAfee , British-American computer programmer and businessman (d. 2021 ) [ 86 ] P. F. Sloan , American singer-songwriter (d. 2015 ) September 19 - Randolph Mantooth , American actor September 21 Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet Shaw Clifton , Northern Ireland-born General of the Salvation Army Kay Ryan , American poet September 22 – Gonzaguinha , Brazilian singer, composer (d. 1991 ) September 24 – John Rutter , English choral composer, conductor September 26 – Bryan Ferry , English singer-songwriter and musician ( Roxy Music ) September 27 – Jack Goldstein , Canadian artist (d. 2003 ) September 29 – Nadezhda Chizhova , Russian athlete September 30 Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter Ehud Olmert , 12th Prime Minister of Israel Ralph Siegel , German record producer, songwriter October October 1 Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India Rod Carew , Panamanian-American baseball player Donny Hathaway , African-American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1979 ) Ram Nath Kovind , 14th President of India October 2 Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") Regina Torné , Mexican actress, singer and television presenter Don McLean , American singer-songwriter (" American Pie ") October 3 – Viktor Saneyev , Soviet athlete and Olympic champion (d. 2022 ) October 6 – Ivan Graziani , Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1997 ) October 9 Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) Vijaya Kumaratunga , Sri Lankan actor and politician (d. 1988 ) Archbishop Nikon of Boston , Albanian bishop (d. 2019 ) October 12 Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) Aurore Clément , French actress Dusty Rhodes , American wrestler (d. 2015 ) October 18 Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer Norio Wakamoto , Japanese voice actor Yıldo , Turkish showman, footballer October 19 Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) Angus Deaton , Scottish-born economist, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences John Lithgow , American actor ( Third Rock from the Sun ) October 22 – Yvan Ponton , Canadian actor, sportscaster October 23 – Kim Larsen , Danish rock musician (d. 2018 ) October 24 Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science Eugenie Scott , American Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education Sean Solomon , American Principal Investigator of NASA's MESSENGER mission to Mercury and director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science October 25 Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor Peter Ledger , Australian artist (d. 1994 ) David Schramm , American astrophysicist and educator (d. 1997 ) Keaton Yamada , Japanese voice actor October 26 Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) Pat Conroy , American author (d. 2016 ) Jaclyn Smith , American actress, businesswoman ( Charlie's Angels ) October 27 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , 35th President of Brazil Carrie Snodgress , American actress (d. 2004 ) October 29 Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress Ching Li , Taiwanese actress (d. 2017 ) Melba Moore , African-American singer, actress October 30 – Henry Winkler , American actor, producer and director ( Happy Days ) November November 3 – Gerd Müller , German footballer (d. 2021 ) November 5 – Jacques Lanctôt , Canadian terrorist November 7 Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer Bob Englehart , American editorial cartoonist Waljinah , Javanese singer November 8 – Joseph James DeAngelo , American serial killer and serial rapist November 9 – Charlie Robinson , African-American actor (d. 2021 ) November 10 – Madeleine Juneau , Canadian museologist November 11 – Daniel Ortega , 58th and 62nd President of Nicaragua November 12 – Neil Young , Canadian singer-songwriter, musician November 15 – Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Norwegian-born rock singer ( ABBA ) November 17 Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria Elvin Hayes , American basketball player Abdelmadjid Tebboune , President of Algeria November 18 Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka Wilma Mankiller , Chief of the Cherokee Nation (d. 2010 ) Mahinda Rajapaksa , Sri Lankan politician, 6th President of Sri Lanka November 21 – Goldie Hawn , American actress Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician Kalervo Kummola – Finnish ice hockey executive, businessman, and politician November 22 – Kari Tapio , Finnish singer (d. 2010 ) November 23 – Dennis Nilsen , Scottish serial killer (d. 2018 ) [ 87 ] November 24 – Nuruddin Farah , Somali novelist November 25 – Mary Jo Deschanel , American actress November 26 – John McVie , English rock musician ( Fleetwood Mac ) November 27 Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) Barbara Anderson , American actress James Avery , African-American actor (d. 2013 ) November 30 Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) Roger Glover , English rock musician ( Deep Purple ) Radu Lupu , Romanian classical pianist (d. 2022 ) December December 1 Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer Lyle Bien , American vice admiral [ 88 ] Bette Midler , American actress, comedian and singer December 2 – Tex Watson , American multiple murderer, 'Manson Family' member December 3 – Bozhidar Dimitrov , Bulgarian historian, politician and polemicist (d. 2018 ) December 4 – Geoff Emerick , English recording engineer (d. 2018 ) December 7 – Clive Russell , English actor December 8 – Julie Heldman , American tennis player [ 89 ] December 10 – John Ankerberg , American Christian television host, author and speaker December 11 – Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor December 12 René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) René Pétillon , French satirical, political cartoonist (d. 2018 ) Portia Simpson-Miller , 2-time Prime Minister of Jamaica Kathy Garver , American actress, author and online radio hostess Donald Pandiangan , Indonesian archery athlete (d. 2008 ) Heather North , American actress (d. 2017 ) December 15 Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor Michael King , New Zealand popular historian, author and biographer (d. 2004 ) Thaao Penghlis , Australian actor December 16 – Patti Deutsch , American voice actress (d. 2017 ) December 17 – Ernie Hudson , African-American actor December 18 – Carolyn Wood , American professional swimmer December 19 – Elaine Joyce , American actress, game show panelist December 20 Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) Peter Criss , American rock drummer ( KISS ) Sivakant Tiwari , senior legal officer of the Singapore Legal Service (d. 2010 ) December 21 – Mari Lill , Estonian actress December 22 – Diane Sawyer , American news journalist December 23 – Donald A. Ritchie , American historian December 24 Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer Lemmy , British singer, bassist ( Motörhead ) (d. 2015 ) [ 90 ] Nicholas Meyer , American screenwriter, producer, director and novelist Sharafuddin of Selangor , Sultan of Selangor Steve Smith , Canadian actor, comedian and writer December 25 – Noel Redding , English musician (d. 2003 ) [ 91 ] December 29 – Birendra of Nepal , King of Nepal (d. 2001 ) December 30 – Davy Jones , English-born pop singer, actor ( The Monkees ) (d. 2012 ) December 31 Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Barbara Carrera , Nicaraguan-American actress Vernon Wells , Australian actor [ 92 ] Connie Willis , American fiction writer Deaths January January 2 – Sir Bertram Ramsay , British admiral (b. 1883 ) January 3 – Edgar Cayce , American mystic (b. 1877 ) January 4 – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno , 3-time President of Costa Rica (b. 1859 ) January 6 Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) Josefa Llanes Escoda , Filipino women's suffrage advocate, founder of the Girl Scouts of the Philippines (b. 1898 ) Edith Frank , German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (b. 1900 ) [ 93 ] Herbert Lumsden , British general (killed in action) (b. 1897 ) [ 94 ] Vladimir Vernadsky , Soviet mineralogist, geochemist (b. 1863 ) January 7 Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Alexander Stirling Calder , American sculptor (b. 1870 ) Thomas McGuire , American World War II fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1920 ) Prince Rainer of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) January 9 – Jüri Uluots , 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1890 ) January 10 – Pēteris Juraševskis , 8th Prime Minister of Latvia (b. 1872 ) January 12 – Teresio Olivelli , Italian Roman Catholic soldier and venerable (b. 1916 ) January 15 – Pedro Abad Santos , Filipino politician, brother of José Abad Santos (b. 1876 ) January 16 – José Fabella , Filipino physician (b. 1888 ) January 19 Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) Petar Bojović , Serbian field marshal (b. 1858 ) Gustave Mesny , French Army general (b. 1886 ) January 20 – Federico Pedrocchi , Italian artist, writer (killed on active service) (b. 1907 ) January 21 Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) Francisco Moreno Fernández , Spanish admiral (b. 1883 ) [ 95 ] Sir Archibald Murray , British Army general (b. 1860 ) January 22 – Else Lasker-Schüler , German poet, author (b. 1869 ) January 23 Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) Eugen Bolz , German politician, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1881 ) Nikolaus Gross , German Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1898 ) Newton E. Mason , United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1850 ) January 29 – Hans Conrad Leipelt , Austrian member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany (executed) (b. 1921 ) January 30 Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) Sir William Goodenough , British admiral (b. 1867 ) Pedro Paulet , Peruvian scientist (b. 1874 ) January 31 – Eddie Slovik , American soldier (executed for desertion) (b. 1920 ) [ 96 ] February February (or March) – Anne Frank , German-born Jewish diarist, writer (typhus in Bergen-Belsen concentration camp ) (b. 1929 ) [ 97 ] February 1 Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) Ivan Bagryanov , 30th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1891 ) Dobri Bozhilov , 29th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1884 ) Bogdan Filov , Bulgarian archaeologist, historian and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1883 ) Petar Gabrovski , acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1898 ) Johan Huizinga , Dutch cultural historian (b. 1872 ) Prince Kiril of Bulgaria (executed) (b. 1895 ) February 2 Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) Adolf Brand , German campaigner for homosexuality (air raid victim) (b. 1874 ) Alfred Delp , German Jesuit priest and philosopher of the German Resistance, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1907 ) Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , German politician, civil servant, executive and economist, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1884 ) Gustav Heistermann von Ziehlberg , German general, 20 July plotter (executed) (b. 1898 ) Joe Hunt , American tennis champion (military aircraft crash) (b. 1919 ) February 3 – Roland Freisler , Nazi German judge (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 5 Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) Denise Bloch , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1916 ) Lilian Rolfe , French World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1914 ) Violette Szabo , French/British World War II heroine (executed) (b. 1921 ) February 6 – Robert Brasillach , French writer (executed) (b. 1909 ) [ 98 ] February 8 – Robert Mallet-Stevens , French architect, designer (b. 1886 ) February 11 – Al Dubin , Swiss-born American songwriter (b. 1891 ) February 13 – Maria Orosa , Filipino technologist, chemist, humanitarian and WWII heroine (air raid victim) (b. 1893 ) February 16 – Otto Kittel , German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1917 ) [ 99 ] February 18 – Ivan Chernyakhovsky , Soviet general (died of wounds) (b. 1906 ) February 19 – John Basilone , American war hero (killed in action) (b. 1916 ) February 21 – Eric Liddell , British Olympic athlete (in internment camp) (b. 1902 ) February 22 – Sara Josephine Baker , American physician (b. 1873 ) February 23 José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] José María Moncada , 19th President of Nicaragua (b. 1870 ) Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoy , Russian writer (b. 1883 ) [ 100 ] February 24 – Josef Mayr-Nusser , Italian Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1910 ) February 25 – Mário de Andrade , Brazilian writer, photographer (b. 1893 ) February 26 – Millard Harmon , American general (b. 1888 ) [ 101 ] March March 2 – Emily Carr , Canadian painter (b. 1871 ) March 3 Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) Gheorghe Avramescu , Romanian general (in custody) (b. 1884 ) Aleksandra Samusenko , Soviet WWII tank commander (died of wounds) (b. 1922 ) March 4 Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) Harry Chauvel , Australian Army general (b. 1865 ) [ 102 ] Lucille La Verne , American actress (b. 1872 ) [ 103 ] Mark Sandrich , American film director (b. 1900 ) March 5 – George Alan Vasey , Australian general (killed in military aircraft accident) (b. 1895 ) March 12 – Friedrich Fromm , German Nazi official (executed) (b. 1888 ) March 14 – Francisco Braga , Brazilian composer (b. 1868 ) March 15 – Sava Caracaș , Romanian general (b. 1890 ) March 18 – William Grover-Williams , British/French racing driver, war hero (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 104 ] March 19 – Marcel Callo , French Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (in concentration camp) (b. 1921 ) March 20 – Lord Alfred Douglas , English poet (b. 1870 ) March 22 Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) Enrico Caviglia , Italian marshal (b. 1862 ) Heinrich Maier , Austrian Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1908 ) Takeichi Nishi , Japanese equestrian gold medalist (1932), tank commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1902 ) March 23 – Élisabeth de Rothschild , French WWII heroine (b. 1902 ) March 26 David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) David Lloyd George , British politician and statesman, 51st Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863 ) Tadamichi Kuribayashi , Imperial Japanese Army general, commander of the battle of Iwo Jima (probably killed in action) (b. 1891 ) Boris Shaposhnikov , Soviet military leader, Marshal of the Soviet Union (b. 1882 ) Ichimaru Toshinosuke , Japanese naval aviator, commander at Battle of Iwo Jima (killed in action) (b. 1891 ) March 27 – Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil , Turkish author (b. 1867 ) March 29 – Ferenc Csik , Hungarian swimmer (air raid victim) (b. 1913 ) March 30 – Maurice Rose , American general (killed in action) (b. 1899 ) [ 105 ] March 31 Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) Hans Fischer , German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (suicide) (b. 1881 ) Torgny Segerstedt , Swedish newspaper editor, publicist (b. 1876 ) Maria Skobtsova , Soviet Orthodox nun and saint (killed by poison) (b. 1891 ) Natalia Tulasiewicz , Polish teacher and Roman Catholic blessed (murdered in concentration camp) (b. 1906 ) April April 7 Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) Seiichi Itō , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1890 ) Aruga Kōsaku , Japanese admiral (lost in action) (b. 1897 ) April 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] Dietrich Bonhoeffer , German theologian (executed) (b. 1906 ) Wilhelm Canaris , German admiral, head of the Abwehr (executed) (b. 1887 ) Hans von Dohnanyi , Hungarian-born German lawyer, member of the German Resistance, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1902 ) Georg Elser , German carpenter and attempted assassin of Adolf Hitler (executed) (b. 1903 ) [ 106 ] April 10 Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] Gloria Dickson , American actress (fire victim) (b. 1917 ) Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman , Dutch artist and printer (b. 1882 ) [ 107 ] April 11 – Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard , British colonial administrator (b. 1858 ) April 12 – Franklin D. Roosevelt , American political leader and statesman, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882 ) April 13 – Ernst Cassirer , German philosopher (b. 1874 ) April 15 – Joachim Albrecht Eggeling , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1884 ) April 18 Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) Sir Ambrose Fleming , British electrical engineer and physicist (b. 1849 ) Ernie Pyle , American journalist (killed in action) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (b. 1876 ) April 21 Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Pavle Đurišić , Montenegrin Serb army commander (b. 1909 ) [ citation needed ] Walter Model , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1891 ) April 22 – Käthe Kollwitz , German artist (b. 1867 ) April 23 – Klaus Bonhoeffer , German resistance fighter, 20 July Plotter (executed) (b. 1901 ) April 24 – Ernst-Robert Grawitz , German SS Reichsphysician (suicide) (b. 1899 ) April 28 Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Executed: Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) Hermann Fegelein , German SS general (b. 1906 ) Benito Mussolini , Italian politician, journalist, 27th Prime Minister of Italy and Duce of Fascism (b. 1883 ) Clara Petacci , mistress of Benito Mussolini (b. 1912 ) Nicola Bombacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1879 ) Roberto Farinacci , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1892 ) Alessandro Pavolini , Italian Fascist politician (b. 1903 ) April 29 – Achille Starace , Italian Fascist politician (executed) (b. 1889 ) April 30 Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) Luisa Ferida , Italian actress (executed) (b. 1914 ) Adolf Hitler , Austrian-born German politician, Führer of Germany (suicide) (b. 1889 ) Eva Braun , wife of Adolf Hitler (suicide) (b. 1912 ) May May 1 Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) Joseph Goebbels , Chancellor of Germany for 1 day and Reich Minister of Propaganda (suicide) (b. 1897 ) Magda Goebbels , wife of Joseph Goebbels (suicide) (b. 1901 ) May 2 Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) Martin Bormann , Nazi Party leader and private secretary to Adolf Hitler (presumed suicide) (b. 1900 ) Wilhelm Burgdorf , German general (suicide) (b. 1895 ) Hans Krebs , German general (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Prince Waldemar of Prussia (haemophilia) (b. 1889 ) May 3 – Mario Blasich , Italian physician, politician (b. 1878 ) May 4 – Fedor von Bock , German field marshal (killed in action) (b. 1880 ) [ 108 ] May 6 – Xhem Hasa , Albanian nationalist (assassinated) (b. 1908 ) May 7 – Vladimir Boyarsky , Soviet army officer (executed) (b. 1901 ) May 8 Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) Francis Bruguière , American photographer (b. 1875 ) Julius Hirsch , German footballer (killed in Auschwitz concentration camp) (b. 1892 ) [ 109 ] Wilhelm Rediess , SS and Police Leader of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1900 ) Bernhard Rust , education minister of Nazi Germany (presumed suicide) (b. 1883 ) Josef Terboven , Reichskommissar of Nazi-occupied Norway (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 9 – Gustav Becking , German musicologist (b. 1894 ) May 10 – Konrad Henlein , Sudeten German Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1898 ) May 11 Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] Kiyoshi Ogawa , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1922 ) Seizō Yasunori , Japanese kamikaze pilot (b. 1924 ) [ 110 ] May 14 Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) Joseph Barthélemy , French jurist, politician and journalist (b. 1874 ) Heber J. Grant , 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856 ) May 15 Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) Kenneth J. Alford , British soldier and composer (b. 1881 ) [ 111 ] Charles Williams , British author (b. 1886 ) May 16 – Kaju Sugiura , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1896 ) May 18 – William Joseph Simmons , American founder of the second Ku Klux Klan (b. 1880 ) May 19 – Philipp Bouhler , German Nazi leader and general (suicide) (b. 1899 ) May 21 – Prince Kan'in Kotohito , Japanese prince, member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office (b. 1865 ) May 23 – Heinrich Himmler , German politician, Reichsführer-SS (suicide) (b. 1900 ) May 24 – Robert Ritter von Greim , German field marshal (suicide) (b. 1892 ) May 25 Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] Rafael Estrella Ureña , Dominican lawyer and politician, acting president of the Dominican Republic (b. 1889 ) Ishii Kikujirō , Japanese diplomat and politician (killed in bombing raid) (b. 1866 ) [ 112 ] May 31 Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) Odilo Globocnik , Austrian Nazi leader (suicide) (b. 1904 ) Curt von Gottberg , German SS general (suicide) (b. 1896 ) June June 4 – Georg Kaiser , German dramatist (b. 1878 ) June 7 – Kitaro Nishida , Japanese philosopher (b. 1870 ) June 8 Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) Robert Desnos , French poet, resistance fighter (typhoid) (b. 1900 ) Karl Hanke , German Nazi general and last Reichsführer-SS (killed) (b. 1903 ) June 11 – Lurana W. Sheldon , American author and editor (b. 1862 ) June 13 – Minoru Ōta , Japanese admiral (suicide) (b. 1891 ) June 15 Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) Carl Gustaf Ekman , Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1872 ) Amélie Rives Troubetzkoy , American author (b. 1863 ) Aris Velouchiotis , Greek World War II resistance leader (suicide) (b. 1905 ) June 16 Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) Nikolai Berzarin , Soviet Red Army general (b. 1904 ) Nils Edén , 15th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1871 ) June 18 Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) Florence Bascom , American geologist and educator (b. 1862 ) Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. , American general (killed in action on Okinawa ) (b. 1886 ) Friedrich, Prince of Wied , German prince (b. 1872 ) June 20 Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe , British politician (b. 1858 ) Luís Fernando de Orleans y Borbón , Spanish prince (b. 1888 ) June 22 Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Isamu Chō , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1895 ) Mitsuru Ushijima , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) June 24 – José Gutiérrez Solana , Spanish painter (b. 1886 ) June 27 – Emil Hácha , 3rd President of Czechoslovakia , State President of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (b. 1872 ) June 30 Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) Germogen (Maximov) , Russian Orthodox Metropolitan (b. 1861 ) Gabriel El-Registan , Soviet poet (b. 1899 ) July July 1 – Félix Evaristo Mejía , Dominican diplomat, educator and writer (b. 1866 ) July 2 – Óscar R. Benavides , Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, politician and President of Peru (b. 1876 ) July 5 – John Curtin , 14th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1885 ) July 7 – Peter To Rot , Papuan Roman Catholic layman, martyr and blessed (b. 1912 ) July 9 – Luigi Aldrovandi Marescotti , Italian politician, diplomat (b. 1876 ) July 12 Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) Boris Galerkin , Russian mathematician (b. 1871 ) [ 113 ] Wolfram von Richthofen , German field marshal (brain tumor) (b. 1895 ) July 13 – Alla Nazimova , Russian-born American actress (b. 1879 ) July 17 – Ernst Busch , German field marshal, as prisoner of war (b. 1885 ) July 20 – Paul Valéry , French poet (b. 1871 ) July 24 – Arnold von Winckler , German general (b. 1856 ) July 25 – Malin Craig , United States Army general (b. 1875 ) July 28 – Margot Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith (b. 1864 ) July 29 – Maria Pierina De Micheli , Italian Roman Catholic religious sister, mystic and blessed (b. 1890 ) July 31 – Artemio Ricarte , Filipino general (b. 1866 ) August August 1 – Blas Cabrera Felipe , Spanish physicist (b. 1878 ) August 2 – Pietro Mascagni , Italian composer (b. 1863 ) August 3 – Roman Kochanowski , Polish painter, illustrator (b. 1857 ) August 4 – Gerhard Gentzen , German mathematician and logician (starvation in prison camp) (b. 1909 ) August 5 – Nat Jaffe , American swing jazz pianist (b. 1918 ) August 7 – Jacques Vaillant de Guélis , British/French WWII hero (injuries received in automobile accident) (b. 1907 ) August 8 – Joseph Pujol, Le Pétomane , French flatulist (b. 1857 ) August 9 Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) Harry Hillman , American track athlete (b. 1881 ) [ 114 ] Jun Tosaka , Japanese philosopher (in prison) (b. 1900 ) August 10 – Robert H. Goddard , American rocket scientist (b. 1882 ) August 12 – Karl Leisner , German Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1915 ) August 15 Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) Korechika Anami , Japanese general (ritual suicide) (b. 1887 ) Matome Ugaki , Japanese admiral (killed in action) (b. 1890 ) August 16 – Takijirō Ōnishi , Japanese admiral (ritual suicide) (b. 1891 ) August 18 Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) Subhas Chandra Bose , Leader of Indian National Army (Third-degree burns from aircrash) (b. 1897 ) [ 115 ] Sarala Devi Chaudhurani , Indian educationist (b. 1872 ) August 24 – Shizuichi Tanaka , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1887 ) August 25 – Willis Augustus Lee , American admiral, Olympic shooter (b. 1888 ) August 26 Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) Pio Collivadino , Argentinian painter (b. 1869 ) Franz Werfel , Austrian writer (b. 1890 ) August 27 – Blessed María Pilar Izquierdo Albero , Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed (b. 1906 ) August 29 – Fritz Pfleumer , German engineer, inventor (b. 1881 ) August 30 – Florencio Harmodio Arosemena , 6th President of Panama (b. 1872 ) August 31 Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) Stefan Banach , Polish mathematician (b. 1892 ) Pope Macarius III of Alexandria , Egyptian patriarch, saint (b. 1872 ) September September 6 Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) Witold Leon Czartoryski , Polish nobleman (b. 1864 ) John S. McCain Sr. , American admiral (b. 1884 ) September 9 – Aage Bertelsen , Danish painter (b. 1873 ) September 12 – Hajime Sugiyama , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1880 ) September 15 Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer , German physician and bacteriologist (b. 1858 ) [ 116 ] André Tardieu , 3-time prime minister of France (b. 1876 ) Anton Webern , Austrian composer (b. 1883 ) Zhang Mingqi , Qing dynasty politician (b. 1875 ) September 16 – John McCormack , Irish tenor (b. 1884 ) September 18 José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) José Agripino Barnet , Cuban politician and diplomat, acting president of Cuba (b. 1864 ) Blind Willie Johnson , American gospel blues singer (b. 1897 ) September 20 Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) Augusto Tasso Fragoso , Brazilian soldier, statesman and interim president of Brazil (b. 1869 ) Eduard Wirths , German doctor, chief SS doctor at Auschwitz concentration camp (suicide) (b. 1909 ) September 24 – Hans Geiger , German physicist, inventor (b. 1882 ) September 26 Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) Béla Bartók , Hungarian composer (b. 1881 ) [ 117 ] Leonhard Kaupisch , German general (b. 1878 ) [ 118 ] Kiyoshi Miki , Japanese philosopher (b. 1897 ) October October 1 – Walter Bradford Cannon , American physiologist (b. 1871 ) [ 119 ] October 6 – Leonardo Conti , German physician, Nazi officer (suicide) (b. 1900 ) October 8 – Felix Salten , Austrian author (b. 1869 ) [ 120 ] October 10 – Joseph Darnand , Vichy French politician (executed) (b. 1897 ) October 12 – Dmytro Antonovych , Soviet politician (b. 1877 ) October 13 – Milton S. Hershey , American chocolate tycoon (b. 1857 ) October 15 – Pierre Laval , French politician, 2-time Prime Minister of France (executed) (b. 1883 ) [ 59 ] October 18 – Frederick Hovey , American tennis player (b. 1868 ) October 19 Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) Plutarco Elías Calles , Mexican general, politician and 40th President of Mexico (b. 1877) N. C. Wyeth , American illustrator (b. 1882 ) October 21 Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] Henry Armetta , Italian actor (b. 1888 ) Felicija Bortkevičienė , Lithuanian politician and publisher (b. 1873 ) [ 121 ] October 24 Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) Franklin Carmichael , Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (b. 1890 ) [ 122 ] Vidkun Quisling , Norwegian Nazi collaborator (executed) (b. 1887 ) October 25 – Robert Ley , German Nazi politician (suicide) (b. 1890 ) October 26 Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) Adolf von Brudermann , Austro-Hungarian general (b. 1854 ) Paul Pelliot , French explorer (b. 1878 ) October 30 – Xian Xinghai , Chinese composer (b. 1905 ) October 31 Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) Henry Ainley , British actor (b. 1879 ) Ignacio Zuloaga , Basque Spanish painter (b. 1870 ) November November 8 – August von Mackensen , German field marshal (b. 1849 ) November 11 – Jerome Kern , American composer (b. 1885 ) [ 123 ] November 13 – Sir Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair , British admiral (b. 1865 ) [ 124 ] November 16 – Sigurður Eggerz , Minister for Iceland during World War I and 2nd Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1875 ) November 17 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1882 ) November 20 – Francis William Aston , British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877 ) November 21 Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] Robert Benchley , American humorist, theater critic and actor (b. 1889 ) [ 125 ] Ellen Glasgow , American novelist (b. 1873 ) [ 126 ] Alexander Patch , United States Army lieutenant general, World War II army commander (b. 1889 ) Jimmy Quinn , Scottish footballer (b. 1878 ) [ 127 ] November 23 – Charles Coborn , British singer (b. 1852 ) November 27 – Josep Maria Sert , Spanish Catalan muralist (b. 1874 ) November 28 – Dwight F. Davis , American tennis player (b. 1879 ) November 30 – Shigeru Honjō , Japanese general (suicide) (b. 1876 ) December December 1 – Anton Dostler , German general (executed) (b. 1891 ) December 4 Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] Thomas Hunt Morgan , American biologist, geneticist, embryologist and Nobel Prize in Physiology recipient (b. 1866 ) Richárd Weisz , Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879 ) [ 128 ] December 5 – Cosmo Gordon Lang , Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1864 ) December 8 – Gabriellino D'Annunzio , Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. 1886 ) December 12 – Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (b. 1868 ) December 13 Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) Johanna Bormann , German Nazi concentration camp guard (executed) (b. 1893 ) Henri Dentz , French general (b. 1881 ) Irma Grese , German camp guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1923 ) Josef Kramer , German commandant of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (executed) (b. 1906 ) Elisabeth Volkenrath , German supervisor at Nazi concentration camps (executed) (b. 1919 ) December 14 – Forrester Harvey , Irish actor (b. 1884 ) December 16 Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) Giovanni Agnelli , Italian entrepreneur, founder of Fiat (b. 1866 ) Fumimaro Konoe , Japanese general, politician, and 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (suicide) (b. 1891 ) December 19 – Leonard F. Wing , American general and politician (b. 1893 ) [ 129 ] December 21 – George S. Patton , American general (injuries from automobile accident) (b. 1885 ) [ 130 ] December 22 – Otto Neurath , Austrian philosopher, political economist (b. 1892 ) December 26 Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) Duy Tân , Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1900 ) Roger Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes , British admiral (b. 1872 ) December 28 – Theodore Dreiser , American novelist (b. 1871 ) [ 131 ] Nobel Prizes Physics – Wolfgang Pauli Chemistry – Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Physiology or Medicine – Sir Alexander Fleming , Ernst Chain , Howard Florey Literature – Gabriela Mistral Peace – Cordell Hull References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "What Was 1945 a Turning Point - 1377 Words | Bartleby" . ^ Girbig, Werner (1975). Six Months to Oblivion: The Eclipse of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45 . Schiffer Publishing . p. 74. ISBN 978-0-88740-348-4 . ^ a b Duffy, Christopher (1991). Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 . Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22829-8 . ^ "Life in the Führerbunker: Hitler's final days" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Retrieved September 2, 2025 . ^ Si (July 22, 2025). "Raoul Wallenberg – World War II hero" . sweden.se . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Abraham J. Peck (1997). "The Agony of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944" . The Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto, 1941–1944 by Lucjan Dobroszycki , and The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , Washington D.C . The Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved March 25, 2015 . ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: Norton. p. 891. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . ^ Wolf's Lair from Battlefields WW2 ^ "Penicillin Pills May Replace Injection" . The Milwaukee Sentinel . February 16, 1945 . Retrieved May 22, 2012 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "SS General von Steuben [+1945]" . WreckSite . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (1993). Significant tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. pp. 922– 925. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 425–434 ^ "Guinness World Records Website" . guinnessworldrecords.com . December 13, 2016. ^ Guinness Book of World Records . 2008. p. 137. ^ Battle of Manila Footnotes: Battle for Manila by Richard Connaughton , John Pimlott and Duncan Anderson (2002) Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-771-0 pp 164–7 ^ Year by Year – 1945 . History International . ^ After The Battle #176 – The Allied Capture Of Trier ^ Air University Review . Department of the Air Force. 1976. p. 20. ^ 6. March 1945 - The U.S. Army occupies Cologne ^ Nohlen, Dieter ; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook . Baden-Baden: Nomos. p. 1678. ISBN 978-3-8329-5609-7 . ^ "Proclamation No. 430, s. 1989 - DECLARING THE EIGHTEENTH DAY OF MARCH OF EVERY YEAR AS VICTORY DAY IN THE ISLANDS OF PANAY AND ROMBLON, INCLUDING THE CITIES OF ILOILO AND ROXAS" . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Bombing Berlin: The Biggest Wartime Raid on Hitler's Capital" . The National WWII Museum - New Orleans . March 14, 2020 . Retrieved March 18, 2024 . ^ "Festung Kolberg 1945" (in Polish). Archived from the original on August 11, 2007 . Retrieved March 21, 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Stanton, Shelby (2006). World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books. pp. 57, 84. ^ After The Battle #187 – THE ALLIED CAPTURE OF HANNOVER ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes, 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . St. Johnsbury, Vermont : The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 919. ISBN 1-879362-03-1 . ^ "1945" . A WW2 Timeline . Worldwar-2.net. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012 . Retrieved November 7, 2012 . ^ Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945 ^ Alexander, Kristen (September 1, 2004). " "Cleaning the Augean stables": the Morotai Mutiny?" . Sabretache . Military Historical Society of Australia. ^ Jones, Bill (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (Television documentary). BBC . Retrieved April 27, 2016 . ^ Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich . Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II, Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. ^ Smythe, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: The Life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler . London: Muller. ^ "War Diary for Friday, 27 April 1945" . Stone & Stone Books . Retrieved March 28, 2016 . ^ MacDonogh, Giles (2007). After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation . New York: Basic Books. p. 93. ^ Ernest F. Fisher Jr., The Mediterranean Theater of Operations: Cassino to the Alps (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1977), p. 524 ^ Duncan, George R. "Massacres and Atrocities of World War II" . Retrieved October 15, 2015 . ^ "Central Europe Campaign – 522nd Field Artillery Battalion" . Archived from the original on March 20, 2016 . Retrieved January 12, 2015 . Jewish prisoners from the outer Dachau camps were marched to Dachau, and then 70 miles south. Many of the Jewish marchers weighed less than 80 pounds. Shivering in their tattered striped uniforms, the "skeletons" marched 10 to 15 hours a day, passing more than a dozen Bavarian towns. If they stopped or fell behind, the SS guards shot them and left their corpses along the road. ^ Final Push To Hamburg ^ "Liberatione" . Lib.usc.edu. May 4, 1945. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ "Befrielsen 1945 – Tidslinje" . Befrielsen1945.dk. January 2, 2012. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2012 . ^ Waller, Derek (September 25, 2010). "U-Boats that Surrendered" . u-boat.net . Retrieved November 14, 2014 . ^ "Hungary: Recovery of Crown Jewels 1945" . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . ^ THE CITY OF SALZBURG IN 1945 ^ Liberation of Pilsen ^ Milcic, Allen. "Croatian Axis Forces in WWII" . Retrieved June 28, 2012 . ^ "Edward Kennedy, 58, Reporter Who Flashed '45 Surrender, Dies" . The New York Times . Associated Press. November 30, 1963 . Retrieved December 21, 2007 . ^ Killen, John (2003). The Luftwaffe: A History . Barnsley: Pen & Sword. pp. 299– 300. ISBN 978-1-78159-110-9 . ^ Colin F. Baxter; John Martin Carroll, eds. (2007). The American Military Tradition: From Colonial Times to the Present . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 181. ISBN 9780742544284 . ^ Bethell, Nicholas (1974). The Last Secret . London. ISBN 9780465038138 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (October 2, 1998). "Churchill plotted invasion of Russia". The Guardian . London. ^ a b c d e f "1945 – The Decision to Drop the Bomb" . NuclearFiles . Archived from the original on April 6, 2010. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). " 'The Evils of Locust Bait': Popular Nationalism during the 1945 Anti-Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland" . Past & Present (174): 184– 216. doi : 10.1093/past/174.1.184 . ISSN 0031-2746 . JSTOR 3600720 . ^ "1945: Labour landslide buries Churchill" . BBC News . April 5, 2005. ^ "Accident North American B-25D-20 Mitchell 41-30577, 28 Jul 1945" . aviation-safety.net . Retrieved May 10, 2023 . ^ "USS Indianapolis sinking: 'You could see sharks circling' " . BBC News . Archived from the original on April 18, 2018 . Retrieved June 20, 2018 . ^ Glantz, LTC David M. (June 1983). Leavenworth Papers No. 8 - August Storm: Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria, 1945 (PDF) . Fort Leavenworth , KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. p. 1. ISSN 0195-3451 . Retrieved September 26, 2023 . ^ Angier, R. B.; Boothe, J. H.; Hutchings, B. L.; Mowat, J. H.; Semb, J.; Stokstad, E. L. R.; Subbarow, Y.; Waller, C. W.; Cosulich, D. B.; Fahrenbach, M. J.; Hultquist, M. E.; Kuh, E.; Northey, E. H.; Seeger, D. R.; Sickels, J. P.; Smith Jr, J. M. (1945). "Synthesis of a Compound Identical with the L. Casei Factor Isolated from Liver". Science . 102 (2644): 227– 28. Bibcode : 1945Sci...102..227A . doi : 10.1126/science.102.2644.227 . PMID 17778509 . ^ Hoffbrand, A. V.; Weir, D. G. (2001). "The history of folic acid". British Journal of Haematology . 113 (3): 579– 589. doi : 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02822.x . PMID 11380441 . S2CID 22925228 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945-1985 . New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5 . ^ Crichton, Gerald (February 1, 1946). "Review of events in Afghanistan, July-December 1945" . Foreign Office . ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (December 16, 2023). "The Power to Mystify" . Sthele Press . Archived from the original on January 14, 2024 . Retrieved January 14, 2024 . Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks? ^ "Amery sentenced to death: "A self-confessed traitor." ". The Times . No. 50312. November 29, 1945. p. 2. ^ Brennan, J. G.; Green, L. C. (1997). "The Case of General Dostler" . Naval War College Review . 50 (4): 115– 117. ISSN 0028-1484 . JSTOR 44638781 . ^ "75th Anniversary of World Bank Articles of Agreement Ratification" . World Bank . Retrieved May 5, 2022 . ^ "Discovery of Promethium" . Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review . 36 (1). 2003. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011 . Retrieved June 16, 2011 . ^ Hammerton, A. James; Thomson, Alistair (2005). 'Ten Pound Poms': Australia's Invisible Migrants . Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-719071321 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016" . ^ William D. Rubinstein; Michael Jolles; Hilary L. Rubinstein (February 22, 2011). The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 868. ISBN 978-1-4039-3910-4 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Chase's ... Calendar of Events . Contemporary Books. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 . ^ "They planted an important seed for nanotechnology" (Press release). The Nobel Prize. October 4, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Geoff Nicholson (1991). Big Noises: Rock Guitar in the 1990s . Quartet. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-7043-0145-0 . ^ "Profile of highlife legend Nana Ampadu" . GhanaWeb . September 30, 2021. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022 . Retrieved October 5, 2021 . ^ Avery, Laura (2004). Newsmakers . Gale Research. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7876-6806-8 . ISSN 0899-0417 . OCLC 17977680 . ^ Bauer, Pat (March 29, 2022). "Linda Hunt" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture . Taylor & Francis. 2013. ISBN 9781136816109 . ^ Events, Chase's Calendar of; McGraw-Hill (2007). "Birthday: Bianca Jagger" . Chase's Calendar of Events . McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071468183 . Retrieved August 5, 2025 . At the time of her marriage to Mick Jagger in 1971 it was reported that she was born in 1945, which is cited as her birth year by most published sources. The charitable organisations with which she has been associated have used 1950. ^ Colin Larkin , ed. (1997). The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music (Concise ed.). Virgin Books . p. 666/7. ISBN 1-85227-745-9 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022" . Nobel Prize (Press release). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . October 4, 2022 . Retrieved October 6, 2022 . ^ Ruggieri, Melissa. "Procol Harum singer Gary Brooker, the voice of 'A Whiter Shade of Pale,' dies at 76" . USA Today . Retrieved February 23, 2022 . ^ "Betty Stöve" . Women's Tennis Association. ^ Dagnino, Maruja. "Lali Armengol Argemi". In Transparencia Venezuela (ed.). 20 mujeres venezolanas del siglo XX (PDF) . pp. 68– 71. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2021 . Retrieved June 12, 2022 . ^ Anon (2017). "Henderson, Dr Richard" . Who's Who (online Oxford University Press ed.). Oxford: A & C Black. doi : 10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19818 . (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ "Patrick Modiano" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved February 4, 2022 . ^ Easlea, Daryl (April 7, 2010). Talent Is An Asset: The Story Of Sparks . Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857122377 – via Google Books. ^ "Khaleda Zia" . Britannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers . February 25, 2020 . Retrieved July 27, 2021 . ^ "Obituary: John McAfee, antivirus software designer, dies aged 75" . The Times . June 24, 2021. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021 . Retrieved June 24, 2021 . ^ "Serial killer Dennis Nilsen dies in prison aged 72" . The Guardian . May 12, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2022 . ^ "Legacy Lyle Bien" . South Dakota Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 17, 2024 . ^ David J. Goldman (2014). Jewish Sports Stars; Athletic Heroes Past and Present ^ "Lemmy, Motörhead frontman – obituary" . The Daily Telegraph . December 29, 2015. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022 . Retrieved December 29, 2015 . ^ "Noel Redding" . The Guardian . May 15, 2003 . Retrieved May 4, 2022 . ^ "Vernon Wells" . Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times . 2014. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. ^ "Edith Frank" . July 6, 2010. Archived from the original on July 6, 2010 . Retrieved October 18, 2017 . ^ Lumsden, Herbert ^ "Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biografía" [Francisco Moreno Fernández: Biography] (in Spanish). Madrid : Real Academia de la Historia. 2022 . Retrieved January 4, 2026 . ^ Kimmelman, Benedict B. (September–October 1987). "The Example Of Private Slovik" . American Heritage Magazine . 38 (6) . Retrieved October 5, 2012 . ^ "One day they simply weren't there any more..." (PDF) . anne frank house . March 2015 . Retrieved April 11, 2015 . ^ Kaplan, Alice (2000). The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach . University of Chicago Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-226-42414-9 . ^ Zabecki, David T. , ed. (2019). The German War Machine in World War II . Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio . ISBN 978-1-44-086918-1 . ^ "Aleksey Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy | Soviet writer | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . January 6, 2024. ^ "LIEUTENANT GENERAL MILLARD F. HARMON" . Air Force . [ dead link ] ^ Hill, Alec (1979). " 'Chauvel, Sir Henry George (Harry) (1865–1945)' " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . National Centre of Biography, Australian National University . ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7 . ISSN 1833-7538 . OCLC 70677943 . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . ^ "Preview unavailable" . ProQuest . ProQuest 107039613 . ^ "Casualty Details | CWGC" . www.cwgc.org . Retrieved March 8, 2021 . ^ MG Maurice Rose ^ "Georg Elser" . www.gdw-berlin.de . Retrieved January 4, 2025 . ^ "Ontdek amateurschilder, drukker, fotograaf Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman" . rkd.nl . ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945 . London: Allen Lane. p. 750. ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . ^ Wallace, Sam (January 25, 2020). "The imperishable story of Julius Hirsch: the great goalscorer murdered at Auschwitz who adorns Stamford Bridge mural" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. ^ Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (November 3, 2009). Danger's Hour: The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot Who Crippled Her . Simon and Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-6081-7 . ^ "AAFA Bio - Kenneth J. Alford" . ^ "Ishii Kikujiro | Biography & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . March 15, 2024. ^ "Boris Galerkin" . TheFreeDictionary.com . ^ Harry Hillman Taken by Death, Cumberland News , August 10, 1945 ^ Firoz Alam (October 1, 2009). Subhas Chandra Bose . Sahni Publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-81-7564-242-3 . ^ Fildes, P. (February 13, 1956). "Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer, 1858-1945" . Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 2 (2): 237– 247. doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1956.0016 . S2CID 73380545 . ^ .mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)} Stevens, Halsey. 2018. " Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer ". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018). ^ "Kaupisch, Leonhard" (in German). lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de . Retrieved September 7, 2025 . ^ "Dr. W.B. Cannon, 73, Neurologist, Dead. Harvard Psychology Professor for 36 Years Noted for His Work on Traumatic Shock Became Professor in 1906" . New York Times . October 2, 1945 . Retrieved October 5, 2010 . ^ "Felix Salten | Austrian novelist | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . September 2, 2023. ^ "Felicija Bortkevičienė" . www.vle.lt . ^ Franklin Carmichael ^ Hugh Fordin, Stephen Sondheim (1995). Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II . Da Capo Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-306-80668-1 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ [Sinclair, Sir Edwyn Sinclair Alexander-, of Freswick (1865–1945)] ^ Billy Altman, Laughter's Gentle Soul: The Life of Robert Benchley . (New York City: W. W. Norton , 1997. ISBN 0-393-03833-5 ) Pages 352–362 ^ Inge, Tonette Bond. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture , ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William R. Ferris. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Page 884. ^ FC, Celtic. "Jimmy Quinn" . Celtic FC . ^ Siegman, Joseph (2020). Jewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496222121 . ^ Wing, Leonard Fish ^ Axelrod, Alan (2006), Patton: A Biography , London : Palgrave Macmillan , pp. 168– 9, ISBN 978-1-4039-7139-5 ^ Theodore Dreiser Recalled . Clemson University Press. 2017. p. 311. ISBN 9781942954446 . Further reading Ian Buruma . Year Zero: A History of 1945 (Penguin Press; 2013) 368 pages; covers liberation, revenge, decolonization, and the rise of the United Nations. excerpt International News Service, It Happened In 1945 The Essential Year Book (1946) Keith Lowe. Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (2012) excerpt and text search McDannald, A. H. ed. The Americana Annual 1946 (1946) events of 1945 online ; encyclopedia yearbook global coverage in 950pp Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, 4 vol., encyclopedia yearbook online v t e Events by month v t e 1949 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1948 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1947 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1946 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1945 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1944 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1943 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1942 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1941 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1940 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Authority control databases National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX 1945 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2022 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with dead external links from February 2023 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with dead external links from March 2025 CS1 German-language sources (de) Use mdy dates from August 2019 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing Latin-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2026 This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 01:14 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945#November
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Work Toggle Work subsection 2.1 CAMA 2.2 The Learner Guide Program 2.1 CAMA 2.2 The Learner Guide Program 3 CAMFED and the Sustainable Development Goals 4 Accreditation 5 Notable supporters 6 See also 7 Further reading 8 References 9 External links Camfed العربية Français Hausa Kiswahili Português Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Camfed" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( March 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Founded In 1993 by Ann Cotton Type NGO Non-profit Development Education Location .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} National offices: [ 2 ] Camfed International: Cambridge , UK Camfed USA: San Francisco , California Camfed Canada: Toronto , Ontario Camfed Ghana: Ghana [ 3 ] Camfed Kenya: Kenya [ 4 ] Camfed Malawi: Malawi [ 5 ] Camfed Tanzania: Tanzania [ 6 ] Camfed Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe [ 7 ] Camfed Zambia: Zambia [ 8 ] National offices: [ 2 ] Camfed International: Cambridge , UK Camfed USA: San Francisco , California Camfed Canada: Toronto , Ontario Camfed Ghana: Ghana [ 3 ] Camfed Kenya: Kenya [ 4 ] Camfed Malawi: Malawi [ 5 ] Camfed Tanzania: Tanzania [ 6 ] Camfed Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe [ 7 ] Camfed Zambia: Zambia [ 8 ] Camfed International: Cambridge , UK Camfed USA: San Francisco , California Camfed Canada: Toronto , Ontario Camfed Ghana: Ghana [ 3 ] Camfed Kenya: Kenya [ 4 ] Camfed Malawi: Malawi [ 5 ] Camfed Tanzania: Tanzania [ 6 ] Camfed Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe [ 7 ] Camfed Zambia: Zambia [ 8 ] Methods Education of girls and empowerment of women Key people Angeline Murimirwa (CEO) [ 1 ] Website camfed .org CAMFED (also known as the Campaign for Female Education ) is an international non-governmental , non-profit organization founded in 1993. The mission of the organization is to eradicate poverty in Africa through the education of girls and the empowerment of young women. CAMFED programs operate in Zimbabwe , Zambia , Ghana , Tanzania , Malawi and Kenya . History CAMFED was founded in 1993 by Ann Cotton to support girls to go to school who would otherwise be denied an education because of poverty. The idea for CAMFED came from after a research trip to Zimbabwe in which she came to believe that the low enrollment of females in school was due to poverty that did not allow them to cover the school fees. [ 9 ] It began with support for 32 girls to attend secondary school in two rural districts of Zimbabwe. By 2017, Camfed had supported more than 1.5 million children through education in a network of 5,500 schools [ 10 ] in Ghana , Kenya , Malawi , Tanzania , Zambia and Zimbabwe. By 2023, Camfed reported helping 6.4 million children in total, including 1.8 million girls in secondary education. [ 11 ] Anticipating the need for post-school economic opportunities for young people in marginalized rural communities, the CAMFED Alumnae Association [ 12 ] (CAMA) was established in 1998 to connect young female school leavers and offer pathways to post-secondary school opportunities. CAMA provides a structure through which its members can develop their activism and leadership. By 2024, CAMA had a membership of 312,747 [ 10 ] .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "CAMFED website" . young women, among them now teachers, business leaders, government officials, health professionals and entrepreneurs. A hallmark of Camfed is the activism and philanthropy of its alumnae network, who are actively raising and administering funds to support the next generation of children in school. Work CAMFED focuses on rural areas of Africa where poverty is widespread, and girls and young women face massive exclusion from education and the opportunities that are afforded by education. CAMFED works to build around girls a supportive environment in which they can attend, and succeed, at primary and secondary school, and progress into young adulthood with opportunities that include professional training, higher education and job creation. CAMFED provides aid by paying for school fees, providing school uniforms, books, and sanitary protection. They also work with the school by training teachers to be mentors. [ 13 ] CAMA CAMA, the CAMFED Alumnae Association, is the alumnae association for CAMFED graduates. [ 14 ] CAMA provides a structure through which its members can develop their activism and leadership. This is referred to as the 'CAMA Multiplier Effect', where these young women graduates are now leading the movement for girls' education in their communities. The ability of CAMA members to lead and implement such long lasting change comes from their lived experience. [ 15 ] The Learner Guide Program The Learner Guide program was started and is run by women in the CAMFED alumnae association CAMA network who volunteer in local schools to deliver a tailored curriculum encompassing leadership, health, learning and life skills to their younger peers. [ 16 ] This is a two part project that concurrently addresses equal access to quality education for children and the post-secondary school transition period for young women. [ 17 ] Firstly, the Learner Guide Program offers a training program for young women to become Learner Guides, opening up post-secondary opportunities, providing transferable skills training, and work experience. Secondly, Learner Guides deliver a tailored program that supports marginalized children through their education, alongside the standard school curriculum . [ 18 ] CAMFED and the Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals , a set of universal goals aimed to tackle poverty , inequality , discrimination and climate change across the world, came into action on 1 January 2016. As part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development , these goals are designed to mobilize global efforts to transform the world in fifteen years. [ 19 ] CAMFED is contributing directly to progress with SDG4: Quality Education. In addition, through the sustainable and scalable programs [ 20 ] introduced by CAMFED in educating girls, and supporting young women through their transition into secure livelihoods, [ 21 ] CAMFED's work contributes to achieving many of the Sustainable Development Goals including Goal 1: Poverty, Goal 3: Good Health, Goal 5: Gender Equality, Goal 13: Climate Action, and more. Accreditation In October 2014, CAMFED was recognized by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) for best practice in taking development innovation to scale. [ 22 ] In 2017, The Learner Guide Program was awarded the WISE Award. [ 23 ] As of 1 October 2019, CAMFED USA is rated by Charity Navigator at 96.30 out of 100 overall, with a rating of 96.64 out of 100 for its financials and a 96.00 out of 100 for transparency and accountability. [ 24 ] CAMFED's Lucy Lake and Angeline Murimirwa were awarded the 2020 Yidan Prize for Education Development for their contributions to STEM and women’s education. [ 25 ] Notable supporters CAMFED has been endorsed by actor Morgan Freeman , former US President Bill Clinton , author Doris Lessing , former Prime Minister of Australia and GPE Board Chair Julia Gillard , singer/songwriter Joan Armatrading , actress, singer/songwriter, and philanthropist Rihanna , businesswoman and philanthropist Martha Lane Fox and actress, model and activist Emma Watson . Social entrepreneur Ayisha Fuseini became a benefactor of the CAMFED program when she submitted her pitch for her shea butter business. [ 26 ] See also Educate Girls , a similar nonprofit Room to Read Plan International Global Partnership for Education Girls' education Further reading CAMFED Annual Report 2016 [ 10 ] CAMFED Strategic Plan 2015-19 [ 27 ] Education Commission 2016, The Learning Generation: Investing in education for a changing world [ 28 ] Winthrop, R., Nov 2016, Stanford Social Innovation Review: How Can We “Leapfrog” Educational Outcomes? [ 29 ] Winthrop, R., Perlman Robinson, J., Center for Universal Education at Brookings: Millions Learning: Scaling up Quality Education in Developing Countries [ 30 ] Shapiro, J., May 2016, Forbes: How Some Of The Poorest Girls In The World Get Exactly The Education They Need . [ 31 ] Shapiro, J., Oct 2015, Forbes: Education Is The Key To All Global Development Goals (Q&A With Julia Gillard) [ 32 ] Shapiro, J., Feb 2015, Forbes: To Fix U.S. Schools, Consider Camfed's Work In Sub-Saharan Africa [ 33 ] Research Horizons, University of Cambridge, Issue 32 February 2017 "Education is Everything" Linklaters, April 2010. CAMFED Governance, Accounting to the Girl. Working Towards a Standard for Governance in the International Development Sector . [ 34 ] CAMFED , 2010. "A Power-Sharing Model for Systemic Change" . Camfed Impact Report 2010. Kristof, N., and S. WuDunn, 2010. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide . Vintage. CAMFED Ghana, 2012. "What Works in Girls’ Education in Ghana". Archived 16 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine CAMFED International, 2004. I Have a Story to Tell: Celebrating Ten Years of CAMFED International , ISBN 0-9532907-1-9 Joann Weiner, "A dynamic African woman lives up to Michelle Obama's call to give girls the chance to go to school" , The Washington Post , 12 December 2014. "Camfed graduate to serve as advisor on global education policy" , Zambia: Newsline, United Nations Girls' Education Initiative . References ^ "Our people" . Retrieved 26 October 2023 . ^ "Meet our Senior Leadership - CAMFED" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Ghana - girls' education & leadership" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Kenya - girls' education" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Malawi - girls' education" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Tanzania - girls' education" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Zimbabwe - girls' education" . ^ "Where we operate - CAMFED Zambia - Girls' education" . ^ "Our team – CAMFED - Campaign for Female Education" . camfed.org . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ a b c "Annual report 2016" (PDF) . Camfed . Retrieved 13 September 2023 . ^ Inman, Phillip (25 October 2023). "Girls in Africa quitting school over cost of living crisis, says charity" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . ^ "CAMA: Young women leading change – CAMFED - Campaign for Female Education" . camfed.org . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ "How we operate - our unique model - CAMFED" . ^ "CAMA alumnae: Young women leading change" , Camfed. ^ "This Malala Day We Ask How Young Women Can Take Control Of Their Futures" . HuffPost UK . 11 July 2017 . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ "The Learner Guide Program – CAMFED - Campaign for Female Education" . camfed.org . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ "How Can We "Leapfrog" Educational Outcomes? (SSIR)" . ssir.org . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ Shapiro, Jordan. "How Some Of The Poorest Girls In The World Get Exactly The Education They Need" . Forbes . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ Martin. "The Sustainable Development Agenda" . United Nations Sustainable Development . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ Varma, Priyanka (22 November 2016). "Ensuring millions of children have the opportunity to learn" . Brookings . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ Thorpe, Devin. "How Many Girls Can One Woman Teach? You'd Be Surprised" . Forbes . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ OECD. "OECD DAC Prize" . Retrieved 22 January 2015 . ^ "2017 WISE Awards" . www.wise-qatar.org . Retrieved 9 April 2019 . ^ "Charity Navigator - Rating for Camfed USA Foundation" . Charity Navigator . Retrieved 28 November 2019 . ^ "Meet Yidan Prize 2020 Laureates" . Institute for the Future of Education . October 2020 . Retrieved 23 April 2025 . ^ Graphic Business, Ayisha Fuseini: The 'Shea' strength of Asheba Enterprise by Elikem Kuenyehia (Monday, April 30, 2018) [1] Archived 2019-03-23 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved 25 April 2019) ^ Camfed Strategic Plan 2015-19 Camfed ^ Learning generation educationcommission.org ^ "How Can We "Leapfrog" Educational Outcomes? (SSIR)" . ssir.org . Retrieved 29 May 2019 . ^ Millions Learning: Scaling up Quality Education in Developing Countries brookings.edu ^ Shapiro, Jordan. "How Some Of The Poorest Girls In The World Get Exactly The Education They Need" . Forbes . Retrieved 29 May 2019 . ^ Shapiro, Jordan. "Education Is The Key To All Global Development Goals (Q&A With Julia Gillard)" . Forbes . Retrieved 29 May 2019 . ^ Shapiro, Jordan. "To Fix U.S. Schools, Consider Camfed's Work In Sub-Saharan Africa" . Forbes . Retrieved 29 May 2019 . ^ "Camfed Governance Accounting to the Girl" (PDF) . Camfed . Retrieved 13 September 2023 . External links Official website Out-of-school Children: New Data Reveal Persistent Challenges , UNESCO Institute for Statistics. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Development charities based in the United Kingdom Educational charities Organisations based in Cambridge Non-profit organizations based in Africa Girls' education organizations Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from June 2022 Articles needing additional references from March 2010 All articles needing additional references Pages using infobox mapframe with missing coordinates This page was last edited on 13 January 2026, at 18:43 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camfed
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Racing career Toggle Racing career subsection 2.1 Karting 2.2 Ginetta Junior Championship 2.3 Toyota Racing Series 2.4 MSA Formula 2.5 Euroformula Open 2.6 FIA Formula 3 European Championship 2.7 GP3 Series 2.8 FIA Formula 3 2.9 Asian Formula 3 2.10 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship 2.11 Road to Indy 2.12 IndyCar 2.1 Karting 2.2 Ginetta Junior Championship 2.3 Toyota Racing Series 2.4 MSA Formula 2.5 Euroformula Open 2.6 FIA Formula 3 European Championship 2.7 GP3 Series 2.8 FIA Formula 3 2.9 Asian Formula 3 2.10 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship 2.11 Road to Indy 2.12 IndyCar 3 Racing record Toggle Racing record subsection 3.1 Career summary 3.2 Complete Ginetta Junior Championship results 3.3 Complete Toyota Racing Series results 3.4 Complete F4 British Championship results 3.5 Complete Italian F4 Championship results 3.6 Complete Euroformula Open Championship results 3.7 Complete FIA Formula 3 European Championship results 3.8 Complete Macau Grand Prix results 3.9 Complete GP3 Series/FIA Formula 3 Championship results 3.10 Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship Results 3.11 Complete F3 Asian Championship results 3.12 American open-wheel racing results 3.12.1 Indy Pro 2000 Championship 3.12.2 Indy Lights 3.12.3 IndyCar Series 3.12.4 Indianapolis 500 3.1 Career summary 3.2 Complete Ginetta Junior Championship results 3.3 Complete Toyota Racing Series results 3.4 Complete F4 British Championship results 3.5 Complete Italian F4 Championship results 3.6 Complete Euroformula Open Championship results 3.7 Complete FIA Formula 3 European Championship results 3.8 Complete Macau Grand Prix results 3.9 Complete GP3 Series/FIA Formula 3 Championship results 3.10 Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship Results 3.11 Complete F3 Asian Championship results 3.12 American open-wheel racing results 3.12.1 Indy Pro 2000 Championship 3.12.2 Indy Lights 3.12.3 IndyCar Series 3.12.4 Indianapolis 500 3.12.1 Indy Pro 2000 Championship 3.12.2 Indy Lights 3.12.3 IndyCar Series 3.12.4 Indianapolis 500 4 References 5 External links Devlin DeFrancesco Deutsch Español Français Italiano مصرى Nederlands Português Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Devlin DeFrancesco DeFrancesco (front car) in 2023 Nationality Canadian Born ( 2000-01-17 ) 17 January 2000 (age 25) Toronto , Ontario , Canada Racing licence FIA Silver IndyCar Series career 34 races run over 2 years 2022 position 23rd Best finish 22nd ( 2023 ) First race 2022 Firestone Grand Prix of St. Petersburg ( St. Petersburg ) Last race 2025 Borchetta Bourbon Music City Grand Prix ( Nashville Superspeedway ) Wins Podiums Poles 0 0 0 Wins Podiums Poles 0 0 0 Previous series 2021 2020 2020 2019 2018 2018 2017 2016 2016 2016 2015 Indy Lights Indy Pro 2000 Championship Asian F3 Championship FIA Formula 3 Championship F3 European Championship GP3 Series Euroformula Open Championship MSA Formula Italian F4 Championship Toyota Racing Series Ginetta Junior Championship Championship titles 2017 Spanish F3 Championship Devlin DeFrancesco (born January 17, 2000) [ 1 ] is a Canadian auto racing driver who last competed in the IndyCar Series for Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing . [ 2 ] In January 2022, DeFrancesco won the sixtieth running of the Daytona 24 , alongside his teammates Eric Lux , Patricio O'Ward and Colton Herta , in the LMP2 class. [ 3 ] Early life DeFrancesco was born fifteen weeks premature on January 17, 2000, [ 1 ] to Andrew and Cathy DeFrancesco. Weighing only a pound at birth, he was cared for at Toronto 's Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre until he was nursed back to health. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Racing career Karting In 2014, DeFrancesco placed second overall in the Italian Championship and third overall in the CIK FIA European Championship. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] In 2014, he sustained an injury to his wrist that required two surgeries and that kept him out of a full racing series for roughly year. As part of his rehabilitation, Devlin attended the Carlin Academy, where he used a combination of simulators and on-track testing to prepare for FIA Formula 4 -style racing. [ 9 ] [ 8 ] In 2015, DeFrancesco was selected to be a part of the Generation Ganassi Driver Identification Program, [ 10 ] a mentoring and talent development program sponsored by Chip Ganassi Racing aiming to identify and assist up to ten North American drivers between the ages of thirteen and eighteen. Ginetta Junior Championship Graduating from karts in 2015, DeFrancesco competed in the 2015 Ginetta Junior Championship with HHC Motorsports. [ 1 ] [ 11 ] He finished 23rd in the standings with 66 points. [ 1 ] [ 12 ] Toyota Racing Series In early 2016, DeFrancesco competed in New Zealand 's Toyota Racing Series with Giles Motorsport. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] He finished the season tenth overall with a total of 465 points. [ 1 ] MSA Formula DeFrancesco joined Carlin Motorsports for the 2016 MSA Formula season , [ 9 ] [ 7 ] taking three wins and finishing fifth in the points standings. Euroformula Open DeFrancesco continued his collaboration with Carlin Motorsport in the Euroformula Open and Spanish Formula 3 Championships in 2017. [ 15 ] A strong campaign saw him end the season as Spanish Formula 3 champion [ 16 ] with three wins and five podiums. He also won a victory and seven podiums in the Euroformula Open championship, netting third in the championship standings. [ 17 ] FIA Formula 3 European Championship DeFrancesco joined the FIA Formula 3 European Championship for the final two rounds of the 2017 season. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] He once again teamed up with Carlin in 2018, competing in the opening two races. [ 20 ] He was forced to withdraw from the following round to undergo dental surgery, [ 21 ] and subsequently made the switch to join GP3 Series for the remainder of the 2018 season, teaming up with MP Motorsport . [ 22 ] GP3 Series Joining MP Motorsport , DeFrancesco finished the year in 21st place without scoring points. [ 23 ] FIA Formula 3 In 2019, DeFrancesco contested the inaugural FIA F3 championship , [ 24 ] with Trident Racing . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] He did not score throughout the year and finished 25th. In February 2020, it was announced that DeFrancesco would rejoin Trident Racing for a second year in the championship, [ 26 ] but he was forced to withdraw from the season amongst fears of COVID-19 , DeFrancesco being immunocompromised. [ 27 ] Asian Formula 3 DeFrancesco took part in a partial 2019/20 F3 Asian Championship certified by FIA campaign with Absolute Racing, finishing seventh in the championship with three podiums. WeatherTech SportsCar Championship DeFrancesco raced in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship , joining the grid for the 2018 24 Hours of Daytona . [ 28 ] He finished sixth on debut, [ 29 ] and returned for the ‘ Petit Le Mans ’ event at Road Atlanta in October, finishing in ninth place. 2019 saw DeFrancesco return to the Daytona 24 with JDC MotorSports . [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Alongside teammates Misha Goikhberg , Tristan Vautier and Rubens Barrichello , the race ended early ahead of the 22nd hour of racing due to heavy rainfall, which placed the car in fifth place at the flag. [ 32 ] Road to Indy In 2020, DeFrancesco joined Steinbrenner Racing and Andretti Autosport to compete the 2020 Indy Pro 2000 Championship . He scored two wins and was runner-up to Sting Ray Robb . The Canadian moved to Indy Lights in 2021 in a car co-entered by Steinbrenner Racing and Andretti Autosport. With two podiums and nine top-fives, he finished sixth in the points standings. IndyCar DeFrancesco joined the IndyCar Series for the 2022 season , driving the Number 29 car entered as Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport. He had a best result of twelfth at Gateway and ranked 23rd in the driver's standings. [ 33 ] DeFrancesco continued with the same team for the 2023 season and finished 22nd. [ 34 ] DeFrancesco failed to secure a ride for the 2024 season and did not participate in any IndyCar races that season. DeFrancesco would return to the series in 2025 after signing a multi-year deal to drive for Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing . [ 2 ] Following Mick Schumacher 's signing in November 2025, DeFrancesco is out of a IndyCar ride for 2026. [ 35 ] Racing record Career summary Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 2015 Ginetta Junior Championship HHC Motorsport 12 0 1 0 0 66 23rd 2016 F4 British Championship Carlin 30 3 1 2 10 265 5th Italian F4 Championship Mücke Motorsport 18 0 0 0 0 40 19th Toyota Racing Series Giles Motorsport 15 0 0 0 0 465 10th 2017 Euroformula Open Championship Carlin 16 1 0 0 7 172 3rd Spanish Formula 3 Championship 6 1 0 0 3 119 1st FIA Formula 3 European Championship 6 0 0 0 0 0 NC† Macau Grand Prix 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 2018 GP3 Series MP Motorsport 12 0 0 0 0 0 21st FIA Formula 3 European Championship Carlin 6 0 0 0 0 0 25th IMSA SportsCar Championship - Prototype JDC-Miller MotorSports 2 0 0 0 0 47 38th 2019 FIA Formula 3 Championship Trident 16 0 0 0 0 0 25th IMSA SportsCar Championship - DPi JDC-Miller MotorSports 1 0 0 0 0 26 32nd 2019–20 F3 Asian Championship Absolute Racing 9 0 1 1 3 101 7th 2020 Indy Pro 2000 Championship Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 17 2 3 1 6 341 2nd 2021 Indy Lights Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 20 0 0 0 2 326 6th IMSA SportsCar Championship - LMP2 DragonSpeed USA 2 0 0 0 1 0 NC‡ 2022 IndyCar Series Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 17 0 0 0 0 206 23rd IMSA SportsCar Championship - LMP2 DragonSpeed USA 2 1 0 0 1 0 NC‡ 2023 IndyCar Series Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 17 0 0 0 0 177 22nd IMSA SportsCar Championship - LMP2 Rick Ware Racing 3 0 0 0 0 484 22nd 2024 IMSA SportsCar Championship - GTD Forte Racing 5 0 0 1 1 1305 26th 2025 IndyCar Series Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing 16 0 0 0 0 171 26th † As DeFrancesco was a guest driver, he was ineligible for points. ‡ Points only counted towards the Michelin Endurance Cup, and not the overall LMP2 Championship. Complete Ginetta Junior Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DC Points 2015 HHC Motorsport BHI 1 BHI 2 DON 1 DON 2 THR 1 THR 2 OUL 1 OUL 2 CRO 1 Ret CRO 2 23 SNE 1 20 SNE 2 13 KNO 1 7 KNO 2 11 ROC 1 14 ROC 2 11 SIL 1 11 SIL 2 Ret BHGP 1 Ret BHGP 2 18 23rd 66 Complete Toyota Racing Series results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 DC Points 2016 Giles Motorsport RUA 1 14 RUA 2 10 RUA 3 6 TER 1 Ret TER 2 14 TER 3 5 HMP 1 11 HMP 2 13 HMP 3 12 TAU 1 8 TAU 2 11 TAU 3 10 MAU 1 7 MAU 2 9 MAU 3 13 10th 465 Complete F4 British Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 DC Points 2016 Carlin BHI 1 10 BHI 2 Ret BHI 3 7 DON 1 5 DON 2 Ret DON 3 17 THR 1 2 THR 2 Ret THR 3 1 OUL 1 1 OUL 2 7 OUL 3 2 CRO 1 4 CRO 2 Ret CRO 3 1 SNE 1 2 SNE 2 3 SNE 3 2 KNO 1 2 KNO 2 Ret KNO 3 9 ROC 1 Ret ROC 2 9 ROC 3 7 SIL 1 3 SIL 2 5 SIL 3 4 BHGP 1 Ret BHGP 2 16 BHGP 3 7 5th 265 Complete Italian F4 Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 DC Points 2016 Mücke Motorsport MIS 1 23 MIS 2 9 MIS 3 MIS 4 10 ADR 1 ADR 2 ADR 3 ADR 4 IMO1 1 Ret IMO1 2 7 IMO1 3 Ret MUG 1 8 MUG 2 5 MUG 3 5 VAL 1 9 VAL 2 Ret VAL 3 DNS IMO2 1 Ret IMO2 2 11 IMO2 3 8 MNZ 1 Ret MNZ 2 12 MNZ 3 6 19th 40 Complete Euroformula Open Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate points for the fastest lap of top ten finishers) Year Entrant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 DC Points 2017 Carlin Motorsport EST 1 12 EST 2 5 SPA 1 3 SPA 2 2 LEC 1 Ret LEC 2 5 HUN 1 8 HUN 2 Ret SIL 1 2 SIL 2 2 MNZ 1 7 MNZ 2 Ret JER 1 2 JER 2 3 CAT 1 1 CAT 2 5 3rd 172 Complete FIA Formula 3 European Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 DC Points 2017 Carlin Volkswagen SIL 1 SIL 2 SIL 3 MNZ 1 MNZ 2 MNZ 3 PAU 1 PAU 2 PAU 3 HUN 1 HUN 2 HUN 3 NOR 1 NOR 2 NOR 3 SPA 1 SPA 2 SPA 3 ZAN 1 ZAN 2 ZAN 3 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 NÜR 3 RBR 1 16 RBR 2 20 RBR 3 12 HOC 1 19 HOC 2 17 HOC 3 14 NC† 0† 2018 Carlin Volkswagen PAU 1 Ret PAU 2 Ret PAU 3 Ret HUN 1 18 HUN 2 16 HUN 3 14 NOR 1 WD NOR 2 WD NOR 3 WD ZAN 1 WD ZAN 2 WD ZAN 3 WD SPA 1 SPA 2 SPA 3 SIL 1 SIL 2 SIL 3 MIS 1 MIS 2 MIS 3 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 NÜR 3 RBR 1 RBR 2 RBR 3 HOC 1 HOC 2 HOC 3 25th 0 † As DeFrancesco was a guest driver, he was ineligible for points. Complete Macau Grand Prix results Year Team Car Qualifying Quali Race Main race 2017 Carlin Dallara F317 14th 21st DNF Complete GP3 Series/FIA Formula 3 Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pos Points 2018 MP Motorsport CAT FEA CAT SPR LEC FEA LEC SPR RBR FEA 18† RBR SPR 11 SIL FEA 15 SIL SPR 14 HUN FEA WD HUN SPR WD SPA FEA 18 SPA SPR Ret MNZ FEA 13 MNZ SPR 15 SOC FEA 17 SOC SPR 12 YMC FEA 17 YMC SPR 11 21st 0 2019 Trident CAT FEA 23 CAT SPR 20 LEC FEA 21† LEC SPR 21 RBR FEA 17 RBR SPR 9 SIL FEA 27 SIL SPR 17 HUN FEA 12 HUN SPR 11 SPA FEA 29 SPA SPR Ret MNZ FEA 12 MNZ SPR 16 SOC FEA 23 SOC SPR 12 25th 0 † Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship Results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team Class Make Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rank Points 2018 JDC-Miller MotorSports P Oreca 07 Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8 DAY 6 SEB LBH MOH DET WGL MOS ELK LGA PET 9 38th 47 2019 JDC-Miller MotorSports DPi Cadillac DPi-V.R Cadillac 5.5L V8 DAY 5 SEB LBH MOH DET WGL MOS ELK LGA PET 32nd 26 2021 DragonSpeed USA LMP2 Oreca 07 Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8 DAY 3† SEB WGL WGL ELK LGA PET NC† 0† 2022 DragonSpeed USA LMP2 Oreca 07 Gibson GK428 V8 DAY 1† SEB LGA MOH WGL ELK PET NC† 0† 2023 Rick Ware Racing LMP2 Oreca 07 Gibson GK428 4.2 L V8 DAY 6† SEB 7 LGA WGL 9 ELK IMS PET 22nd 484 2024 Forte Racing GTD Lamborghini Huracán GT3 Evo 2 Lamborghini DGF 5.2 L V10 DAY 16 SEB 5 LBH LGA WGL 14 MOS ELK VIR IMS 4 PET 2 26th 1305 † Points only counted towards the Michelin Endurance Cup, and not the overall LMP2 Championship. Complete F3 Asian Championship results ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Pos Points 2019-20 Absolute Racing SEP1 1 3 SEP1 2 9 SEP1 3 2 DUB 1 5 DUB 2 6 DUB 3 5 ABU 1 6 ABU 2 3 ABU 3 7 SEP2 1 SEP2 2 SEP2 3 CHA 1 CHA 2 CHA 3 7th 101 American open-wheel racing results ( key ) Indy Pro 2000 Championship Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Rank Points 2020 Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport ROA 2 ROA 4 MOH 7 MOH 2 MOH 3 LOR 4 GMP 1 IMS 4 IMS 2 IMS 8 MOH 14 MOH 11 NJM 1 NJM 10 NJM 10 STP 7 STP 6 2nd 341 Indy Lights Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Rank Points 2021 Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport ALA 3 ALA 3 STP 12 STP 5 IMS 7 IMS 6 DET 7 DET 5 RDA 10 RDA 6 MOH 5 MOH 5 GTW 4 GTW 5 POR 11 POR 7 LAG 6 LAG 8 MOH 8 MOH 4 6th 326 IndyCar Series ( key ) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team No. Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Rank Points Ref 2022 Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 29 Dallara DW12 Honda STP 22 TXS 24 LBH 25 ALA 17 IMS 21 INDY 20 DET 18 ROA 18 MOH 17 TOR 18 IOW 17 IOW 15 IMS 18 NSH 22 GTW 12 POR 16 LAG 15 23rd 206 [ 36 ] 2023 STP 25 TXS 23 LBH 16 ALA 23 IMS 17 INDY 13 DET 12 ROA 23 MOH 14 TOR 23 IOW 22 IOW 21 NSH 26 IMS 19 GTW 19 POR 17 LAG 22 22nd 177 [ 37 ] 2025 Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing 30 STP 22 THE 20 LBH 24 ALA 24 IMS 17 INDY 11 DET 23 GTW 23 ROA 19 MOH 20 IOW 19 IOW 25 TOR 22 LAG 20 POR 18 MIL 16 NSH 18 26th 171 [ 38 ] Indianapolis 500 Year Chassis Engine Start Finish Team 2022 Dallara Honda 24 20 Andretti Steinbrenner Autosport 2023 25 13 2025 Dallara Honda 16 11 Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing References ^ a b c d e .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Devlin DeFrancesco" . www.driverdb.com . DriverDB . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ a b "DeFrancesco to make IndyCar return with RLL" . RACER . 2024-12-09 . Retrieved 2024-12-09 . ^ Ryan, Nate (2022-01-30). "2022 Rolex 24 results: Helio Castroneves wins for Shank - NBC Sports" . MotorSportsTalk | NBC Sports . Retrieved 2022-04-04 . ^ Waldie, Paul (27 July 2012). "Grateful parents on track to help babies and their moms" . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ McDonald, Norris (19 January 2016). "Auto Racing Roundup: DeFrancesco, Abreu beating the odds" . Wheels.ca . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ McDonald, Norris (6 November 2015). "Canadian teen selected by Chip Ganassi as first 'One to Watch' " . Toronto Star . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ a b "Devlin DeFrancesco signs for Carlin for MSA Formula 2016" . MSA Formula . 10 December 2015 . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ a b David, Gruz (24 March 2015). "Devlin DeFrancesco joins Carlin to prepare for single-seater debut" . Paddock Scout . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ a b Carlin (Aug 12, 2017). "DEFRANCESCO CONFIRMED FOR FIA FORMULA THREE IN 2018" . Carlin. Archived from the original on March 25, 2018 . Retrieved March 24, 2018 . ^ "CGRT Announces Generation Ganassi Driver Identification Program" . www.chipganassiracing.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco is ready to impress" . Paddock Insight. 12 July 2015 . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ Allen, Peter (10 December 2015). "Carlin confirms MSA Formula seat for Devlin DeFrancesco" . Paddock Scout . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ Allen, Peter (9 January 2016). "Toyota Racing Series set for 19 cars in 2016 edition" . Paddock Scout . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ "Markelov to make Toyota Racing Series return" . Motorsport.com . 17 December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015 . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . ^ Allen, Peter (23 November 2016). "DeFrancesco to move on to Euroformula Open with Carlin" . Paddock Scout . Retrieved 23 November 2016 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco is Spanish Formula 3 champion" . in.motorsport.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "EuroFormula Open 2017 standings | Driver Database" . www.driverdb.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "DeFrancesco to make European F3 debut with Carlin" . www.motorsport.com . 20 September 2017 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ Simmons, Marcus. "British F4 race winner DeFrancesco to contest F3 rounds with Carlin" . Autosport.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ Simmons, Marcus. "Carlin confirms Devlin DeFrancesco for 2018 European F3 season" . Autosport.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco withdraws from Norisring Round" . www.devlindefrancesco.com . Archived from the original on 2019-05-07 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ Camp, Stephen. "GP3: Devlin DeFrancesco joins MP Motorsport for the remainder of 2018" . Motorsport Week . Archived from the original on 2019-05-07 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin says farewell to 2018 in style with a season best finish" . www.devlindefrancesco.com . Archived from the original on 2019-05-07 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ a b "Devlin DeFrancesco completes Trident's 2019 line-up - Formula 3" . www.fiaformula3.com . Archived from the original on 2019-04-10 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco Joins Trident's 2019 F3 Squad" . The Checkered Flag . 2019-02-27 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ MotorSport, Trident. "F3 TRIDENT - DRIVER ANNOUNCEMENT" . Trident Motorsport (in Italian) . Retrieved 2020-02-14 . ^ Allen, Peter (2020-06-24). "David Beckmann replaces Devlin DeFrancesco in Trident FIA F3 line-up for 2020" . Formula Scout . Retrieved 2023-04-08 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco Completes JDC Miller Rolex 24 Line-up – dailysportscar.com" . www.dailysportscar.com . 29 December 2017 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco shines at the Rolex 24" . www.devlindefrancesco.com . Archived from the original on 2019-05-07 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ DeFrancesco, Devlin; Release, Press (2019-01-22). "DeFrancesco returning to 24 hours of Daytona - TSN.ca" . TSN . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ Malsher, David (5 December 2018). "Barrichello to enter 2019 Daytona 24 with JDC-Miller Motorsports" . Autosport.com . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Devlin and the 'banana boat' navigate washout Daytona 24" . www.devlindefrancesco.com . Archived from the original on 2019-05-07 . Retrieved 2019-05-07 . ^ "Driver Season Stats" . Racing-Reference . Retrieved 2023-05-07 . ^ "DeFrancesco set to return with Andretti Autosport in 2023" . RACER . 2022-08-26 . Retrieved 2023-05-07 . ^ "IndyCar driver in immediate danger after Mick Schumacher decision" . beyondtheflag.com . 22 November 2025 . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco – 2022 NTT IndyCar Series Results" . Racing-Reference . NASCAR Digital Media, LLC . Retrieved August 1, 2023 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco – 2023 NTT IndyCar Series Results" . Racing-Reference . NASCAR Digital Media, LLC . Retrieved August 1, 2023 . ^ "Devlin DeFrancesco – 2025 NTT IndyCar Series Results" . Racing-Reference . NASCAR Digital Media, LLC . Retrieved March 1, 2025 . External links Official website Devlin DeFrancesco Driver Profile Devlin DeFrancesco career summary at DriverDB.com Sporting positions Preceded by Leonardo Pulcini Spanish Formula 3 Championship Champion 2017 Succeeded by Felipe Drugovich .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e 2025 IndyCar Series v t e Teams and drivers competing in the 2025 IndyCar Series A. J. Foyt Racing Andretti Global Arrow McLaren Chip Ganassi Racing 4. David Malukas 14. Santino Ferrucci 26. Colton Herta 27. Kyle Kirkwood 28. Marcus Ericsson 98. Marco Andretti (Indianapolis 500) 5. Pato O'Ward 6. Nolan Siegel 7. Christian Lundgaard 17. Kyle Larson (Indianapolis 500) 8. Kyffin Simpson 9. Scott Dixon 10. Álex Palou A. J. Foyt Racing Andretti Global Arrow McLaren Chip Ganassi Racing 4. David Malukas 14. Santino Ferrucci 26. Colton Herta 27. Kyle Kirkwood 28. Marcus Ericsson 98. Marco Andretti (Indianapolis 500) 5. Pato O'Ward 6. Nolan Siegel 7. Christian Lundgaard 17. Kyle Larson (Indianapolis 500) 8. Kyffin Simpson 9. Scott Dixon 10. Álex Palou A. J. Foyt Racing Andretti Global Arrow McLaren Chip Ganassi Racing 4. David Malukas 14. Santino Ferrucci 4. David Malukas 14. Santino Ferrucci 26. Colton Herta 27. Kyle Kirkwood 28. Marcus Ericsson 98. Marco Andretti (Indianapolis 500) 26. Colton Herta 27. Kyle Kirkwood 28. Marcus Ericsson 98. Marco Andretti (Indianapolis 500) 5. Pato O'Ward 6. Nolan Siegel 7. Christian Lundgaard 17. Kyle Larson (Indianapolis 500) 5. Pato O'Ward 6. Nolan Siegel 7. Christian Lundgaard 17. Kyle Larson (Indianapolis 500) 8. Kyffin Simpson 9. Scott Dixon 10. Álex Palou 8. Kyffin Simpson 9. Scott Dixon 10. Álex Palou Dale Coyne Racing Dreyer & Reinbold Racing - Cusick Motorsports Ed Carpenter Racing Juncos Hollinger Racing 18. Rinus VeeKay 51. Jacob Abel 23. Ryan Hunter-Reay (Indianapolis 500) 24. Jack Harvey (Indianapolis 500) 20. Alexander Rossi 21. Christian Rasmussen 33. Ed Carpenter (Indianapolis 500) 76. Conor Daly 77. Sting Ray Robb Dale Coyne Racing Dreyer & Reinbold Racing - Cusick Motorsports Ed Carpenter Racing Juncos Hollinger Racing 18. Rinus VeeKay 51. Jacob Abel 23. Ryan Hunter-Reay (Indianapolis 500) 24. Jack Harvey (Indianapolis 500) 20. Alexander Rossi 21. Christian Rasmussen 33. Ed Carpenter (Indianapolis 500) 76. Conor Daly 77. Sting Ray Robb Dale Coyne Racing Dreyer & Reinbold Racing - Cusick Motorsports Ed Carpenter Racing Juncos Hollinger Racing 18. Rinus VeeKay 51. Jacob Abel 18. Rinus VeeKay 51. Jacob Abel 23. Ryan Hunter-Reay (Indianapolis 500) 24. Jack Harvey (Indianapolis 500) 23. Ryan Hunter-Reay (Indianapolis 500) 24. Jack Harvey (Indianapolis 500) 20. Alexander Rossi 21. Christian Rasmussen 33. Ed Carpenter (Indianapolis 500) 20. Alexander Rossi 21. Christian Rasmussen 33. Ed Carpenter (Indianapolis 500) 76. Conor Daly 77. Sting Ray Robb 76. Conor Daly 77. Sting Ray Robb Meyer Shank Racing Prema Racing Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing Team Penske 06. Hélio Castroneves (Indianapolis 500) 60. Felix Rosenqvist 66. Marcus Armstrong 83. Robert Shwartzman 90. Callum Ilott 15. Graham Rahal 30. Devlin DeFrancesco 45. Louis Foster 75. Takuma Sato (Indianapolis 500) 2. Josef Newgarden 3. Scott McLaughlin 12. Will Power Meyer Shank Racing Prema Racing Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing Team Penske 06. Hélio Castroneves (Indianapolis 500) 60. Felix Rosenqvist 66. Marcus Armstrong 83. Robert Shwartzman 90. Callum Ilott 15. Graham Rahal 30. Devlin DeFrancesco 45. Louis Foster 75. Takuma Sato (Indianapolis 500) 2. Josef Newgarden 3. Scott McLaughlin 12. Will Power Meyer Shank Racing Prema Racing Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing Team Penske 06. Hélio Castroneves (Indianapolis 500) 60. Felix Rosenqvist 66. Marcus Armstrong 06. Hélio Castroneves (Indianapolis 500) 60. Felix Rosenqvist 66. Marcus Armstrong 83. Robert Shwartzman 90. Callum Ilott 83. Robert Shwartzman 90. Callum Ilott 15. Graham Rahal 30. Devlin DeFrancesco 45. Louis Foster 75. Takuma Sato (Indianapolis 500) 15. Graham Rahal 30. Devlin DeFrancesco 45. Louis Foster 75. Takuma Sato (Indianapolis 500) 2. Josef Newgarden 3. Scott McLaughlin 12. Will Power 2. Josef Newgarden 3. Scott McLaughlin 12. Will Power Races St. Petersburg • Thermal Club • Long Beach • Barber • Indianapolis GP • Indianapolis 500 • Detroit • Gateway • Road America • Mid-Ohio • Iowa 1 • Iowa 2 • Toronto • Monterey • Portland • Milwaukee • Nashville St. Petersburg • Thermal Club • Long Beach • Barber • Indianapolis GP • Indianapolis 500 • Detroit • Gateway • Road America • Mid-Ohio • Iowa 1 • Iowa 2 • Toronto • Monterey • Portland • Milwaukee • Nashville Road to Indy Indy NXT • USF Pro 2000 • USF 2000 • USF Juniors Indy NXT • USF Pro 2000 • USF 2000 • USF Juniors IndyCar v t e Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing / Rahal Ducati Moto v t e Personnel Bobby Rahal Graham Rahal David Letterman Mike Lanigan Ben Spies (Rahal Ducati MotoAmerica ) Jay Frye Bobby Rahal Graham Rahal David Letterman Mike Lanigan Ben Spies (Rahal Ducati MotoAmerica ) Jay Frye IndyCar drivers (15) Graham Rahal (45) Louis Foster (47) Mick Schumacher (75) Takuma Sato (part-time) (15) Graham Rahal (45) Louis Foster (47) Mick Schumacher (75) Takuma Sato (part-time) MotoAmerica riders (2) Josh Herrin (SS) (15) P. J. Jacobsen (SB) (19) Kayla Yakov (SS) (27) Alessandro di Maria (SS) (2) Josh Herrin (SS) (15) P. J. Jacobsen (SB) (19) Kayla Yakov (SS) (27) Alessandro di Maria (SS) Former personnel Carl Hogan Carl Hogan Indianapolis 500 wins 2004 (Rice) 2020 (Sato) 2004 (Rice) 2020 (Sato) National Championships 1992 (B. Rahal) 1992 (B. Rahal) v t e Andretti Global v t e Owner TWG Motorsports ( Mark Walter & Thomas Tull ) Marco Andretti (NTT IndyCar No. 98) Mike Curb & Cary Agajanian (NTT IndyCar No. 98) Bryan Herta (NTT IndyCar No. 98) TWG Motorsports ( Mark Walter & Thomas Tull ) Marco Andretti (NTT IndyCar No. 98) Mike Curb & Cary Agajanian (NTT IndyCar No. 98) Bryan Herta (NTT IndyCar No. 98) NTT IndyCar drivers Colton Herta (No. 26) Kyle Kirkwood (No. 27) Marcus Ericsson (No. 28) Part-time: Marco Andretti (No. 98) Colton Herta (No. 26) Kyle Kirkwood (No. 27) Marcus Ericsson (No. 28) Part-time: Marco Andretti (No. 98) Formula E drivers 27. Jake Dennis 51. Nico Muller Indy NXT drivers Lochie Hughes (No. 26) Salvador de Alba (No. 27) Dennis Hauger (No. 28) James Roe Jr. (No. 29) Andretti Cape : Sebastian Murray (No. 2) Ricardo Escotto (No. 3) Lochie Hughes (No. 26) Salvador de Alba (No. 27) Dennis Hauger (No. 28) James Roe Jr. (No. 29) Andretti Cape : Sebastian Murray (No. 2) Ricardo Escotto (No. 3) IMSA Sportscar Championship drivers No. 10 Filipe Albuquerque , Marcus Ericsson , Brendon Hartley , Ricky Taylor No. 40 Louis Delétraz , Jordan Taylor , Colton Herta , Jenson Button No. 43 Jarett Andretti , Gabby Chaves , Scott Hargrove , Thomas Preining No. 45 Graham Doyle , Danny Formal , Kyle Marcelli , Ashton Harrison No. 10 Filipe Albuquerque , Marcus Ericsson , Brendon Hartley , Ricky Taylor No. 40 Louis Delétraz , Jordan Taylor , Colton Herta , Jenson Button No. 43 Jarett Andretti , Gabby Chaves , Scott Hargrove , Thomas Preining No. 45 Graham Doyle , Danny Formal , Kyle Marcelli , Ashton Harrison Extreme E drivers No. 23 Timmy Hansen , Catie Munnings No. 23 Timmy Hansen , Catie Munnings Notable former drivers Fernando Alonso Michael Andretti Kurt Busch Mike Conway Devlin DeFrancesco Dario Franchitti Robby Gordon Romain Grosjean Bryan Herta Ryan Hunter-Reay Tony Kanaan Carlos Muñoz Danica Patrick Sting Ray Robb Takuma Sato Paul Tracy Jacques Villeneuve Dan Wheldon Justin Wilson Stefan Wilson Fernando Alonso Michael Andretti Kurt Busch Mike Conway Devlin DeFrancesco Dario Franchitti Robby Gordon Romain Grosjean Bryan Herta Ryan Hunter-Reay Tony Kanaan Carlos Muñoz Danica Patrick Sting Ray Robb Takuma Sato Paul Tracy Jacques Villeneuve Dan Wheldon Justin Wilson Stefan Wilson Indianapolis 500 wins 1995 (Villeneuve) 2005 (Wheldon) 2007 (Franchitti) 2014 (Hunter-Reay) 2016 (Rossi) 2017 (Sato) 1995 (Villeneuve) 2005 (Wheldon) 2007 (Franchitti) 2014 (Hunter-Reay) 2016 (Rossi) 2017 (Sato) National Championships 1995 (Villeneuve) 2004 (Kanaan) 2005 (Wheldon) 2007 (Franchitti) 2012 (Hunter-Reay) 1995 (Villeneuve) 2004 (Kanaan) 2005 (Wheldon) 2007 (Franchitti) 2012 (Hunter-Reay) v t e Trident v t e FIA Formula 2 Championship Laurens van Hoepen (22) James Wharton (23) Laurens van Hoepen (22) James Wharton (23) FIA Formula 3 Championship Noah Strømsted (4) Rafael Câmara (5) Charlie Wurz (6) Noah Strømsted (4) Rafael Câmara (5) Charlie Wurz (6) Formula Regional European Championship Matteo de Palo (2) Nandhavud Bhirombhakdi (29) Ruiqi Liu (66) Matteo de Palo (2) Nandhavud Bhirombhakdi (29) Ruiqi Liu (66) Vehicles Dallara F2 2024 (F2) Dallara F3 2025 (F3) Tatuus F3 T-318 (Formula Regional) Dallara F2 2024 (F2) Dallara F3 2025 (F3) Tatuus F3 T-318 (Formula Regional) v t e MP Motorsport v t e FIA Formula 2 Championship Oliver Goethe (5) Richard Verschoor (6) Oliver Goethe (5) Richard Verschoor (6) FIA Formula 3 Championship Tim Tramnitz (17) Bruno del Pino (18) Alessandro Giusti (19) Tim Tramnitz (17) Bruno del Pino (18) Alessandro Giusti (19) F4 Spanish Championship Hudson Schwartz Ean Eyckmans René Lammers Niklas Schaufler Reno Francot Juan Cota Hudson Schwartz Ean Eyckmans René Lammers Niklas Schaufler Reno Francot Juan Cota Vehicles Dallara F2 2024 (F2) Dallara F3 2025 (F3) Tatuus F4 T-021 (Spanish F4) Dallara F2 2024 (F2) Dallara F3 2025 (F3) Tatuus F4 T-021 (Spanish F4) 2000 births Living people Canadian racing drivers Canadian sportspeople of Italian descent Toyota Racing Series drivers ADAC Formula 4 drivers Italian F4 Championship drivers British F4 Championship drivers Racing drivers from Toronto Euroformula Open Championship drivers FIA Formula 3 European Championship drivers 24 Hours of Daytona drivers Canadian GP3 Series drivers 21st-century Canadian sportsmen FIA Formula 3 Championship drivers F3 Asian Championship drivers Indy Pro 2000 Championship drivers Indy Lights drivers IndyCar Series drivers Indianapolis 500 drivers Ginetta Junior Championship drivers MP Motorsport drivers Carlin racing drivers Trident Racing drivers Andretti Autosport drivers WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers Mücke Motorsport drivers JDC Motorsports drivers DragonSpeed drivers Italian racing drivers Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing drivers Forte Racing drivers CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata This page was last edited on 8 January 2026, at 03:49 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devlin_DeFrancesco
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–2 of 2 results for author: Shami, F Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10581 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.IR From Single to Multi-Agent Reasoning: Advancing GeneGPT for Genomics QA Authors: Kimia Abedini , Farzad Shami , Gianmaria Silvello Abstract : Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API… ▽ More Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API calls, though it is constrained by rigid API dependencies and limited adaptability. We replicate GeneGPT and propose GenomAgent, a multi-agent framework that efficiently coordinates specialized agents for complex genomics queries. Evaluated on nine tasks from the GeneTuring benchmark, GenomAgent outperforms GeneGPT by 12% on average, and its flexible architecture extends beyond genomics to various scientific domains needing expert knowledge extraction. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted paper by the 48th European Conference on Information Retrieval (ECIR'26) arXiv:2601.10581 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Single to Multi-Agent Reasoning: Advancing GeneGPT for Genomics QA Authors: Kimia Abedini , Farzad Shami , Gianmaria Silvello Abstract : Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API… ▽ More Comprehending genomic information is essential for biomedical research, yet extracting data from complex distributed databases remains challenging. Large language models (LLMs) offer potential for genomic Question Answering (QA) but face limitations due to restricted access to domain-specific databases. GeneGPT is the current state-of-the-art system that enhances LLMs by utilizing specialized API calls, though it is constrained by rigid API dependencies and limited adaptability. We replicate GeneGPT and propose GenomAgent, a multi-agent framework that efficiently coordinates specialized agents for complex genomics queries. Evaluated on nine tasks from the GeneTuring benchmark, GenomAgent outperforms GeneGPT by 12% on average, and its flexible architecture extends beyond genomics to various scientific domains needing expert knowledge extraction. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted paper by the 48th European Conference on Information Retrieval (ECIR'26) arXiv:2601.07375 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL GROKE: Vision-Free Navigation Instruction Evaluation via Graph Reasoning on OpenStreetMap Authors: Farzad Shami , Subhrasankha Dey , Nico Van de Weghe , Henrikki Tenkanen Abstract : The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, the… ▽ More The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, their reliance on high-fidelity visual simulators introduces licensing constraints and computational costs, and perception errors further confound linguistic quality assessment. This paper introduces GROKE(Graph-based Reasoning over OSM Knowledge for instruction Evaluation), a vision-free training-free hierarchical LLM-based framework for evaluating navigation instructions using OpenStreetMap data. Through systematic ablation studies, we demonstrate that structured JSON and textual formats for spatial information substantially outperform grid-based and visual graph representations. Our hierarchical architecture combines sub-instruction planning with topological graph navigation, reducing navigation error by 68.5% compared to heuristic and sampling baselines on the Map2Seq dataset. The agent's execution success, trajectory fidelity, and decision patterns serve as proxy metrics for functional navigability given OSM-visible landmarks and topology, establishing a scalable and interpretable evaluation paradigm without visual dependencies. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Under Review for ACL 2026 arXiv:2601.07375 [ pdf , ps , other ] GROKE: Vision-Free Navigation Instruction Evaluation via Graph Reasoning on OpenStreetMap Authors: Farzad Shami , Subhrasankha Dey , Nico Van de Weghe , Henrikki Tenkanen Abstract : The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, the… ▽ More The evaluation of navigation instructions remains a persistent challenge in Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) research. Traditional reference-based metrics such as BLEU and ROUGE fail to capture the functional utility of spatial directives, specifically whether an instruction successfully guides a navigator to the intended destination. Although existing VLN agents could serve as evaluators, their reliance on high-fidelity visual simulators introduces licensing constraints and computational costs, and perception errors further confound linguistic quality assessment. This paper introduces GROKE(Graph-based Reasoning over OSM Knowledge for instruction Evaluation), a vision-free training-free hierarchical LLM-based framework for evaluating navigation instructions using OpenStreetMap data. Through systematic ablation studies, we demonstrate that structured JSON and textual formats for spatial information substantially outperform grid-based and visual graph representations. Our hierarchical architecture combines sub-instruction planning with topological graph navigation, reducing navigation error by 68.5% compared to heuristic and sampling baselines on the Map2Seq dataset. The agent's execution success, trajectory fidelity, and decision patterns serve as proxy metrics for functional navigability given OSM-visible landmarks and topology, establishing a scalable and interpretable evaluation paradigm without visual dependencies. Code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Under Review for ACL 2026 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Shami,+F#main-container
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Discovery 2 Orbit 3 Physical properties Toggle Physical properties subsection 3.1 Rotation 3.1 Rotation 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links 2025 MN 45 Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item 2025 MN 45 imaged by Cerro Tololo Observatory 's Dark Energy Camera on 2 March 2017 Discovery [ 1 ] Discovered by Simonyi Survey Telescope Discovery site Vera C. Rubin Observatory Discovery date 2 May 2025 Designations MPC designation 2025 MN 45 Minor planet category main belt [ 2 ] Orbital characteristics [ 2 ] Epoch 21 November 2025 ( JD 2461000.5) Uncertainty parameter 0 Observation arc 5.60 yr (2,047 days) Earliest precovery date 26 September 2019 Aphelion 2.491 AU Perihelion 2.388 AU Semi-major axis 2.439 AU Eccentricity 0.0210 Orbital period (sidereal) 3.81 yr (1,392 d) Mean anomaly 95.679 ° Mean motion 0° 15 m 31.352 s / day Inclination 9.852° Longitude of ascending node 54.262° Argument of perihelion 98.697° Physical characteristics [ 3 ] Dimensions ≃ 0.87 × 0.66 km (minimum) Mean diameter ≃ 0.71 km Synodic rotation period ≃ 1.88 min Geometric albedo 0.15 (assumed) [ 3 ] Spectral type .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} g – r = 0.42–0.43 [ 3 ] r – i = 0.13–0.14 [ 3 ] g – r = 0.42–0.43 [ 3 ] r – i = 0.13–0.14 [ 3 ] Absolute magnitude (H) 18.74 ± 0.20 [ 2 ] .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman} 2025 MN 45 is a rapidly rotating main-belt asteroid 0.71 kilometers (0.44 mi) in diameter, discovered by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory on 2 May 2025. It has the shortest known rotation period of any asteroid with a diameter larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) as of 2026 [update] , completing one rotation approximately every 1.88 minutes. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The extreme spin rate of 2025 MN 45 indicates that it is not a rubble pile , but is instead made of a strong material like solid rock which prevents centrifugal forces from breaking it apart. [ 3 ] Discovery 2025 MN 45 was discovered by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory 's 8.4-meter (28 ft) Simonyi Survey Telescope on 2 May 2025, [ 1 ] during the commissioning of its main telescope camera (LSSTCam). [ 3 ] It is one of the ~1,900 asteroids discovered by the observatory during its "First Look" program, which detected them via frequent imaging of the Virgo Cluster from April to May 2025. [ 4 ] [ 3 ] The discovery of these asteroids including 2025 MN 45 was announced by Vera C. Rubin Observatory team in June 2025, [ 6 ] with the observation data submitted to the Minor Planet Center . [ 3 ] [ 7 ] Further analysis of Vera C. Rubin Observatory's "First Look" observations revealed that 2025 MN 45 had a rapid rotation, which was announced on 7 January 2026 by a team of astronomers led by Sarah Greenstreet . [ 4 ] [ 6 ] 2025 MN 45 has been detected by the Pan-STARRS survey in earlier observations from 2019, 2021, and 2023. [ 1 ] Orbit 2025 MN 45 orbits the Sun at an average distance or semi-major axis of 2.49 astronomical units (AU), which places it in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter . [ 2 ] It completes one orbit around the Sun every 3.81 years. [ 2 ] The asteroid follows a nearly circular orbit with a low orbital eccentricity of 0.02 and an inclination of 9.9° with respect to the ecliptic . [ 2 ] Physical properties 2025 MN 45 has an estimated diameter of 710 m (0.44 mi; 2,330 ft), which was determined from its absolute magnitude of 18.7 and an assumed geometric albedo of 0.15. [ 3 ] Analysis of Vera C. Rubin Observatory's April–May 2025 observations has shown that 2025 MN 45 has color indices of g – r = 0.42–0.43 and r – i = 0.13–0.14, which appear to match more closely with C-type asteroids than S-type asteroids . [ 3 ] [ a ] The observations also show that 2025 MN 45 's brightness fluctuates with an amplitude of 0.4 magnitudes , indicating that it has an elongated shape with an axial elongation of at least 1.3 (corresponding to dimensions of 0.87 × 0.66 km). [ 3 ] Rotation The brightness of 2025 MN 45 periodically changes due to its rotation. [ 5 ] [ 3 ] Analysis of Vera C. Rubin Observatory's April–May 2025 observations found that 2025 MN 45 rotates every 1.88 minutes, making it the fastest rotating asteroid with a diameter larger than 500 m (1,600 ft) as of 2026 [update] . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Main-belt asteroids with diameters larger than 150 m (490 ft) are generally expected to rotate slower than about 2.2 hours (a threshold known as the spin barrier), [ 3 ] as centrifugal forces would cause a loosely bound object (like a rubble pile ) to break apart. [ 4 ] [ 6 ] The fact that 2025 MN 45 rotates far faster than the 2.2-hour spin barrier implies that it is not a rubble pile like most asteroids, but is instead made of a very strong material with substantial internal cohesion . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The cohesive strength required to keep 2025 MN 45 intact against centrifugal forces is roughly 9 megapascals (MPa), comparable to that of solid rock (≈ 10 MPa). [ 3 ] In addition to 2025 MN 45 , two other "ultrafast"-rotating asteroids with diameters larger than 100 m (330 ft) and rotation periods shorter than 5 minutes were discovered in the same Vera C. Rubin Observatory study, [ b ] suggesting that they might be prevalent. [ 4 ] [ 3 ] These ultrafast rotators may have originated as fragments from the collisional destruction of a larger parent body 's dense core. [ 8 ] See also List of fast rotators (minor planets) Notes ^ Greenstreet et al. (2026) do not explicitly compare or describe 2025 MN 45 's color indices, but their values can be compared to the color index plot shown in Figure 16, where the authors discuss which color index values correspond to C-type and S-type. [ 3 ] ^ Ultrafast-rotating asteroids discovered in Vera C. Rubin Observatory's "First Look" observations include 2025 MN 45 (~ 0.71 km diameter, 1.18 min period), 2025 MJ 71 (~ 0.12 km diameter, 1.92 min period) and 2025 MK 41 (~ 0.54 km diameter, 3.78 min period). [ 3 ] References ^ a b c .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "2025 MN45" . Minor Planet Center . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ a b c d e f "JPL Small-Body Database Lookup: (2025 MN45)" (2025-05-04 last obs.). Jet Propulsion Laboratory . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Greenstreet, Sarah; Li, Zhuofu (Chester); Vavilov, Dmitrii E.; Singh, Devanshi; Jurić, Mario; Ivezić, Željko; et al. (7 January 2026). "Lightcurves, Rotation Periods, and Colors for Vera C. Rubin Observatory's First Asteroid Discoveries" . The Astrophysical Journal Letters . 996 (2): L33. Bibcode : 2026ApJ...996L..33G . doi : 10.3847/2041-8213/ae2a30 . ^ a b c d e f g Greenstreet, Sarah; Fenske, Josie; Groff, Aaron (7 January 2026). "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . NOIRLab. p. noirlab2601 . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ a b c Wall, Mike (8 January 2026). "Vera Rubin Observatory discovers fastest spinning asteroid ever and its huge!" . Space.com . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ a b c Luntz, Stephen (8 January 2026). "2025 MN45: New 700-Meter Asteroid In A Spin Smashes Fastest Rotation Record For Its Size" . IFLScience . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ "MPEC 2025-M87 : DAILY ORBIT UPDATE (2025 June 24)" . Minor Planet Electronic Circular . 2025-M87. Minor Planet Center. 24 June 2025 . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . (This is the first Minor Planet Center announcement of 2025 MN 45 , which is written as "K25M45N" in the list.) ^ Grossman, Lisa (9 January 2026). "A newly spotted asteroid spins faster than any of its size ever seen" . ScienceNews . Retrieved 10 January 2026 . External links 2025 MN45 at the JPL Small-Body Database Close approach · Discovery · Ephemeris · Orbit viewer · Orbit parameters · Physical parameters Close approach · Discovery · Ephemeris · Orbit viewer · Orbit parameters · Physical parameters .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e 2026 in space v t e « 2025 2027 » « 2025 2027 » Space probe launches Pandora Mission (January) Gaganyaan-1 (January) Artemis II (February) Blue Moon Pathfinder Mission 1 Lunar Pathfinder SMILE (April) Martian Moons eXploration Mengzhou 1 Xuntian (Q4) HENON PLATO (December) Pandora Mission (January) Gaganyaan-1 (January) Artemis II (February) Blue Moon Pathfinder Mission 1 Lunar Pathfinder SMILE (April) Martian Moons eXploration Mengzhou 1 Xuntian (Q4) HENON PLATO (December) Selected NEOs Asteroid close approaches Asteroid close approaches Discoveries Rapidly-rotating asteroid 2025 MN 45 Comets 24P/Schaumasse C/2024 E1 (Wierzchoś) 88P/Howell 10P/Tempel 169P/NEAT 161P/Hartley–IRAS 24P/Schaumasse C/2024 E1 (Wierzchoś) 88P/Howell 10P/Tempel 169P/NEAT 161P/Hartley–IRAS Space exploration Tianwen-2 sample collection from 469219 Kamoʻoalewa Hayabusa2 flyby of 98943 Torifune BepiColombo orbits Mercury Hera arrival at 65803 Didymos Tianwen-2 sample collection from 469219 Kamoʻoalewa Hayabusa2 flyby of 98943 Torifune BepiColombo orbits Mercury Hera arrival at 65803 Didymos Outer space portal Category:2025 in outer space — Category:2026 in outer space — Category:2027 in outer space Outer space portal Category:2025 in outer space — Category:2026 in outer space — Category:2027 in outer space Authority control databases JPL SBDB MPC JPL SBDB MPC Main-belt asteroids Discoveries by Vera C. Rubin Observatory Minor planet object articles (unnumbered) Astronomical objects discovered in 2025 CS1: long volume value Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2026 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 10 January 2026, at 08:29 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_MN45
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background Toggle Background subsection 1.1 Assassination as a policy consideration 1.2 U.S. and Iranian activities in Iraq since 2014 1.3 Political considerations 1.4 Significance of the assassination of Soleimani 1.4.1 Prior threats against Soleimani 1.1 Assassination as a policy consideration 1.2 U.S. and Iranian activities in Iraq since 2014 1.3 Political considerations 1.4 Significance of the assassination of Soleimani 1.4.1 Prior threats against Soleimani 1.4.1 Prior threats against Soleimani 2 Prelude Toggle Prelude subsection 2.1 Pentagon evaluation 2.2 Trump briefing 2.2.1 Trump's alleged motivation for the strike 2.3 Soleimani's trip to Iraq 2.1 Pentagon evaluation 2.2 Trump briefing 2.2.1 Trump's alleged motivation for the strike 2.2.1 Trump's alleged motivation for the strike 2.3 Soleimani's trip to Iraq 3 Assassination Toggle Assassination subsection 3.1 Casualties 3.2 Contemporaneous assassination attempt 3.1 Casualties 3.2 Contemporaneous assassination attempt 4 Aftermath Toggle Aftermath subsection 4.1 Alleged Taji road airstrike 4.2 Iranian response 4.2.1 Funeral 4.2.2 IRGC retaliatory strike 4.2.3 Oil prices 4.2.4 Jerusalem Post hack 4.2.5 2024 Kerman bombing 4.3 Iraqi response 4.3.1 Status of U.S. troops in Iraq 4.3.2 Impact on Iraqi protests 4.3.3 Anniversary protests 4.1 Alleged Taji road airstrike 4.2 Iranian response 4.2.1 Funeral 4.2.2 IRGC retaliatory strike 4.2.3 Oil prices 4.2.4 Jerusalem Post hack 4.2.5 2024 Kerman bombing 4.2.1 Funeral 4.2.2 IRGC retaliatory strike 4.2.3 Oil prices 4.2.4 Jerusalem Post hack 4.2.5 2024 Kerman bombing 4.3 Iraqi response 4.3.1 Status of U.S. troops in Iraq 4.3.2 Impact on Iraqi protests 4.3.3 Anniversary protests 4.3.1 Status of U.S. troops in Iraq 4.3.2 Impact on Iraqi protests 4.3.3 Anniversary protests 5 Legality Toggle Legality subsection 5.1 Potential violation of international law 5.2 In terms of agreement with Iraq 5.3 Potential violation of U.S. law 5.3.1 Congressional war powers resolution 5.1 Potential violation of international law 5.2 In terms of agreement with Iraq 5.3 Potential violation of U.S. law 5.3.1 Congressional war powers resolution 5.3.1 Congressional war powers resolution 6 Reactions 7 Retaliation attempts by Iran Toggle Retaliation attempts by Iran subsection 7.1 Assassination attempt on Ambassador Lana Marks 7.2 Assassination plot by Shahram Poursafi 7.3 Assassination plot by Majid Dastjani Farahani 7.4 Assassination plot by Asif Merchant 7.5 Hacking of Donald Trump's 2024 presidential campaign 7.6 Assassination plot by Farhad Shakeri 7.1 Assassination attempt on Ambassador Lana Marks 7.2 Assassination plot by Shahram Poursafi 7.3 Assassination plot by Majid Dastjani Farahani 7.4 Assassination plot by Asif Merchant 7.5 Hacking of Donald Trump's 2024 presidential campaign 7.6 Assassination plot by Farhad Shakeri 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Assassination of Qasem Soleimani Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Čeština Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu 日本語 پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English سنڌي کوردی Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Assassination of Qasem Soleimani Part of the American-led intervention in Iraq Remnants of the car Qasem Soleimani was riding in Type Targeted killing , drone strike [ 1 ] Location Near Baghdad Airport Road , Baghdad International Airport , Baghdad Governorate , Baghdad , Iraq .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 33°15′29″N 44°15′22″E / 33.25806°N 44.25611°E / 33.25806; 44.25611 Planned by United States Target Qasem Soleimani X Date 3 January 2020 ; 6 years ago ( 2020-01-03 ) About 1:00 a.m. [ 2 ] ( local time , UTC+3 ) Executed by United States Air Force United States Army Delta Force CTG (allegedly) [ 3 ] United States Air Force United States Army Delta Force Delta Force CTG (allegedly) [ 3 ] Outcome Successful Casualties 10 killed, including Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis .mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}} Location in Iraq .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Iraqi insurgency (2017–present) v t e Battles and operations Sinjar Major insurgent attacks 2018 Baghdad 2018 Asdira Hawija Al Tarmia Al-Qa'im Karbala Kirkuk Jan 2021 Baghdad Diyala Cross-border operations Deir ez-Zor Syrian Desert Iranian–U.S. conflict K-1 Air Base 2019 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah Attack on U.S. embassy in Baghdad Assassination of Qasem Soleimani reactions Operation Martyr Soleimani Camp Taji 2021 Erbil Feb 2021 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah Jun 2021 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah 2022 Erbil American–Middle East conflict Timelines 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 See also: Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011) Sinjar Major insurgent attacks 2018 Baghdad 2018 Asdira Hawija Al Tarmia Al-Qa'im Karbala Kirkuk Jan 2021 Baghdad Diyala Cross-border operations Deir ez-Zor Syrian Desert Iranian–U.S. conflict K-1 Air Base 2019 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah Attack on U.S. embassy in Baghdad Assassination of Qasem Soleimani reactions reactions Operation Martyr Soleimani Camp Taji 2021 Erbil Feb 2021 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah Jun 2021 U.S. bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah 2022 Erbil American–Middle East conflict Timelines 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 See also: Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011) This article is part of a series about Donald Trump This article is part of a series about Donald Trump Business and personal Age and health Business career The Trump Organization wealth tax returns cryptocurrency Conspiracy theories Early life and education Endorsements Eponyms Fascism False or misleading statements first term between terms second term Family Foundation grants American football Golf Honors Legal affairs indictments Makeup Media career The Apprentice bibliography filmography Musk feud Nicknames Public image in popular culture in music SNL parodies baby balloon dance handshakes pseudonyms Racial views antisemitism Religion Residences Rhetoric Security incidents Sexual misconduct allegations Epstein ties Social media TikTok controversy Twitter Voters Obama Sanders 45th and 47th President of the United States Presidencies first second Inaugurations first second Portraits Presidential library Tenure Timeline 2016 Transition 2017 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2018 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2019 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2020 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2021 Q1 2024 Transition 2025 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2026 Q1 Executive actions Executive orders First term Second term Proclamations Pardons First term Second term Trips 2017 Riyadh summit 2018 Singapore Summit Helsinki Summit 2019 Hanoi Summit United Kingdom state visit DMZ Summit 2020–21 Namaste Trump 2025 Middle East visit Alaska Summit United Kingdom state visit Gaza peace summit Budapest Summit 2026 International Shutdowns January 2018 2018–2019 2025 Speeches State of the Union Address 2018 2019 2020 Joint address to Congress 2017 2025 Oval Office Address 2019 2020 Farewell address 2021 Public speeches 2017 speech in Warsaw 2017 National Scout Jamboree Opinion polls First term 2017 2018 2019 Second term Legal affairs First term Second term Protests Federal law enforcement deployment St. John's Church photo op No Kings protests June 2025 October 2025 2020 presidential election overturning attempts January 6 Capitol attack Timeline Reactions Domestic International Aftermath Fake electors plot Eastman memos Jeffrey Clark letter Pre-election lawsuits Post-election lawsuits Texas v. Pennsylvania Policies Domestic First Term Second Term Economy First Term tax cuts tariffs USMCA farmer bailouts Second Term One Big Beautiful Bill Act tariffs China Canada and Mexico Liberation Day TACO Environment Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Foreign policy First Term Syria strikes 2017 2018 Kosovo–Serbia agreements Second Term Russian invasion of Ukraine Putin phone call Saudi Arabia meeting Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting minerals agreement peace talks Putin summits Alaska Budapest White House multilateral meeting on Ukraine Peace plan for Ukraine Armenia–Azerbaijan agreement Kuala Lumpur accord America First American expansionism Donroe Doctrine Greenland Proposed Venezuela invasion 2026 Venezuela strikes Afghanistan Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Iran First Term nuclear deal withdrawal Second Term Iran negotiations Iran–Israel war June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire Iraq Soleimani Israel First Term Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords Second Term Gaza Strip takeover proposal Gaza peace plan Saudi Arabia 2017 arms deal Syria al-Baghdadi Immigration First Term Second Term travel ban border wall family separation policy migrant detentions deportation troop deployments national emergency Infrastructure Social issues First Step Act Cannabis First Term Second Term ` Space First Term Second Term COVID-19 pandemic Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed Interference with science agencies Targeting of political opponents and civil society Trumpism Appointments ( first second ) Cabinets first second Ambassadors first second Federal judges lower courts Supreme Court candidates Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Executives first second U.S. Attorneys first second Presidential campaigns 2000 primaries 2016 election primaries endorsements rallies Las Vegas incident convention debates foreign policy Make America Great Again Never Trump movement people Access Hollywood tape wiretapping allegations Spygate 2020 election primaries endorsements political non-political opposition rallies convention debates GOP reactions to election fraud claims Raffensperger phone call 2024 election primaries endorsements opposition eligibility Agenda 47 rallies convention debates assassination attempts PA perpetrator photographs FL perpetrator Impeachments Efforts resolutions First impeachment Zelenskyy phone call Ukraine scandal House inquiry Senate trial Second impeachment Capitol attack Senate trial Proposed expungements Legal proceedings 2020 election federal indictment Classified documents federal indictment Special counsel investigation FBI investigation FBI Mar-a-Lago search Trump v. United States New York prosecution Stormy Daniels scandal New York investigations Georgia election indictment Georgia election investigation mug shot Age and health Business career The Trump Organization wealth tax returns cryptocurrency The Trump Organization wealth tax returns cryptocurrency Conspiracy theories Early life and education Endorsements Eponyms Fascism False or misleading statements first term between terms second term first term between terms second term Family Foundation grants grants American football Golf Honors Legal affairs indictments indictments Makeup Media career The Apprentice bibliography filmography The Apprentice bibliography filmography Musk feud Nicknames Public image in popular culture in music SNL parodies baby balloon dance handshakes pseudonyms in popular culture in music SNL parodies baby balloon dance handshakes pseudonyms Racial views antisemitism antisemitism Religion Residences Rhetoric Security incidents Sexual misconduct allegations Epstein ties Epstein ties Social media TikTok controversy Twitter TikTok controversy Twitter Voters Obama Sanders Obama Sanders Presidencies first second first second Inaugurations first second first second Portraits Presidential library Timeline 2016 Transition Transition 2017 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2018 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2019 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2020 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2021 Q1 Q1 2024 Transition Transition 2025 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 First 100 days Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2026 Q1 Q1 Executive actions Executive orders First term Second term First term Second term Proclamations Pardons First term Second term First term Second term Trips 2017 Riyadh summit Riyadh summit 2018 Singapore Summit Helsinki Summit Singapore Summit Helsinki Summit 2019 Hanoi Summit United Kingdom state visit DMZ Summit Hanoi Summit United Kingdom state visit DMZ Summit 2020–21 Namaste Trump Namaste Trump 2025 Middle East visit Alaska Summit United Kingdom state visit Gaza peace summit Budapest Summit Middle East visit Alaska Summit United Kingdom state visit Gaza peace summit Budapest Summit 2026 International Shutdowns January 2018 2018–2019 2025 Speeches State of the Union Address 2018 2019 2020 2018 2019 2020 Joint address to Congress 2017 2025 2017 2025 Oval Office Address 2019 2020 2019 2020 Farewell address 2021 2021 Public speeches 2017 speech in Warsaw 2017 National Scout Jamboree 2017 speech in Warsaw 2017 National Scout Jamboree Opinion polls First term 2017 2018 2019 2017 2018 2019 Second term Legal affairs First term Second term Protests Federal law enforcement deployment St. John's Church photo op No Kings protests June 2025 October 2025 June 2025 October 2025 2020 presidential election overturning attempts January 6 Capitol attack Timeline Reactions Domestic International Aftermath Timeline Reactions Domestic International Domestic International Aftermath Fake electors plot Eastman memos Eastman memos Jeffrey Clark letter Pre-election lawsuits Post-election lawsuits Texas v. Pennsylvania Domestic First Term Second Term First Term Second Term Economy First Term tax cuts tariffs USMCA farmer bailouts Second Term One Big Beautiful Bill Act tariffs China Canada and Mexico Liberation Day TACO First Term tax cuts tariffs USMCA farmer bailouts tax cuts tariffs USMCA farmer bailouts Second Term One Big Beautiful Bill Act tariffs China Canada and Mexico Liberation Day TACO One Big Beautiful Bill Act tariffs China Canada and Mexico Liberation Day TACO China Canada and Mexico Liberation Day TACO TACO Environment Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Foreign policy First Term Syria strikes 2017 2018 Kosovo–Serbia agreements Second Term Russian invasion of Ukraine Putin phone call Saudi Arabia meeting Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting minerals agreement peace talks Putin summits Alaska Budapest White House multilateral meeting on Ukraine Peace plan for Ukraine Armenia–Azerbaijan agreement Kuala Lumpur accord America First American expansionism Donroe Doctrine Greenland Proposed Venezuela invasion 2026 Venezuela strikes Afghanistan Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Iran First Term nuclear deal withdrawal Second Term Iran negotiations Iran–Israel war June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire Iraq Soleimani Israel First Term Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords Second Term Gaza Strip takeover proposal Gaza peace plan Saudi Arabia 2017 arms deal Syria al-Baghdadi First Term Syria strikes 2017 2018 Kosovo–Serbia agreements Syria strikes 2017 2018 2017 2018 Kosovo–Serbia agreements Second Term Russian invasion of Ukraine Putin phone call Saudi Arabia meeting Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting minerals agreement peace talks Putin summits Alaska Budapest White House multilateral meeting on Ukraine Peace plan for Ukraine Armenia–Azerbaijan agreement Kuala Lumpur accord Russian invasion of Ukraine Putin phone call Saudi Arabia meeting Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting minerals agreement peace talks Putin summits Alaska Budapest White House multilateral meeting on Ukraine Peace plan for Ukraine Putin phone call Saudi Arabia meeting Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting minerals agreement peace talks Putin summits Alaska Budapest Alaska Budapest White House multilateral meeting on Ukraine Peace plan for Ukraine Armenia–Azerbaijan agreement Kuala Lumpur accord America First American expansionism Donroe Doctrine Greenland Proposed Venezuela invasion 2026 Venezuela strikes Donroe Doctrine Greenland Proposed Venezuela invasion 2026 Venezuela strikes Afghanistan Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Iran First Term nuclear deal withdrawal Second Term Iran negotiations Iran–Israel war June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire First Term nuclear deal withdrawal nuclear deal withdrawal Second Term Iran negotiations Iran–Israel war June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire Iran negotiations Iran–Israel war June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire June 2025 strikes Iran–Israel war ceasefire Iraq Soleimani Soleimani Israel First Term Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords Second Term Gaza Strip takeover proposal Gaza peace plan First Term Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords Second Term Gaza Strip takeover proposal Gaza peace plan Gaza Strip takeover proposal Gaza peace plan Saudi Arabia 2017 arms deal 2017 arms deal Syria al-Baghdadi al-Baghdadi Immigration First Term Second Term travel ban border wall family separation policy migrant detentions deportation troop deployments national emergency First Term Second Term travel ban border wall family separation policy migrant detentions deportation troop deployments national emergency Infrastructure Social issues First Step Act Cannabis First Term Second Term ` First Step Act Cannabis First Term Second Term ` First Term Second Term ` Space First Term Second Term First Term Second Term COVID-19 pandemic Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed Interference with science agencies Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed Interference with science agencies Targeting of political opponents and civil society Trumpism first second Cabinets first second first second Ambassadors first second first second Federal judges lower courts Supreme Court candidates Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett lower courts Supreme Court candidates Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Executives first second first second U.S. Attorneys first second first second 2000 primaries primaries 2016 election primaries endorsements rallies Las Vegas incident convention debates foreign policy Make America Great Again Never Trump movement people Access Hollywood tape wiretapping allegations Spygate election primaries endorsements rallies Las Vegas incident Las Vegas incident convention debates foreign policy Make America Great Again Never Trump movement people people Access Hollywood tape wiretapping allegations Spygate 2020 election primaries endorsements political non-political opposition rallies convention debates GOP reactions to election fraud claims Raffensperger phone call election primaries endorsements political non-political political non-political opposition rallies convention debates GOP reactions to election fraud claims Raffensperger phone call 2024 election primaries endorsements opposition eligibility Agenda 47 rallies convention debates assassination attempts PA perpetrator photographs FL perpetrator election primaries endorsements opposition eligibility Agenda 47 rallies convention debates assassination attempts PA perpetrator photographs FL perpetrator PA perpetrator photographs perpetrator photographs FL perpetrator perpetrator Efforts resolutions resolutions First impeachment Zelenskyy phone call Ukraine scandal House inquiry Senate trial Zelenskyy phone call Ukraine scandal House inquiry Senate trial Second impeachment Capitol attack Senate trial Capitol attack Senate trial Proposed expungements 2020 election federal indictment Classified documents federal indictment Special counsel investigation FBI investigation FBI Mar-a-Lago search Trump v. United States Special counsel investigation FBI investigation FBI Mar-a-Lago search Trump v. United States New York prosecution Stormy Daniels scandal Stormy Daniels scandal New York investigations Georgia election indictment Georgia election investigation mug shot Georgia election investigation mug shot v t e v t e On 3 January 2020, Qasem Soleimani , an Iranian major general , was killed by an American drone strike ordered by U.S. president Donald Trump [ 4 ] [ 5 ] near Baghdad International Airport in Iraq, while travelling to meet Iraqi prime minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi . [ 6 ] Soleimani was commander of the Quds Force , one of five branches of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), which is designated as a terrorist organization by both the United States and European Parliament. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Soleimani was considered the second most powerful person in Iran, subordinate to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei , even being considered Khamenei's right hand man. [ 9 ] Five Iraqi nationals and four other Iranian nationals were killed alongside Soleimani, [ 10 ] including the deputy chairman of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) and commander of the Iran-backed Kata'ib Hezbollah militia, Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis . The Pentagon says Soleimani and his troops were "responsible for the deaths of hundreds of American and coalition service members and the wounding of thousands more". [ 11 ] However, questions concerning the U.S. military command 's level of attribution to the Quds Force for Iraq's domestic production of explosively formed penetrators , to the source of foreign production and "technology and the training on how to use it", and the level of transparency regarding this information at the time of accusation, were raised contemporaneously. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The strike occurred during the 2019–2022 Persian Gulf crisis, which began after the U.S. withdrew from the 2015 nuclear deal with Iran in 2018, reimposed sanctions , and accused Iranian elements of fomenting a campaign to harass U.S. forces in the region in 2019. On 27 December 2019, the K-1 Air Base in Iraq, which hosts Iraqi and U.S. personnel, was attacked , killing an American contractor. The U.S. responded by launching airstrikes across Iraq and Syria , reportedly killing 25 Kata'ib Hezbollah militiamen. Days later, Shia militiamen and their supporters retaliated by attacking the U.S. embassy in the Green Zone . U.S. officials justified the Soleimani strike saying it was necessary to stop an "imminent attack", though later clarifying the legal justification of the action as being taken "in response to an escalating series of attacks...to protect United States personnel, to deter Iran from conducting or supporting further attacks...and to end Iran's strategic escalation of attacks..." [ 14 ] Some experts, including the United Nations special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, considered the assassination as a likely violation of international law as well as U.S. domestic laws. Iran called the strike an act of " state terrorism ". The Iraqi government said the attack undermined its national sovereignty and considered it a breach of its bilateral security agreements with the U.S. and an act of aggression against its officials. On 5 January 2020, the Iraqi parliament passed a non-binding resolution to expel all foreign troops from its territory [ 15 ] [ 16 ] while, on the same day, Iran took the fifth and last step of reducing commitments to the 2015 international nuclear deal . Soleimani's killing sharply escalated tensions between the U.S. [ 17 ] and Iran. Iranian leaders vowed revenge , while U.S. officials said they would preemptively attack any Iran-backed paramilitary groups in Iraq that they perceived as a threat. Many in the international community reacted with concern and urged restraint and diplomacy. On 8 January 2020, five days after the airstrike, Iran launched a series of missile attacks on U.S. forces based in Iraq , the first known direct engagement between Iran and the U.S. since the naval battle precipitating the Vincennes incident on 3 July 1988. That same day, the IRGC shot down a civilian airliner Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 . Following the shootdown, no additional military actions took place. [ 18 ] Background Assassination as a policy consideration The modern Middle East has seen a number of occasions in which the assassination of high-level government and military figures was attempted, or at least considered. Such instances include United States decapitation strike air raids targeting Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in 1986 and Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein in 1991, 1998, and 2003, in addition to killings or attempted killings of non-state terrorist leaders such as Anwar al-Awlaki and Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi . [ 19 ] Governments conducting assassinations of foreign leaders and officials was largely frowned upon in prior centuries, but that norm has been weakening over time, especially since World War II . [ 20 ] The effectiveness of anti-terrorist "leadership targeting" has become a subject of scholarly debate, especially with regard to whether such killings are actually beneficial to a country's foreign policy goals. [ 21 ] In the wake of the strike against Soleimani, both the topic of further eroding norms and questions regarding effectiveness were raised. [ 22 ] The costs and benefits of foreign policy assassinations are difficult to compute, and decisions to go ahead with such actions often reflect the vague, and not always realized, hope that any successor to the targeted person will be less capable against, or will embody policies more favorable toward, the country taking the action. [ 19 ] U.S. and Iranian activities in Iraq since 2014 In 2014, the U.S. intervened in Iraq as a part of Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR)–an American-led mission to fight the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terror organization–and have been training and operating alongside Iraqi forces as a part of the anti-ISIL coalition. In 2017, ISIL forces in Iraq were largely defeated amidst a civil conflict , with the help of primarily Iran-backed Shia militias—the Popular Mobilization Forces , reporting to the Iraqi prime minister since 2016—and the U.S.-backed Iraqi Armed Forces . [ 23 ] Political considerations Concerning the 15-year Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action provisional nuclear deal with Iran, some critics of the treaty argued that Iran could make a nuclear bomb after expiry of the limited-term nuclear deal. [ 24 ] U.S. president Donald Trump criticized the nuclear deal, particularly the Obama administration 's debt clearance of $1.7 billion to Iran. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Tensions rose between Iran and the U.S. in 2018 after Trump unilaterally withdrew from the 2015 nuclear deal and reimposed sanctions against Iran [ 28 ] —which severely affected Iran's economy [ 29 ] —as a part of his administration's strategy of applying "maximum pressure" against Iran for the purpose of establishing a new nuclear deal. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] The Quds Force , which Qasem Soleimani led, has been designated a terrorist organization by Canada, [ 33 ] Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, [ 34 ] and the U.S. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Soleimani himself was sanctioned by the United Nations [ 37 ] and the European Union [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and was on U.S. terror watchlists. [ 41 ] Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis was designated a terrorist by the U.S. in 2009. [ 42 ] He was the deputy commander of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF). [ 43 ] He also commanded Kata'ib Hezbollah , a 25,000-strong militia [ 44 ] considered a terrorist organization by Japan , [ 45 ] the United Arab Emirates , [ 46 ] and the U.S. [ 47 ] Significance of the assassination of Soleimani General Qasem Soleimani was considered the second most powerful person in Iran , behind Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei , [ 48 ] and in his later years enjoyed a near unassailable heroic status, especially with supporters of Tehran 's hard-line politics. [ 49 ] Ever since the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), in which Iran was attacked by Saddam Hussein 's Iraq with significant assistance of several Western countries siding with Hussein against Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 's Islamic republic in Tehran, [ 50 ] with notably the U.S. supplying weapons and intelligence to Iraq, [ 51 ] Soleimani had developed into the architect of all of Iran's foreign policies in the Middle East [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 52 ] and a key figure in all of Iran's foreign and defence policies. [ 48 ] He provided crucial support to President Bashar al-Assad 's regime during the Syrian Civil War . [ 53 ] In his 2008 letter to the U.S. general David Petraeus , then commander of the Multi-National Force in Iraq , he asserted: "General Petraeus, you must know that I, Qasem Soleimani, am in charge of the Iranian policies concerning Iraq, Lebanon , Gaza and Afghanistan ". [ 49 ] Iran's alleged ties to the Taliban were cited as part of the justification for the assassination of Soleimani. [ 54 ] That made his killing by the U.S. on 3 January 2020 a significant aggravation [ 50 ] of the existing tensions between the U.S. and Iran. In the days after the assassination of Soleimani, Iran's leaders vowed "shattering revenge" [ 48 ] "on places and at times where the U.S. don't expect it". [ 55 ] Prior threats against Soleimani Responses to Qasem Soleimani's perceived influence in Iraq and abroad had been a topic of debate amongst U.S. officials for many years. In August 2007, as U.S. military officials attempted to learn more about the leadership of the Iran-backed proxy groups operating in Iraq, they received a message relayed through the Iraqi Minister of State for National Security, that Soleimani wanted them to know that he was "the sole decision-maker on Iranian activities in Iraq". [ 56 ] According to a report by NBC News, Eric Edelman , a career foreign services officer with senior diplomatic posts at the time, U.S. commander Army General George Casey , considered designating Soleimani and Quds Force officers enemy combatants, thus making them subject to military action. However, the idea was ruled out over concerns of opening a "new front" in the war. Edelman stated, "There were a lot of us who thought he should be taken out. But at the end of the day, they decided not to do that," due to concern of starting simultaneous conflict with Iran. [ 57 ] Former U.S. presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama both considered and rejected targeting Qasem Soleimani, reasoning that it would escalate to a full-scale war. Retired CIA officer Marc Polymeropoulos told The New York Times that Soleimani, unlike other adversaries killed by the U.S., felt comfortable operating in the open and was not hard to find. He often took photographs of himself and openly taunted U.S. forces. [ 58 ] In October 2007, the Bush administration was the first to designate Soleimani a terrorist on the basis of his involvement with the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps and Quds Force, and the increasing recognition of the role they played in the Iraq conflict. [ 59 ] According to an interview with a PolitiFact journalist, retired U.S. Army Colonel Frank Sobchak, said that around the same time U.S. special forces had planned for his capture, but the mission was not approved by senior officials. He said, "Individuals that we talked to in senior positions of the U.S. government told us that with support for the war at an all-time low in 2007, the Bush administration recognized the importance of Soleimani to the war, but was not willing to risk the political capital and repercussions that could occur from expanding the war to that level." [ 60 ] These activities preceded escalating concern and terror designations of Soleimani by the Obama administration . The first such designation was made in May 2011, in response to Soleimani's assistance to the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate in the violent suppression of Syrian protestors. [ 61 ] The second, and more serious designation by the Obama administration came in October 2011, after a plot was revealed in which four senior Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF) officers were planning to assassinate the Saudi Arabian Ambassador while in the United States, under the supervision of Soleimani. [ 62 ] In September 2015, radio host Hugh Hewitt asked Donald Trump about Soleimani. After initially confusing him with a Kurdish leader, Trump argued that leaders like Soleimani would be dead under his administration. [ 63 ] It was reported in 2015 that Israel was "on the verge" of assassinating Soleimani on Syrian soil; however, the U.S., during the Obama administration's negotiations for the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, thwarted the operation by revealing it to the Iranian officials. [ 64 ] On 25 August 2019, Israeli Foreign Minister Israel Katz said, "Israel is acting to strike the head of the Iranian snake and uproot its teeth ... Iran is the head of the snake and Qassem Soleimani, the commander of the Revolutionary Guards Quds Force, is the snake's teeth." [ 65 ] In October 2019, Hossein Taeb , chief of the Intelligence Organization of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , told the press that his agency had arrested an unspecified number of people, allegedly foiling a plot by Israeli and Arab agencies to assassinate Soleimani. He said they had planned to "buy a property adjacent to the grave of Soleimani's father and rig it with explosives to kill the commander". [ 66 ] He added the way of the assassination would have appeared as part of an internal Iranian power struggle to "trigger a religious war inside Iran". [ 67 ] Yossi Cohen , chief of the Israeli foreign intelligence agency ( Mossad ), said in response, "Soleimani knows that his assassination is not impossible." [ 68 ] On 2 January 2020, The New York Times author and former National Security Council senior director Steven Simon wrote in a comment: "What if the former commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guards, Qassim Suleimani, visits Baghdad for a meeting and you know the address? The temptations to use hypersonic missiles will be many." [ 69 ] Prelude In early October 2019, according to two Iraqi militia commanders and two security sources who spoke with Reuters staff, Iranian Major-General Qasem Soleimani met in Baghdad to discuss a change in strategy with Iraqi Shiite militia allies. [ 70 ] The new focus of strategy was to be an increase in targeted rocket attacks on U.S. forces in Iraq, with the intended effect of provoking an antagonistic U.S. military response that would divert political pressure from Iran. Leading up to the meeting, there had been increasing anti-Iran sentiment amongst the local Iraqi population, culminating in prolonged and vocal anti-Iran protests, with some demonstrators banging their shoes on raised portraits of Ayatollah Ali Khamenei . [ 71 ] [ 72 ] At least 400 protestors were killed and an estimated 20,000 wounded. [ 73 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] [ 74 ] [ 72 ] Soleimani decided to step up attacks on U.S. forces. He chose Kata'ib Hezbollah because the group "would be difficult to detect by the Americans" and could use Iran-provided scout drones for more precision in target selection for the rocket attacks. The US was becoming increasingly concerned at Iran's influence within the Iraqi government. [ 70 ] On 27 December 2019, the K-1 Air Base in Kirkuk Province , Iraq—one of many Iraqi military bases that host Operation Inherent Resolve coalition personnel—was attacked by more than 30 rockets, killing an Iraqi-American U.S. defense contractor, [ 75 ] and injuring multiple U.S. and Iraqi service members. [ 76 ] The U.S. blamed the Iranian-backed Kata'ib Hezbollah militia for the attack. [ 77 ] Furthermore, a senior U.S. official, who spoke to reporters on condition of anonymity, said there had been a campaign of 11 attacks on Iraqi bases hosting OIR personnel in the two months before the 27 December incident, many of which the U.S. also attributed to Kata'ib Hezbollah. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] On 29 December 2019, retaliatory U.S. airstrikes targeted five Kata'ib Hezbollah weapon storage facilities and command and control locations in Iraq and Syria. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] 25 militia members died [ 82 ] and 55 were wounded. [ 83 ] On 31 December 2019, after a funeral was held for the Kata'ib Hezbollah militiamen, dozens of Iraqi Shia militiamen and their supporters marched into the Green Zone and surrounded the U.S. embassy compound. [ 84 ] Dozens of the demonstrators then smashed through a main door of the checkpoint, set fire to the reception area, raised Popular Mobilization Units militia flags, left anti-American posters, and sprayed anti-American graffiti . [ 85 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ] U.S. president Donald Trump accused Iran of orchestrating the attack on the embassy and added that they would be held "fully responsible". [ 88 ] Iran's foreign ministry denied they were behind the protests. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] Pentagon evaluation The Pentagon evaluated Soleimani as the leader of Tehran's attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq , including the 2019 K-1 Air Base attack and killing of a U.S. civilian, and the shooting down of a U.S. aerial vehicle . Regarding the decision to kill Soleimani, the U.S. focused on both his past actions and a deterrent to his future action as the Pentagon announced that "he was actively developing plans to attack U.S. diplomats and service members in Iraq and throughout the region." [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Trump briefing According to an unidentified senior U.S. official, sometime after the bombing of Kata'ib Hezbollah in late December 2019, a security briefing was convened at President Trump's Mar-a-Lago estate where he and his advisors, including Secretary of State Mike Pompeo , Defense Secretary Mark Esper , and chairman of the joint chiefs of staff General Mark Milley discussed how to respond to Iran's alleged role in sponsoring anti-U.S. attacks in Iraq. Reportedly, the targeted killing of Iranian general Qasem Soleimani, whom U.S. officials regarded as a facilitator of attacks on U.S. personnel in Iraq, was listed as the "most extreme option" [ 96 ] of many options on a briefing slide, [ 97 ] reflecting an alleged practice among Pentagon officials whereby a very extreme option is presented to presidents so as to make other options appear more palatable. [ 98 ] [ 96 ] Trump chose the option to kill Soleimani, prompting the CIA and other U.S. intelligence agencies that had tracked Soleimani's whereabouts for years to locate him on a flight from Damascus to Baghdad, reportedly to hold meetings with Iraqi militiamen. The air strike would have been called off if Soleimani had been on his way to meet with Iraqi government officials aligned with the U.S. [ 99 ] Trump did not notify the top congressional leaders of the Gang of Eight in advance of the strike. Senator Lindsey Graham indicated Trump had discussed the matter with him in advance of the strike, as he was visiting the president at his Mar-a-Lago estate. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] According to journalist Bob Woodward , four days before the strike, Graham tried to change Trump's mind as they discussed the decision while playing golf. [ 102 ] Trump's alleged motivation for the strike According to unidentified sources cited by The New York Times , Trump initially rejected the option to target Soleimani on 28 December 2019, but made the decision after being angered by television news reports of the U.S. embassy in Baghdad being attacked by armed Iranian-backed militiamen, namely Kata'ib Hezbollah and the Popular Mobilization Forces , on 31 December. [ 96 ] This followed a 27 December rocket attack by Kata'ib Hezbollah on an airbase in Kirkuk that killed an American civilian contractor and injured four U.S. service members and two Iraqi security forces personnel. By late 2 January, Trump had finalized his decision of the most extreme option his advisors had provided him, which reportedly "stunned" top Pentagon officials. The New York Times report cited unidentified U.S. officials as saying the intelligence regarding Soleimani's alleged plot against the U.S. was "thin" and that the Ayatollah had not approved any operation for Soleimani to carry out. However, General Milley said the intelligence was "clear and unambiguous" with a time frame of "days, weeks". [ 103 ] U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Vice President Mike Pence were reportedly the most hawkish voices arguing to retaliate against Iran. [ 99 ] Pence later wrote that Soleimani was plotting "imminent" attacks on U.S. persons, but provided no evidence of this. [ 104 ] [ 105 ] [ 106 ] U.S. National Security Advisor Robert O'Brien insisted that Soleimani "was plotting to kill, to attack American facilities, and diplomats, soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines were located at those facilities". [ 107 ] In contrast to the Times' reporting, according to unidentified sources cited by The Washington Post on 4 January 2020, Trump wanted to kill Soleimani [ a ] to avoid the appearance of weakness amid the ongoing Persian Gulf crisis, since his decision to call off an airstrike against Iran in summer 2019 after the downing of a U.S. drone had led to what he perceived as negative media coverage. Lawmakers and aides who had spoken to him told the Post that the president also had the 2012 Benghazi attack in Libya on his mind. [ 98 ] Furthermore, Mike Pompeo [ b ] had discussed killing Soleimani with Trump months before the strike, but did not garner support from the president or the defense team then in place. [ 111 ] However, according to The Wall Street Journal on 10 January 2020, Trump purportedly told associates after the strike that he was motivated to strike Soleimani for domestic political gain, particularly to sway Republican senators to support him in his upcoming Senate impeachment trial. [ 112 ] On the day of the strike, Pompeo asserted the attack was ordered by Trump to disrupt an "imminent attack" by Soleimani operatives, although subsequent reports on that rationale were mixed. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 99 ] [ 115 ] On 9 January, Trump said "We did it because they were looking to blow up our embassy. We also did it for other reasons that were very obvious. Somebody died, one of our military people died. People were badly wounded just a week before." [ 116 ] On 10 January, Trump claimed that Soleimani had been planning attacks on four U.S. embassies in the Middle East. [ 117 ] Afterwards several members of Congress, including Mike Lee and Chris Murphy , claimed that the Trump administration had not informed them of this in the intelligence briefing on the strike. [ 118 ] Three days after Trump's remarks, Defense Secretary Mark Esper clarified that, although "there was evidence" of a plot against the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, the president "didn't cite intelligence" about the other three embassies he mentioned, and that the president instead shared his belief that there "probably could have been" a plot against those embassies. [ 119 ] [ 120 ] [ 121 ] On 18 January, CNN reported that President Trump claimed that Soleimani was "saying bad things about our country", then he asked "How much of this shit do we have to listen to? ... How much are we going to listen to?" [ 122 ] Soleimani's trip to Iraq Adil Abdul-Mahdi, the prime minister of Iraq, said he was scheduled on the day of the attack to meet Soleimani, who was delivering Iran's response to a previous message from Saudi Arabia that Iraq had relayed. [ 123 ] According to Abdul-Mahdi, Trump had called him to request that Abdul-Mahdi mediate the conflict between the U.S. and Iran before the drone strike. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Assassination On 3 January 2020, at 12:32 a.m. local time, Soleimani's Airbus A320 Cham Wings plane arrived at Baghdad International Airport from Damascus International Airport after being delayed for two hours for unknown reasons. [ 126 ] [ 127 ] [ c ] An MQ-9 Reaper drone of the U.S. Air Force [ 128 ] and other military aircraft loitered above the area [ d ] as Soleimani and other pro-Iranian paramilitary figures, including Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis , deputy chairman of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces , [ 43 ] entered a Toyota Avalon and Hyundai Starex [ 133 ] and departed the airport towards downtown Baghdad. At 12:47 a.m., the Reaper drone launched several missiles, [ 134 ] [ e ] striking the convoy on an access road as it departed the airport, [ 137 ] [ 138 ] [ 139 ] engulfing the two cars in flames, killing 10 people. [ 140 ] [ 141 ] [ 142 ] [ 143 ] As news of the event broke, the U.S. Department of Defense issued a statement which said that the strike was carried out "at the direction of the president" and was meant to deter future attacks. Trump asserted that Soleimani had been planning further attacks on American diplomats and military personnel and had approved the attack on the American embassy in Baghdad. [ 93 ] [ 144 ] [ 145 ] According to Saudi-based Arab News , the drone that struck Soleimani's convoy had been launched from Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar , and was controlled remotely by operators at the Creech Air Force Base . [ 146 ] A statement by the Air Force of Iran's Islamic Revolution Guards Corps (IRGC) stated that Ali Al Salem Air Base in Kuwait participated, among other bases in the region, in the operation that was executed near Baghdad airport recently. Kuwait summoned the Iranian ambassador to Kuwait over the statement and expressed Kuwait's resentment and categorical denial at such statement. [ 147 ] Casualties As DNA results were still pending regarding the identification of those killed, a senior Pentagon official said there was "high probability" that Soleimani would be identified. [ 148 ] Soleimani's body was identified by a ring that he was known to wear. [ 149 ] [ f ] Ahmed Al Asadi , a spokesman for the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), confirmed the deaths of Soleimani and Muhandis. [ 141 ] According to Ayatollah Ali Sistani 's office, the casualties included "several commanders who defeated Islamic State terrorists". [ 151 ] The IRGC said a total of ten people were killed. Along with Soleimani, four other IRGC officers were also killed: Brigadier General Hossein Pourjafari, Colonel Shahroud Mozafarinia, Major Hadi Taremi and Captain Vahid Zamanian. [ citation needed ] The remaining five casualties were Iraqi members of the PMF: deputy chairman Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis , chief of protocol and public relations Muhammed Reza al-Jaberi, [ 152 ] Mohammad al-Shibani, Hassan Abdul Hadi and Heydar Ali. [ 153 ] Contemporaneous assassination attempt On the same day of the Baghdad airport strike, an IRGC financier and key commander, Abdulreza Shahlai , [ g ] was unsuccessfully targeted by U.S. drones in Yemen, [ 155 ] which killed Mohammad Mirza, a Quds Force operative, instead. [ 156 ] Shahlai was also responsible for the killing of five American soldiers in Karbala , Iraq on 20 January 2007. [ 157 ] According to a Washington Post investigation, the unsuccessful operation might indicate a broader operation than previously explained, raising questions about whether the mission was designed to cripple the leadership of the IRGC or solely to prevent an imminent attack on Americans as originally stated. [ 158 ] Aftermath Soleimani and al-Muhandis' deaths raised tensions between the U.S. and Iran. As stated by France 24 , the targeted killing of Qasem Soleimani "caused alarm around the world, amid fears that Iranian retaliation against American interests in the region could spiral into a far larger conflict". [ 159 ] Shortly after the attack, several planes with U.S. service members took off from bases in the eastern United States . [ 160 ] The following day, the U.S. Department of Defense announced the deployment of 3,500 members of the 82nd Airborne Division to the region, one of the largest rapid deployments in decades. [ 161 ] Defense officials said the deployment was not directly related to the airstrike which killed Soleimani, but was instead a "precautionary action in response to increased threat levels against U.S. personnel and facilities". [ 162 ] On 5 January, the UK announced that the Royal Navy will accompany UK-flagged ships through the Strait of Hormuz . [ 163 ] According to some media reports, a Royal Navy nuclear-powered submarine armed with Tomahawk missiles was allegedly ready to strike Iran if tensions escalated in the Middle East. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Alleged Taji road airstrike The day after the Baghdad airport attack, Iraqi state news reported that there had been another airstrike on a convoy of medical units of the Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces near Camp Taji in Taji , north of Baghdad. An Iraqi Army source told Reuters the attack killed six people and critically wounded three. [ 166 ] The PMF later said there was no senior commander in the convoy, and the Imam Ali Brigades denied reports of the death of its leader. [ 167 ] The PMF also denied that any medical convoy was targeted at Taji. [ 168 ] There was no information about who conducted the attack. Spokesman for Operation Inherent Resolve Colonel Myles B. Caggins III said the coalition did not do it, while Iraq's Joint Operations Command denied reports of any such attack occurring, saying it was simply a false rumor that spread quickly due to the prior airport strike. [ 169 ] Iranian response A spokesman for the Iranian government said the country's top security body would hold an extraordinary meeting shortly to discuss the "criminal act of attack". [ 170 ] Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei warned that "retaliation is waiting". [ 171 ] On 4 January, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security said there was "no specific, credible" threat to the U.S. mainland but warned about Iranian capabilities. [ 172 ] Trump warned Tehran that any retaliation would result in the U.S. targeting 52 Iranian significant sites, including cultural sites. [ 173 ] The 52 sites were reported to represent the 52 American hostages held during the Iran hostage crisis . [ 174 ] [ 175 ] Hossein Dehghan , the main military adviser of Iran, and Iranian Foreign Minister Javad Zarif asserted that attacks on Iranian cultural sites would be grave breaches of international law. U.S. secretary of state Mike Pompeo avoided a direct answer when asked about cultural targets, saying that Washington will do the things that are right and the things that are consistent with U.S. law. [ 176 ] U.S. secretary of defense Mark Esper later asserted that cultural sites would not be targeted because "That's the laws of armed conflict." [ 177 ] On 5 January 2020, the Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran chanted "America, the greatest Satan ", during its session. [ 178 ] That day, Iran announced that it would suspend all its commitments under the 2015 nuclear deal [ 179 ] except that it would continue to cooperate with the United Nations' nuclear watchdog, the International Atomic Energy Agency . The statement added, "If the sanctions are lifted ... the Islamic Republic is ready to return to its obligations." [ 180 ] [ 181 ] In a speech [ 182 ] broadcast on 8 January on Iranian television IRINN TV , Iranian President Rouhani stated that Iran would no longer stick to the 2015 nuclear agreement restrictions on uranium enrichment: "Iran's nuclear industry will prosper," he said. Secondly, Rouhani mentioned in his speech that "They cut off the hand of our dear Soleimani" and as revenge they, the Iranians, would cut off the legs of the Americans and toss them out of neighboring countries. Funeral The remains of Soleimani and the Iranian figures killed in the strike arrived in Iran on 5 January, where they became part of mourning processions in several cities, first in Ahvaz [ 183 ] and later in Mashhad , where one million people attended the mourning. It was initially reported that Iran canceled the mourning procession planned in Tehran because the city would not be able to handle the number of attendees expected after the turnout in Mashhad; [ 184 ] however, the Tehran service was held, at which Ayatollah Ali Khamenei publicly wept while leading prayers for the funeral. Iranian state media said the crowd of mourners numbered in the "millions", reportedly the biggest since the 1989 funeral of the founder of the Islamic Republic, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini . [ 185 ] Iranian authorities planned to take Soleimani's body to Qom on 6 January for public mourning processions, [ citation needed ] then onto his hometown of Kerman for final burial on 7 January. [ 186 ] Before the national procession was completed, multiple infrastructure works, such as the international airport at Ahvaz and an expressway in Tehran , had already been renamed after him. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] The funeral was boycotted by critics of the current government by using the hashtag #IraniansDetestSoleimani for the IRGC's war crimes. [ 189 ] [ 190 ] The hashtag was amplified by "inauthentic" accounts almost immediately after creation. [ 191 ] [ 192 ] On 7 January 2020, at least 56 people were killed and 213 injured in a stampede during Soleimani's burial at Kerman. As a result, the burial was postponed to a later time. [ 193 ] [ 194 ] IRGC retaliatory strike Shortly after the confirmation of Soleimani's death, U.S. spy agencies reportedly detected that Iran's ballistic missile regiments were at a heightened readiness but it was unclear at the time if they were defensive, cautionary measures or an indication of a future attack on U.S. forces. [ 195 ] On 8 January 2020, Iranian forces launched ballistic missiles at the Al Asad Airbase and an airbase near Erbil , both in Iraq, where American personnel were located. [ 196 ] [ 197 ] The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps declared that the strikes were part of their retaliation for the killing of Soleimani. [ 198 ] No Iraqi or American casualties were initially reported. [ 199 ] According to the Iranian Students News Agency (ISNA), the country's state-run news outlet, Iran fired "tens of ground-to-ground missiles" at the base and claimed responsibility for the attacks. [ 200 ] The attacks unfolded in two waves, about an hour apart. [ 201 ] The Pentagon said these bases were on high alert after signs of the Iranian government were planning attacks on U.S. forces. [ 202 ] Although the Pentagon disputes the number launched, it has confirmed that both the Ayn al-Asad and the Erbil airbases were hit by Iranian missiles. [ 203 ] [ 204 ] A military spokesman for U.S. Central Command said a total of 15 missiles were fired. Ten hit the Ayn al-Asad airbase, one hit the Erbil base, and four missiles failed. [ 201 ] Other sources confirmed that two ballistic missiles targeted Erbil: one hit Erbil International Airport and did not explode, the other landed about 20 miles (32 km) west of Erbil. [ 205 ] On 8 January Saudi Arabia 's Deputy Defense Minister Prince Khalid bin Salman said the Kingdom would stand with Iraq and do everything in its power to spare it from the "danger of war and conflict between external parties". [ 206 ] The same day a Ukrainian passenger jet was shot down by the Iranian military over Tehran after presumably being mistaken for an enemy cruise missile. All 176 people on board were killed, including 82 Iranians and others with dual citizenship. [ 207 ] [ 208 ] Following a series of conflicting and confusing reports, the Pentagon confirmed that several dozen servicemen had been injured to varying degrees of severity, by the Iranian missile strikes. [ 209 ] Oil prices Global oil prices rose moderately in reaction to Soleimani's death to heights not seen for three months, [ 210 ] before falling back down. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] Following Iran's zero-fatality missile attack, prices were lower than before the airstrike that killed al-Muhandis. [ 213 ] Jerusalem Post hack On 2 January 2022, the second anniversary of Soleimani's assassination, The Jerusalem Post 's website was hacked, displaying an illustration threatening Israel's Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center . The image featured a ballistic missile shooting out of a red ring worn on a finger, an apparent reference to the notable ring worn by Soleimani. The Twitter accounts of the Jerusalem Post and Maariv were also targeted. It was unclear if the hack was state sponsored or was conducted by pro-Iranian sympathizers. [ 214 ] 2024 Kerman bombing On 3 January 2024, at an event commemorating his death four years after it happened, a bomb exploded in the Iranian city of Kerman killing 103 people. [ 215 ] Iranian State Media blames "terrorists" as the perpetrators of the bombing, although they have not provided specifications as to who. Iranian president Ebrahim Raisi condemned the attacks and vowed to bring those responsible for the "heinous act" to justice. [ 216 ] Iraqi response In the wake of the Baghdad strike, the U.S. embassy in Baghdad urged Americans to leave Iraq immediately "via airline while possible, and failing that, to other countries via land". [ 217 ] The next day, Britain warned its nationals to avoid all travel to Iraq outside the Kurdistan region, and to avoid all but essential travel to Iran. [ 218 ] Australia issued a similar warning advising its nationals to "leave Iraq as soon as possible". [ 219 ] On 4 January, the funeral procession for Soleimani, al-Muhandis, and the other Iraqis and Iranians was held in Baghdad and attended by thousands of mourners who chanted " death to America , death to Israel ". Iraqi Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi was also present. [ 220 ] The cortege began around Al-Kadhimiya Mosque , a Shiite holy site in Baghdad, before heading to the Green Zone government and diplomatic compound where a state funeral was held. From Baghdad, the procession moved to the Shia holy city of Karbala and on to Najaf , where al-Muhandis and the other Iraqis were buried, while the coffins of Soleimani and the Iranian nationals were sent to Iran. [ 221 ] [ 222 ] Following the mourning procession in Baghdad, [ 223 ] unknown people fired short-range rockets towards the U.S. embassy and at the U.S. Balad Air Base . [ 224 ] The U.S. Central Command, which oversees operations in the Middle East, said no Americans were harmed by the sporadic rocket attacks on 4 January. [ 99 ] On 6 January, Chevron evacuated all its American oil workers from Iraqi Kurdistan as a "precautionary measure". [ 225 ] Status of U.S. troops in Iraq 170 Iraqi lawmakers signed a draft law requiring the government to request the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq. [ 226 ] Rudaw Media Network (Kurdish) described the 170 Iraqi lawmakers that signed the law as Shiite [ 226 ] and that "Iraqi parliament's resolution to expel foreign troops has no legal consequences." [ 227 ] Al Jazeera reported the resolution read "The government commits to revoke its request for assistance from the international coalition fighting Islamic State due to the end of military operations in Iraq and the achievement of victory" and "The Iraqi government must work to end the presence of any foreign troops on Iraqi soil and prohibit them from using its land, airspace or water for any reason." [ 228 ] The resolution was approved in the Iraqi parliament. [ 229 ] In response to the vote, Trump threatened Iraq with sanctions that would "make Iranian sanctions look somewhat tame" and demanded reimbursement for American investments on military facilities in Iraq. [ 230 ] On 6 January 2020, the Pentagon released a letter from Marine Brigadier General William Seely to Abdul Amir, the Iraqi deputy director of Combined Joint Operations Baghdad, informing him that "as requested by the Iraqi Parliament and the Prime Minister, CJTF–OIR will be repositioning forces over the course of the coming days and weeks to prepare for onward movement." [ 231 ] Shortly afterward, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley said, "That letter is a draft. It was a mistake, it was unsigned, it should not have been released ... [it was] poorly worded, implies withdrawal, that is not what's happening." [ 232 ] A couple of days later, United States Department of State warned Iraq that it could lose access to its Federal Reserve Bank of New York accounts, [ h ] in a phone call if U.S. troops were asked to leave, according to Iraqi officials. [ 234 ] [ i ] In mid February, the Iraqi government confirmed to NATO , that they could restart its training missions, which have been paused since the attack. Troops from CJTF–OIR are expected to be moved and work under the NATO banner instead. [ 238 ] [ 239 ] Impact on Iraqi protests The sustained massive street protests in Iraq that led to Abdul-Mahdi's resignation as prime minister (and temporary caretaker role) restarted in the days after the assassination of Soleimani and al-Muhandis, with a shift in the focus of protests from mostly anti-Iran to criticism of both the U.S. and Iran. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] [ 242 ] The "Made in Iraq" street and online protests strengthened in Baghdad following the assassination. [ 243 ] Major protests took place on 5 January 2020 in many cities, [ 240 ] [ 241 ] "Made in Iraq" protests on 7 January, [ 243 ] and two thousand protested in Basra and Nassiriyah on 10 January, with one of the slogans being "Neither America nor Iran, our revolution is a young revolution." [ 242 ] On 24 January, several hundred thousand Iraqis protested against U.S. military presence in Iraq and called for them to leave the country after Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr called for a "Million Man March." Iraqi President Barham Salih tweeted, "Iraqis insist on a state with complete sovereignty that will not be breached." [ 244 ] On 31 December 2021, hundreds of Iraqis rallied ahead of the second anniversary of the US assassination of Qassem Soleimani, burning a model of the US embassy in Iraq. Demonstrators gathered outside Baghdad ’s Green Zone – which includes the sprawling US Embassy compound calling for the expulsion of American forces still in Iraq. [ 245 ] Anniversary protests On 3 January 2021, the one year anniversary of the killings of Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, thousands of Iraqis demanded American forces pull out of the country in protests in Liberation Square, Baghdad . The anniversary of their deaths in Baghdad was also marked in Iran and by supporters in Syria , Lebanon , Yemen and elsewhere in the Middle East . [ 246 ] Legality This section needs expansion . You can help by expanding it . ( July 2021 ) The airstrike's legal justification became a subject of debate. [ 247 ] [ 248 ] [ 249 ] [ 250 ] In 2022, Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi declared that unless Trump and Pompeo are brought to trial in an Iranian Islamic Court , revenge will be sought. [ 251 ] Potential violation of international law In January 2020, after the U.S. killed Soleimani, US Ambassador to the United Nations Kelly Craft wrote a letter to the UN Security Council in which she said that the act was one of self-defense . [ 252 ] At the same time, she wrote in the letter that the US stood "ready to engage without preconditions in serious negotiations with Iran, with the goal of preventing further endangerment of international peace and security or escalation by the Iranian regime." [ 252 ] The Charter of the United Nations generally prohibits the use of force against other states, if a country does not consent to it on its territory. [ 253 ] The Government of Iraq did not grant permission to the U.S. to target a military commander from another country on its soil. [ 250 ] [ 253 ] Some legal experts believe a lack of consent from Iraq makes it difficult for the U.S. to justify the attack. [ 253 ] Agnès Callamard , the United Nations special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, issued an opinion that the airstrike "most likely violate[d] international law incl[uding] human rights law ", adding that killing of other individuals alongside Soleimani was "absolutely unlawful". [ 247 ] [ 254 ] On 6 July 2020, Callamard said that the attack was the first known incident in which a nation invoked self-defence as a justification for an attack against a state actor in the territory of a third country and that the United States has failed to provide sufficient evidence of an ongoing or imminent attack against its interests in order to justify the strike. In a report to be presented to the UN human rights council, Callamard wrote "the course of action taken by the US was unlawful" and was a violation of the UN charter. [ 255 ] U.S. officials denied the claim. On 8 July 2020, responding, the U.S. State Department said "This tendentious and tedious report undermines human rights by giving a pass to terrorists and it proves once again why America was right to leave the council." [ 256 ] UK Defence Secretary Ben Wallace said: "the intelligence information I have seen, under the right to defend yourself against an imminent threat, that would have been met." [ 257 ] Mary Ellen O'Connell , a professor of law at the University of Notre Dame Law School , argued that the "premeditated killing" of Soleimani was against the Hague (1907) and Geneva (1949) conventions, and thus unlawful. [ 258 ] Robert M. Chesney , a professor at the University of Texas School of Law , maintained that the attack could have been justifiable if it was " self-defense "; Oona A. Hathaway , professor of international and area studies at the Jackson Institute for Global Affairs , said the available facts did not support that. [ 253 ] A spokesman for Boris Johnson , prime minister of the United Kingdom, said, "States have a right to take action such as this in self-defence." [ 259 ] Johnson later said "... the strict issue of legality is not for the UK to determine since it was not our operation", in response to Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn who called it an "illegal act" and asked for the government to condemn it. [ 260 ] NBC News correspondents reported that according to five current and former Trump administration officials, Trump had authorized the killing of Soleimani back in June 2019 on the condition that "Iran's aggression resulted in the death of an American." According to the correspondents, given the overall timeline of events, this report may call into question for some the Trump administration's citied reason of "imminent threats" as a cause of the killing. [ 57 ] Iran said it will pursue a war-crimes case against U.S. president Donald Trump at the International Criminal Court in the Hague. [ 261 ] On 29 June 2020, Iran issued an arrest warrant against U.S. President Donald Trump and asked Interpol for help: Tehran prosecutor Ali Alqasimehr accused Trump and 30 others of "murder and terrorism charges" for the killing of Qasem Soleimani. The request was rejected, however, as Interpol constitution forbids it to undertake "any intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character". [ 262 ] On 5 January 2021, Iran asked for another Interpol notice against Trump and 47 others for their roles in the killing; [ 263 ] it was rejected on the same grounds. [ 264 ] On 7 January 2021, Iraq's judiciary issued an arrest warrant against Trump, accusing him of "premeditated murder", due to his role in the deaths of Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis. [ 265 ] In terms of agreement with Iraq PMF is legally incorporated into the Iraqi security forces by a series of laws enacted by the parliament and Prime Ministerial orders, therefore, technically, the U.S. killed a senior Iraqi official ( Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis ) and other military personnel of Iraq. [ 266 ] [ 267 ] A mutual agreement signed in 2008 prohibits the U.S. from launching attacks on other countries from Iraqi territory. [ 253 ] Iraqi Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi said the attack was a "breach of the conditions for the presence of U.S. forces in Iraq". [ 268 ] He also said "The assassination of an Iraqi military commander who holds an official position is considered aggression on Iraq ... and the liquidation of leading Iraqi figures or those from a brotherly country on Iraqi soil is a massive breach of sovereignty." [ 248 ] He and Speaker of the Council of Representatives Mohamed al-Halbousi released separate written statements, both calling the attack a breach of Iraq's sovereignty . [ 269 ] [ 270 ] According to the office of the Iraqi caretaker prime minister, the U.S. secretary of state has subsequently been requested to send a delegation to Iraq tasked with formulating the mechanism for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq. [ 271 ] Potential violation of U.S. law Some U.S. analysts noted that since the airstrike was orchestrated without the specific authorization of Congress , there were a number of legal questions. [ 250 ] The case was compared by AP reporter John Daniszewski to the drone killing of U.S. citizen Anwar al-Awlaki during the Obama administration. [ 272 ] [ 273 ] [ 274 ] [ 275 ] One analyst maintained that Trump had the authority to order the strike under Article Two of the United States Constitution . [ 247 ] Executive Order 11905 , signed in 1976, to prevent assassination attempts on Fidel Castro , states that "no person employed by or acting on behalf of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination." [ 81 ] According to Vicki Divoll, a former attorney for the Central Intelligence Agency who served as general counsel of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, as president, Trump was not legally bound to follow the Executive Orders of prior administrations banning political assassinations, the targeted killing of Solemani was a breach of domestic criminal law. [ 276 ] Divoll argued that amendments to Title 18 of the United States Code , specifically Article 51, § 1116, passed by Congress in the 1970s in response to the Munich Olympic Massacre, stating in part: "whoever kills or attempts to kill a foreign official, official guest, or internationally protected person shall be punished as provided under sections 1111, 1112, and 1113 of this title", applied to the airstrike and rendered Trump's actions an unambiguous act of murder under the federal criminal code. [ 276 ] The Trump administration said it was authorized under both the Constitution and the 2002 Authorization of Use of Military Force Against Iraq . The Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Eliot Engel said "The 2002 authorization was passed to deal with Saddam Hussein. This law had nothing to do with Iran or Iranian government officials in Iraq. To suggest that 18 years later this authorization could justify killing an Iranian official stretches the law far beyond anything Congress ever intended." [ 277 ] Congressional war powers resolution This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( May 2020 ) Some members of Congress, which generally was not consulted or briefed before the Soleimani strike, sought to restrict the president's ability to conduct future military operations against Iran without congressional consent. On 6 January 2020, House Speaker Pelosi announced plans to hold a vote within the week on limiting President Trump's war powers concerning Iran. [ 278 ] On 8 January 2020, Pelosi announced that a vote will be held by the entire House on 9 January to limit President Trump's war powers concerning any future escalation of conflict with Iran. [ 279 ] [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The House Rules Committee cleared the way for a full House vote by approving parameters which set up a two-hour debate on 9 January. [ 282 ] The House vote is considered significant, as the U.S. Constitution provides that while the president may use the military to defend the country, any declaration of war must be approved by Congress (note that Congress has never declared war on anyone since World War II ). [ 283 ] Trump criticized the effort, arguing that congressional approval should not be needed to militarily engage Iran "because you have to be able to make split-second decisions sometimes". [ 284 ] The resolution was later defeated by presidential veto after clearing the senate. [ 285 ] Reactions The Iranian government reacted to Soleimani's assassination with martyrdom culture and idolization such as by memorializing him through the likes of murals, billboards, and monuments. [ 286 ] Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei vowed to take "harsh revenge" against the United States [ 287 ] [ 288 ] and declared three days of mourning . [ 289 ] President Hassan Rouhani also said Iran "will take revenge." [ 290 ] Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif called the attack "an extremely dangerous and foolish escalation." [ 291 ] Iran sent a letter to the United Nations, calling it "[s]tate terrorism" and said it violated principles of international law. [ 292 ] On 7 January, Iran's parliament approved a €200 million increase in the Quds Force's budget, to be used in two months. [ 293 ] Reuters reported that some Iranians, including Soleimani supporters, fear that a war could break out at a time of economic hardship and widespread corruption. Some older Iranians recalled memories of the Iran–Iraq War . [ 294 ] In Iraq, outgoing Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi condemned the attack, calling it an assassination, an act of aggression and a breach of Iraqi sovereignty that could lead to war in Iraq. Subsequently, he declared three days of national mourning. [ 295 ] Abdul-Mahdi also said the strike violated the agreement on the presence of U.S. forces in Iraq and legislation should provide safeguards for Iraq's security and sovereignty. [ 296 ] The speaker of Iraq's parliament, Mohammed al Halbousi, vowed to "put an end to U.S. presence" in Iraq. [ 297 ] The Iraqi parliament voted to ask the U.S. to withdraw their forces from Iraq. Muqtada al-Sadr , leader of the Sadrist Movement and the Saraya al-Salam militia, ordered his followers to "prepare to defend Iraq." [ 298 ] Despite the government opposing the airstrike, many Iraqis who are against the PMF celebrated the killing of Soleimani. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ 301 ] On 4 January, Trump tweeted that 52 Iranian targets (representing the 52 American hostages in the 1979–81 Iran hostage crisis ) had been selected if Iran "strikes any Americans, or American assets." [ 302 ] [ 303 ] Iranian President Rouhani responded to Trump's warning, saying "(t)hose who refer to the number 52 should also remember the number 290," referring to the death of 290 people in 1988 when a U.S. warship shot down Iran Air Flight 655 . [ 304 ] Among those targets were Iranian "cultural sites", [ 305 ] and Trump subsequently insisted he would not hesitate to destroy such targets even after some said it could be considered a war crime. [ 306 ] After the assassination, terrorist groups such as ISIS celebrated and said that it "benefitted them." [ 307 ] [ 308 ] U.S. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell voiced support for the airstrike, referring to Soleimani as "Iran's master terrorist." [ 309 ] House Speaker Nancy Pelosi referred to the attacks as "provocative and disproportionate." She introduced a "war powers resolution" to require Trump's administration to end any hostilities with Iran within 30 days if not approved by Congress. [ 310 ] "The present authorizations for use of military force in no way cover starting a possible new war," Senator Richard Blumenthal (D-Conn.) said. "This step could bring the most consequential military confrontation in decades." [ 53 ] The Democratic candidates for the 2020 U.S. presidential election largely condemned the airstrike, [ 311 ] with Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-Mass.) describing it as a "wag-the-dog" incident. [ 312 ] American foreign policy critic Noam Chomsky called the assassination "an extraordinarily dangerous act," saying it was "as if Iran had decided to murder Mike Pompeo and a major general along with him at the Mexico City International Airport." [ 313 ] United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres expressed concern over the escalation and called for leaders to "exercise maximum restraint." [ 314 ] NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said, following a meeting on 6 January, "(w)e are united in condemning Iran's support of a variety of different terrorist groups" and that "Iran must refrain from further violence and provocations." [ 315 ] Senior officials of the U.S. Department of State compared the assassination to Operation Vengeance in World War II , when American pilots shot down the plane carrying Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto [ 316 ] [ 317 ] —a comparison also offered by The New York Times , who said killing Yamamoto was "the last time the United States killed a major military leader in a foreign country". [ 99 ] Other major media and prominent pundits echoed the comparison. [ 316 ] [ 318 ] [ 319 ] [ 320 ] According to the Russian Ministry of Defense , "Russia has offered Iraq their S-400 air defense system to protect their airspace." [ 321 ] [ 322 ] For only the second time since the start of the country's civil war nearly nine years before, the Russian president, Vladimir Putin , arrived in Syria to meet with its president, Bashar al-Assad , on 7 January. [ 323 ] In another meeting, in Baghdad, on 6 January, Zhang Tao, the Chinese ambassador, told Iraq's caretaker Prime Minister al-Mahdi that "China is keen to increase security and military cooperation in Iraq." [ 324 ] In 2023, an AFC Champions League match was cancelled after the Saudi Al-Ittihad Club refused to play due to the presence of busts of Soleimani in the Iranian stadium. [ 325 ] [ 326 ] Retaliation attempts by Iran Since the death of Soleimani, US authorities have uncovered several plots by Iran to assassinate officials who served in the first Trump administration , including Trump himself, as well as to hack Trump's 2024 presidential campaign. [ j ] In October 2024, the Biden administration warned Iran that the US would consider any attempts on Trump's life an act of war . [ 327 ] The same month, Fox News reported that Iran intended to continue efforts to target Trump and other former U.S. officials, regardless of the outcome of the 2024 presidential election . The report said that Iran favored Vice President Kamala Harris and sought to prevent Trump's re-election. [ 328 ] In January 2025, days before the Trump's second inauguration , Iranian President Masoud Pezeshkian told NBC News that Iran never tried to assassinate Trump and never would. He blamed Israel for the reports and cited " Iranophobia " as the motivation for their dissemination. [ 329 ] After the start of his second term, Trump left instructions to his staff to "obliterate" Iran in the event of a successful assassination. [ 330 ] In June 2025, The Washington Post , citing intelligence sources, reported that Iranian operatives came close to assassinating former US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo during his 2022 visit to Paris, France. [ 331 ] According to the report, the operation was part of a broader Iranian campaign to target former senior US officials involved in the killing of Soleimani. [ 332 ] While the plot ultimately failed, sources revealed that Iranian agents had come close to executing the plan on European soil. [ 333 ] In December 2025, the FBI warned that Iran’s efforts to retaliate for the death of Soleimani remain active. Testifying before the House Homeland Security Committee , FBI Operations Director Michael Glasheen said Iran continues to plot attacks against former U.S. officials, support proxy groups such as Hezbollah, and conduct surveillance of Jewish and Israeli targets in the United States. Glasheen also reported that the FBI has made more than 70 arrests linked to hostile foreign intelligence activity since Trump took office in January 2025 and has disrupted several alleged Iranian-linked plots. He added that the ongoing Gaza war , as well as the Iran–Israel war and subsequent United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites , could increase Iranian activity, including cyber operations, which he described as a major and persistent threat to U.S. interests. [ 334 ] Assassination attempt on Ambassador Lana Marks In September 2020, Politico reported that anonymous U.S. intelligence sources claimed that Iran was planning an assassination attempt on the US Ambassador to South Africa Lana Marks in South Africa. The threat, which U.S. officials have monitored since spring, has become more specific recently and allegedly involves Iran’s embassy in Pretoria. If executed, the plot could significantly escalate tensions between the U.S. and Iran, putting pressure on Trump to respond, especially during an upcoming election season . [ 335 ] The U.S. intelligence community's "Duty to Warn" directive mandates that spy agencies inform potential victims of credible threats to their lives. Recently, Ambassador Marks, a longtime friend of Trump, was informed of a potential threat from Iranian operatives. The CIA included this intelligence in its classified World Intelligence Review, which senior U.S. officials and some lawmakers can access. Although Marks has limited known connections to Iran, her association with Trump might make her a target. Iran has an established clandestine network in South Africa for more than a decade, where Marks might be more vulnerable than American diplomats in the West due to weaker local security collaborations. [ 335 ] In response to the plot, President Trump issued a warning to Iran on Twitter , stating that any attack by Iran in any form on the U.S. or its interests "will be met with a response 1,000 times greater in magnitude." The following morning, he reiterated this stance during an interview on Fox & Friends , asserting that his administration was "prepared" to confront any retaliatory actions from Iran. [ 336 ] Assassination plot by Shahram Poursafi In August 2022, the U.S. Department of Justice charged an Iranian operative Shahram Poursafi with "plotting to assassinate former President Donald Trump 's national security advisor John Bolton ." [ 337 ] Poursafi, a member of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , was charged for "providing and attempting to provide material support to a transnational murder plot". [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] [ 341 ] According to reports, Mike Pompeo was also a target, [ 342 ] where a bounty of $1 million was placed for his murder. [ 343 ] In response to the plot, Bolton was granted a protective detail from the United States Secret Service on the orders of President Joe Biden . [ 344 ] This protection was later rescinded by President Trump upon his return to office on January 20, 2025. [ 345 ] [ 346 ] [ 347 ] In September 2024, the US Department of State offered a $20 million reward for information leading to the arrest of Poursafi. [ 348 ] Assassination plot by Majid Dastjani Farahani On March 5, 2024, the Federal Bureau of Investigation through its Miami, Florida field office issued a public alert on a 41-year-old Iranian national and intelligence agent Majid Dastjani Farahani who was thought to be orchestrating assassination plots against U.S. officials, including former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo . [ 349 ] [ 350 ] According to the FBI, Farahani is accused of recruiting individuals for various operations inside the United States , which includes lethal targeting of current and former United States Government officials as revenge for the killing of Soleimani. The report said Farahani frequently travels between Iran and Venezuela and speaks English, Spanish, and French in addition to Persian. [ 351 ] Farahani was already sanctioned by the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the United States Department of the Treasury in December 2023 for human rights abuses and for having acted or purported to act for or on behalf of, directly or indirectly of the Iranian Ministry of Intelligence . The Treasury Department accuses Farahani of recruiting individuals to surveil religious institutions, businesses, and other facilities in the United States as part of Iran's efforts to carry out acts of transnational repression , including rendition and lethal plots against activists, journalists, and foreign government officials. [ 352 ] Assassination plot by Asif Merchant On July 16, 2024, in the aftermath of the attempted assassination of Donald Trump , the United States Secret Service revealed details about an Iranian plot to assassinate Donald Trump . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] [ 355 ] Adrienne Watson, a spokesperson for the U.S. National Security Council , said that the plot was believed to be in revenge for the assassination of Qasem Soleimani. [ 356 ] [ 357 ] [ 358 ] An Iranian foreign ministry spokesperson called the allegations "malicious" and "unsubstantiated". [ 359 ] [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The acting Iranian minister of foreign affairs rejected the claim and said it wanted a "legal path to bring [Trump] to justice" for ordering the assassination of Soleimani. [ 362 ] It pointed out that from the perspective of the Islamic Republic of Iran, "Trump is a criminal who must be prosecuted and punished in a court of law for ordering the assassination of General Soleimani." [ 363 ] Three weeks later, on August 6, 2024, it was revealed that a Pakistani man with connections to Iran, Asif Merchant, tried to recruit people for the assignment, with one turning into an informant for the FBI. Merchant was arrested in Houston, Texas on July 12, just before attempting to leave the United States. [ 364 ] Donald Trump Jr. called the plot "the greatest political endorsement ever", saying that "when people like Iran want to take you out, that probably means it's good for America, bad for Iran." [ 365 ] During a visit to the United States in 2024 , Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu raised concerns about Iran while addressing a joint session of Congress, warning of the threats posed to both Israel and the United States, including the recent assassination attempt on Trump by Iran. In response, Trump published a post alongside a video clip on his social media platform, Truth Social , invoking the possibility of his assassination and calling for the annihilation of Iran in such an event. "If they do 'assassinate President Trump,' which is always a possibility, I hope that America obliterates Iran, wipes it off the face of the Earth. If that does not happen, American Leaders will be considered 'gutless' cowards!" he wrote, echoing rhetoric reminiscent of his most incendiary statements on Iran. [ 366 ] [ 367 ] Hacking of Donald Trump's 2024 presidential campaign On August 10, 2024, Politico revealed that it had been receiving internal Trump campaign documents from an anonymous source since July 22, including a 271-page vetting report on vice presidential candidate JD Vance 's potential vulnerabilities. [ 368 ] The Trump campaign confirmed that it had been hacked and blamed "foreign sources hostile to the United States"; it suggested that Iran was responsible, citing a Microsoft report the previous day that an Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps intelligence unit was responsible for a spear phishing attack on a former senior official with a presidential campaign. [ 368 ] [ 369 ] [ 370 ] The Washington Post and The New York Times also reported having received the hacked materials. [ 371 ] [ 372 ] Although the Trump campaign became aware of the hack earlier in the summer, it did not report the hack to law enforcement at the time. [ 371 ] The account that sent the documents to the news organizations identified itself as "Robert" and communicated with them via email. Robert claimed to have access to a "variety of documents, from [Trump's] legal and court documents to internal campaign discussions". [ 368 ] [ 371 ] On September 27, 2024, the United States Department of Justice unsealed an indictment accusing Iranian officials of stealing emails from 2024 Donald Trump presidential campaign . The indictment listed revenge for the assassination of Qasem Soleimani as the motivation for the hacking. [ 373 ] Assassination plot by Farhad Shakeri On November 8, 2024, the U.S. Department of Justice charged three men in connection with alleged Iran-linked murder-for-hire plots targeting high-profile U.S. citizens in a criminal complaint unsealed in New York. The suspects in the case are Farhad Shakeri, Carlisle Rivera, and Jonathan Loadholt. The FBI accuses Shakeri, an Afghan citizen of being an “asset” of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and is believed to be based in Tehran. Shakeri, who immigrated to the US as a child was deported in 2008 after spending 14 years in prison for a robbery conviction. The IRGC allegedly tasked Shakeri with orchestrating assassination plots as revenge for the killing of Soleimani. The intended targets included president-elect Donald Trump, an Iranian-American activist, and two Jewish-Americans residing in New York City . Rivera and Loadholt, who met Shakeri during their time in prison, were recruited to assist in these plans and have since been arrested, while Shakeri remains at large. [ 374 ] [ 375 ] According to reports, the IRGC prioritized the assassination of Trump, instructing Shakeri to focus exclusively on this mission. Surveillance efforts and detailed planning were part of the scheme, with Shakeri allegedly telling an undercover FBI agent that an IRGC official urged him to "set aside other efforts" to focus on Trump, assuring him that "they have already spent a lot of money, so the money's not an issue." The same official reportedly indicated the plot might be halted until after the election, believing his assassination could be easier afterward since Trump would lose the election. Additionally, Shakeri was instructed to monitor and plan attacks on two Jewish-Americans in New York and Israeli tourists in Sri Lanka, with a promised payment of $500,000 for each successful operation. [ 376 ] The activist, believed to be journalist Masih Alinejad , publicly acknowledged the assassination plot against her and expressed her astonishment. In a post on X , she revealed that she was one of the intended targets, stating: "I am shocked. I just learned from the FBI that two men were arrested yesterday in a new plot to kill me at Fairfield University , where I was scheduled to give a talk." [ 377 ] Shortly after the charges were announced, Attorney General Merrick Garland stated: "Few actors in the world pose as grave a threat to the national security of the United States as Iran. The Justice Department has charged an operative of the Iranian regime, who was directed to coordinate a network of criminal associates to advance Iran's assassination plots against its targets, including President-elect Donald J. Trump." [ 376 ] In a separate statement, U.S. Attorney Damian Williams emphasized the ongoing threats posed by individuals acting on behalf of the Iranian government. He stated, "Actors directed by the Government of Iran continue to target our citizens, including President-elect Trump, both on U.S. soil and abroad. This must stop." Williams further asserted, "Today's charges send another clear message to those engaged in such efforts: we will remain steadfast in pursuing bad actors, regardless of their location, and will stop at nothing to bring to justice those who endanger our safety and security." [ 376 ] Following the revelation of the plot, Newsweek reported that the U.S. Secret Service had deployed a remote-controlled robotic dog to safeguard the president-elect at his Mar-a-Lago residence in Palm Beach, Florida . The agency confirmed to Newsweek that the robotic dogs were part of their security assets. “Safeguarding the President-elect is a top priority,” stated Anthony Guglielmi, the U.S. Secret Service's Chief of Communications. “While we cannot disclose specific capabilities, these robotic dogs are equipped with advanced surveillance technology and an array of sensors that enhance our protective operations.” [ 378 ] In popular culture In the 2022 video game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare II , the player is tasked with killing a fictional Iranian general named Ghorbrani using a cruise missile. Many news outlets noted that this mission appears to be heavily inspired by the assassination of Qasem Soleimani. The fictional character also visually resembles Soleimani. [ 379 ] [ 380 ] [ 381 ] See also List of assassinations by the United States Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act Disposition Matrix Timeline of United States military operations 2020 in Iran 2020 in Iraq USA kill or capture strategy in Iraq Kerman bombings Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh Assassination of Hassan Nasrallah June 2025 United States strikes on Iran 2026 United States strikes in Venezuela Notes ^ U.S. President Donald Trump claimed that Soleimani was responsible of planting thousands of roadside bombs in Iraq and Afghanistan, by saying: "He was the king of the roadside bombs, great percentages of people don't have legs right now and arms because of this son of a bitch [Qassem Soleimani]". [ 108 ] Moreover, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson mentioned that Soleimani supplied "improvised explosive devices to terrorists, which I'm afraid killed and maimed British troops". [ 109 ] ^ According to BBC , U.S. Congressman Mike Pompeo applied in 2016 for an Iranian travel visa at the Embassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C. , to monitor the situation there, but his efforts were in vain. [ 110 ] ^ Soleimani used to avoid using his private plane because of increasing concerns regarding his own security, according to an Iraqi security source familiar with his security precautions. [ 126 ] ^ Investigators in Iraq and Syria have concentrated on how collaborators inside the Damascus and Baghdad airports aided the U.S. military to track and pinpoint Soleimani's position. [ 126 ] In addition, NBC News reported that Israel helped in confirming the details provided by the informants. [ 129 ] In June 2020, an Iranian citizen, Seyed Mahmoud Mousavi Majd, was sentenced to death for leaking information that led to Suleimani's death; [ 130 ] he was executed a month later. [ 131 ] In May 2021, Yahoo! News reported that three teams of Delta Force operators were present during the operation, including sniper teams positioned nearby. Israelis, who had access to Soleimani's phone numbers, provided them to the Americans who traced him to Baghdad and Kurdish spec ops at the Baghdad International Airport helped to identify Soleimani. Later on, as two Hellfire missiles hit Soleimani's vehicle, the other vehicle in the motorcade tried to escape before being hit by another missile. [ 132 ] ^ The MQ-9 Reaper drone was probably equipped with AGM-114 Hellfire missiles. [ 135 ] [ 136 ] ^ U.S. Special Operations forces (SOF) were about 0.5 miles (800 m) behind Soleimani's convoy when it was targeted. However, SOF were on the scene within few minutes and performed a bomb damage assessment , where they dragged Soleimani's body out, and took pictures of it along with his belongings, including his damaged cellphone which made further investigations impossible. [ 150 ] ^ The United States Department of State 's Rewards for Justice Program offers up to 15 million USD in rewards for financial background information about the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and its branches, including information related to Abdul Reza Shahlai. [ 154 ] ^ In 2015, the U.S. Federal Reserve and Treasury Department halted Iraq's access to its funds at the New York Fed accounts for several weeks, fearing that they would be eventually taken by Iranian banks as well as ISIS. [ 233 ] However, Iraq's oil revenues deposited at the Fed were valued at $3 billion every month at the end of 2018, according to The Wall Street Journal . [ 234 ] Meanwhile, Iraqi officials declared that around $35 billion of the country's oil revenues are held at the U.S. Federal Reserve, which are equal to 90% of the national budget. [ 235 ] ^ In the meantime, U.S. President Donald Trump mentioned that Iraq should pay back for the facilities built there, if the U.S. military leaves, as their money held in the U.S., otherwise the troops would stay in Iraq. [ 236 ] Moreover, the Trump administration drafted sanctions against Iraq whether they expel U.S. troops. [ 237 ] ^ The two attempted assassinations of Donald Trump in July and September of 2024 were unrelated to Iran. [ 327 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Cohen, Zachary; Alkhshali, Hamdi; Khadder, Kareem; Dewan, Angela (3 January 2020). "US drone strike ordered by Trump kills top Iranian commander in Baghdad" . CNN . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Ghattas, Kim (3 January 2020). "Qassem Soleimani Haunted the Arab World" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ " 'Conspiracy is hard': Inside the Trump administration's secret plan to kill Qassem Soleimani" . Yahoo! News . 8 May 2021. ^ Salem, Mostafa; Al Lawati, Abbas; Picheta, Rob; John, Tara; Atay Alam, Hande (4 January 2024). "Twin blasts kill dozens near slain Iran commander's grave" . CNN World . ^ Dubra, Raquel Regueiro (29 July 2025). "The use of armed drones against State actors: The killing of General Soleimani in Iraq" . Behavior & Law Journal (in Spanish). 11 (1). doi : 10.47442/blj.2025.136 . ISSN 2444-4170 . ^ "Iran, The Targeted Killing of General Soleimani | How does law protect in war? - Online casebook" . casebook.icrc.org . Retrieved 13 September 2025 . ^ "Statement by the Department of Defense" . U.S. Department of Defense . Retrieved 11 August 2023 . [ dead link ] ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Iran warns EU over 'terrorist' designation vote for IRGC" . www.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 11 August 2023 . Retrieved 11 August 2023 . ^ Nakhoul, Samia (3 January 2020). "U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 28 April 2023 . Retrieved 28 April 2023 . ^ "Qasem Soleimani: US strike on Iran general was unlawful, UN expert says" . 9 July 2020 . Retrieved 13 September 2025 . ^ "Statement by the Department of Defense" . Archived from the original on 16 April 2022 . Retrieved 19 April 2022 . ^ McLeary, Paul. "Get the Facts Straight on Iran and EFPs" . Columbia Journalism Review . Retrieved 30 August 2025 . ^ Porter, Gareth. "US Military Ignored Evidence of Iraqi-Made EFPs | Common Dreams" . www.commondreams.org . Retrieved 30 August 2025 . ^ "White House Releases Report Justifying Soleimani Strike" . 14 February 2020. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023 . Retrieved 2 April 2020 . ^ "U.S. Drone Strike in Iraq Kills Iranian Military Leader Qasem Soleimani". American Journal of International Law . ^ Field, Matt (7 January 2020). "The Soleimani killing and 5 things to know about drones in Iraq" . Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . Retrieved 13 September 2025 . ^ "US-Iran tensions: How confrontation between rivals escalated" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 13 September 2025 . ^ Clary, Christopher; Talmadge, Caitlin (17 January 2020). "The US-Iran crisis has calmed down — but things won't ever go back to how they were before" . Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 13 September 2020 . Retrieved 9 September 2020 . ^ a b Schilling, Warner R.; Schilling, Jonathan L. (Fall 2016). "Decision Making in Using Assassinations in International Relations" . Political Science Quarterly . 131 (3): 503– 539. doi : 10.1002/polq.12487 . Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 24 January 2020 . ^ Thomas, Ward (Summer 2000). "Norms and Security: The Case of International Assassination". International Security . 25 (1): 105– 133. doi : 10.1162/016228800560408 . JSTOR 2626775 . S2CID 57572213 . ^ For the leading proponent of the view that leadership targeting is not effective, see Jordan, Jenna (2019). Leadership Decapitation: Strategic Targeting of Terrorist Organizations . Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0824-5 . . For arguments that such targeting does work, see Price, Bryan C. (Spring 2012). "Targeting Top Terrorists: How Leadership Decapitation Contributes to Counterterrorism". International Security . 36 (4): 9– 46. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00075 . JSTOR 41428119 . S2CID 15188795 . ; and Johnston, Patrick B. (Spring 2012). "Does Decapitation Work? Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Targeting in Counterinsurgency Campaigns". International Security . 36 (4): 47– 79. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00076 . JSTOR 41428120 . S2CID 53519659 . ^ Walt, Stephen M. (3 January 2020). "Trump's Iran Policy Is Brain-Dead" . Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on 16 January 2020 . Retrieved 16 January 2020 . ^ "Iran moves missiles to Iraq in warning to enemies—sources" . Euronews . 31 August 2018. Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Sick, Gary G. (7 September 2015). "Iran After the Deal—What to Do When the JCPOA Expires" . Foreign Affairs . Archived from the original on 14 July 2019 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Kessler, Glenn. "Analysis | Was Obama's $1.7 billion cash deal with Iran prohibited by U.S. law?" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 22 November 2019 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Baker, Peter (14 June 2019). "As Trump Accuses Iran, He Has One Problem: His Own Credibility" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 September 2019 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Bakeer, Ali. "Trump's strategy against Iran can still succeed" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 15 December 2019 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq Condemns US Air Strikes as Unacceptable and Dangerous" . Asharq Al-Awsat . 30 December 2019. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ "Iran oil: US to end sanctions exemptions for major importers" . BBC News Online . 22 April 2019. Archived from the original on 1 December 2019 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Mousavian, Seyed Hossein. "Can there be a deal between Iran and the US in the new year?" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Beinart, Peter (20 June 2019). "Bolton Keeps Trying to Goad Iran into War" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iran got its revenge for Qasem Soleimani's killing but the US Navy is still a target" . USA Today . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Currently listed entities" . Publicsafety.gc.ca . Archived from the original on 2 February 2017 . Retrieved 11 November 2014 . ^ Saudi, Bahrain add Iran's IRGC to terror lists—SPA Archived 10 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine euronews.com ^ "Fact Sheet: Designation of Iranian Entities and Individuals for Proliferation Activities and Support for Terrorism" . U.S. Department of the Treasury. 25 October 2007. Archived from the original on 10 November 2014 . Retrieved 11 November 2014 . ^ U.S. Labels Iran's Revolutionary Guard As A Foreign Terrorist Organization Archived 10 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine NPR ^ Ali H. M. Abo Rezeg (3 January 2020). "PROFILE—Who is Qasem Soleimani?" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . He was among the Iranian individuals who were sanctioned by the UN Security Council resolution 1747 ^ "EUR-Lex—32012D0333—EN" . archive.ph . 13 February 2013. Archived from the original on 13 February 2013. ^ "Council Decision 2012/333/CFSP" . Archived from the original on 14 December 2018 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Ali H. M. Abo Rezeg (3 January 2020). "PROFILE—Who is Qasem Soleimani?" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . on 24 June 2011, an official statement by the European Union said that European sanctions were imposed on three Iranian commanders of the Revolutionary Guards including Soleimani. ^ "Iranian who brokered Iraqi peace is on U.S. terrorist watch list | McClatchy" . 29 September 2011. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. ^ "Treasury Designates Individual, Entity Posing Threat to Stability in Iraq" . treasury.gov . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ a b "Trump orders U.S. drone strike killing Iranian general who had "plans to attack" American diplomats and military" . Newsweek . 2 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 30 November 2021 . ^ Melman, Yossi (3 January 2020). "Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, Head of pro-Iranian Kataib Hezbollah Targeted by U.S." Haaretz . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "カタイブ・ヒズボラ（KH） | 国際テロリズム要覧（Web版） | 公安調査庁" . 2 March 2019. Archived from the original on 2 March 2019. ^ "مجلس الوزراء يعتمد قائمة التنظيمات الإرهابية. | WAM" . 17 November 2014. Archived from the original on 17 November 2014. ^ Lawrence, John (26 May 2015). "Iraq Situation Report: May 23–25, 2015" . understandingwar.org . Institute for the Study of War . Archived from the original on 27 May 2015 . Retrieved 27 May 2015 . See paragraph 5 of the report. ^ a b c d "VS doden topgeneraal Iran, vrees voor escalatie groeit" [US kill top Iran general; fear for escalation grows]. NRC Handelsblad (in Dutch). 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ a b c "Soleimani had een heldenstatus in Iran, hij maakte het land machtiger" [Soleimani had a heroic status in Iran, made the country mightier]. NRC Handelsblad (in Dutch). 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ a b Carolien Roelants, Iran expert of NRC Handelsblad , in a debate on Buitenhof on Dutch television, 5 January 2020. ^ "Het conflict tussen Iran en de VS in vogelvlucht" [The conflict between Iran and the US in a nutshell]. NRC Handelsblad (in Dutch). 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Na aanval op Soleimani lijkt einde invloed VS in Iraq nabij" [After attack on Soleimani, US influence in Iraq seems nearly ended]. NRC Handelsblad (in Dutch). 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ a b "US kills Iran's most powerful general in Baghdad airstrike" . Associated Press . 2 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "Iran paid bounties for targeting US troops, intelligence reportedly suggests" . The Hill . 17 August 2020. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021 . Retrieved 27 December 2021 . ^ Several TV news bulletins, 3–7 Jan 2020. ^ Lieutenant Colonel Jeanne F. Godfroy; Colonel Matthew D. Morton; Colonel James S. Powell; Lieutenant Colonel Matthew M. Zais (January 2019). Colonel Joel D. Rayburn; Colonel Frank K. Sobchak (eds.). "The U.S. Army in the Iraq War, Volume 1. Invasion—Insurgency—Civil War. 2003–2006" (PDF) . Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press . Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2019 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ a b Lee, Carol E.; Kube, Courtney (13 January 2020). "Trump authorized Soleimani's killing 7 months ago, with conditions" . NBC News . Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ Schmitt, Eric (3 January 2020). "Iran's Maj. Gen. Qassem Soleimani traveled with impunity—until U.S. drones found him" . Chicago Tribune . The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ U.S. Department of the Treasury (25 October 2007). "Fact Sheet: Designation of Iranian Entities and Individuals for Proliferation Activities and Support for Terrorism" . U.S. Department of the Treasury . Archived from the original on 17 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ Kertscher, Tom (16 January 2020). "Fact-checking Trump's claim that Obama designated Iran's Soleimani a terrorist but did nothing" . PolitiFact . Archived from the original on 16 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ U.S. Department of the Treasury (18 May 2011). "Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People" . U.S. Department of the Treasury . Archived from the original on 17 May 2019 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ U.S. Department of the Treasury (11 October 2011). "Treasury Sanctions Five Individuals Tied to Iranian Plot to Assassinate the Saudi Arabian Ambassador to the United States" . U.S. Department of the Treasury . Archived from the original on 18 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ Relman, Eliza (3 January 2020), "Trump didn't know who the Iranian leader he just assassinated was four years ago" , Business Insider , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 3 January 2020 ^ "Report: U.S. Gives Israel Green Light to Assassinate Iranian General Soleimani" , Haaretz , 1 January 2018, archived from the original on 18 January 2018 , retrieved 3 January 2012 ^ "After drone strike foiled, top minister threatens Iran commander Soleimani" , The Times of Israel , 25 August 2019, archived from the original on 26 August 2019 , retrieved 3 January 2012 ^ "Iran says it foiled plot to kill Quds chief Soleimani" , Reuters , 3 October 2019, archived from the original on 4 October 2019 , retrieved 3 January 2012 ^ Khoury, Jack (3 October 2019), "Iran Says Foiled 'Israeli-Arab' Plot to Assassinate Top General Qassem Soleimani" , Haaretz , archived from the original on 3 October 2019 , retrieved 4 January 2012 ^ "Mossad chief: Iran's Soleimani 'knows his assassination is not impossible' " , The Times of Israel , 11 October 2019, archived from the original on 11 October 2019 , retrieved 3 January 2012 ^ Simon, Steven (2 January 2020). "Hypersonic Missiles Are a Game Changer" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ a b c "Inside the plot by Iran's Soleimani to attack U.S. forces in Iraq" . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ a b Kasra Aarabi (11 December 2019). "Iran's Regional Influence Campaign Is Starting to Flop" . Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ a b Arwa Ibrahim (29 November 2019). "Why are Iraqi protesters targeting Iranian buildings?" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ " 'We in Iran Know How to Deal With Protests,' Soleimani Told Iraqi Officials in Surprise Visit" . Haaretz . Associated Press. 31 October 2019. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "Tensions flare as unidentified gunmen kill protesters in Baghdad" . Al Jazeera . 8 December 2019. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Anita Chabria; Leila Miller; Sarah Parvani (8 January 2020). "Defense contractor whose death sparked US-Iran attacks is mourned" . Los Angeles Times, Stripes.com . Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Snow, Shawn (27 December 2019). "Several American troops wounded and a US contractor killed in rocket attack on Kirkuk base" . MilitaryTimes.com . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Idrees Ali; Ahmed Rasheed (29 December 2019). "Trump aides call U.S. strikes on Iraq and Syria 'successful', warn of potential further action" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Julian Borger (30 December 2019). "US: strikes on Iran-backed militia a response to 'campaign' of attacks by Tehran" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Morgan, Wesley; Toosi, Nahal (30 December 2019). "State Department faults Iraq for failing to protect U.S. troops" . Politico . Archived from the original on 31 December 2019 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Starr, Barbara; Bohn, Kevin; Levitt, Ross (29 December 2019). "US strikes 5 facilities in Iraq and Syria linked to Iranian-backed militia" . CNN . Archived from the original on 30 December 2019 . Retrieved 31 December 2019 . ^ a b "U.S. Launches Airstrikes on Iranian-Backed Forces in Iraq and Syria" . The New York Times . 29 December 2019. Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 1 January 2020 . ^ "Kata'ib Hezbollah: Iraq condemns US attacks on Iran-backed militia" . BBC News Online . 30 December 2019. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Inside the plot by Iran's Soleimani to attack U.S. forces in Iraq" . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi supporters of Iran-backed militia attack U.S. embassy" . Politico . 31 December 2019. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Phillip Athey (2 January 2020). "100 U.S. Marines, two Apache helicopters reinforcing embassy in Baghdad after attack" . Marine Corps Times . Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Abdul-Zahra, Qassim (31 December 2019). "Protesters attack US Embassy in Baghdad after airstrikes" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 31 December 2019 . Retrieved 31 December 2019 . ^ Law, Tara; Bates, Josiah (1 January 2019). "Iraqi Protesters End U.S. Embassy Siege but Tensions Remain High. Here's a Full Timeline" . Time . Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2019 . ^ Ali, Idrees; Brunnstrom, David (31 December 2019). "U.S. has no plan to evacuate embassy in Baghdad, more forces being sent to compound" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Iran Denies Role in U.S. Embassy Violence, Warns Against Retaliation" . Reuters . 31 December 2019. Archived from the original on 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Khamenei, Ali [@Khamenei_fa] (1 January 2020). "میبینید سراسر عراق هیجان ضدآمریکایی چقدر است؟ باز آن جناب توییت کرده که مااین را از چشم ایران میبینیم. شما غلط میکنید! ایران اگربخواهدباکشوری مبارزه کندصریح این کاررا میکند.ما به منافع و عزت ملتمان پایبندیم وهرکس آن را تهدید کند بدون هیچ ملاحظهای بااو روبرو میشویم وضربه میزنیم" [Do you see the excitement of anti-Americanism throughout Iraq? Again, he has tweeted that we see Maine in the eyes of Iran. You're wrong! Iran will do so clearly if it wants to fight the country. We are committed to the interests and dignity of our nation and everyone who threatens it will face it without any consideration.] ( Tweet ) (in Persian) . Retrieved 3 January 2020 – via Twitter . ^ Trump, Donald [@realDonaldTrump] (31 December 2019). "... Iran will be held fully responsible for lives lost, or damage incurred, at any of our facilities. They will pay a very BIG PRICE! This is not a Warning, it is a Threat. Happy New Year!" ( Tweet ). Retweeted by Ali Khamenei . Retrieved 3 January 2020 – via Twitter . ^ Marcus, Jonathan (3 January 2020). "Why kill Soleimani now and what happens next?" . BBC News Online . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ a b "Statement by the Department of Defense" . United States Department of Defense . 2 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Iran general Qassem Suleimani killed in Baghdad drone strike ordered by Trump" . The Guardian . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Qasem Soleimani: Iran was targeting four US embassies, says Trump" . BBC News Online . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ a b c "As Tensions With Iran Escalated, Trump Opted for Most Extreme Measure" . The New York Times . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "How Trump made the decision to kill Suleimani" . Los Angeles Times . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ a b Ryan, Missy; Dawsey, Josh; Lamothe, Dan; Hudson, John (4 January 2020). "How Trump decided to kill a top Iranian general" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ a b c d e Cooper, Helene; Schmitt, Eric; Haberman, Maggie; Callimachi, Rukmini (4 January 2020). "As Tensions With Iran Escalated, Trump Opted for Most Extreme Measure" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Edmondson, Catie (3 January 2020). "Congressional Leaders Call for Details After U.S. Airstrike on Suleimani" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Pelosi demands briefing on US–Iran strike, Graham says he was informed beforehand" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Julian Borger Woodward tells how allies tried to rein in 'childish' Trump's foreign policy Archived 11 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian 11 September 2020 ^ "Soleimani approved attack on Iraqi military base that killed American: Top US general" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Cassidy, John. "The Real Backstory of Why Trump Ordered the Killing of Suleimani Is Becoming More Clear" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 30 April 2021 . ^ "Amid GOP pushback, Pence says sharing intel with Congress could 'compromise' sources" . NBC News . 9 January 2020. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021 . Retrieved 30 April 2021 . ^ "Mike Pence insists Trump had 'compelling evidence' of Soleimani threat but that he can't make it public" . The Independent . 9 January 2020. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021 . Retrieved 30 April 2021 . ^ Lubold, Gordon; Youssef, Nancy A.; Coles, Isabel (7 January 2020). "Iran Fires Missiles at U.S. Forces in Iraq" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . White House national security adviser Robert O'Brien told reporters in Washington on Tuesday that General Soleimani "was plotting to kill, to attack American facilities, and diplomats, soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines were located at those facilities". ^ "Trump calls dead Iranian Gen. Qassem Soleimani a 'son of a bitch' at rally" . New York Post . 14 January 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020 . Retrieved 16 January 2020 . ^ "General Qasem Soleimani had blood of British troops on his hands, says Boris Johnson" . The Times . 9 January 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020 . Retrieved 16 January 2020 . ^ "Why Soleimani's death is personal for Pompeo" . BBC . 15 January 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020 . Retrieved 16 January 2020 . ^ Hudson, John; Dawsey, Josh; Harris, Shane; Lamothe, Dan (5 January 2020). "Killing of Soleimani follows long push from Pompeo for aggressive action against Iran, but airstrike brings serious risks" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Michael C. Bender; Michael R. Gordon; Gordon Lubold; Warren P. Strobel (10 January 2020). "Trump's New National Security Team Made Fast Work of Iran Strike" . The Wall Street Journal . ISSN 0099-9660 . Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Inside the plot by Iran's Soleimani to attack U.S. forces in Iraq" . Reuters . 3 January 2019. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2019 . ^ Stracqualursi, Veronica; Hansler, Jennifer (3 January 2020). "Pompeo: Strike on Soleimani disrupted an 'imminent attack' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ Cohen, Zachary (5 January 2020). "Skepticism mounts over evidence of 'imminent' threat that Trump says justified Soleimani killing" . CNN . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ Trump claims Soleimani was planning to blow up U.S. embassy Archived 9 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Politico , 9 January 2020 ^ Pappas, Alex (10 January 2020). "Trump tells Fox News' Laura Ingraham 'four embassies' were targeted in imminent threat from Iran" . Fox News . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Pengelly, Martin (11 January 2020). "Donald Trump's Iran claims on Fox News met with skepticism and complaint" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Gibbons-Neff, Thomas (12 January 2020). "Esper Says He Didn't See Specific Evidence Iran Planned to Attack 4 Embassies" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 January 2020 . Retrieved 15 January 2020 . ^ Face The Nation (12 January 2020). "NEWS: @EsperDod tells @margbrennan he "didn't see" specific evidence showing Iran planned to strike 4 U.S. embassies, despite @realDonaldTrump saying an attack at multiple embassies was "imminent". Watch more of Esper's interview on @FacetheNation today.pic.twitter.com/1Nud8waok1" . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Miller, Hayley (12 January 2020). "Mark Esper: I 'Didn't See' Specific Evidence Of Iran Threat To 4 U.S. Embassies" . HuffPost . Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 13 January 2020 . ^ "Trump recounts minute-by-minute details of Soleimani strike to donors at Mar-a-Lago" . CNN . 18 January 2020. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ "PM: Iran's Soleimani was in Iraq to discuss relations with Saudi" . The Middle East Monitor . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Hennigan, W. J.; Dozier, Kimberly (5 January 2020). "Iraqis Push for U.S. Troop Withdrawal in Symbolic Vote" . Time . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Danner, Chas (5 January 2020). "Iraqi Lawmakers Vote to Expel U.S. Troops As Fallout From Soleimani Strike Worsens" . New York . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ a b c "Exclusive: Informants in Iraq, Syria helped U.S. kill Iran's Soleimani—sources" . Reuters . 9 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Tracked, targeted, killed: Qassem Soleimani's final hours" . Middle East Eye . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ Read, Russ (3 January 2020). "World's most feared drone: CIA's MQ-9 Reaper killed Soleimani" . Washington Examiner . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . Iranian General Qassem Soleimani was killed Thursday night in a strike by an MQ-9 Reaper drone. ^ "Airport informants, overhead drones: How the U.S. killed Soleimani" . NBC News . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "Iran to execute 'CIA agent' over Gen Suleimani's death" . The Guardian . 9 June 2020. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 . Retrieved 9 June 2020 . ^ "Iran executes man convicted of spying for US and Israel" . BBC . 20 July 2020 . Retrieved 23 June 2025 . ^ " 'Conspiracy is hard': Inside the Trump administration's secret plan to kill Qassem Soleimani" . Yahoo . 8 May 2021. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 . Retrieved 9 May 2021 . ^ Chulov, Martin (3 January 2020). " 'A defining moment in the Middle East': the killing of Qassem Suleimani" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 5 February 2020 . Retrieved 24 October 2020 . ^ Baker, Peter; Bergman, Ronen; Kirkpatrick, David D.; Barnes, Julian E.; Rubin, Alissa J. (11 January 2020). "Seven Days in January: How Trump Pushed U.S. and Iran to the Brink of War" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 13 January 2020 . At 12:47, the first of several missiles smashed into the vehicles, engulfing them in flames and leaving 10 charred bodies inside. ^ "A look at the deadly capabilities of the MQ-9 Reaper drone that took out General Qassem Soleimani" . The New York Post . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Did The U.S. Use New Joint Air-To-Ground Missile To Kill Iran's General Soleimani?" . Forbes . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ Martin Chulov (3 January 2020). " 'A defining moment in the Middle East': the killing of Qassem Suleimani" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 5 February 2020 . Retrieved 2 February 2020 . The US airstrike hit Suleimani's vehicle on an access road at about 2am as he was leaving Baghdad airport ^ "Four Hellfire missiles and a severed hand: The killing of Qassem Soleimani" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 2 February 2020 . Retrieved 2 February 2020 . As the vehicles headed down the airport access road, the drone unleashed four Hellfire missiles ^ "Iran vows 'harsh' response to US killing of top general" . Associated Press . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . The strike, on an access road near Baghdad's airport, was carried out early Friday ^ Gal Perl Finkel, Potential for strategic turns Archived 16 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine , The Jerusalem Post , 16 February 2020. ^ a b "Iran's Soleimani and Iraq's Muhandis killed in air strike: militia spokesman" . Reuters . 2 January 2019. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . an air strike on their convoy in Baghdad airport ^ Crowley, Michael; Hassan, Falih; Schmitt, Eric (2 January 2020). "U.S. Strike in Iraq Kills Qassim Suleimani, Commander of Iranian Forces" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . The strike was the second attack at the airport within hours. ^ Lawler, Dave (2 January 2020). "U.S. kills top Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani" . Axios . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Borger, Julian; Chulov, Martin (3 January 2020). "Iran general Qassem Suleimani killed in Baghdad drone strike ordered by Trump" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Top Iranian general killed in US airstrike in Baghdad, Pentagon confirms" . CNBC . 2 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Reaper drone launched from Qatar fired missile that killed Soleimani" . Arab News . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 13 January 2020 . ^ "Kuwaiti foreign ministry summons Iranian ambassador - Xinhua | English.news.cn" . Archived from the original on 24 January 2020 . Retrieved 24 January 2020 . ^ Campbell, Barbara (2 January 2020). "Pentagon Says Top Iranian Military Leader Killed in Airstrikes On Iraqi Airport" . NPR . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ Karam, Zeina (2 January 2020). "US kills Iran's most powerful general in Baghdad airstrike" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 2 January 2020 . ^ "Photos taken by US Special Operations forces show aftermath of strike that killed Soleimani" . Fox News . 12 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "Factbox: Reactions to the killing of Iranian general in a U.S. air strike—IRAQ'S TOP SHI'ITE CLERIC, AYATOLLAH ALI AL-SISTANI" . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "US kills top Iranian General Soleimani in Baghdad airstrike" . Deutsche Welle . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Sagneli, M. (3 January 2020), "Revelan el momento del ataque de drones contra el general Soleimani" , Vanguardia , archived from the original on 3 January 2020 , retrieved 3 January 2020 ^ "Act of Terror: Information on Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps" . Rewards for Justice . Archived from the original on 21 December 2019 . Retrieved 14 December 2019 . ^ "On the day U.S. forces killed Soleimani, they targeted a senior Iranian official in Yemen" . The Washington Post . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ "U.S. Strike on Iranian Commander in Yemen the Night of Suleimani's Assassination Killed the Wrong Man" . The Intercept . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ "US offering $15 million for info on Iranian planner of 2007 Karbala attack that killed 5 US troops" . Military Times . 5 December 2019. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ "On the day U.S. forces killed Soleimani, they targeted a senior Iranian official in Yemen" . The Washington Post . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 27 January 2020 . ^ " 'A more dangerous world': US killing of Iran's Soleimani stokes fears of regional conflict" . France 24. 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Aircraft Carrying US Troops Take Off From East Coast Bases After Drone Strike Kills Top Iranian General" . Newsweek . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ McLaughlin, Elizabeth. "Pentagon to deploy roughly 3,500 more troops to Middle East with others placed on alert status, amid tensions with Iran" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Kube, Courtney. "U.S. to send 3,000 troops to Middle East after embassy attack, Soleimani killing" . NBC News . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Britain's navy to escort UK-flagged ships through Strait of Hormuz" . The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Royal Navy nuclear-powered submarine 'in position to fire at Iran' " . Plymouth Herald . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023 . Retrieved 15 February 2023 . ^ Fiorillo, Chiara (5 January 2020). "Royal Navy nuclear-powered submarine with 20ft missiles 'in position to fire at Iran' " . Daily Record & Sunday Mail . Archived from the original on 15 February 2023 . Retrieved 15 February 2023 . ^ "U.S. Air Strike Targets Iraqi Militia North of Baghdad: State TV" . U.S. News & World Report . Reuters. 3 January 2019. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Air strikes targeting Iraqi militia kill six: army source" . Reuters . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq, US-led coalition, deny new air strike near Baghdad" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Alkhshali, Hamdi (4 January 2020). "Coalition denies report that airstrike hit Iran-backed paramilitary forces in Iraq" . CNN . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Top Iranian general killed by US in Iraq" . BBC News Online . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ US–Iran tensions after Soleimani killing: All the latest updates Archived 9 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Al Jazeera, 5 January 2020 ^ DHS says no 'credible' threat to US, warns of groups' capability Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine BY RACHEL FRAZIN, The Hill, 4 January 2020 ^ Suleimani killing: Donald Trump defends threat to target cultural sites in Iran Archived 9 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian , 6 January 2020 ^ Trump defends his threat to target Iranian cultural sites Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Euronews, 5 January 2020 ^ Defenders of History Take Aim at Trump's Threat to Strike Iran's Cultural Sites Archived 6 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times , 5 January 2020 ^ Levenson, Eric (5 January 2020). "Trump's threatened attack on Iranian cultural sites could be a war crime if carried out" . CNN . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ Starr, Barbara; Browne, Ryan; LeBlanc, Paul (6 January 2020). "Esper contradicts Trump on targeting Iranian cultural sites: We 'follow the laws of armed conflict' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Tagesschau edition on 5 January 2020 at 20:00 ^ Burman, Max (5 January 2020). "Iran pulling out of nuclear deal commitment after U.S. strike that killed Soleimani" . NBC News . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iran rolls back nuclear deal commitments" . BBC News Online . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ Cunningham, Erin (5 January 2019). "Iran announces it is suspending its commitments to the 2015 nuclear deal" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Rouhanis speech from Januar 8th 2020 translated by MEMRI" . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 18 January 2020 . ^ "Thousands flock to mourn Qasem Soleimani in Iran" . BBC News Online . 5 January 2019. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iran cancels Soleimani ceremony in Tehran after massive turnout in second city" . The Times of Israel . 5 January 2019. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iran leader Khamenei leads prayers at Soleimani funeral" . Reuters . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Soleimani's body arrives in Iran as Trump issues new threats" . ABC News . 5 January 2019. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iran renames airport, route after Lieutenant General Soleimani" . Pars Today . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Fassihi, Farnaz (5 January 2020). "Mourners Throng Iran's Streets for Suleimani Funeral Marches" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Coup, revolution and war: Events that propped up Soleimani reveal why Iran is split on his death" . FOX TV Digital Team . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "توفان توئیتری در پاسخ به تبلیغات رسانههای حکومتی: ایرانیها میگویند از سلیمانی "متنفر" هستند" . صدای آمریکا . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "The Iranian Woman In The #IraniansDetestSoleimani Viral Video Was Also A Lobbyist For A Militia In Libya" . BuzzFeed News . 17 January 2020. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020 . Retrieved 20 February 2020 . In addition to its organic engagement, Kasraie's YouTube video was boosted by being tagged #IraniansDetestSoleimani, a hashtag that was amplified by inauthentic Twitter accounts several minutes after the video was posted. ^ Golberg, Geoff (9 January 2020). "Inauthentic Twitter Accounts Continue Pushing For War With Iran" . Medium . Archived from the original on 20 February 2020 . Retrieved 20 February 2020 . Translated: nearly 1/5th of the accounts (998) identified in our post from October have recently tweeted, retweeted or were mentioned in tweets where #IraniansDetestSoleimani appears ^ "Stampede kills 50 at Soleimani's burial in Iran" . BBC News Online . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Hjelmgaard, Kim. "Stampede at Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani's funeral kills at least 56" . USA Today . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "US spies detected Iranian ballistic missiles at a heightened state of readiness following the assassination of Qassem Soleimani" . Business Insider . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Gaouette, Nicole; Alkhshali, Hamdi; Browne, Ryan; Starr, Barbara; Qiblawi, Tamara (7 January 2020). "Trump says 'Iran appears to be standing down' following its retaliatory attacks" . CNN . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Martinez, Luis (7 January 2020). "Iran launches missiles at US military facilities in Iraq: US official" . ABC . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2019 . ^ Joffre, Tzvi (8 January 2020). "IRGC: Missile attack on US bases in Iraq is revenge for Soleimani killing" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi PM received word from Iran about missile attack" . Reuters . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ "Iran launches missiles into US air bases in Iraq: US official" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ a b Miles, Frank (7 January 2020). "Iran launches 15 ballistic missiles into Iraq targeting US, coalition forces, officials say" . Fox News Channel . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ "DOD Statement on Iranian Ballistic Missile Attacks in Iraq" . United States Department of Defense . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Borger, Julian; Wintour, Patrick (8 January 2020). "Iran crisis: missiles launched against US airbases in Iraq" . The Guardian . London. ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Gaouette, Nicole; Alkhshali, Hamdi; Browne, Ryan; Starr, Barbara; Qiblawi, Tamara (8 January 2020). "Trump says 'Iran appears to be standing down' following its retaliatory attacks" . CNN . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Alkhshali, Hamdi (7 January 2020). "Two ballistic missiles hit Erbil, sources say" . CNN . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ "Saudi Arabia will do everything to spare Iraq the danger of war: vice minister" . Non Perele . Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ "Demands for justice after Iran's plane admission" . BBC . 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. ^ "Protests in Tehran after Iran admits shooting down plane" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ Starr, Barbara (28 January 2020). "First on CNN: 50 US service members diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries after Iranian missile strike" . CNN . Archived from the original on 1 February 2020 . Retrieved 11 November 2021 . ^ "Oil tops $70 a barrel as Middle East tensions rattle markets" . Financial Times . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Oil slips and global stocks waver as investors reassess Iran fears" . Financial Times . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Toy, Sarah (7 January 2020). "Oil Traders Lose Faith in Geopolitical Rallies" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "Five reasons oil prices failed to soar on US-Iran tensions" . Financial Times . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ "JPost targeted by pro-Iranian hackers on day of Soleimani assassination" . The Jerusalem Post . 3 January 2022. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022 . Retrieved 3 January 2022 . ^ "At least 103 dead and 170 wounded in bomb blasts near Iran general Qasem Soleimani´s tomb - state TV" . BBC News . 3 January 2024 . Retrieved 3 January 2024 . ^ "More than 100 killed, scores injured in 'terrorist attacks' near slain general Soleimani's grave" . The Times of India . 3 January 2024. ISSN 0971-8257 . Archived from the original on 3 January 2024 . Retrieved 5 March 2024 . ^ "U.S. embassy urges citizens to depart Iraq immediately—statement" . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Britain warns nationals against travel to Iraq and Iran" . The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq Travel Advice & Safety | Smartraveller" . smartraveller.gov.au . Archived from the original on 30 December 2019 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq's prime minister joins mourners in Baghdad for funeral of top Iranian general killed by US" . The Journal . Dublin. 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Safi, Ghaith Abdul-Ahad Michael; Graham-Harrison, Emma (4 January 2020). "Qassem Suleimani: 'Death to America' chants at Baghdad funeral procession" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Thousands in Iraq March in Funeral Procession for Iranian General Killed by U.S. Archived 4 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Time , 4 January 2020 ^ Doucet, Lyse (4 January 2020). "Qasem Soleimani: Thousands mourn assassinated Iranian general" . BBC News Online . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Rockets target Baghdad's Green Zone, base housing US troops" . Al Jazeera . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Egan, Matt; Ziady, Hanna (6 January 2020). "Chevron pulls oil workers from Iraq" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ a b "Shiite MPs draft legislation seeking to expel US troops from Iraq" . rudaw.net . Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi parliament's resolution to expel foreign troops has no legal consequences" . rudaw.net . Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi parliament calls for expulsion of foreign troops" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi parliament calls on government to expel U.S. troops" . Axios . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Trump threatens Iraq with crippling sanctions" . Euronews . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Ross, Jamie (7 January 2020). "Pentagon Initially Told Capitol Hill Iraq Withdrawal Letter Was Fake, Report Says" . The Daily Beast . Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ Cohen, Zachary; Starr, Barbara; Browne, Ryan (6 January 2020). "Top general says letter suggesting US would withdraw troops from Iraq was a 'mistake' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Glazer, Emily; Malas, Nour; Hilsenrath, Jon (3 November 2015). "U.S. Cut Cash to Iraq on Iran, ISIS Fears" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ a b "U.S. Warns Iraq It Risks Losing Access to Key Bank Account if Troops Told to Leave" . The Wall Street Journal . 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq warns of 'collapse' if Trump blocks oil cash" . Yahoo! . 13 January 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 19 January 2020 . ^ "Trump tells Ingraham Iraq should pay US back if troops leave country" . Fox News . 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ "The Trump administration has started preparing economic sanctions against Iraq" . Markets Insider . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 19 January 2020 . ^ Cook, Lorne (13 February 2020). "Iraq green-lights resumption of NATO training effort" . ABC News . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020 . Retrieved 13 February 2020 . ^ Emmott, Robin (12 February 2020). Heinrich, Mark (ed.). "NATO to expand Iraq training mission in response to Trump" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 13 February 2020 . Retrieved 13 February 2020 . ^ a b Ahmed, Nabil (6 January 2020). "Overshadowed By U.S.-Iran Escalation, Iraq Protesters Keep Movement Alive" . Radio Farda . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ a b "En Irak, les manifestants anti-pouvoir disent non-aux "occupants américain et iranien" " [In Iraq, anti-government demonstrators say not to "American and Iranian occupiers"]. L'Obs (in French). Agence France-Presse . 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ a b al-Rubaie, Azhar (10 January 2020). " 'No to America, no to Iran': Thousands protest against foreign influence across Iraq" . Middle East Eye . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ a b Abu Zeed, Adnan (7 January 2020). "National campaign to support domestic goods on rise in Iraq" . Al-Monitor . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ "Hundreds of thousands protest US troop presence in Iraq" . CNN . 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020 . Retrieved 24 January 2020 . ^ "Thousands rally in Baghdad on anniversary of Soleimani death" . The Hill . January 2022. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022 . Retrieved 1 January 2022 . ^ "Iraqis demand US troops pull out on Soleimani killing anniversary" . www.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 3 January 2021 . Retrieved 3 January 2021 . ^ a b c Khalel, Sheren; Farooq, Umar A (3 January 2020), "Was it legal?: What US and international law say about Trump's strike on Soleimani" , Middle East Eye , archived from the original on 4 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ a b Kennedy, Merrit; Northam, Jackie (4 January 2020), Was It Legal for the U.S. To Kill A Top Iranian Military Leader? , NPR , archived from the original on 4 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Swart, Mia (5 January 2020), 'To stop a war': Did Soleimani killing violate international law? , Al Jazeera , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ a b c Dilanian, Ken (4 January 2020), "Was it legal for Donald Trump to order the killing of a top Iranian general?" , NBC , archived from the original on 8 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Loh, Matthew. "Iran wants Trump tried for the assassination of Gen. Qassem Soleimani, and says it will take revenge if there is no trial" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on 7 January 2022 . Retrieved 4 January 2022 . ^ a b Specia, Megan (9 January 2020). "Iran Offers Mixed Message After Backing Away From Conflict With U.S." The New York Times . Archived from the original on 29 March 2021 . Retrieved 21 June 2021 . ^ a b c d e "A question of laws: Was U.S. killing of Iran's Soleimani self-defense or assassination?" , Japan Times , 4 January 2020, archived from the original on 4 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Dean, Sarah; Siad, Arnaud (3 January 2020). "Soleimani's killing "most likely unlawful", UN rights expert says" . CNN . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "UN Expert Deems U.S. Drone Strike on Iran's Soleimani an 'Unlawful' Killing" . Haaretz. 7 July 2020. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020 . Retrieved 7 July 2020 . ^ "US denounces UN report on Iran general's 'unlawful' killing" . Haaretz. 8 July 2020. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020 . Retrieved 8 July 2020 . ^ Tim Shipman (12 January 2020). "Ben Wallace interview: We can't rely on US" . The Times . Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . The intelligence information I have seen, under the right to defend yourself against an imminent threat, that would have been met. ^ "Was the drone attack on Iranian general an assassination?" . Associated Press . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "Boris Johnson warns Trump after threat to bomb Iran's 52 cultural sites" . The Independent . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Iran crisis: Boris Johnson gives strongest backing yet to Trump over US killing of Soleimani" . The Independent . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ Prothero, Mitch (15 January 2020). "Iran has a 'shockingly strong' war-crimes case against Trump over Soleimani's killing — and it could win" . Business Insider . Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020 . Retrieved 21 January 2020 . ^ "Iran issues arrest warrant for Trump, asks Interpol to help" . Al Jazeera . 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020 . Retrieved 29 June 2020 . ^ Motamedi, Maziar (5 January 2021). "Iran issues Interpol notice for 48 US officials including Trump" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021 . Retrieved 15 February 2020 . ^ Chappell, Bill (5 January 2021). "Iran Renews Interpol Request to Arrest Trump, Other U.S. Officials" . NPR . Archived from the original on 30 April 2021 . Retrieved 30 April 2021 . ^ "Iraq Issues Arrest Warrant for Trump Over Soleimani Killing" . U.S. News . 7 January 2021. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021 . Retrieved 8 January 2021 . ^ Smith, Crispin (5 January 2020), "United States Killed Iraqi Military Official and Iraqi Military Personnel in the Two Recent Attacks" , Just Security , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Rubin, Alissa J.; Hubbard, Ben; Hassan, Falih (4 January 2020), "Cries of 'Revenge Is Coming' at Funerals for Slain Commanders in Iraq" , The New York Times , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 , Tens of thousands mourned the killing of a major Iraqi official and a top Iranian general by a U.S. drone strike ... The militias have since been brought under the umbrella of the Iraqi security forces, and Mr. al-Muhandis was their deputy head. ^ Hassan, Falih; Arango, Tim; Rubin, Alissa J. (3 January 2020), "A Shocked Iraq Reconsiders Its Relationship With the U.S." , The New York Times , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Ibrahim, Arwa (3 January 2020), Iraq braces for 'difficult days' after Soleimani's killing , Al Jazeera , archived from the original on 5 January 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ Rasheed, Ahmed; Aboulenein, Ahmed (3 January 2020), El Dahan, Maha (ed.), "Iraqi parliament speaker condemns U.S. air strike: statement" , Reuters , archived from the original on 1 December 2020 , retrieved 5 January 2020 ^ "Iraqi PM tells US to decide mechanism for troop withdrawal" . Associated Press . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ "Why Soleimani's killing is different from other targeted attacks by US" . Stars and Stripes . Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Was the Drone Attack on Iranian General an Assassination?" . U.S. News & World Report . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Billingsley, Dodge (3 January 2020). "News analysis: Did the drone strike on an Iranian general set a dangerous global precedent?" . Deseret News . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Siobhán O'Grady (4 January 2020). "Why Soleimani's killing is different from other targeted attacks by U.S." The Seattle Times . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ a b Divoll, Vicki (22 January 2020). "EX-CIA Lawyer: The Soleimani Hit Was a Homicide Under U.S. Criminal Law" . The Daily Beast . Archived from the original on 17 February 2021 . Retrieved 27 February 2021 – via www.thedailybeast.com. ^ "Timeline of Trump's shifting justifications for Soleimani killing" . AlJazeera. 18 February 2020. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020 . Retrieved 18 February 2020 . ^ Ellyatt, Holly (6 January 2020). "House to vote on limiting Trump's military powers regarding Iran, Pelosi says" . CNBC . Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ "Pelosi announces vote to limit Trump's war powers on Iran" . NBC News . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ Byrd, Haley; Cohen, Zachary; Lybrand, Holmes; Foran, Clare (8 January 2020). "House slates Iran War Powers resolution vote for Thursday" . CNN . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ Nicholas Wu; Deirdre Shesgreen. "Pelosi sets vote on measure to limit Trump's war powers, citing 'urgent' concerns on Iran strategy" . USA Today . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ "As White House Works to Crush Debate Over Legality of Iran Strike, Democrats Move Ahead With War Powers Vote" . Common Dreams . Archived from the original on 14 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ "US House to vote on limiting Trump's actions against Iran" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ "U.S. House passes resolution to limit Trump's ability to wage war on Iran" . Reuters . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2020 . ^ Zengerle, Patricia (7 May 2020). "U.S. Senate upholds Trump veto of 'insulting' Iran war powers resolution" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 11 May 2021 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 – via www.reuters.com. ^ Lindstaedt, Natasha (15 October 2025). "Charlie Kirk: the latest in a long line of political martyrs, from left and right" . The Conversation . Archived from the original on 14 December 2025 . Retrieved 13 December 2025 . ^ "AP: US kills Iran's most powerful general in Baghdad airstrike" . whio.com . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Pickrell, Ryan (3 January 2020). "Iran's supreme leader warns a 'harsh retaliation is waiting' for the US, after an American airstrike killed top Iranian general Qassem Soleimani" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Abdul Qassim-Zahra; Zeina Karam (2 January 2020). "US kills Iran's most powerful general in Baghdad airstrike" . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Top Iranian Commander Killed in U.S. Airstrike on Trump Orders" . Bloomberg . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Reactions to the killing of Iranian general in a U.S. air strike" . Reuters . 2 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Iran tells U.N. it reserves right to self-defense over Soleimani killing" . Reuters . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Iran considers options for retribution over Soleimani killing" . Financial Times . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Hafezi, Parisa (4 January 2020). "Sorrow mixed with fear as Iran mourns Soleimani's death" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraqi PM declares national mourning for Soleimani, Muhandis - statement" . Reuters . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 September 2022 . Retrieved 1 September 2022 . ^ "Iraqi PM condemns US killing of Iran's Soleimani" . The Straits Times . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Neale, Spencer (3 January 2020). "Iraqi parliament vows to 'put an end to US presence' in country" . Washington Examiner . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ "Iraq's Sadr mourns Soleimani, says followers ready to defend Iraq: statement" . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ "Fear and joy on the streets of Baghdad after Soleimani killing" . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ "Iraqis Celebrate after Soleimani Death" . Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ "Iraqis in Baghdad celebrate death of top Iranian commander Soleimani" . 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ Diamond, Jeremy; Kelly, Caroline; Clary, Greg (4 January 2020). "Trump warns Iran if it hits any Americans or American assets 'we have targeted 52 Iranian sites" . CNN . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 11 January 2020 . ^ Trump warns Iran: US has targeted '52 Iranian sites' and will 'hit very fast and very hard' if needed Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Fox News Channel, 4 January 2020. ^ "Rouhani points to US downing of Iranian airliner in response to Trump threat" . The Hill . 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 9 January 2020 . ^ Batrawy, Aya. "Trump's threats draw Iran's cultural sites into tensions" . The Washington Post . AP. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . If culturally prominent sites were targeted, the Trump administration might argue they were being used to covertly stockpile weapons that could target U.S. interests and personnel in the region. ^ Haberman, Maggie (5 January 2020). "Trump Reiterates Threat to Target Iranian Cultural Sites" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 1 December 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Qasem Soleimani: Why his killing is good news for IS jihadists" . BBC News . 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 . Retrieved 20 January 2021 . ^ "Assassination of Major General Soleimani, a blessing from U.S. to Daesh/ISIS & other terror organisations" . 2 January 2021. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023 . Retrieved 31 December 2022 . ^ "McConnell lauds Iranian general's killing as Schumer decries lack of consultation with Congress" . ABC News . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Politi, James (6 January 2020). "Pelosi seeks to curb Trump's ability to strike Iran" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ Choi, Matthew (3 January 2020). "2020 Dems warn of escalation in Middle East after Soleimani killing" . Politico . Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Pengelly, Martin; Helmore, Edward (5 January 2020). "Impeachment: Warren accuses Trump of 'wag the dog' strike on Suleimani" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 5 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ "VIDEO: US not abiding by intl obligations, says Chomsky" . Mehr News Agency . 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. ^ "UN chief calls for de-escalation across Gulf region after killing of top Iranian General in US airstrike" . UN News . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 January 2020 . ^ Emmott, Robin (6 January 2020). "U.S. briefs NATO over Iran strike, avoids European criticism" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ a b King, Laura: "Marking a foe for death, living with the consequences: Exactly what rules apply?" , 5 January 2020, Los Angeles Times , retrieved 26 September 2021 ^ Press conference transcript: "Senior State Department Officials on the Situation in Iraq," Special Briefing, 3 January 2020, Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. Department of State , retrieved 26 September 2021; "SENIOR STATE DEPARTMENT OFFICIAL ONE: ...Secretary Esper... said that Soleimani was developing plans to attack diplomats and service members in Iraq and throughout the region, and so this is a defensive strike. ... * * * QUESTION: The decision to take [Soleimani] out wasn't necessarily a way of removing this... threat that you were talking about in these different countries and these different facilities – but it's a way to mitigate it in the future?... SENIOR STATE DEPARTMENT OFFICIAL THREE: It slows it down. It makes it less likely. It's shooting down Yamamoto in 1942. " ^ Ian W. Toll : "Before Soleimani, there was Yamamoto. But the history is very different." 12 January 2020, Washington Post , retrieved 26 September 2020; "The U.S. military's targeted killing of... Qasem Soleimani... was not unprecedented. A famous antecedent occurred during World War II, when U.S. forces targeted a senior Japanese admiral by shooting down his aircraft in the South Pacific. Lately the episode has been mentioned amid the debate over justifications of the Soleimani strike..." ^ Michael O’Hanlon (Senior Fellow and Director of Research for Brookings Foreign Policy), quoted in: "Around the halls: Experts react to the killing of Iranian commander Qassem Soleimani," 3 January 2020, Brookings Institution ; "Killing him was more akin to shooting down the plane of Japanese Admiral Yamamoto in World War II than attacking a civilian leader." , retrieved 26 September 2021 ^ Lowry, Rich : Where Does Admiral Yamamoto Go to Get His Apology?" in "Politics & Policy," 6 January 2020, National Review , retrieved 26 September 2020; "Before there was Qasem Soleimani, there was Admiral Yamamoto... If it was wrong to kill Soleimani, it was wrong to kill Yamamoto — just as barbaric and illegal, just as damnable an 'assassination.'" ^ "Russia Re-ups Offer To Arm Iraq With S-400 Air Defenses As Relations with the U.S. Sour" . the drive . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ "Russia offers Iraq S-400 air defense system to protect airspace" . almasdarnews . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Arkhipov, Ilya; Quinn, Aine; Caroline Alexander, Caroline (7 January 2020). "Putin's Syria Trip Shows He's Unfazed by Iran Tension" . Bloomberg . Archived from the original on 19 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . ^ Berlinger, Joshua; Mackintosh, Eliza. "Iranians mourn slain general" . CNN . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 6 January 2020 . ^ "Saudi side refuse to play in Iran because of statue" . BBC Sport . ^ "Saudi soccer team refuses to play in Iran over busts of slain general, in potential diplomatic row" . AP News . 2 October 2023 . Retrieved 15 October 2023 . ^ a b Dawsey, Josh ; Arnsdorf, Isaac (11 October 2024). "Trump requests military aircraft and vehicles amid Iran threat" . The Washington Post . ^ Phillips, Morgan (24 October 2024). "Intelligence report says Iran will keep trying to kill Trump regardless of election outcome" . Fox News . Retrieved 2 November 2024 . ^ De Luce, Dan (14 January 2025). "Iran 'never' plotted to kill Trump during campaign, Iran's president tells NBC News" . NBC News . ^ "Trump says he's 'left instructions' for Iran to be 'obliterated' if it assassinates him" . Associated Press . 4 February 2025. ^ Davies, Emily; Hudson, John; Strobel, Warren; O'Donovan, Caroline; Nix, Naomi; Wu, Daniel; Masih, Niha; Bogage, Jacob; Meyer, Theodoric (27 June 2025). "Iran nearly succeeded in orchestrating assassination of Mike Pompeo in Europe in 2022, book reveals" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Allen, Mike (10 August 2022). "Alleged Iranian plot to assassinate John Bolton also targeted Pompeo" . Axios . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ "Iran almost assassinated former Trump Secretary of State Mike Pompeo in 2022, new book claims" . Yahoo News . 28 June 2025 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ "FBI says Tehran still seeks revenge over Soleimani killing". Iran International . 11 December 2025. {{ cite news }} : |archive-url= requires |archive-date= ( help ) ^ a b Toosi, Nahal (13 September 2020). "Officials: Iran weighs plot to kill U.S. ambassador to South Africa" . Politico . Retrieved 14 September 2020 . ^ McCarthy, Tom; Pengelly, Martin (15 September 2020). "Trump threatens to retaliate with '1,000 times greater' force against any Iran attack" . The Guardian . Retrieved 13 November 2024 . ^ "U.S. charges Iranian military operative in plot to assassinate former Trump advisor John Bolton" . CNBC. 10 August 2022. Archived from the original on 24 August 2022 . Retrieved 3 September 2022 . ^ Borger, Julian (10 August 2022). "US charges Iranian man over alleged plot to kill ex-Trump aide John Bolton" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 3 September 2022 . Retrieved 3 September 2022 . ^ "Member of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Charged with Plot to Murder the Former National Security Advisor" . Justice.gov. 10 August 2022. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022 . Retrieved 3 September 2022 . ^ "Iranian military operative charged in plot to murder former national security adviser John Bolton" . CBS News. 10 August 2022. Archived from the original on 3 September 2022 . Retrieved 3 September 2022 . ^ "Iranian operative charged in plot to assassinate former National Security Adviser John Bolton" . ABC Chicago. 10 August 2022. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 . Retrieved 3 September 2022 . ^ "Iranian operative plotting assassination of John Bolton also targeted Mike Pompeo: Report" . Fox News. 11 August 2022. Archived from the original on 3 August 2023 . Retrieved 5 September 2022 . ^ "John Bolton says he's 'embarrassed' that an Iranian Revolutionary Guard member offered the 'low price' of just $300,000 to assassinate him" . Business Insider. Archived from the original on 5 September 2022 . Retrieved 5 September 2022 . ^ Everson, Zach (28 January 2022). "The Secret Service Is Watching Former Ambassador John Bolton's House" . Forbes . Retrieved 2 July 2023 . ^ Collins, Kaitlan (21 January 2025). "Trump terminates John Bolton's security detail within hours of taking office" . CNN . Retrieved 21 January 2025 . ^ Haberman, Maggie ; Aleaziz, Hamed (21 January 2025). "Trump Revokes John Bolton's Secret Service Protection" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 25 January 2025 . Retrieved 25 January 2025 . ^ John Bolton, Anthony Fauci security detail revoked as Trump says 'they can hire their own' . Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . 24 January 2025 . Retrieved 25 January 2025 – via YouTube. ^ Matza, Max (26 September 2024). "US offers $20m bounty for Iranian accused of plans to kill Trump aide" . BBC News . ^ "FBI hunting for Iranian spy who allegedly plotted assassination of Mike Pompeo, other US officials" . New York Post . 4 March 2024. ^ Solomon, Jay (4 March 2024). "FBI hunts for suspected Iranian assassin targeting Trump-era officials" . Semafor . ^ "FBI Issues Alert for Iranian Agent Accused of Plotting Assassinations" . IranWire . 5 March 2024. ^ "Treasury Designates Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuse and Commemorates the 75th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights" . United States Department of the Treasury . 19 November 2024. ^ Baker, Peter; Barnes, Julian (16 July 2024). "U.S. Detected Iranian Plot to Kill Trump Separate From Last Weekend's Shooting" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 16 July 2024 . ^ Mangan, Dan (16 July 2024). "Iran plot to kill Trump prompted Secret Service to boost protection before rally shooting" . CNBC . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 16 July 2024 . ^ "Secret Service tightened security around Trump after learning of alleged Iranian assassination plot" . NBC News . 16 July 2024. Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 16 July 2024 . ^ Brook, Tom Vanden. "Security agencies identified Iranian plot to assassinate Trump separate from weekend attempt" . USA TODAY . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Trump security boosted weeks ago over Iran plot to kill him" . BBC . 16 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ Shivaram, Deepa (16 July 2024). "NSC warned Secret Service about an increased Iranian threat to Trump" . NPR . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Iran blasts Trump assassination plot claims" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Security boosted for Trump after reports of Iran assassination plot" . France 24 . 16 July 2024. Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Iran rejects accusations it was involved in plots to assassinate Trump" . Washington Post . 17 July 2024. ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ Bacon, John; Ortiz, Jorge L. (17 July 2024). "Iran denies Trump assassination plot claim; US lawmakers slam Secret Service response" . USA Today . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Mission responds to speculations on Iran's role in Trump's assassination plot" . Islamic Republic News Agency . 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 20 November 2024 . ^ Gerstein, Josh; Orden, Erica; Woodruff Swan, Betsy (6 August 2024). "Pakistani man charged with murder-for-hire plot that may have targeted Trump" . Politico . ^ Halon, Yael (16 July 2024). "Trump Jr. has surprising reaction to Iranian assassination plot report: 'Greatest political endorsement, ever' " . Fox News . Archived from the original on 17 July 2024 . Retrieved 17 July 2024 . ^ "Trump calls for 'obliteration' of Iran if assassinated" . Iran International . 25 July 2024 . Retrieved 7 August 2025 . ^ "Trump discusses US wiping Iran 'off the face of the Earth' " . Al-Monitor . Agence France-Presse . 25 July 2024. ^ a b c Isenstadt, Alex (10 August 2024). "We received internal Trump documents from 'Robert.' The campaign just confirmed it was hacked" . Politico . Retrieved 10 August 2024 . ^ Sabin, Sam (9 August 2024). "Iranian hackers target U.S. presidential campaign official, Microsoft says" . Axios . Retrieved 11 August 2024 . ^ Watts, Clint (9 August 2024). "Iran Targeting 2024 US Election" . Microsoft On the Issues . Retrieved 11 August 2024 . ^ a b c Dawsey, Josh; Arnsdorf, Isaac; Nakashima, Ellen; Harris, Shane (11 August 2024). "Trump campaign says it is victim of foreign hack after leak of Vance report" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 11 August 2024 . ^ Sanger, David E.; Gold, Michael (11 August 2024). "Trump Campaign Says It Was Hacked by Iranians, but Details Are Murky" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 12 August 2024 . Retrieved 13 August 2024 . ^ Faulders, Katherine; Mallin, Alexander (27 September 2024). "Justice Department charges 3 Iranians over alleged involvement in Trump campaign emails hack" . ABC News . ^ "Justice Department brings criminal charges in Iranian murder-for-hire plan targeting Donald Trump" . AP News . 8 November 2024 . Retrieved 9 November 2024 . ^ Weiser, Benjamin; Barrett, Devlin; Maag, Christopher (8 November 2024). "Iranian Agents Plotted to Kill Trump, U.S. Says in Unsealed Charges" . The New York Times . ^ a b c Levine, Mike; Katersky, Aaron (8 November 2024). "3 charged in Iran-linked murder plots, with one targeting Donald Trump as revenge for killing Qassem Soleimani: DOJ" . ABC News . Retrieved 21 November 2024 . ^ Meko, Hurubie (10 November 2024). "2 New York Men Charged in Monthslong Plot to Kill Iranian Activist" . The New York Times . ^ Dobkin, Rachel (9 November 2024). "Robot Dogs Deployed to Guard Donald Trump After Assassination Plots" . Newsweek . Retrieved 21 November 2024 . ^ "New Call of Duty Starts With 'Assassination of Qassem Soleimani' " . Vice.com . 24 October 2022 . Retrieved 29 October 2022 . ^ " 'Modern Warfare II' does ripped-from-the-headlines in the worst way" . The Washington Post . 25 October 2022. ^ "New Call of Duty game includes mission to 'assassinate Qassem Soleimani' " . Middle East Eye . Retrieved 29 October 2022 . External links v t e Iran–United States relations v t e Diplomatic posts Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C. Ambassadors of Iran to the United States Embassy of the United States, Tehran Ambassadors of the United States to Iran Interests Section of Iran in the United States Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Iran–United States Claims Tribunal Iranian Directorate Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C. Ambassadors of Iran to the United States Embassy of the United States, Tehran Ambassadors of the United States to Iran Interests Section of Iran in the United States Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Iran–United States Claims Tribunal Iranian Directorate Iran Syria Policy and Operations Group Diplomacy Persian Corridor Persian Gulf Command Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry 1953 Iranian coup d'état Abadan Crisis Timeline Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights Exercise Delawar Project Dark Gene Safari Club Island of Stability Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action Negotiations Joint Plan of Action Framework Reactions Criticism Aftermath U.S. withdrawal Donald Trump's letter to Ali Khamenei 2025 United States–Iran negotiations Persian Corridor Persian Gulf Command Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry 1953 Iranian coup d'état Abadan Crisis Timeline Abadan Crisis Timeline Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights Exercise Delawar Project Dark Gene Safari Club Island of Stability Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action Negotiations Joint Plan of Action Framework Reactions Criticism Aftermath U.S. withdrawal Negotiations Joint Plan of Action Framework Reactions Criticism Aftermath U.S. withdrawal Donald Trump's letter to Ali Khamenei 2025 United States–Iran negotiations Conflicts Iran–Iraq War United States support for Iraq Bridgeton incident Iran Air Flight 655 Iran Ajr Iran–Contra affair Operation Staunch Operation Eager Glacier Operation Earnest Will Operation Prime Chance Operation Nimble Archer Operation Praying Mantis Syrian civil war Yemeni Civil War Arab–Israeli alliance Abraham Accords February 2019 Warsaw Conference Iran–Israel proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition International Maritime Security Construct Assassination of Qasem Soleimani reactions Thirteen revenge scenarios Operation Martyr Soleimani 2020 Camp Taji attacks Iran–Iraq War United States support for Iraq Bridgeton incident Iran Air Flight 655 Iran Ajr Iran–Contra affair Operation Staunch Operation Eager Glacier Operation Earnest Will Operation Prime Chance Operation Nimble Archer Operation Praying Mantis United States support for Iraq Bridgeton incident Iran Air Flight 655 Iran Ajr Iran–Contra affair Operation Staunch Operation Eager Glacier Operation Earnest Will Operation Prime Chance Operation Nimble Archer Operation Praying Mantis Syrian civil war Yemeni Civil War Arab–Israeli alliance Abraham Accords February 2019 Warsaw Conference Abraham Accords February 2019 Warsaw Conference Iran–Israel proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition International Maritime Security Construct Assassination of Qasem Soleimani reactions Thirteen revenge scenarios Operation Martyr Soleimani 2020 Camp Taji attacks reactions Thirteen revenge scenarios Operation Martyr Soleimani 2020 Camp Taji attacks Incidents after 1979 Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner Iranian Revolution Iran hostage crisis Timeline Guadeloupe Conference Operation Credible Sport Operation Eagle Claw Canadian Caper Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini 1980 October Surprise theory Negotiations Algiers Accords America can't do a damn thing against us Beirut barracks bombings Khobar Towers bombing Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal Disappearance of Robert Levinson United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi 2008 Naval dispute Filipino Monkey Project Cassandra Detention of American hikers United States diplomatic cables leak 2011 alleged Iran assassination plot Strait of Hormuz dispute RQ-170 incident MV Maersk Tigris 2016 Naval incident Nuclear program of Iran Timeline P5+1 Operation Merlin Charming Kitten Stuxnet Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani Arrest of Meng Wanzhou Deportation of Iranian students at US airports May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident 2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone 2019 K-1 Air Base attack December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad 2020 Iran explosions 2021 Erbil rocket attacks 2021 Natanz incident February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident 2021 U.S.–Iran naval incident 2022 Erbil missile attacks 2023 Northeastern Syria clashes Seizure of Suez Rajan and St Nikolas Attacks on US bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria during the Gaza war 2024 Erbil attack Tower 22 drone attack 2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Iran–Israel war ceasefire 2025 Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner Iranian Revolution Iran hostage crisis Timeline Guadeloupe Conference Operation Credible Sport Operation Eagle Claw Canadian Caper Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini 1980 October Surprise theory Negotiations Algiers Accords America can't do a damn thing against us Timeline Guadeloupe Conference Operation Credible Sport Operation Eagle Claw Canadian Caper Jimmy Carter's engagement with Ruhollah Khomeini 1980 October Surprise theory Negotiations Algiers Accords America can't do a damn thing against us Beirut barracks bombings Khobar Towers bombing Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal Disappearance of Robert Levinson United States kill or capture strategy in Iraq United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil Kidnapping of Jalal Sharafi 2008 Naval dispute Filipino Monkey Filipino Monkey Project Cassandra Detention of American hikers United States diplomatic cables leak 2011 alleged Iran assassination plot Strait of Hormuz dispute RQ-170 incident MV Maersk Tigris 2016 Naval incident Nuclear program of Iran Timeline P5+1 Operation Merlin Charming Kitten Stuxnet Timeline P5+1 Operation Merlin Charming Kitten Stuxnet Kidnapping of Hossein Alikhani Arrest of Meng Wanzhou Deportation of Iranian students at US airports May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident 2019 Iranian shoot-down of American drone 2019 K-1 Air Base attack December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad 2020 Iran explosions 2021 Erbil rocket attacks 2021 Natanz incident February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria February 2021 United States airstrike in Syria Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria July 2021 Gulf of Oman incident August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident 2021 U.S.–Iran naval incident 2022 Erbil missile attacks 2023 Northeastern Syria clashes Seizure of Suez Rajan and St Nikolas Attacks on US bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria during the Gaza war 2024 Erbil attack Tower 22 drone attack 2024 leak of U.S. intelligence on Israeli strike plans Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites Iran–Israel war ceasefire Iran–Israel war ceasefire 2025 Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base Legislation United States sanctions against Iran Maximum pressure campaign Executive Order 12170 Executive Order 12172 Executive Order 13769 reactions Trump travel ban Executive Order 13780 Executive Order 13876 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act Iran Nonproliferation Act Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act Iran Freedom and Support Act Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act Kyl–Lieberman Amendment Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act Public Law 113-100 Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act Dames & Moore v. Regan United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran Oil Platforms case United States v. Banki Bank Markazi v. Peterson Certain Iranian Assets Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran Alleged violations of Treaty of Amity United States sanctions against Iran Maximum pressure campaign Maximum pressure campaign Executive Order 12170 Executive Order 12172 Executive Order 13769 reactions Trump travel ban reactions Trump travel ban Executive Order 13780 Executive Order 13876 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act Iran Nonproliferation Act Iran, North Korea, Syria Nonproliferation Act Iran Freedom and Support Act Iran Sanctions Enhancement Act Kyl–Lieberman Amendment Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act Public Law 113-100 Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act Dames & Moore v. Regan United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran Oil Platforms case United States v. Banki Bank Markazi v. Peterson Certain Iranian Assets Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran Alleged violations of Treaty of Amity Groups and individuals Iran Action Group Iran–America Society Iranian Students Association in the United States National Iranian American Council Organization of Iranian American Communities United Against Nuclear Iran Farashgard Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Jundallah Kingdom Assembly of Iran National Council of Iran National Council of Resistance of Iran People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran Elliott Abrams Kaveh L. Afrasiabi Howard Baskerville William J. Fallon Brian Hook Joseph Macmanus Robert Malley Stephen D. Mull Erwin David Rabhan Jason Rezaian Scott Ritter Craig Wadsworth Michael R. White Roxana Saberi Saeed Abedini Saeid Aboutaleb Shahram Amiri Sirous Asgari Mahmoud Reza Banki Haleh Esfandiari Amir Mirza Hekmati Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil Shahrzad Mirgholikhan Mohammad Hosseini Esha Momeni Mohammad Mosaddegh Baquer Namazi Siamak Namazi Sahar Nowrouzzadeh Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran Noor Pahlavi Trita Parsi Maryam Rajavi Abdolreza Shahlaei Ali Shakeri Masoud Soleimani Morad Tahbaz Kian Tajbakhsh Karan Vafadari Xiyue Wang Nizar Zakka Iranian Guantanamo Bay detainees Abdul Majid Muhammed Iran Action Group Iran–America Society Iranian Students Association in the United States National Iranian American Council Organization of Iranian American Communities United Against Nuclear Iran Farashgard Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Jundallah Kingdom Assembly of Iran National Council of Iran National Council of Resistance of Iran People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran Elliott Abrams Kaveh L. Afrasiabi Howard Baskerville William J. Fallon Brian Hook Joseph Macmanus Robert Malley Stephen D. Mull Erwin David Rabhan Jason Rezaian Scott Ritter Craig Wadsworth Michael R. White Roxana Saberi Saeed Abedini Saeid Aboutaleb Shahram Amiri Sirous Asgari Mahmoud Reza Banki Haleh Esfandiari Amir Mirza Hekmati Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil Shahrzad Mirgholikhan Mohammad Hosseini Esha Momeni Mohammad Mosaddegh Baquer Namazi Siamak Namazi Sahar Nowrouzzadeh Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran Noor Pahlavi Trita Parsi Maryam Rajavi Abdolreza Shahlaei Ali Shakeri Masoud Soleimani Morad Tahbaz Kian Tajbakhsh Karan Vafadari Xiyue Wang Nizar Zakka Iranian Guantanamo Bay detainees Abdul Majid Muhammed Abdul Majid Muhammed Related United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations 1998 FIFA World Cup match Academic relations between Iran and the United States American Islam Anti-American sentiment in Iran Axis of evil CIA activities in Iran Copyright relations Death to America Dual containment Great Satan International Conference on Hollywoodism Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Iranian frozen assets Opposition to military action against Iran State Sponsor of Terrorism United States involvement in regime change United States and state-sponsored terrorism 650 Fifth Avenue Alavi Foundation Alborz High School American Institute of Iranian Studies American School of Isfahan Community School, Tehran Damavand College Iran Bethel School Iranzamin School Saint Peter Church, Tehran Tehran American School " Bomb Iran " Overthrow Not for the Faint of Heart United States–Gulf Cooperation Council relations 1998 FIFA World Cup match Academic relations between Iran and the United States American Islam Anti-American sentiment in Iran Axis of evil CIA activities in Iran Copyright relations Death to America Dual containment Great Satan International Conference on Hollywoodism Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Iranian frozen assets Opposition to military action against Iran State Sponsor of Terrorism United States involvement in regime change United States and state-sponsored terrorism 650 Fifth Avenue Alavi Foundation Alavi Foundation Alborz High School American Institute of Iranian Studies American School of Isfahan Community School, Tehran Damavand College Iran Bethel School Iranzamin School Saint Peter Church, Tehran Tehran American School " Bomb Iran " Overthrow Not for the Faint of Heart Category v t e First presidency of Donald Trump (2017–2021) v t e Previous: Obama administration Next: Biden administration See also: Second Trump administration Previous: Obama administration Next: Biden administration See also: Second Trump administration General Appointments ambassadors U.S. attorneys judges Supreme Court candidates Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Cabinet Pence vice presidency Economic advisors Withdrawn appointees Short-tenure appointees Dismissals and resignations attorneys Comey inspectors general Executive orders Legal affairs Impeachments efforts resolutions impeachment inquiry first impeachment first trial second impeachment second trial proposed expungements Opinion polling 2017 2018 2019 Pardons Joe Arpaio commutation of Jaime Davidson Proclamations 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 Trips 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 international Rex Tillerson Mike Pompeo North Korea summit Singapore Hanoi DMZ Riyadh summit Helsinki summit 2019 state visit to the United Kingdom Namaste Trump Appointments ambassadors U.S. attorneys judges ambassadors U.S. attorneys judges Supreme Court candidates Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Gorsuch Kavanaugh Barrett Cabinet Pence vice presidency Pence vice presidency Economic advisors Withdrawn appointees Short-tenure appointees Dismissals and resignations attorneys Comey inspectors general attorneys Comey inspectors general Executive orders Legal affairs Impeachments efforts resolutions impeachment inquiry first impeachment first trial second impeachment second trial proposed expungements efforts resolutions impeachment inquiry first impeachment first trial second impeachment second trial proposed expungements Opinion polling 2017 2018 2019 2017 2018 2019 Pardons Joe Arpaio commutation of Jaime Davidson Joe Arpaio commutation of Jaime Davidson Proclamations 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 Trips 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 international Rex Tillerson Mike Pompeo 2017 2018 2019 2020–21 international Rex Tillerson Mike Pompeo North Korea summit Singapore Hanoi DMZ Singapore Hanoi DMZ Riyadh summit Helsinki summit 2019 state visit to the United Kingdom Namaste Trump Events Timeline First 100 days 2017 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2018 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2019 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2020 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 January 2021 Speeches Joint address to Congress Warsaw speech National Scout Jamboree State of the Union Address 2018 2019 2020 Oval Office Address 2019 2020 Farewell address Other Transition 2017 Vote Count Inauguration Biden transition 2021 Vote Count Timeline First 100 days 2017 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2018 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2019 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2020 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 January 2021 First 100 days 2017 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2018 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2019 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 2020 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 January 2021 Speeches Joint address to Congress Warsaw speech National Scout Jamboree State of the Union Address 2018 2019 2020 Oval Office Address 2019 2020 Farewell address Joint address to Congress Warsaw speech National Scout Jamboree State of the Union Address 2018 2019 2020 2018 2019 2020 Oval Office Address 2019 2020 2019 2020 Farewell address Other Transition 2017 Vote Count Inauguration Biden transition 2021 Vote Count Transition 2017 Vote Count 2017 Vote Count Inauguration Biden transition 2021 Vote Count 2021 Vote Count Policies Domestic Government shutdowns January 2018 2018–2019 Salute to America 2019 2020 COVID-19 pandemic Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed White House outbreak Interference with science agencies Reactions to the George Floyd protests Photo op at St. John's Church Deployment of federal forces in the United States Attacks on journalists 2020 Mount Rushmore Fireworks Celebration National Garden of American Heroes Infrastructure Racial views Social First Step Act Cannabis Space Economic Tax cuts Tariffs China trade war USMCA Farmer bailouts Environmental Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Foreign America First Saudi Arabia arms deal Relations with Iran Nuclear deal withdrawal Relations with Israel Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords UAE Bahrain Sudan Morocco Kosovo–Serbia agreements Syria strikes 2017 2018 Killings al-Baghdadi Soleimani Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Proposed invasion of Venezuela Immigration Travel bans reactions legal challenges protests replacement Executive Order 13767 Border wall Family separation policy protests Migrant detentions Troop deployments National emergency Domestic Government shutdowns January 2018 2018–2019 Salute to America 2019 2020 COVID-19 pandemic Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed White House outbreak Interference with science agencies Reactions to the George Floyd protests Photo op at St. John's Church Deployment of federal forces in the United States Attacks on journalists 2020 Mount Rushmore Fireworks Celebration National Garden of American Heroes Infrastructure Racial views Social First Step Act Cannabis Space Government shutdowns January 2018 2018–2019 January 2018 2018–2019 Salute to America 2019 2020 2019 2020 COVID-19 pandemic Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed White House outbreak Interference with science agencies Taskforce Communication Government response stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed stimulus bills CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 CARES Act Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 Operation Warp Speed White House outbreak Interference with science agencies Reactions to the George Floyd protests Photo op at St. John's Church Deployment of federal forces in the United States Attacks on journalists Photo op at St. John's Church Deployment of federal forces in the United States Attacks on journalists 2020 Mount Rushmore Fireworks Celebration National Garden of American Heroes National Garden of American Heroes Infrastructure Racial views Social First Step Act Cannabis First Step Act Cannabis Space Economic Tax cuts Tariffs China trade war USMCA Farmer bailouts Tax cuts Tariffs China trade war China trade war USMCA Farmer bailouts Environmental Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Paris Agreement withdrawal America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018 Foreign America First Saudi Arabia arms deal Relations with Iran Nuclear deal withdrawal Relations with Israel Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords UAE Bahrain Sudan Morocco Kosovo–Serbia agreements Syria strikes 2017 2018 Killings al-Baghdadi Soleimani Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Proposed invasion of Venezuela America First Saudi Arabia arms deal Relations with Iran Nuclear deal withdrawal Nuclear deal withdrawal Relations with Israel Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords UAE Bahrain Sudan Morocco Jerusalem recognition Golan Heights recognition Palestine peace plan Abraham Accords UAE Bahrain Sudan Morocco UAE Bahrain Sudan Morocco Kosovo–Serbia agreements Syria strikes 2017 2018 2017 2018 Killings al-Baghdadi Soleimani al-Baghdadi Soleimani Afghanistan withdrawal Taliban deal Taliban deal Proposed invasion of Venezuela Immigration Travel bans reactions legal challenges protests replacement Executive Order 13767 Border wall Family separation policy protests Migrant detentions Troop deployments National emergency Travel bans reactions legal challenges protests replacement Executive Order 13767 reactions legal challenges protests replacement Executive Order 13767 Border wall Family separation policy protests protests Migrant detentions Troop deployments National emergency Protests 2017 Women's March list Lincoln Portland Seattle global LGBTQ Travel ban list Day Without Immigrants Not My Presidents Day Day Without a Woman Tax March March for Science list Portland Seattle 2018 People's Climate March May Day March for Truth Impeachment March Boston Free Speech Rally (counter-protest) U.S. national anthem kneeling protests 2018 Women's March list Gun violence March for Our Lives list Portland Seattle Family separation Abolish ICE Families Belong Together Occupy ICE Women Disobey Donald Trump baby balloon Kremlin Annex Nobody Is Above the Law 2019 Women's March list 2019 Presidents Day protest Dump Trump (statue) December 2019 impeachment protests 2020 Women's March January list October list Racial unrest George Floyd protests list-USA list-abroad Trump Statue Initiative God Emperor Trump 2017 Women's March list Lincoln Portland Seattle global list Lincoln Portland Seattle global LGBTQ Travel ban list list Day Without Immigrants Not My Presidents Day Day Without a Woman Tax March March for Science list Portland Seattle 2018 list Portland Seattle 2018 People's Climate March May Day March for Truth Impeachment March Boston Free Speech Rally (counter-protest) U.S. national anthem kneeling protests 2018 Women's March list list Gun violence March for Our Lives list Portland Seattle March for Our Lives list Portland Seattle list Portland Seattle Family separation Abolish ICE Families Belong Together Occupy ICE Women Disobey Abolish ICE Families Belong Together Occupy ICE Women Disobey Donald Trump baby balloon Kremlin Annex Nobody Is Above the Law 2019 Women's March list list 2019 Presidents Day protest Dump Trump (statue) December 2019 impeachment protests 2020 Women's March January list October list January list October list Racial unrest George Floyd protests list-USA list-abroad George Floyd protests list-USA list-abroad list-USA list-abroad Trump Statue Initiative God Emperor Trump Related 2016 election Trump campaign Democratic backsliding in the United States Donald Trump and fascism Trumpism Unitary executive theory Media False or misleading statements by Trump during first term Social media Twitter Crossfire Hurricane Classified information disclosures Special counsel investigations Mueller Durham Links between Trump administration and Russian government officials Russian bounty program Anonymous senior official op-ed Stormy Daniels scandal Zelenskyy phone call Ukraine scandal Federal government data breach Attempts to overturn the 2020 presidential election Fake electors plot Chesebro memos Eastman memos Lawsuits Texas v. Pennsylvania Jeffrey Clark letter January 6 United States Capitol attack timeline aftermath continued protests domestic reactions international reactions Presidential Library 2016 election Trump campaign Trump campaign Democratic backsliding in the United States Donald Trump and fascism Trumpism Unitary executive theory Donald Trump and fascism Trumpism Unitary executive theory Media False or misleading statements by Trump during first term Social media Twitter Twitter Crossfire Hurricane Classified information disclosures Special counsel investigations Mueller Durham Mueller Durham Links between Trump administration and Russian government officials Russian bounty program Anonymous senior official op-ed Stormy Daniels scandal Zelenskyy phone call Ukraine scandal Federal government data breach Attempts to overturn the 2020 presidential election Fake electors plot Chesebro memos Eastman memos Lawsuits Texas v. Pennsylvania Jeffrey Clark letter Fake electors plot Chesebro memos Eastman memos Chesebro memos Eastman memos Lawsuits Texas v. Pennsylvania Texas v. Pennsylvania Jeffrey Clark letter January 6 United States Capitol attack timeline aftermath continued protests domestic reactions international reactions timeline aftermath continued protests domestic reactions international reactions Presidential Library Category Category 2020s Asia Aviation Iran Iraq Modern history United States Assassination of Qasem Soleimani 21st-century military history of the United States 2020 in Baghdad 2020 airstrikes 2020 controversies in the United States 2020 in American politics Assassinations in Iraq Attacks in Iraq in 2020 Baghdad airstrikes Baghdad International Airport Deaths by person in Iraq Drone strikes conducted by the United States Drone strikes in Iraq First presidency of Donald Trump First Trump administration controversies Iran–United States military relations Iran–United States relations Iraq–United States relations Iran–Iraq military relations January 2020 in Iraq Military assassinations Military operations involving the United States Targeted killing in Iraq Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2025 Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) CS1 French-language sources (fr) CS1 errors: archive-url Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use dmy dates from October 2022 Use American English from January 2020 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2025 Articles to be expanded from July 2021 All articles to be expanded Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2020 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Commons category link from Wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 13 January 2026, at 14:56 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Qasem_Soleimani
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Krisana Kraisintu Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States Netherlands Poland Israel United States Netherlands Poland Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX 1918 births 2010 deaths Alumni of the London School of Economics Anglo-Chinese School alumni Deputy prime ministers of Singapore Finance ministers of Singapore Chairmen of the Monetary Authority of Singapore Malaysian emigrants to Singapore People who lost Malaysian citizenship Naturalised citizens of Singapore Members of the Parliament of Singapore Members of the Dewan Rakyat Members of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore National University of Singapore alumni Recipients of the Darjah Utama Temasek People's Action Party politicians Singaporean politicians of Chinese descent Singaporean Methodists Singaporean people of Hokkien descent Peranakan people in Singapore Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics Rothschild & Co people Ministers for defence of Singapore Chiefs of Defence Force (Singapore) Ministers for education of Singapore Deaths from bladder cancer Deaths from cancer in Singapore Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use British English from July 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2018 Pages using Template:Post-nominals with customized linking Articles containing Chinese-language text CS1 maint: location missing publisher Webarchive template wayback links S-bef: 'before' parameter begins with the word 'new' Template:Succession box: 'before' parameter begins with the word 'new' This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 03:06 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goh_Keng_Swee#Minister_for_Finance_(1967%E2%80%931970)
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Name 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Origins 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 2.1 Origins 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 2.1.1 Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) 2.1.2 Pippin I (624–640) 2.1.3 Grimoald (640–656) 2.1.4 Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) 2.1.5 Pippin II (676–714) 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.5.1 Rise to power 2.1.5.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.5.3 Later years 2.1.5.4 Death 2.1.6 Charles Martel (714–741) 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.6.1 Rise to power 2.1.6.2 Consolidation of power 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.2.1 Ending the Civil War 2.1.6.2.2 East of the Rhine 2.1.6.2.3 Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence 2.1.6.3 Ruling Francia 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.3.1 Vassalage and Church 2.1.6.4 Interregnum, death and divisions 2.1.7 Charlemagne 3 Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty Toggle Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty subsection 3.1 Disappearance of Middle Francia 3.2 Decline 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 3.1 Disappearance of Middle Francia 3.2 Decline 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 3.2.1 Scandinavian invasions 4 Genealogy Toggle Genealogy subsection 4.1 Complete male-line family tree 4.1 Complete male-line family tree 5 Grand strategy 6 See also 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 7.1 Citations 7.2 Sources 8 External links Carolingian dynasty Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Picard Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt West-Vlams 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Carolingian dynasty Carlovingians Autograph of Charlemagne Parent house Pippinids Country Carolingian Empire Austrasia Neustria Burgundy Alamannia Italy Aquitaine Bavaria Bohemia Saxony Brittany Thuringia West Francia Middle Francia East Francia Austrasia Neustria Burgundy Alamannia Italy Aquitaine Bavaria Bohemia Saxony Brittany Thuringia Founded 613 (as mayors) 751 (as kings) 800 (as emperors) Founder Pepin the Elder (as mayor) Pepin the Short (as king) Charlemagne (emperor) Final ruler Arnulf of Carinthia (emperor) Louis V of France (king) Titles List Holy Roman Emperor King of the Franks King of the Lombards King of Italy King of Aquitaine King of Burgundy Duke of Bohemia Duke of Bavaria Duke of Maine Count of Vermandois Count of Valois King of East Francia King of Middle Francia King of West Francia Holy Roman Emperor King of the Franks King of the Lombards King of Italy King of Aquitaine King of Burgundy Duke of Bohemia Duke of Bavaria Duke of Maine Count of Vermandois Count of Valois King of East Francia King of Middle Francia King of West Francia Estate(s) Francia, West Francia, East Francia, Lotharingia, Italy, Holy Roman Empire Deposition 987 (death of Louis V) Cadet branches Lombard branch (extinct) Lotharingian branch (extinct) Aquitainian branch (extinct) German branch (extinct) French branch (extinct) Lombard branch (extinct) Lotharingian branch (extinct) Aquitainian branch (extinct) German branch (extinct) French branch (extinct) Carolingian dynasty Pippinids Pippin the Elder (c. 580–640) Grimoald (616–656) Childebert the Adopted (d. 662) Pippin the Elder (c. 580–640) Grimoald (616–656) Childebert the Adopted (d. 662) Arnulfings Arnulf of Metz (582–640) Ansegisel (d. 662 or 679) Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697) Pepin of Herstal (635–714) Grimoald II (d. 714) Drogo of Champagne (670–708) Theudoald (d. 741) Arnulf of Metz (582–640) Ansegisel (d. 662 or 679) Chlodulf of Metz (d. 696 or 697) Pepin of Herstal (635–714) Grimoald II (d. 714) Drogo of Champagne (670–708) Theudoald (d. 741) Carolingians Charles Martel (686–741) Carloman (d. 754) Pepin the Short (714–768) Carloman I (751–771) Charlemagne (742–814) Pepin the Hunchback (768–811) Charles the Younger (772–811) Pepin of Italy (773–810) Louis the Pious (778–840) Pepin I of Aquitaine (797–838) Charles Martel (686–741) Carloman (d. 754) Pepin the Short (714–768) Carloman I (751–771) Charlemagne (742–814) Pepin the Hunchback (768–811) Charles the Younger (772–811) Pepin of Italy (773–810) Louis the Pious (778–840) Pepin I of Aquitaine (797–838) After the Treaty of Verdun (843) Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor (795–855; Middle Francia ) Charles the Bald (823–877) ( West Francia ) Louis the German (804–876) ( East Francia ) Lothair I, Holy Roman Emperor (795–855; Middle Francia ) Charles the Bald (823–877) ( West Francia ) Louis the German (804–876) ( East Francia ) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The Carolingian dynasty ( / ˌ k ær ə ˈ l ɪ n dʒ i ə n / KARR -ə- LIN -jee-ən ; [ 1 ] known variously as the Carlovingians , Carolingi , [ 2 ] Carolings , Karolinger or Karlings ) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne , descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. [ 3 ] The dynasty consolidated its power in the 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary, and becoming the de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the Merovingian throne. In 751 the Merovingian dynasty which had ruled the Franks was overthrown with the consent of the Papacy and the aristocracy, and Pepin the Short , son of Martel, was crowned king of the Franks . The Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first emperor of the Romans in the West in over three centuries. Charlemagne's death in 814 began an extended period of fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire . Name The Carolingian dynasty takes its name from Carolus , the Latinised name of multiple Frankish kings including Charlemagne and Charles Martel . [ 4 ] The name originates from a common Germanic word, rendered in Old High German as Karl or Kerl , [ 5 ] meaning ' man ' , ' husband ' , or ' freeman ' . [ 6 ] History Origins Pippin I and Arnulf of Metz (613–645) The Carolingian line first began with two important rival Frankish families, the Pippinids and Arnulfings , whose destinies became intermingled in the early 7th century. Both men came from noble backgrounds on the western borders of the Austrasia territory between the Meuse and Moselle rivers, north of Liège . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] The first two figures, Pippin I of Landen and Arnulf of Metz , from whom historians have taken the family names, [ 9 ] both first appeared in the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar as advisers to Chlotar II of Neustria , who 'incited' revolt against King Theuderic II and Brunhild of Austrasia in 613. [ 10 ] Through shared interests, Pippin and Arnulf allied their families through the marriage of Pippin's daughter Begga and Arnulf's son Ansegisel . [ 7 ] As repayment for their help during the Austrasian conquest, Chlotar rewarded both men with important positions of power in Austrasia. However, Arnulf was the first to gain. He was bestowed the bishopric of Metz in 614, entrusting him with the management of the Austrasian capital and the education of Chlotar's young son, the future Dagobert I . [ 11 ] This is a position he would hold until his retirement in 629 after Chlotar's death, when he left for a small ecclesiastical community near Habendum; he was later buried at the monastery of Remiremont after his death c. 645 . [ 7 ] Pippin I (624–640) Pippin was not immediately rewarded, but eventually was given the position of maior palatti or ' mayor of the palace ' of Austrasia in 624. This reward secured Pippin a position of prime importance with the Merovingian royal court. The mayor of the palace would act as the mediator between the King and the magnates of the region; as Paul Fouracre summarises, they were 'regarded as the most important non-royal person in the kingdom.' [ 8 ] The reason Pippin was not rewarded sooner is not certain, but two mayors, Rado (613 – c. 617 ) and Chucus ( c. 617 – c. 624 ), are believed to have preceded him and were potentially political rivals connected to the fellow Austrasian Gundoinings noble family. [ 11 ] [ 8 ] Once elected, Pippin served faithfully under Chlotar until the latter's death in 629, and solidified the Pippinids' position of power within Austrasia by supporting Chlotar's son Dagobert, who became King of Austrasia in 623. [ 8 ] Pippin, with support from Arnulf and other Austrasian magnates, even used the opportunity to support the killing of an important political rival Chrodoald , an Agilolfing lord. [ 10 ] Following King Dagobert I's ascent to the throne in c. 629 , he returned the Frankish capital back to Paris in Neustria , from whence it had been removed by Chlotar in 613. As a result, Pippin lost his position as mayor and the support of the Austrasian magnates, who were seemingly irritated by his inability to persuade the King to return the political centre to Austrasia. [ 10 ] Instead, Dagobert turned to the Pippinids' political rival family, the Gundoinings, whose connections in Adalgesil , Cunibert, archbishop of Cologne , Otto and Radulf (who would later revolt in 642) [ 10 ] once again removed the Pippinid and Arnulfing influence in the Austrasia assemblies. [ 7 ] Pippin did not reappear in the historical record until Dagobert's death in 638, [ 11 ] when he had seemingly been reinstated as mayor of Austrasia and began to support the new young King Sigebert III . According to the Continuations , Pippin made arrangements with his rival, Archbishop Cunibert , to get Austrasian support for the 10-year-old King Sigibert III, who ruled Austrasia whilst his brother Clovis II ruled over Neustria and Burgundy . Soon after securing his position once again, he unexpectedly died in 640. [ 10 ] Grimoald (640–656) Following Pippin's sudden death, the Pippinid family worked swiftly to secure their position. Pippin's daughter Gertrude and wife Itta founded and entered the Nivelles Abbey , and his only son Grimoald worked to secure his father's position of maior palatii. The position was not hereditary and therefore passed to another Austrasian noble, Otto, the tutor of Sigebert III. [ 7 ] According to the Continuations , Grimoald began to work with his father's accomplice Cunibert to remove Otto from office. He finally succeeded in c. 641 , when Leuthari II, Duke of Alamannia killed Otto under Grimoald's and, we must assume, Cunibert's orders. [ 10 ] Grimoald then became mayor of Austrasia. His power at this time was extensive, with properties in Utrecht , Nijmegen , Tongeren and Maastricht ; he was even called 'ruler of the realm' by Desiderius of Cahors in 643. [ 7 ] This could not have been done if Grimoald had not secured Sigibert III's support. The Pippinids already gained royal patronage from Pippin I's support, but this was further bolstered by Grimoald's role in Duke Radulf of Thuringia's rebellion. Just prior to Otto's assassination, in c. 640 Radulf revolted against the Merovingians and made himself King of Thuringia. Sigibert, with an Austrasian army including Grimoald and Duke Adalgisel , went on campaign and after a brief victory against Fara , son of the assassinated Agilofing lord Chrodoald, the Austrasians met Radulf on the River Unstrut where he had set up a stronghold. What followed was a disorganized battle spread over several days, in which the Austrasian lords disagreed on tactics. Grimoald and Adalgesil strengthened their position by defending Sigibert's interests, but could not establish a unanimous agreement. During their final assault, the 'men of Mainz ' betrayed the Austrasians and joined with Radulf. This penultimate battle killed many important Austrasian lords, including Duke Bobo and Count Innowales , and resulted in Sigibert's defeat. The Continuations offers a famous description of Sigibert being 'seized with the wildest grief and sat there on his horse weeping unrestrainedly for those he had lost' as Radulf returned to his camp victorious. [ 10 ] Upon Sigibert's return from Unstruct, Grimoald, now mayor, began to build power for the Pippinid clan. He utilized the existing links between the family and ecclesiastical community to gain control over local holy men and women who, in turn, supported Pippinid assertions of power. Grimoald established links with Aquitanian and Columbianan missionaries Amandus and Remaclus , both of whom came to be influential bishops within the Merovingian court. Remaclus, in particular, was important as after becoming bishop of Maastricht, he established two monasteries: Stavelot Abbey and Malmedy . Under Grimoald's direction, the Arnulfings were also further established with Chlodulf of Metz , son of St. Arnulf, taking the bishopric of Metz in 656. [ 7 ] Grimoald and Childebert (656–657) The final moment of Grimoald's life is an area that is disputed in both date and event, titled: 'Grimoald's coup'. [ 8 ] It involves Grimoald and his son Childebert the Adopted taking the Austrasian throne from the true Merovingian King Dagobert II , son of the late Sigibert who died young at 26 years old. Historians like Pierre Riché are certain that Sigibert died in 656, having adopted Childebert due to his lack of an adult male heir. Following this, young Dagobert II was then exiled and tonsured by Grimoald and Dido of Poitiers , who then installed Childebert as King of Austrasia. Clovis II in Neustria, uncle to Dagobert, then reacted to the revolt and lured Grimoald and Childebert into Neustria, where they were executed. [ 7 ] This story is only confirmed by the pro-Neustrian source, [ 12 ] the Liber Historia Francorum ( LHF ) and selected charter evidence. Other contemporary sources like the Continuations fail to mention the event and Carolingian sources like Annales Mettenses Priores ( AMP ) ignore the event and even deny Grimoald's existence. [ 11 ] As such, historian Richard Gerberding has suggested a different chronology and reading of the LHF , which places Sigibert's death on 1 February 651. According to a Gerberding narrative, Grimoald and Dido organised Dagobert's exile around 16 January 651 to Ireland at Nivelles and then, when Sigibert died a month later, they acted out the plan and tonsured Dagobert, replacing him with Childebert, who ruled until 657. Clovis II then immediately acted and invaded Austrasia, executing Grimoald and his son. [ 11 ] Then, either in 657 or 662, the Neustrians (either Clovis II who died in 657 or his son Chlothar III ) installed infant King Childeric II to the throne of Austrasia, marrying him to Bilichild , the daughter of Sigibert's widow Chimnechild of Burgundy . [ 8 ] Grimoald and Childebert's deaths brought an end to the direct Pippinid line of the family, leaving the Arnulfing descendants from Begga and Ansegisel to continue the faction. [ 13 ] Pippin II (676–714) Very little is known about Pippin's early life, but a controversial story from AMP suggests that Pippin reclaimed power in Austrasia by killing a legendary 'Gundoin' as revenge for the assassination of his father Ansegisel. This story is regarded as slightly fantastical by Paul Fouracre , who argues the AMP, a pro-Carolingian source potentially written by Giselle (Charlemagne's sister) in 805 at Chelles, is that Pippin's role primes him perfectly for his future and demonstrates his family to be 'natural leaders of Austrasia.' [ 12 ] However, Fouracre does also acknowledge his existence in charter evidence and confirms that he was a political link to rival mayor Wulfoald . These rivalries would make Pippin natural enemies with Gundoin, making the murder plausible as part of Pippin's rise to power. [ 8 ] Rise to power The Arnulfing clan reappear in the contemporary historical record in c. 676 , when the LHF mentions ' Pippin and Martin' rising up against a tyrannical Ebroin , mayor of Austrasia. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Pippin II, now head of the faction, and Martin, who was either Pippin's brother or relative, rose up against Ebroin and gathered an army (potentially with the aid of Dagobert II who had been brought back to Austrasia by mayor Wulfoald). [ 8 ] According to the LHF , the Arnulfing army met Ebroin, who had gained the support of King Theuderic III , at Bois-du-Fays , and they were easily defeated. Martin fled to Laon , from where he was lured and murdered by Ebroin at Asfeld . Pippin fled to Austrasia and soon received Ermenfred , an officer of a royal fisc who had assassinated Ebroin. [ 7 ] [ 14 ] The Neustrians, with Ebroin dead, installed Waratto as mayor, and he looked for peace with the Austrasians. Despite an exchange of hostages, Warrato's son Gistemar attacked Pippin at Namur and displaced his father. [ 8 ] He died shortly thereafter and Warrato resumed his position, wherein peace was reached but tense relations remained until Warrato's death in 686. He left behind his wife Ansfled and his son Berchar , whom the Neustrians installed as mayor. Against his father's policy, Berchar did not maintain peace and incited Pippin into violence. [ 14 ] In 687, Pippin rallied an Austrasian army and led an assault on Neustria, facing Theuderic III and the Neustrian mayor, now Berchar, in combat. They met at the Battle of Tertry , where the AMP records that Pippin, after offering peace which was rejected by Theuderic at Berchar's behest, crossed the river Omignon at the break of dawn and attacked the Neustrians, who believed the battle won when they saw Pippin's camp abandoned. This surprise attack was successful and the Neustrians fled. [ 14 ] Following this victory, Berchar was either killed, as the AMP argues, by his own people, but the LHF suggests that it is more likely that he was murdered by his mother-in-law, Ansfled. [ 14 ] This moment was decisive in Arnulfing history as it was the first time that any of the faction had national control. Paul Fouracre even argues it is for this that the AMP starts with Pippin II, as a false dawn upon which Charles Martel would rebuild. [ 12 ] However, historians have discredited the importance of this victory. Marios Costambeys , Matthew Innes and Simon MacLean all show that the Tertry victory did not establish solid authority over Neustria immediately, evidenced by the fact that Pippin immediately installed 'Norbert, one of his followers' (as written in the LHF ) and then his son Grimoald in 696 to ensure continued influence. [ 15 ] [ 14 ] Consolidation of power Pippin II then became overall mayor of the royal palace under Theuderic II, becoming mayor of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy. [ 7 ] His son Drogo , from his wife Plectrude , was also imbued with power when he married Berchar's widow Adaltrude (potentially maneuvered by Ansfled) and was made Duke of Champagne. [ 16 ] Pippin was politically dominating and had the power to elect the next two Merovingian kings after Theuderic II died in 691; he installed King Clovis IV (691–695), Childebert III (695–711) and Dagobert III (711–715). [ 7 ] Pippin moved to secure further power by consolidating his position in Neustria, installing several bishops like Gripho , Bishop of Rouen and Bainus at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille in 701, which was later owned along with Fleury Abbey (founded by Pippin in 703). [ 8 ] Imbued with internal strength, Pippin also began to look outwards from the Frankish Empire to subdue the people, that the AMP records, who once were 'subjected to the Franks ... [such as] the Saxons, Frisians, Alemans, Bavarians, Aquitainians, Gascons and Britons.' [ 14 ] Pippin defeated the pagan chieftain Radbod in Frisia, an area that had been slowly encroached upon by Austrasian nobles and Anglo-Saxon missionaries like Willibrord , whose links would later make him a connection between the Arnulfings and the papacy. [ 7 ] Following Gotfrid, Duke of Alemannia in 709, Pippin also moved against the Alemans and subjugated them again to royal control. Later years As Pippin approached his death in late 714, he was faced with a succession crisis. Drogo, Pippin's oldest son, died in 707 and his second son Grimoald, according to the LHF , was killed whilst praying to Saint Lambert in Liège in 714 by Rantgar, suspected by Paul Fouracre to be a pagan. [ 16 ] [ 14 ] [ 8 ] Pippin, before his death, made his six-year-old grandson Theudoald (Grimoald's son) his successor in Neustria, a choice that is believed to have been promoted by his wife Plectrude, [ 7 ] which was a political choice from within the direct family line, as Pippin had two adult illegitimate children, Charles Martel and Childebrand I , from a second wife or concubine named Alpaida . [ 11 ] They were ousted so Theudoald (with Plectrude's regency) could take the throne, a choice that would result in disaster. Death When Pippin II died in December 714, the Arnulfings' dominance over Francia disintegrated. The LHF tells us that 'Plectrude along with her grandchildren and the king directed all the affairs of state under a separate government', a system which created tensions with the Neustrians. [ 14 ] Theudoald ruled uncontested for around six months, until June 715, when the Neustrians revolted. Theudoald and the Arnulfings' supporters met at the Battle of Compiègne on 26 September 715, [ 8 ] and after a decisive victory, the Neustrians installed a new mayor Ragenfrid and, following Dagobert's death, their own Merovingian king Chilperic II . [ 14 ] Charter evidence suggests that Chilperic was the son of the former King Childeric II, but this would make Daniel in his 40s, which is quite old to take the throne. [ 8 ] Charles Martel (714–741) Rise to power Following their victory, the Neustrians joined with Radbod, King of the Frisians and invaded Austrasia, aiming towards the Meuse river to take the heartland of the faction's support. [ 10 ] It is at this moment that Charles Martel is first mentioned in historical records, which note him surviving imprisonment by his step-mother, Plectrude. Charles managed to escape and mustered an Austrasian army to face the encroaching Radbod and the Neustrians. In 716, Charles finally met the Frisians as they approached and, although the AMP attempts equalize the losses, it is confirmed from the descriptions in the LHF and the Continuations that Charles was defeated with heavy losses. [ 10 ] [ 14 ] Chilperic, Raganfred and, according to the Continuations , Radbod, then travelled from Neustria through the forest of the Ardennes and raided around the river Rhine and Cologne , taking treasure from Plectrude and her supporters. As they returned, Charles ambushed the returning party at the Battle of Amblève and was victorious, inflicting heavy losses on the Neustrian invaders. In 717, Charles mustered his army again and marched on Neustria, taking the city of Verdun during his conquest. [ 7 ] He met Chilperic and Raganfred again at the Battle of Vinchy on 21 March 717 and was once again victorious, forcing them back to Paris . He then swiftly returned to Austrasia and besieged Cologne, defeating Plectrude and reclaiming his father's wealth and treasure. Charles bolstered his position by installing the Merovingian king Chlothar IV in Austrasia as an opposing Merovingian to Chilperic II. [ 14 ] Despite not having a Merovingian king for around 40 years in Austrasia, Charles' position was weak at this time and he required the support of the established Merovingians to gather military support. [ 17 ] Despite his weaknesses, Charles' recent success had made him a greater political entity; as such, Chilperic and Raganfred could not win a decisive victory against him. So, in 718 they too sent embassies and won the support of Duke Eudo of Aquitaine who, at their request, mustered 'a Gascon army' to face Charles. In response, Charles brought an army to the eastern Neustrian borders and faced Duke Eudo in battle at Soissons. [ 8 ] Duke Eudo, realising he was outmatched, retreated to Paris, where he took Chilperic and the royal treasury and left for Aquitaine . Charles pursued them, according to the Continuations , as far as Orleans, but Eudo and the Neustrians managed to escape. [ 10 ] In 718, King Chlothar IV died and was not replaced; instead, Charles became the primary authority in Francia. He established a peace treaty with Duke Eudo that ensured Chilperic II was returned to Francia; thereafter, until Chilperic's death in 720 at Noyon , the kingship was restored with Carolingian control and Charles became the maior palatii in both Neustria and Austrasia. [ 17 ] Following Chilperic II's death, the Merovingian king Theuderic IV , son of Dagobert III, was taken from Chelles Abbey and appointed by the Neustrians and Charles as the Frankish king. Consolidation of power With his ascension to the throne, several significant moments in Frankish history occurred. Firstly, the LHF ended, likely composed several years later in 727 and ended one of the several perspectives we have on Charles' ascension. [ 11 ] Secondly, and more importantly, the Arnulfing predominance in the faction ended and the Carolingian (translating to 'sons of Charles') officially began. [ 15 ] Once the immediate dangers were dealt with, Charles then began to consolidate his position as sole mayor of the Frankish kingdom. The civil unrest between 714 and 721 had destroyed the continental political cohesion, and peripheral kingdoms like Aquitaine, Alemannia , Burgundy and Bavaria had slipped from the Carolingian's grasp. Even though the faction had, by Charles Martel's time, established strong political control over Francia, loyalty to the Merovingian power within these border regions remained. [ 15 ] Ending the Civil War Charles first set out to reinstate Carolingian dominance internally within Francia: the Continuations lists Charles' continuous maneuvers which solidified the campaigns generating the Carolingian military foundation. In 718, the AMP records that Charles fought against the Saxons, pushing them as far as the river Weser [ 14 ] and following up with subsequent campaigns in 720 and 724 which secured the northern borders of Austrasia and Neustria. [ 17 ] He subdued his former enemy Raganfred at Angers in 724 and secured his patronage, removing the remaining political resistance that had continued to thrive in western Neustria. [ 13 ] East of the Rhine In 725, Charles set out against the peripheral kingdoms, starting with Alemannia. The region had almost gained independence during the reign of Pippin II and under the leadership of Lantfrid , Duke of Alemannia, as (710–730) they acted without Frankish authority, issuing law codes like the Lex Alamannorum without Carolingian consultation. As recorded in the Alemannia source, [ 18 ] the Breviary of Erchanbert , the Alemanni 'refused to obey the duces of the Franks because they were no longer able to serve the Merovingian kings. Therefore, each of them kept to himself.' [ 16 ] This statement was true for more than just Alemannia and, just like in those regions, Charles brutally forced them into submission. Charles was successful in his first campaign, but returned in 730, the same year that Duke Lantfrid died and was succeeded by his brother Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia . [ 8 ] As successful as campaigning had been, Charles seemingly took inspiration from Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Boniface , who in 719 was sent by Pope Gregory II to convert Germany, in particular the areas of Thuringia and Hesse , where he established the monasteries of Ohrdruf , Tauberbischofsheim , Kitzingen and Ochsenfurt . Charles, realising the potential of establishing Carolingian-supportive episcopal centres, utilised Saint Pirmin , an itinerant monk, to establish an ecclesiastical foundation on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance . He was expelled in 727 by Lantfrid and he retreated to Alsace , where he established monasteries with the support of the Etichonid clan, who were Carolingian supporters. This relationship gave the Carolingians long-term benefit from Pirmin's future achievements, which brought abbeys in the eastern provinces into Carolingian favour. [ 7 ] In 725, Charles continued his conquest from Alemannia and invaded Bavaria. Like Alemannia, Bavaria had continued to gain independence under the rule of the Agilolfings clan who, in recent years, had increased links with Lombardy and affirmed their own law codes, like the Lex Baiuvariorum . [ 16 ] When Charles moved, the region was experiencing a power struggle between Grimoald of Bavaria and his nephew Hugbert , but when Grimoald died in 725, Hugbert gained the position and Charles reaffirmed their support. The Continuations records that when Charles left Bavaria, he took hostages, one of which was Swanachild , who later would become Charles' second wife. [ 10 ] Paul Fouracre believes this marriage could have been intentionally forced, based upon the fact that Swanchild's heritage related her both to Alemannia and Bavaria. Not only would their marriage have allowed greater control over both regions, but it also would have cut the existing family ties that the Agilofings had to the Pippinid family branch. Plectrude's sister Regintrud was married to Theodo of Bavaria , and this relation provided an opportunity for disenfranchised family members to defect. [ 8 ] Aquitaine, Burgundy and Provence Following his conquest east of the Rhine, Charles had the opportunity to assert his dominance over Aquitaine and began committing military resources and performing raids in 731. [ 19 ] However, before he could make any major movements, Aquitaine was invaded by Umayyad warlord Abd al-Rahman I . Following Abd al-Rahman's ascension in Spain in 731, another local Berber lord Munuza revolted, set himself up at Cerdanya and forged defensive alliances with the Franks and Aquitainians through a marriage to Eudo's daughter. Abd ar-Rahman then besieged Cerdanya and forced Munuza into retreat into France, at which point he continued his advance into Aquitaine, moving as far as Tours before he was met by Charles Martel. Carolingian sources attest that Duke Eudo begged Charles for assistance, but Ian N. Wood claims these embassies have been invented by later pro-Carolingian annalists. Eudo was a main protagonist in the Battle of Toulouse (721) , which famously stopped Muslim lord Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani 's advances in Narbonne and gained Eudo praise in the Liber Pontificalis . [ 20 ] Charles met the Muslim force at the famous Battle of Poitiers (732) and came out victorious. This moment cemented Charles Martel in historical records and gained him international praise. Bede , writing at the same time in Jarrow , England, recorded the event in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and his victory gained Charles Martel the admiration of seminal historian Edward Gibbon who considered him the Christian saviour of Europe. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Although his victory was considered famous, in reality his victory was far less impactful, and Charles would not gain much control in Aquitaine until Eudo's death in 735. The victory may have given the Carolingians relative local support that potentially allowed Charles to assert dominance over Eudo's son and successor Hunald of Aquitaine , but records of continued hostilities in 736 only further cemented that relations were strained. [ 23 ] [ 15 ] With a stronger establishment in Aquitaine, Charles made moves to assert his dominance into Burgundy. [ 24 ] The region, at least in the Northern areas, had remained controlled and allied with Frankish interest. Influential nobility like Savaric of Auxerre , who had maintained near-autonomy and led military forces against Burgundian towns like Orléans , Nevers and Troyes , even dying whilst besieging Lyon , were the key to Charles' support. As such, Charles made multiple attempts to both gain the faction's support and remove their authority. When Savaric died during Charles' early reign, he agreed to support Savaric's nephew Bishop Eucherius of Orléans ' claim to the bishopric. However, once Charles had established a powerful basis by 737, he exiled Eucherius, with the help of a man called Chrodobert, to the monastery of St Trond . [ 20 ] Charles took further military action in the same year to fully assert his authority, and installed his sons Pippin and Remigius as magnates. This was followed by the installation of political supporters from Bavaria and local supporters like Theuderic of Autun and Adalhard of Chalon . [ 7 ] This acquisition of land in southern France was supported by the increased social chaos that seemingly developed during the Civil War years. This was most apparent in Provence , where local magnates, like Abbo of Provence , were incredibly supportive of Charles' attempts to reinstate Frankish power. [ 25 ] In 739, he used his power in Burgundy and Aquitaine to lead an attack with his brother Childebrand I against Arab invaders and Duke Maurontus , who had been claiming independence and allying himself with Muslim emir Abd ar-Rahman. [ 26 ] It is likely due to Childebrand's sponsorship of the manuscript that his involvement is so extensively recorded in the Continuations . [ 27 ] According to the manuscript, Childebrand and Charles noticed the Arab army, with Maurontus' welcome, entering Avignon and quickly moved against the alliance. They besieged the city and claimed victory; the Franks then made the decision to invade Septimania , taking Narbonne and flanking the Arab army. The Franks then fought off a support army sent from Spain under Omar-ibn Chaled at the River Berre . From there the Franks then pursued the retreating Arabs and ravaged the cities of Nîmes , Agde and Béziers before returning to Francia. Later that year, Charles and Childebrand returned to Provence, likely collecting more forces, and then forcing the rebellious Maurontus into 'impenetrable rocky fastnesses out to sea.' [ 27 ] Paul the Deacon later records in his Historia Langobardorum Maurontus received help from the Lombards, and his Arab allies then fled. [ 28 ] At this time, Charles then assumed control of the region and, judging from Charter evidence, appointed Abbo of Provence as patricius (Patrician) in the region. [ 29 ] Ruling Francia Charles also ruled the Frankish realm, although the majority of his policies were centred upon his conquests and his military ventures. In 19th century historiography, historians like Heinrich Brunner even centred their arguments around Charles' necessity for military resources, in particular the development of mounted warrior or cavalry that would peak in the High Middle Ages . However, in modern historiography, historians like Pierre Riche and Paul Fouracre have discredited his ideas as too simplistic and have aimed to depict more realistic fragments of development that may or not have been interdependent. [ 30 ] This was the period in which the Carolingians first began to establish themselves as fully independent from the Merovingian royalty. Vassalage and Church Charles Martel has become notorious in historiography for his role in the development of the concept of feudalism . The debates are rooted in the arguments of historians like François-Louis Ganshof , who viewed Charles' reign as the birth of the 'feudal' relationship between power and property. This results from the increased use of precaria or temporary land grants by the Carolingians, who allocated and spread their power to their subordinates. Ganshof's arguments connect these ties to a military-tenure relationship; however, this is never represented in primary material, and instead is only implied, and likely derived from, an understanding of 'feudalism' in the High Middle Ages. Recent historians like Paul Fouracre have criticised Ganshof's review for being too simplistic, and in reality, even though these systems of vassalage did exist between lord and populace, they were not as standardised as older historiography has suggested. For example, Fouracre has drawn particular attention to the incentives that drew lords and warriors into the Carolingian armies, arguing that the primary draw was 'booty' and treasure gained from conquest rather than 'feudal' obligation. [ 30 ] Although Charles' reign is no longer considered transitional in its feudal developments, it is seen as a transitional period in the spread of the existing system of vassals and precaria land rights. Due to Charles' continued military and missionary work, the political systems that existed in the heartlands, Austrasia and Neustria, officially began to spread to the periphery. [ 30 ] Those whom Charles appointed as new nobility in these regions, often with lifetime tenures, [ 31 ] ensured that Carolingian loyalties and systems was maintained across the kingdoms. The Carolingians were also far more strict with their land rights and tenure than their Merovingian predecessors, carefully distributing their new land to new families temporarily, but maintaining their control. Merovingians kings weakened themselves by allocating too much of their royal domains to supporting factions; the Carolingians themselves seemingly became increasingly powerful due to their generosity. By giving away their land, the Merovingians allowed themselves to become figureheads and the 'do nothing kings' that Einhard prefaced in the Vita Karoli Magni . [ 7 ] [ 32 ] Due to his vast military conquests, Charles often reallocated existing land settlements, including Church property, to new tenants. Ecclesiastical property and monasteries in the late Merovingian and Carolingian period were political centres and often closely related to the royal court; [ 33 ] as such they often became involved in political matters, which often overlapped with Charles' reallocation of land. This 'secularisation' of Church property caused serious tension between the Carolingian church and state, and often gave Charles a negative depiction in ecclastical sources. The reallocation of church land was not new by Charles' reign; Ian Wood has managed to identify the practice going back to the reigns of Dagobert I (629–639) and Clovis II (639–657). [ 34 ] The majority of the sources that depict Charles' involvement in Church land rights come from the 9th century, and are therefore less reliable, but two supposedly contemporary sources also identify this issue. [ 35 ] The first, a letter sent by missionary Saint Boniface to Anglo-Saxon king Æthelbald of Mercia , called Charles' a 'destroyer of many monasteries, and embezzler of Church revenues for his own use...', condemning him for his use of Church property. This is supported by the second source, the Contintuations , which related that, in 733 in Burgundy, Charles split the Lyonnais between his followers, this likely including Church land. [ 36 ] Further chronicles like the Gesta episcoporum Autissiodorensium and the Gesta Sanctorum Patrum Fontanellensis Coenobii recorded monasteries losing substantial land. The monastery at Auxerre was reduced to a hundred mansus by Pippin III's reign, and at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille under Abbot Teutsind , who was appointed by Charles in 735/6, the Church's local property was reduced to a third its size. [ 30 ] Wood has also criticised this point and proven that the loss of land by the Church was in reality very small, the remaining land being simply leased as it went beyond the Church's capabilities. [ 37 ] Regardless, it is apparent that Charles' expansion of control consumed plenty of reallocated properties, many of which were ecclesiastical domains. Interregnum, death and divisions When King Theuderic IV died in 737, Charles did not install a Merovingian successor. Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Charles was strong enough by the end of his reign to not rely on Merovingian loyalties. He had created his own power bloc through the vassals he installed in Frankish heartlands and peripheral states. [ 25 ] Even prior to Theuderic's death, Charles did act with complete sovereignty in Austrasia. It was only in areas like Neustria, where Carolingian opposition historically existed, that Charles knew he would face criticism if he usurped the throne. [ 38 ] Therefore, until his death, Charles ruled as Princeps or First Man/First Citizen, officially gaining the title with his uncontested leadership with the acquisition of Provence in 737. [ 39 ] This meant that the issue of kingship remained ever present for his successors who would have to work further to establish themselves as royal. When Charles died in 741, he was buried at St Denis in Paris. He made secure succession plans, likely learning from his father, that ensured Francia was effectively divided between his sons, Carloman and Pippin as maior palatii . According to the Continuations , the eldest son, Carloman, was given control of the eastern kingdoms in Austrasia, Alammania and Thuringia, while Pippin was given the western kingdoms in Burgundy, Neustria and Provence. [ 40 ] Charlemagne The greatest Carolingian monarch was Charlemagne , Pepin's son. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. [ 41 ] His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire , is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire . The Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish (and Merovingian ) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of the Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons minor kings in the various regions ( regna ) of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father, which Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious both did for their sons. Following the death of the Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, his surviving adult sons, Lothair I and Louis the German , along with their adolescent brother Charles the Bald , fought a three-year civil war ending only with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the empire into three regna while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair who, at 48, was the eldest. [ 42 ] The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure a limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia as the king of East Francia , a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king, Carloman of Bavaria , [ 43 ] himself a son of the First King of the Eastern division of the Frankish kingdom, Louis the German. Weakening and disappearance of the dynasty Disappearance of Middle Francia Lothair was the first of the three brothers to die, leaving the empire at the mercy of the other two. Finally, after many twists and turns, his domain was gradually attached to East Francia, with the Scheldt marking the border between West and East Francia. The king of East Francia, at the same time, also recovered the title of emperor. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Decline After Charlemagne's death the dynasty slowly crumbled. His kingdom was split into three, each being ruled over by one of his grandsons. Only the kingdoms of the eastern and western portions survived, becoming the predecessors of modern Germany and France. [ 46 ] The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888. They ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after the last king died in 987, but they never sought the royal or imperial thrones and made peace with the new ruling families. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet , thus beginning the Capetian dynasty . [ 47 ] Scandinavian invasions The term Vikings generally designated all the peoples from present-day Scandinavia . In the Carolingian period, they were first known as Normans ("men of the north", origin of the name Normandy ) and later as Vikings. They sold amber, animal skins, and metals, and bought honey, wine, and everything they could not produce in their lands. They were present, in small groups, in most coastal towns of the Frankish Empire. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] Around 800 , the Vikings became aware of a new means of enrichment. Since they were not Christians, they did not have to respect the abbeys , which contained, with minimal defensive structure (a wall and sometimes a few guards), considerable treasure, consisting of chasses , reliquaries , precious metal objects for use in worship. These objects were particularly sought after in this period of weak monetary circulation, when metal was important not only for its value but also for the prestige associated with it. [ 50 ] Consequently, from 800 to about 850 , the Vikings continued their trading practices, while also attempting raids on isolated monastic establishments whenever the opportunity arose. The first establishment to suffer was the monastery of Lindisfarne , on the British coast, attacked by the Vikings in 793 . After this first attack, Viking pressure increased: they sailed up rivers aboard their shallow-draft ships, improperly called “ drakkars ”, and plundered the treasures of the abbeys before returning to Scandinavia. For the moment, these were only brief expeditions: the Normans plundered, carried off goods, and left, most often after burning the place. These attacks nevertheless terrified the population by their speed, violence, and also because they struck churches which, since the establishment of Christianity, had never been attacked. In 841 , the Normans attacked the Abbey of Jumièges and the city of Rouen ; the monks had to flee from the danger of raids, carrying with them the relics of their saints. The Île de Noirmoutier was also repeatedly targeted by the Normans, to the point that the monks abandoned their monastery and settled about twenty-five km south of Nantes , at Déas, which became Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu . In 843 , Nantes was taken and part of the population massacred. In the second third of the 9th century, most of the towns located along rivers were visited by the Normans. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] At the end of the 9th century, the phenomenon grew in importance. These were now much more organized bands, who had decided in advance their routes and knew where to go. The expeditions were also more numerous, sometimes a hundred boats, compared to a small dozen at most at the beginning of the century. Finally, they no longer contented themselves with plundering and leaving. More and more often, they carried away the population to be sold as slaves and settled in conquered territories where they sometimes spent the winter. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] [ 55 ] The Vikings ravaged Europe but also the Iberian Peninsula , then Muslim , and North Africa , without anyone being able to stop them. As it was impossible to control the entire territory and their strength lay in the speed of their fleets and the brutality of their expeditions, it was difficult to predict where they would attack. When they did not attack, the Vikings demanded the payment of heavy tributes. The quarrels among the sons of Louis the Pious hardly improved the situation. Lothair and his brother Louis took little interest in the problem, which fell almost entirely to Charles , the youngest son, who inherited all the coastal territories. Charles, who would be nicknamed the Bald , tried to build additional fortifications. He asked the leaders of the aristocracy to defend the threatened regions. Robert the Strong (ancestor of the Capetians ) was placed by the king at the head of a western march ; he died fighting the Vikings in 866 . Count Odo defended Paris against an attack coming up the Seine in 885 . These great lords acquired immense prestige in the struggle against the Scandinavian invader, prestige that contributed to the weakening of royal power. Military successes were now attributed to the marquises and counts . The inability of the Carolingians to resolve the Scandinavian problem was evident: in 911 , by the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte , King Charles the Simple ceded the Lower Seine to the Viking chief Rollo . He entrusted him with the defense of the estuary and the river downstream of Paris. This decision was at the origin of the creation of the Duchy of Normandy . The Carolingians were forced to cede territories and deliver tributes to counter the Scandinavian threat. They were also absorbed by family quarrels. The climate of insecurity therefore accelerated the disintegration of Carolingian power. [ 52 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Genealogy Carolingians and their relatives, with the names of kings bolded [ 58 ] Arnulf of Metz Pepin the Elder Itta of Metz Chlodulf Ansegisel Begga Gertrude of Nivelles Grimoald the Elder Pepin the Middle Martin Childebert the Adopted Vulfetrude Drogo of Champagne Grimoald the Younger Charles Martel Childebrand I Hugh of Rouen Theudoald Carloman Pepin the Younger Grifo Hiltrud Bernard Nibelung I Gisela of Chelles Charlemagne Carloman I Pepin the Hunchback Pepin of Italy Bertha Charles the Younger Rotrude Louis the Pious Hugh Drogo of Metz Bernard of Italy Nithard Lothar I Pepin I of Aquitaine Arnulf of Sens Louis the German Charles the Bald Gisela Louis II of Italy Lothar II Charles of Provence Pepin II of Aquitaine Charles Carloman of Bavaria Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Louis the Stammerer Charles the Child Judith of Flanders Carloman Berengar I of Italy Ermengard of Italy Hugh of Alsace Bertha Arnulf of Carinthia Louis III of France Carloman II of France Charles the Simple Gisela of Friuli Louis the Blind Hugh of Italy Zwentibold Louis the Child Louis IV of France Berengar II of Italy Lothar II of Italy Lothar II of France Charles of Lower Lorraine Adalbert of Italy Arnulf of Reims Louis V of France Otto of Lower Lorraine Arnulf of Metz Pepin the Elder Itta of Metz Chlodulf Ansegisel Begga Gertrude of Nivelles Grimoald the Elder Pepin the Middle Martin Childebert the Adopted Vulfetrude Drogo of Champagne Grimoald the Younger Charles Martel Childebrand I Hugh of Rouen Theudoald Carloman Pepin the Younger Grifo Hiltrud Bernard Nibelung I Gisela of Chelles Charlemagne Carloman I Pepin the Hunchback Pepin of Italy Bertha Charles the Younger Rotrude Louis the Pious Hugh Drogo of Metz Bernard of Italy Nithard Lothar I Pepin I of Aquitaine Arnulf of Sens Louis the German Charles the Bald Gisela Louis II of Italy Lothar II Charles of Provence Pepin II of Aquitaine Charles Carloman of Bavaria Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Louis the Stammerer Charles the Child Judith of Flanders Carloman Berengar I of Italy Ermengard of Italy Hugh of Alsace Bertha Arnulf of Carinthia Louis III of France Carloman II of France Charles the Simple Gisela of Friuli Louis the Blind Hugh of Italy Zwentibold Louis the Child Louis IV of France Berengar II of Italy Lothar II of Italy Lothar II of France Charles of Lower Lorraine Adalbert of Italy Arnulf of Reims Louis V of France Otto of Lower Lorraine Complete male-line family tree Male, male-line, legitimate, members of the house who either lived to adulthood, or who held a title as a child, are included. Heads of the house are in bold. Arnulf of Metz , c. 582-645 Chlodulf of Metz , c. 605-697 Ansegisel , c. 602/610 - 662/679 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Chlodulf of Metz , c. 605-697 Ansegisel , c. 602/610 - 662/679 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Pepin of Herstal , c. 635-714 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Drogo of Champagne , c. 675-708 Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Arnulf of Champagne , fl. 707-723 Hugh of Rouen , d. 730 Gotfrid Pippin Grimoald the Younger , d. 714 Childebrand I , c. 678 - 743/751 Charles Martel , c. 688-741 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Carloman , 706/716 - 754 Drogo , b. c. 730 Drogo , b. c. 730 Pepin the Short , c. 714-768 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Charlemagne , 748-814 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Pepin the Hunchback , 768/769 - 811 Charles the Younger , c. 772-811 Pepin of Italy , 777-810 Louis the Pious , 778-840 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Lothair I , 795-855 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Louis II of Italy , 825-875 Lothair II , 835-869 Charles of Provence , 845-863 Pepin I of Aquitaine , 797-838 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Pepin II of Aquitaine , 823-864 Charles (archbishop of Mainz) , 825/830 - 863 Louis the German , c. 806/810 - 876 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Carloman of Bavaria , c. 830-880 Louis the Younger , 830/835 - 882 Charles the Fat , 839-888 Charles the Bald , 823-877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Louis the Stammerer , 846-879 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Louis III of France , 863/865 - 882 Carloman II , c. 866-884 Charles the Simple , 879-929 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Louis IV of France , 920/921 - 954 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Lothair of France , 941-986 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Louis V of France , 966/967 - 987 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine , 953 - 992/995 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Otto, Duke of Lower Lorraine , c. 970-1012 Louis of Lower Lorraine , 975/980 - 1023 Charles the Child , 847/848 - 866 Lothair the Lame , c. 848-865 Carloman , 848 - c. 877 Carloman I , 751-771 Grifo , c. 726-753 Grand strategy The historian Bernard Bachrach argues that the rise of the Carolingians to power is best understood using the theory of a Carolingian grand strategy . A grand strategy is a long term military and political strategy that lasts for longer than a typical campaigning season, and can span long periods of time. [ 59 ] The Carolingians followed a set course of action that discounts the idea of a random rise in power and can be considered as a grand strategy. Another major part of the grand strategy of the early Carolingians encompassed their political alliance with the aristocracy. This political relationship gave the Carolingians authority and power in the Frankish kingdom. Beginning with Pippin II, the Carolingians set out to put the regnum Francorum ("kingdom of the Franks") back together, after its fragmentation after the death of Dagobert I , a Merovingian king. After an early failed attempt in c. 651 to usurp the throne from the Merovingians, the early Carolingians began to slowly gain power and influence as they consolidated military power as mayors of the palace. In order to do this, the Carolingians used a combination of Late Roman military organization along with the incremental changes that occurred between the fifth and eighth centuries. Because of the defensive strategy the Romans had implemented during the Late Empire, the population had become militarized and were thus available for military use. [ 60 ] The existence of the remaining Roman infrastructure that could be used for military purposes, such as roads, strongholds and fortified cities meant that the reformed strategies of the Late Romans would still be relevant. Civilian men who lived either in or near a walled city or strong point were required to learn how to fight and defend the areas in which they lived. These men were rarely used in the course of Carolingian grand strategy because they were used for defensive purposes, and the Carolingians were for the most part on the offensive most of the time. Another class of civilians were required to serve in the military which included going on campaigns. Depending on one's wealth, one would be required to render different sorts of service, and "the richer the man was, the greater was his military obligation for service". [ 61 ] For example, if rich, one might be required as a knight. Or one might be required to provide a number of fighting men. In addition to those who owed military service for the lands they had, there were also professional soldiers who fought for the Carolingians. If the holder of a certain amount of land was ineligible for military service (women, old men, sickly men or cowards) they would still owe military service. Instead of going themselves, they would hire a soldier to fight in their place. Institutions, such as monasteries or churches were also required to send soldiers to fight based on the wealth and the amount of lands they held. In fact, the use of ecclesiastical institutions for their resources for the military was a tradition that the Carolingians continued and greatly benefitted from. It was "highly unlikely that armies of many more than a hundred thousand effectives with their support systems could be supplied in the field in a single theatre of operation." [ 62 ] Because of this, each landholder would not be required to mobilize all of his men each year for the campaigning season, but instead, the Carolingians would decide which kinds of troops were needed from each landholder, and what they should bring with them. In some cases, sending men to fight could be substituted for different types of war machines. In order to send effective fighting men, many institutions would have well trained soldiers that were skilled in fighting as heavily armored troops. These men would be trained, armored, and given the things they needed in order to fight as heavy troops at the expense of the household or institution for whom they fought. These armed retinues served almost as private armies, "which were supported at the expense of the great magnates, [and] were of considerable importance to early Carolingian military organization and warfare." [ 63 ] The Carolingians themselves supported their own military household and they were the most important "core of the standing army in the" regnum Francorum . [ 64 ] It was by utilizing the organization of the military in an effective manner that contributed to the success of the Carolingians in their grand strategy. This strategy consisted of strictly adhering to the reconstruction of the regnum Francorum under their authority. Bernard Bachrach gives three principles for Carolingian long-term strategy that spanned generations of Carolingian rulers: The first principle… was to move cautiously outward from the Carolingian base in Austrasia. Its second principle was to engage in a single region at a time until the conquest had been accomplished. The third principle was to avoid becoming involved beyond the frontiers of the regnum Francorum or to do so when absolutely necessary and then not for the purpose of conquest". [ 65 ] The first principle… was to move cautiously outward from the Carolingian base in Austrasia. Its second principle was to engage in a single region at a time until the conquest had been accomplished. The third principle was to avoid becoming involved beyond the frontiers of the regnum Francorum or to do so when absolutely necessary and then not for the purpose of conquest". [ 65 ] This is important to the development of medieval history because without such a military organization and without a grand strategy, the Carolingians would not have successfully become kings of the Franks, as legitimized by the bishop of Rome. Furthermore, it was ultimately because of their efforts and infrastructure that Charlemagne was able to become such a powerful king and be crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800. Without the efforts of his predecessors, he would not have been as successful as he was and the revival of the Roman Empire in the West was likely to have not occurred. See also Phantom time conspiracy theory East Francia West Francia Carolingian architecture Royal Administration of Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties Carolingian art Carolingian minuscule Carolingian Renaissance Carolingian church List of counts of Vermandois King of Italy Phantom time conspiracy theory East Francia West Francia Carolingian architecture Royal Administration of Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties Carolingian art Carolingian minuscule Carolingian Renaissance Carolingian church List of counts of Vermandois King of Italy List of: Frankish Kings and French monarchs Kings of France family tree List of Holy Roman Emperors and German monarchs German monarchs family tree List of: Frankish Kings and French monarchs Kings of France family tree Kings of France family tree List of Holy Roman Emperors and German monarchs German monarchs family tree German monarchs family tree French monarchs family tree . References Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Carolingian". Collins English Dictionary (13th ed.). HarperCollins. 2018. ISBN 978-0-008-28437-4 . ^ National Identity and Vision of Europe . 2000. p. 26. The word Europe first appeared in the eighth century, when the Carolingi tried to reunite the divided Europe. ^ Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). "Carolingians" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ "Carolingian dynasty" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 22 March 2024 . Retrieved 2 April 2024 . ^ Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture . Laurence King Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1856694599 . Retrieved 5 May 2018 . ^ Hanks, Patrick (8 May 2003). Dictionary of American Family Names: 3-Volume Set . Oxford University Press, USA. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-19-508137-4 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Riché, Pierre (1993). Peters, Edward (ed.). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe . Middle Ages Series. Translated by Allen, Michael Idomir. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 14, 17– 18, 20– 23, 25, 30– 31, 33, 35, 42. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 106, 108– 109. ^ McKitterick, Rosamond (2008). Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57n. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87. ^ a b c d e f g Gerberding, Richard A. (1987). The Rise of the Carolingians and the Liber Historiae Francorum . Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 7, 61, 65, 118, 145. ^ a b c Fouracre, Paul (2005). "The Long Shadow of the Merovingians". In Story, Joanna (ed.). Charlemagne: Empire & Society . Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 6, 10– 11. ^ a b Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Paul, Fouracre; Gerberding, Richard (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography 640–720 . Manchester Medieval Sources Series. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 91– 94, 358– 359, 365. ^ a b c d Costambeys, Marios; Innes, Matthew; MacLean, Simon (2011). The Carolingian World . Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 40, 42, 50– 51. ^ a b c d Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 285. ^ a b c Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ^ Goosman, F.C.W. (2013). Memorable crises: Carolingian historiography and the making of Pippin's reign, 750–900 . Amsterdam. p. 223. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88, 90. ^ a b Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 285. ^ Bede (1968). A History of the English Church and People . Penguin Classics. Translated by Sherley-Price, Leo ; Latham, R. E. London: Penguin Books. p. 330. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1839). Hilman, H. H. (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Vol. X. London: John Murray. pp. 23– 27. ^ Collins, Roger (1998). Charlemagne . Basingstoke: MacMillan Press Ltd. p. 30. ^ Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266, 269. ^ a b Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88– 90. ^ Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 96– 97, 106, 108– 109. ^ a b The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87, 96, 102– 103. ^ Paul the Deacon (1829). Pertz, G. (ed.). Historia Langobardorum . Vol. II. Hanover: Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores. pp. 262– 268. ^ Lewis, Archibald R. (July 1976). "The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550–751". Speculum . 51 (3): 401. doi : 10.2307/2851704 . JSTOR 2851704 . S2CID 162248053 . ^ a b c d Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. pp. 28, 34– 35, 37– 40, 48, 60, 70, 96– 97, 106, 108– 109, 121, 137– 154. ^ Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 . Palgrave History of Europe (3rd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 264, 266, 269, 271. ^ Einhard (2008). Two Lives of Charlemagne: Einhard and Notker the Stammerer . Translated by Ganz, David. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18– 19. ISBN 978-0-140-45505-2 . ^ de Jong, Mayke (1995). "Carolingian monasticism: the power of prayer". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 622 . ^ Wood, Ian (2013). "Entrusting Western Europe to the Church, 400–750". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society . 23 : 60– 61. doi : 10.1017/S0080440113000030 . JSTOR 23726102 . S2CID 163341734 . ^ Fouracre, Paul (1995). "Frankish Gaul of 814". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 88 –90, 91. ^ Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 280, 285, 287. ^ Wood, Ian (1995). "Teutsind, Witlaic and the history of Merovingian precaria". In Fouracre, Paul; Davies, Wendy (eds.). Property and Power in the Early Middle Ages . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31 –52. ISBN 9780521434195 . ^ Wood, Ian (1994). The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 . New York: Longman Publishing. pp. 256 , 260, 267, 275– 276, 285, 287. ^ Collins, Roger (1998). "The Making of the Carolingian Dynasty". Charlemagne . Basingstoke: MacMillan Press Ltd. p. 30. ^ The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its continuations . Translated by Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. 1960. pp. 32, 43, 50– 52, 73– 75, 87, 96– 97, 102– 103. ^ "Charlemagne – Emperor of the Romans | Holy Roman emperor [747?–814]" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ "Treaty of Verdun | France [843]" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ "Arnulf | Holy Roman emperor" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 20 September 2017 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Mckitterick, Rosamond (8 October 2018). The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987 . doi : 10.4324/9781315836973 . ISBN 978-1-315-83697-3 . ^ "Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire" . penfield.edu . Archived from the original on 29 July 2023 . Retrieved 30 November 2017 . ^ Lewis, Andrew W. (1981). Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Familial Order and the State . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press , p. 17. ISBN 0-674-77985-1 . ^ Matson, William L. (1971). "Melman, Seymour (ed.), The War Economy of the United States, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1971, 247 p." Études internationales . 2 (4): 714. doi : 10.7202/700161ar . ISSN 0014-2123 . ^ Basson, André; McDonald, R. Andrew; Sharron, David; Somerville, Angus A. (January 2010). "A Thirteenth-Century English Charter at Brock University" . Florilegium . 29 : 6. doi : 10.3138/flor.27.6 . ISSN 0709-5201 . ^ Matson, William L. (1971). "Melman, Seymour (ed.), The War Economy of the United States, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1971, 247 p." Études internationales . 2 (4): 714. doi : 10.7202/700161ar . ISSN 0014-2123 . ^ Roesdahl, Else; Boyer, Régis (1 October 2005), "Monuments archéologiques de l'âge Viking au Danemark" , Les Vikings, premiers Européens , Autrement, pp. 27– 51, doi : 10.3917/autre.boyer.2005.01.0027 , ISBN 978-2-7467-0736-8 , retrieved 6 October 2025 ^ a b "Simon Coupland, Carolingian Coinage and the Vikings: Studies on Power and Trade in the 9th Century. (Variorum Collected Studies Series, 847.) Aldershot, Eng., and Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2007. Pp. x, 324, numbered nonconsecutively; black-and-white frontispiece portrait, black-and-white figures, black-and-white plates, tables, and maps. $124.95" . Speculum . 82 (4): 1054. October 2007. doi : 10.1017/s0038713400012033 . ISSN 0038-7134 . ^ Scammell, G. V. (December 1972). "The German Hansa. By Philippe Dollinger. Translated and edited by D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg. London: Macmillan, 1970. Pp. xxii + 474. £6" . The Historical Journal . 15 (4): 804. doi : 10.1017/s0018246x00003575 . ISSN 0018-246X . ^ Nelson, Janet L. (11 June 2014). Charles the Bald . doi : 10.4324/9781315846002 . ISBN 978-1-315-84600-2 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254. $7.00.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Jochens, Jenny (1 October 1963). "The Age of the Vikings. By P. H. Sawyer . (New York: St Martin's Press. 1962. Pp. vi, 254. $7.00.)" . The American Historical Review . 69 (1): 95– 96. doi : 10.1086/ahr/69.1.95 . ISSN 1937-5239 . ^ Roesdahl, Else; Boyer, Régis (1 October 2005), "Monuments archéologiques de l'âge Viking au Danemark" , Les Vikings, premiers Européens , Autrement, pp. 27– 51, doi : 10.3917/autre.boyer.2005.01.0027 , ISBN 978-2-7467-0736-8 , retrieved 6 October 2025 ^ Riché 1993 , pp. 368–369. ^ Bachrach, Bernard S. Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire . Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 2001, p. 1. ^ Bachrach, 52. ^ Bachrach, 55. ^ Bachrach, 58. ^ Bachrach, 64. ^ Bachrach, 65. ^ Bachrach, 49–50. Sources Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056 . New York: Longman, 1991. [ ISBN missing ] MacLean, Simon. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the end of the Carolingian Empire . Cambridge University Press: 2003. [ ISBN missing ] Leyser, Karl. Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries . London: 1994. [ ISBN missing ] Lot, Ferdinand . (1891). "Origine et signification du mot «carolingien»." Revue Historique , 46 (1): 68–73. Oman, Charles . The Dark Ages, 476–918 . 6th ed. London: Rivingtons, 1914. Painter, Sidney . A History of the Middle Ages, 284–1500 . New York: Knopf, 1953. "Astronomus", Vita Hludovici imperatoris , ed. G. Pertz, ch. 2, in Mon. Gen. Hist. Scriptores, II, 608. Reuter, Timothy (trans.) The Annals of Fulda . (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II.) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992. Einhard . Vita Karoli Magni Archived 14 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Translated by Samuel Epes Turner. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1880. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Carolingian dynasty at Wikimedia Commons v t e Pippinids, Arnulfings and Carolingians v t e Legend: → ≡ "father of", · ≡ "brother of" Begga , the daughter of Pepin I, married Ansegisel, the son of Arnulf of Metz, and was the mother of Pepin II. Pippinids Carloman → Pepin I → Grimoald I → Childebert the Adopted Carloman → Pepin I → Grimoald I → Childebert the Adopted Arnulfings Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Drogo , sons Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Grimoald I , son Theudoald Charles Martel , sons Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Childebrand I , son Nibelung I → Nibelungids Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Arnulf of Metz → Chlodulf of Metz Ansegisel → Pepin II , his sons Drogo , sons Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Arnulf Hugh of Champagne Godfrey Pepin Grimoald I , son Theudoald Theudoald Charles Martel , sons Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Carloman Pepin III Grifo Bernard Jerome Remigius Childebrand I , son Nibelung I → Nibelungids Nibelung I → Nibelungids Early Carolingians Sons of Charles Martel Carloman , son Drogo Pepin III , sons Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Bernard , sons Wala Adalhard Bernhar Sons of Charles Martel Carloman , son Drogo Drogo Pepin III , sons Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Charlemagne , sons Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Pepin the Hunchback Charles the Younger Pepin Louis the Pious Lothair Drogo Hugh Theoderic Carloman , son Pepin Pepin Pepin Pepin Bernard , sons Wala Adalhard Bernhar Wala Adalhard Bernhar Carolingian Empire Sons of Charlemagne Pepin , son Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Louis the Pious , sons Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Sons of Charlemagne Pepin , son Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Bernard → Pepin I, Count of Vermandois → Counts of Vermandois Louis the Pious , sons Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Arnulf of Sens Arnulf of Sens Lothair I , sons Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Louis II of Italy → Ermengard → Louis the Blind → Bosonids Lothair II → Hugh Charles Pepin I , son Pepin II Pepin II Louis the German , sons Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Carloman → Arnulf → Louis the Child Ratold Zwentibold → Godfrey Otto Louis the Younger → Louis Hugh Charles the Fat → Bernard Ratold → Adalbert Charles the Bald , sons Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles Louis the Stammerer → Louis III Carloman II Charles the Simple Charles the Child Carloman Lothair the Lame Drogo Pepin Charles West Francia West Francia was in the hands of the Robertians from 888 until 898. It was the last Carolingian kingdom. Charles the Simple , sons Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV , sons Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV , sons Louis V Arnulf Charles of Lorraine , sons Otto Louis Charles West Francia was in the hands of the Robertians from 888 until 898. It was the last Carolingian kingdom. Charles the Simple , sons Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV Arnulf Drogo Rorico Louis IV , sons Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV Charles Louis Charles of Lorraine Henry Lothair IV , sons Louis V Arnulf Louis V Arnulf Charles of Lorraine , sons Otto Louis Charles Otto Louis Charles v t e Monarchs of France v t e Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Detailed family tree Simplified family tree List of Frankish kings List of French monarchs Merovingians (509–751) Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Clovis I Childebert I Chlothar I Charibert I Guntram Chilperic I Sigebert I Childebert II Chlothar II Dagobert I Sigebert II Clovis II Chlothar III Childeric II Theuderic III Clovis IV Childebert III Dagobert III Chilperic II Chlothar IV Theuderic IV Childeric III Carolingians , Robertians and Bosonids (751–987) Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V Pepin the Short Carloman I Charlemagne (Charles I) Louis I Charles II Louis II Louis III Carloman II Charles the Fat Odo R Charles III Robert I R Rudolph B Louis IV Lothair Louis V House of Capet (987–1328) Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV Hugh Capet Robert II Henry I Philip I Louis VI Louis VII Philip II Louis VIII Louis IX Philip III Philip IV Louis X John I Philip V Charles IV House of Valois (1328–1589) Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III Philip VI John II Charles V Charles VI Charles VII Louis XI Charles VIII Louis XII Francis I Henry II Francis II Charles IX Henry III House of Lancaster (1422–1453) Henry VI of England Henry VI of England House of Bourbon (1589–1792) Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII Henry IV Louis XIII Louis XIV Louis XV Louis XVI Louis XVII House of Bonaparte (1804–1814; 1815) Napoleon I Napoleon II Napoleon I Napoleon II House of Bourbon (1814–1815; 1815–1830) Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V Louis XVIII Charles X Louis XIX Henry V House of Orléans (1830–1848) Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II Louis Philippe I Louis Philippe II House of Bonaparte (1852–1870) Napoleon III Napoleon III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics . v t e Royal houses of Italy v t e Aleramici Anjou Antelminelli Appiani Anscarids Barcelona Bentivoglio Bonaparte Borgia Bourbon-Parma Bourbon-Two Sicilies Carolingian Della Rovere Della Torre Doria Este Farnese Fieschi Flavia Fregoso Gonzaga Grimaldi Habsburg Habsburg-Lorraine Hauteville Hohenstaufen Imperiali Julio-Claudia Malatesta Malaspina Medici Montefeltro Murat Ordelaffi Palaiologos Pallavicini Savoy Sforza Trastámara Valois Visconti Widonids Aleramici Anjou Antelminelli Appiani Anscarids Barcelona Bentivoglio Bonaparte Borgia Bourbon-Parma Bourbon-Two Sicilies Carolingian Della Rovere Della Torre Doria Este Farnese Fieschi Flavia Fregoso Gonzaga Grimaldi Habsburg Habsburg-Lorraine Hauteville Hohenstaufen Imperiali Julio-Claudia Malatesta Malaspina Medici Montefeltro Murat Ordelaffi Palaiologos Pallavicini Savoy Sforza Trastámara Valois Visconti Widonids Authority control databases International VIAF 2 3 4 5 GND VIAF 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Croatia Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Croatia Poland Israel People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX IdRef Yale LUX Carolingian dynasty Frankish noble families Austrian nobility Belarusian noble families Czech nobility Danish nobility Finnish noble families German noble families Hungarian noble families Norwegian nobility Polish nobility Russian nobility Swedish noble families Ukrainian nobility Descendants of individuals Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 maint: location missing publisher Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2020 Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with missing ISBNs Webarchive template wayback links Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 23:08 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty#cite_ref-Fouracre-2000b_8-16
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-356
|
Kaca Utama Owahan Anyar Kaca Anyar Kaca Liya Dopokan Regol Njaluk Pitulung Prakara Wikipedia Pancapilar Kebijakan Celuk Nyong Kothak Njajal Nyumbang Gawe akun Mlebu log Nyumbang Gawe akun Mlebu log 17 Januari Аԥсшәа Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Kotava Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Žemaitėška Bikol Central Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Буряад Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Corsu Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Føroyskt Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo ગુજરાતી Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Kongo Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Kurdî Коми Latina Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Limburgs Ligure Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu मैथिली Malagasy Олык марий Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Papiamentu Polski پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Руски Русский Русиньскый संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Anarâškielâ ChiShona Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray 吴语 Хальмг მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Kaca Dhiskusi Waca Sunting Besut sumber Sajarah kaca Waca Sunting Besut sumber Sajarah kaca Pranala Kaca Kiye Pengobahan terkait Unggah Pranala permanèn Katerangan kaca Nyitir kaca iki URL cekak Undhuh kodhe QR Gawe buku Unduh minangka PDF Edisi Cetak Wikimedia Commons Wiji Wikidata 17 Januari iku dina ke-17 nang kalender Gregorian . << Januari >> S S R K J S M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2026 Wikimedia Commons nduweni galeri babagan: 17 Januari 16 Januari - 17 Januari - 18 Januari d • b • s Wulan lan dina nang se taun Januari 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Februari 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Maret 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Mei 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Juni 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Juli 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Agustus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Oktober 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Desember 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Tanggal liane 0 Januari · 30 Februari · 31 Februari · 0 Maret d • b • s Wulan lan dina nang se taun Januari 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Februari 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Maret 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Mei 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Juni 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Juli 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Agustus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Oktober 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 November 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Desember 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Tanggal liane 0 Januari · 30 Februari · 31 Februari · 0 Maret Tanggal Januari Kaca kiyé nembé diowahi jam 07.49, tanggal 10 Juni 2016. Teks tersedia nang ngisor Lisensi Atribusi/Berbagi Serupa Creative Commons ; mbok ana ketentuan tambahan iku berlaku. Deleng Katentuan Panganggoan nggo lewih jelase. Kebijakan privasi Prakara Wikipedia Pamaidonan Kodhe Ètik Pengolah Setatistik Pranyatan kuki Tampilane punsel
|
https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/17_Januari
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 Use in auctions 3 Use in meetings 4 Use by courts 5 United States Congress gavels 6 United Nations 7 References 8 External links Gavel Deutsch Eesti Español Français 한국어 עברית Кыргызча Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Svenska ไทย Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Wooden gavel Classification Ceremonial mallet Used with Sound block A gavel is a small ceremonial mallet / hammer commonly made of hardwood , typically fashioned with a handle. It can be used to call for attention or to punctuate rulings and proclamations and is a symbol of the authority and right to act officially in the capacity of a presiding officer. [ 1 ] It is often struck against a sound block , a striking surface typically also made of hardwood, to enhance its sounding qualities. It is primarily used in live auctions . According to tradition, Vice President of the United States John Adams used a gavel as a call to order in the first U.S. Senate in New York in 1789. Since then, it has remained customary to tap the gavel against a lectern or desk to indicate the opening and closing of proceedings and, in the United States , to indicate that a judge's decision is final. Usage differs between cultures, but it is also generally used to keep the meeting itself calm and orderly. Etymology In medieval England , the word gavel could refer to a tribute or rent payment made with something other than cash. [ 2 ] These agreements were set in English land-court with the sound of a gavel , a word which may come from the Old English gafol (meaning "tribute"). [ 2 ] Gavel would be prefixed to any non-monetary payment given to a lord (for example: gavel-malt ) and can be found as a prefix to other terms such as gavelkind , a system of partible inheritance formerly found in parts of the UK and Ireland. A gavel may also have referred to a kind of mason's tool, a setting maul that came into use as a way to maintain order in meetings. [ 2 ] Use in auctions A gavel is primarily used in live auctions and dates back to the 17th century. It is traditionally used by the auctioneer to announce the end of bidding on an item. The sound of the gavel striking the auction block signals the acceptance of the highest bid and the sale of the item. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Use in meetings A gavel may be used in meetings of a deliberative assembly . According to Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised , the gavel may be used to signify a recess or an adjournment . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] It may also be used to signify when a member makes a slight breach of the rules. [ 7 ] Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure states that, in addition to an optional light tap after a vote, there are three other uses of a gavel: [ 1 ] To attract attention and call a meeting to order. In most organizations, two taps raise and one tap seats the assembly; in others, two taps raise and three taps seat it. To maintain order and restore it when breached in the course of the proceedings. (Tap the gavel once, but vigorously.) To be handed over to successors in office or to officiating officers as ceremonials, etc. (Always extend the holding end.) Improper uses include banging the gavel in an attempt to drown out a disorderly member. [ 7 ] In this situation, the chair should give one vigorous tap at a time at intervals. [ 1 ] Also, the chair should not lean on the gavel, juggle or toy with it, or use it to challenge or threaten or to emphasize remarks. [ 1 ] The chair should not be "gaveling through" a measure by cutting off members and quickly putting a question to a vote before any member can get the floor (in this connection, the chair should not use the gavel to improperly signify the end of consideration of a question). [ 8 ] The expression passing the gavel signifies an orderly succession from one chair to another. In addition to the use above during business meetings, organizations may use the gavel during their ceremonies and may specify the number of taps of the gavel corresponding to different actions. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Use by courts The gavel is sometimes used in courts of law and courts of equity in the United States and, by metonymy , is used there to represent the entire judiciary system, especially of judgeship . On the other hand, in the Commonwealth of Nations , including the United Kingdom, and Ireland , gavels have never been used by judges, despite many American-influenced TV programs depicting them. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] An exception is the Inner London Crown Court , where clerks use a gavel to alert parties in court of the entrance of the judge into the courtroom, as opposed to the usual practice of the judge knocking on the door before entering. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Gavels are also used for judicial purposes in some other countries. In Poland , they were originally used in the courts of the Second Republic , a practice which was inherited from courts of partitioned Poland. Their use ceased after the Second World War , but they were returned to courts in 2008, as an optional addition to a courtroom. [ 16 ] United States Congress gavels The unique gavel of the United States Senate has an hourglass shape and no handle. In 1954, the gavel that had been in use since at least 1834 (and possibly since 1789) broke when Vice President Richard Nixon used it during a heated debate on nuclear energy, despite the addition of silver plates to strengthen it two years prior. [ 17 ] The Senate was unable to obtain a piece of ivory large enough to replace the gavel, so they appealed to the Indian embassy. Later that year, India's Vice President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan visited the Senate and presented a replica of the original gavel to Nixon. [ 18 ] In response to widespread awareness of elephant poaching and illegal ivory trades, a white marble gavel has been in use since at least 2021. The gavel of the House of Representatives, by contrast, is plain wood with a handle and is used more often and more forcefully than in the Senate. It has been broken and replaced many times. [ 19 ] The instrument is so associated with the Speaker of the House that the word gavel itself has become a metonym for the post. United Nations In 1955, Icelandic sculptor Ríkarður Jónsson carved the Icelandic birch gavel and striking board used at the United Nations . [ 20 ] References ^ a b c d Demeter, George (1969). Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure , Blue Book, p. 39–40 ^ a b c See dictionary definitions of "gavel" at Merriam-Webster , Oxford Dictionaries , and The Free Dictionary . ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Getting Hammered: A Brief History of Live Auctions and The Gavel" . Complete Collector . April 3, 2024. ^ Heath, Christian (2013). The Dynamics of Auction: Social Interaction and the Sale of Fine Art and Antiques . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0521-7674-08 . ^ Robert, Henry M.; et al. (2011). Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-306-82020-5 . ^ Robert 2011 , p. 242 ^ a b Robert 2011 , p. 645 ^ Robert 2011 , p. 387 ^ "The Gavel" . Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks . Archived from the original on 2024-12-13 . Retrieved 2015-08-03 . ^ Morgan, William (1827). "Opening the Lodge". Illustrations of Masonry . pp. 10– 16 . Retrieved 2016-02-11 – via Internet Sacred Text Archive. ^ Burggraf, Helen (February 11, 2019). "Gavel-spotting is new sport for expat Americans in UK, Commonwealth courts" . American Expat Financial News Journal . ^ Marcel Berlins (23 November 2009). "Knock it on the head, BBC. Judges don't use gavels" . The Guardian . Retrieved 2014-06-09 . ^ "Traditions of the courts" . Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. ^ Aldridge, Alex (December 16, 2014). "There is an English court where gavels are actually used" . Legal Cheek . ^ Rentoul, John (November 11, 2016). "Mea Culpa: Order in court – no gavels" . The Independent . ^ Pietryga, Tomasz (15 June 2008). "Krótka historia sędziowskiego młotka" . Rzeczpospolita . Retrieved 9 August 2024 . ^ "Historical Minute Essays: 1941-1963: November 17, 1954: The Senate's New Gavel" . United States Senate . Retrieved 2012-05-06 . ^ "India's gift to Nixon" . The Hindu . 1954-11-19 . Retrieved 3 June 2018 . [ dead link ] ^ Larchuk, Travis. "Passing One Of Many, Many Gavels" . NPR . Retrieved 2016-02-10 . ^ Baal-Teshuva, Jacob (1964). Art Treasures of the United Nations . New York: Thomas Yoseloff. p. 71 and Plate 34. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to gavels at Wikimedia Commons Hammers Parliamentary procedure Legal procedure Ceremonial objects All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2021 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 15 September 2025, at 20:01 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavel#United_States_Congress_gavels
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-stanford_WP_lack_of_future_growth_1-44
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} From top to bottom, left to right: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64. ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-3945-8530-7 ^ Ben-Horin 1943 , p. 169; Taylor 1979 , p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies , p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way . Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 978-0-7641-1973-6 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same " European Civil War " or " Second Thirty Years' War ": Canfora 2006 , p. 155; Prins 2002 , p. 11. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10. ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' " . Fresh Air . NPR. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War" . The International History Review . 9 (3): 368– 409. doi : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 . JSTOR 40105814 . Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4. ^ "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany" . usa.usembassy.de. 12 September 1990. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . ^ "Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty" . Asia Times . Reuters. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. ^ "Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol" . The New York Times . 20 October 1956. p. 2. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". "The state of war between the USSR and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...] ^ Mintz, Steven. "Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I" . The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Gerwarth, Robert (21 January 2019). "Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021 . ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76–78 . ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149. ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35. ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4. ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62. ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96; Record 2005 , p. 50. ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124. ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 298–299. ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104. ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458. ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28. ^ Coogan 1993 : "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131–132. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 289. ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231. ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 25. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146. ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547–551. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195–200. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9672-5 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ^ Dorn, Frank (1974). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 . Macmillan. ^ a b Wakabayashi, Bob (2007). The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture . Berghahn Books. p. 384. ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–224 ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–299. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221–230. ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566. ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150–152. ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651–687. ^ Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Paine, Sarah. The Wars for Asia . Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342. ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Neeno, Timothy. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War" . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121–122. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157. ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.). ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 461–462. ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 471. ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695– 722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . JSTOR 153322 . S2CID 144385167 . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608. ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)" . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis" . ww2db.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ "Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"!" . PolskieRadio.pl (in Polish) . Retrieved 18 March 2025 . ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1–2. ^ Zabecki, David T. (2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-1358-1242-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2019 . The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35. Cienciala 2010 , p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248–249; Roskill 1954 , p. 64. ^ "Battle of the Atlantic" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Archived from the original on 20 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80, 83. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law . 52 (1): 69– 84. doi : 10.2307/2195670 . JSTOR 2195670 . S2CID 146904066 . ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24. ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88–89. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39–40. ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.). ^ Deighton, Len (1979). Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk . Jonathan Cape. pp. 186– 187. ISBN 978-0-2240-1648-3 . Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place." ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24. ^ a b Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55–56. ^ Spring 1986 , pp. 207–226. ^ van Dyke, Carl (1997). The Soviet Invasion of Finland . Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7146-4753-1 . ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745, 975. ^ Haynes, Rebecca (2000). Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 205. ISBN 978-0-3122-3260-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 February 2022 . ^ Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327 ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367, 376, 379, 417. ^ Snyder 2010 , pp. 118ff. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSnyder2010 ( help ) ^ Koch 1983 , pp. 912–914, 917–920. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57–63. ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9. ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122–123. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59–60. ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152. ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66–67. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207. ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311. ^ Brown 2004 , p. 198. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ a b Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108–109. ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328–330. ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52. ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390. ^ a b "Major international events of 1940, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain" . US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations . Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745–746. ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986 , pp. 4–6 ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9–10. ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106. ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7–8. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263–276. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 174–175. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 184–187. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 208, 575, 604. ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80. ^ Morrisey, Will (2019). "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War". Winston Churchill . Routledge. pp. 119– 126. doi : 10.4324/9780429027642-6 . ISBN 978-0-4290-2764-2 . S2CID 189257503 . ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195. ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Förster 1998 , p. 26. ^ Förster 1998 , pp. 38–42. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 810–812. ^ a b Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 267–312 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Sella 1978 , p. 555. ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66–69. ^ Steinberg 1995 . ^ Hauner 1978 . ^ Roberts 1995 . ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. pp. 176– 180. ^ Wilt 1981 . ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114–137. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9. ^ Farrell 1993 . ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220. ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425. ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227. ^ Milward 1964 . ^ Rotundo 1986 . ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26. ^ Deighton, Len (1993). Blood, Tears and Folly . London: Pimlico. p. 479 . ISBN 978-0-7126-6226-0 . ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41–42; Evans 2008 , pp. 213–214, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941" . U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87– 97. 1983. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War . History Today. December 2000 ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289. ^ Frank 2020 , p. 161. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFrank2020 ( help ) ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224. ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33. ^ "Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 45– 66. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201. ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456. ^ Coox, Alvin (1985). Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1046– 1049. ISBN 978-0-8047-1835-6 . ^ a b "The decision for War" . US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 113– 127. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ a b "The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63– 96. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 399–414. ^ Kitano, Ryuichi (6 December 2021). "Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack" . The Asahi Shimbun . Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 8 June 2022 . ^ Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō . p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 417–420. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 418. ^ Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan . University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 29, 35. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5 . Archived from the original on 15 March 2024 . Retrieved 15 January 2024 . ^ Bix 2000 , p. 424. ^ The United States Replies Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack. ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure." ^ Wood 2007 , p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11–12. ^ a b Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341–343. ^ Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War . New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-0-3995-0434-1 ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157. According to May 1955 , p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front." ^ Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource. ^ Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. p. 310 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313–314. ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 904. ^ "The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97– 119. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266– 292. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18– 42. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126– 145. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247–267, 345. ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 (Table 11). ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71–74. ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158. ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145. ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111–112. ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186. ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28. ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19. ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot. p. 259 . ISBN 978-1-5922-8027-8 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2019 . Retrieved 26 June 2019 . ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111. ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31. ^ Read 2004 , p. 764. ^ Bellamy, Chris (2008). Absolute War . ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 (2008 ed.). ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239–265. ^ Black 2003 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383–391. ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142. ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224–228. ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91. ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380–381. ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178. ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129. ^ Neillands 2005 , p. 60. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277. ^ Smith 2002 . ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8. ^ a b c d Ross 1997 , p. 38. ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24. ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11. ^ "The Civilians" Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119–120. ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164. ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610. ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228. ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149–159. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32. ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35. ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90. ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50–55. ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362. ^ Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151. ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52. ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129. ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335–336. ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211, 235, 267–268. ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154. ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286. ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268–274. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660–661. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327–366. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367–414. ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122. ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169–184; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568–573. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500–502). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ), Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10–11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224. ^ a b Zeiler 2004 , p. 60. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555–560. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163. ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85. ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406–407: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war." ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695. ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562. ^ Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II." ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944" . Museum of the Slovak National Uprising . Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" . US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653. ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65–66. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 . Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 978-9-0411-0584-4 . ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 1085. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8. ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54. ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305. ^ Parker 2004 , pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330 ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709–722. ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 793–829. ^ Shepardson 1998 ^ Glass, Andrew (12 April 2016). "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945" . Politico . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244. ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737. ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24. ^ Selby, Scott A. (28 July 2021). The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It . Scott Andrew Selby. p. 8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7102-0718-0 . ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy" . Wired . Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57. ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" . U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . ^ Zuberi, Matin (August 2001). "Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Strategic Analysis . 25 (5): 623– 662. doi : 10.1080/09700160108458986 . S2CID 154800868 . ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90. ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201. ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203–204. ^ Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". International Security , Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179. ^ Glantz 2005 . ^ Pape 1993 "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.". ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 525–526. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 526–528. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776. ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96–100. ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41–66. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality" . Geographia Polonica . 88 (1): 77– 105. doi : 10.7163/GPol.0007 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 (PDF) . Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 978-1-5361-1035-7 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015. ^ a b Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) (PDF) . Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8-3615-9046-0 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background" . Geographia Polonica . 85 (1): 5– 21. doi : 10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794. ^ Kennedy-Pipe 1995 . ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20–21. ^ Senn 2007 , p. ?. ^ "Italy since 1945" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 October 2023 . ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39. ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2022 . ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here [1] Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ The UN Security Council . Archived from the original on 20 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2012 . ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6. ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33. ^ Applebaum 2012 . ^ Naimark 2010 . ^ Swain 1992 . ^ "Greek Civil War" . Encyclopedia Britannica . 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2023 . ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318. ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911. ^ Stueck 2010 , p. 71. ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12–13. ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589. ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441–443, 464–68. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34–55. ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207. ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263. ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208–209. ^ "The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944" . United States Department of State. 7 January 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 April 2022 . ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190–191 ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212. ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29–30, 32 ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20–21 ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23. ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117. ^ Schain 2001 . ^ Emadi-Coffin 2002 , p. 64. ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32. ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945 . Wiley. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-1188-9024-0 . ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-9631-8643-0 . ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 1. ^ Hastings 2011 , pp. 669–670. ^ Aubin, Bernard & Guillerat 2019 , p. 147. ^ Hanson 2017 , p. 470. ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 468. ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204. ^ Herf 2003 . ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology (2005). "Victims" . A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Archived from the original on 16 May 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ a b Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45–52. ^ Snyder, Timothy (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality" . The New York Review of Books . 56 (12). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others" . BBC . April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . ^ Hastings 2011 , p. 465. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158–160, 234–236. ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators" . Review of Croatian History . VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 117. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 October 2015 . ^ Massacre, Volhynia. "The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres" . Volhynia Massacre . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947" . dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 . Retrieved 10 March 2018 . ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . W.W. Norton & CO. p. 296. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . p. 381. ^ Hastings, Max (2012). Inferno . Vintage. p. 670. ^ Frank, Richard (2020). Tower of Skulls . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 576. ^ Dower, John (1999). Embracing Defeat . W.W. Norton and Company. ^ Mitter 2013 , pp. 5, 381. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMitter2013 ( help ) ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 163. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 367. ^ Hastings, Max (2007). Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–1945 . London. p. 13. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 472. ^ Hanson, Victor (2017). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won . Basic Books. p. 498. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . p. 296. ^ Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide . Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-3678-6706-5 . ^ Gold, Hal (1996). Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle. pp. 75– 77. ISBN 978-0-8048-3565-7 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320. ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74. ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69. ^ "Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence" . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011. ^ Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf, ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6 p. 391 ^ Women and War . ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. ISBN 978-1-8510-9770-8 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2023 . ^ Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs . 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914– 916. ^ Naimark, Norman (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 . Cambridge: Belknap. p. 70. ^ Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Kiel. 1999. ^ Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025 ^ Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-8454-5844-7 . ^ Dower, John (2007). "Lessons from Iwo Jima" . Perspectives . 45 (6): 54– 56. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568–569. ^ a b Marek, Michael (27 October 2005). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers" . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . ^ Pearson, Alexander (19 March 2018). "Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2023 . Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. ^ J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–1049 ^ Applebaum 2003 , pp. 389–396. ^ Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" . American Experience: the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online. Archived from the original on 27 July 2003 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2–3. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War" . Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" . Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on 30 October 2004 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148. ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232. ^ Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 "Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000" . ^ Cooke, Philip; Shepherd, Ben H. (31 January 2020). European Resistance in the Second World War . Pen and Sword. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4738-3162-9 . From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5. ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107. ^ a b Rahn 2001 , p. 266. ^ Leith, C. K. (July 1939). "The Struggle for Mineral Resources" . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 204, Democracy and the Americas: 42– 48. JSTOR 1021443 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...]. ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2. ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . Diane Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-5856-6069-8 . ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26. ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration . United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 978-9-2110-9147-2 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76. ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227. ^ Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247–251. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-8450-9079-1 . ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4027-3099-3 . ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25. ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14. ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16. ^ Burns, R. W. (September 1994). "Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943" . IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology . 141 (5): 343– 355. doi : 10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group . p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7106-0123-0 . ^ "The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War" . Imperial War Museums . Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Castaldi, Carolina; Fontana, Roberto; Nuvolari, Alessandro (1 August 2009). " 'Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945" . Journal of Evolutionary Economics . 19 (4): 545– 566. doi : 10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 . hdl : 10419/89322 . ISSN 1432-1386 . S2CID 36789517 . ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734. ^ a b Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF) . controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War I" . History Department at the University of San Diego. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times . London. p. 27. Gale IF0504159516 . ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ "The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II" . New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "World War – II" . Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation . Archived from the original on 11 July 2022 . Retrieved 17 September 2022 . ^ Gaynes, Robert (May 2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 23 (5): 849– 853. Bibcode : 2017EIDis..23..849G . doi : 10.3201/eid2305.161556 . PMC 5403050 . Sources Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (1992). The Making of the Second World War . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90716-3 . Anderson, Irvine H. Jr. (1975). "The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review . 44 (2): 201– 231. doi : 10.2307/3638003 . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9322-6 . ——— (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9868-9 . Aubin, Nicolas; Bernard, Vincent; Guillerat, Nicolas (2019). Lopez, Jean (ed.). World War II Infographics . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02292-4 . Bacon, Edwin (1992). " Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II". Soviet Studies . 44 (6): 1069– 1086. doi : 10.1080/09668139208412066 . JSTOR 152330 . Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-0-85045-921-0 . Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press . Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Ronald Grigor Suny (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia – The Twentieth Century . Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 217– 242. ISBN 978-0-521-81144-6 . Barker, A. J. (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York: Ballantine Books . ISBN 978-0-345-02462-6 . Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad . New York: Viking . ISBN 978-0-670-87095-0 . ——— (2012). The Second World War . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978-0-297-84497-6 . Belco, Victoria (2010). War, Massacre, and Recovery in Central Italy: 1943–1948 . Toronto: University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978-0-8020-9314-1 . Bellamy, Chris T. (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4 . Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History . New York: W. W. Norton. Berend, Ivan T. (1996). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-55066-6 . Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2 . Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . ISBN 978-0-7656-1821-4 . Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood . ISBN 978-0-275-96363-7 . Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York: HarperCollins . ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0 . Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-30534-1 . Blinkhorn, Martin (2006) [1984]. Mussolini and Fascist Italy (3rd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26206-4 . Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0870-7 . Borstelmann, Thomas (2005). "The United States, the Cold War, and the colour line". In Melvyn P. Leffler; David S. Painter (eds.). Origins of the Cold War: An International History (2nd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . pp. 317– 332. ISBN 978-0-415-34109-7 . Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313– 314. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Brayley, Martin J. (2002). The British Army 1939–45, Volume 3: The Far East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-238-8 . British Bombing Survey Unit (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945 . London & Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7146-4722-7 . Brody, J. Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7658-0622-2 . Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5461-4 . Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000 . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-0-631-22162-3 . Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce ; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-02546-1 . Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James L. (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress . Polity . ISBN 978-0-7456-1298-0 . Bullock, Alan (1990) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0 . Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). "Concepts in Submarine Design" . Journal of Applied Mechanics . 62 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press : 268. Bibcode : 1995JAM....62R.268B . doi : 10.1115/1.2895927 . ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3 . Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97733-7 . Canfora, Luciano (2006) [2004]. Democracy in Europe: A History . Oxford & Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-1-4051-1131-7 . Cantril, Hadley (1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". Public Opinion Quarterly . 4 (3): 387– 407. doi : 10.1086/265420 . JSTOR 2745078 . Chang, Iris (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . New York: Basic Books . ISBN 978-0-465-06835-7 . Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation . New York: Fordham University Press . ISBN 978-0-8232-2562-0 . Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras . London & New York: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-1350-5 . Ch'i, Hsi-Sheng (1992). "The Military Dimension, 1942–1945". In James C. Hsiung; Steven I. Levine (eds.). China's Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 157– 184. ISBN 978-1-56324-246-5 . Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review . 55 (1): 123– 143. doi : 10.2307/25779864 . JSTOR 25779864 . S2CID 159445902 . Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80872-9 . Coble, Parks M. (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-23268-6 . Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-539-6 . Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45 . Oxford: Heinemann . ISBN 978-0-435-32721-7 . Commager, Henry Steele (2004). The Story of the Second World War . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-741-9 . Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" . History Today . 43 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History . London: UCL Press . ISBN 978-1-85728-532-1 . Cowley, Robert ; Parker, Geoffrey , eds. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company . ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9 . Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-101022-9 . Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory . London: Macmillan . ix+544 pages . ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1 . OCLC 70401618 . Dear, I. C. B. ; Foot, M. R. D. , eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4 . DeLong, J. Bradford ; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 189– 230. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN 978-0-394-50030-0 . Drea, Edward J. (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978-0-8032-6638-4 . de Grazia, Victoria; Paggi, Leonardo (Autumn 1991). "Story of an Ordinary Massacre: Civitella della Chiana, 29 June, 1944". Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature . 3 (2): 153– 169. doi : 10.1525/lal.1991.3.2.02a00030 . JSTOR 743479 . Dunn, Dennis J. (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow . Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2023-2 . Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945". In John K. Fairbank; Denis Twitchett (eds.). The Cambridge History of China – Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2 . Vol. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-24338-4 . Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1151– 1172. doi : 10.1080/0966813022000017177 . JSTOR 826310 . S2CID 43510161 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Copy ———; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 46 (4): 671– 680. doi : 10.1080/09668139408412190 . JSTOR 152934 . PMID 12288331 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9 . Erickson, John (2001). "Moskalenko". In Shukman, Harold (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 137– 154. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . ——— (2003). The Road to Stalingrad . London: Cassell Military . ISBN 978-0-304-36541-8 . Evans, David C.; Peattie, Mark R. (2012) [1997]. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978-1-59114-244-7 . Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . Fairbank, John King ; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1994]. China: A New History (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-01828-0 . Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". Journal of Military History . 57 (4): 599– 625. doi : 10.2307/2944096 . JSTOR 2944096 . Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6 . Forrest, Glen; Evans, Anthony; Gibbons, David (2012). The Illustrated Timeline of Military History . New York: Rosen. ISBN 978-1-4488-4794-5 . Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Hitler's Decision in Favour of War". In Horst Boog; Jürgen Förster; Joachim Hoffmann; Ernst Klink; Rolf-Dieter Muller; Gerd R. Ueberschar (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Attack on the Soviet Union . Vol. IV. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 13– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-822886-8 . Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide" . In Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (eds.). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 53– 68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . Frank, Richard B. (2020). Tower of Skulls: A History of The Asia-Pacific War July 1937-May 1942 . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-324-00210-9 . Frei, Norbert (2002). Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11882-8 . Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K., eds. (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945 . London: Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978-0-85177-953-9 . Garver, John W. (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-505432-3 . Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9 . Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" . Combined Arms Research Library . CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ——— (1989). Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War . Abingdon & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3 . ——— (1998). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-0899-7 . ——— (2001). "The Soviet-German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. ——— (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1208-6 . ——— (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" . Combined Arms Research Library . Leavenworth Papers. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 78918907 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Goldstein, Margaret J. (2004). World War II: Europe . Minneapolis: Lerner Publications . ISBN 978-0-8225-0139-8 . Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched" . In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . pp. 127–144 . ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6 . Gordon, Robert S. C. (2012). The Holocaust in Italian Culture, 1944–2010 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-6346-2 . Grove, Eric J. (1995). "A Service Vindicated, 1939–1946". In J. R. Hill (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy . Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 348– 380. ISBN 978-0-19-211675-8 . Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-3756-2 . Hanhimäki, Jussi M. (1997). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press . ISBN 978-0-87338-558-9 . Harris, Sheldon H. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-93214-1 . Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World War II: an overview". In Mark Harrison (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 42. ISBN 978-0-521-62046-8 . Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-1-86227-073-2 . Hastings, Max (2011). All Hell Let Loose: the World at War 1939-1945 . London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780-00-733809-2 . Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (1): 15– 32. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300102 . JSTOR 260090 . S2CID 154865385 . Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns in the East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0 . Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4 . Hempel, Andrew (2005). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History . New York: Hippocrene Books . ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3 . Herbert, Ulrich (1994). "Labor as spoils of conquest, 1933–1945". In David F. Crew (ed.). Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 219–273 . ISBN 978-0-415-08239-6 . Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History . 4 (4): 913– 930. doi : 10.1353/kri.2003.0059 . S2CID 159958616 . Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5711-0 . Holland, James (2008). Italy's Sorrow: A Year of War 1944–45 . London: HarperPress . ISBN 978-0-00-717645-8 . Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union . Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5 . Howard, Joshua H. (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-4896-4 . Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210 . OCLC 12828898 . Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman ; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought . New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 76–78 . ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4 . Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-69580-1 . Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War . London & New York: Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 978-1-85285-417-1 . Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2339-4 . Jowett, Philip S. (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45, Volume 2: Africa 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-865-5 . ———; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-353-8 . Jukes, Geoffrey (2001). "Kuznetzov". In Harold Shukman (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 109– 116. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . Kantowicz, Edward R. (1999). The Rage of Nations . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4455-2 . ——— (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9 . Keeble, Curtis (1990). "The historical perspective". In Alex Pravda; Peter J. Duncan (eds.). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-37494-1 . Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-7348-8 . Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1 . Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 . Manchester: Manchester University Press . ISBN 978-0-7190-4201-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04994-7 . ——— (2007). Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5 . Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-913417-5 . Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues . 9 (1): 13– 361. JSTOR 40604127 . Kleinfeld, Gerald R. (1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs . 47 (3): 122– 128. doi : 10.2307/1988082 . JSTOR 1988082 . Koch, H. W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa' ". The Historical Journal . 26 (4): 891– 920. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00012747 . JSTOR 2639289 . S2CID 159671713 . Kolko, Gabriel (1990) [1968]. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945 . New York: Random House . ISBN 978-0-679-72757-6 . Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6 . Lee, En-han (2002). "The Nanking Massacre Reassessed: A Study of the Sino-Japanese Controversy over the Factual Number of Massacred Victims". In Robert Sabella; Fei Fei Li; David Liu (eds.). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 47– 74. ISBN 978-0-7656-0816-1 . Leffler, Melvyn P. ; Westad, Odd Arne , eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-83938-9 , in 3 volumes. Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6 . Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses" . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines . Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office . LCCN 53-63678 . Archived from the original on 8 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 October 2009 . Liberman, Peter (1996). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-02986-3 . Liddell Hart, Basil (1977). History of the Second World War (4th ed.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23770-3 . Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-22404-8 . Lindberg, Michael; Todd, Daniel (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-96486-3 . Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26681-9 . Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3 . Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-0437-3 . Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2241-4 . Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . Cambridge University Press . p. 96 . ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6 . Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-882-3 . Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese Relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987 . Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications . ISBN 978-0-87727-122-2 . May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review . 24 (2): 153– 174. doi : 10.2307/3634575 . JSTOR 3634575 . Mazower, Mark (2008). Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-1-59420-188-2 . Milner, Marc (1990). "The Battle of the Atlantic". In Gooch, John (ed.). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War . Abingdon: Frank Cass . pp. 45– 66. ISBN 978-0-7146-3369-5 . Milward, A. S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review . 16 (3): 499– 518. JSTOR 2592851 . ——— (1992) [1977]. War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 . Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1 . Minford, Patrick (1993). "Reconstruction and the UK Postwar Welfare State: False Start and New Beginning". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 115– 138. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-4346-4 . Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8 . Mitcham, Samuel W. (2007) [1982]. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3413-4 . Mitter, Rana (2014). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 . Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-544-33450-2 . Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84603-006-2 . Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933–1945 . Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama: Air University Press . ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ———; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-00680-5 . Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-10222-1 . Naimark, Norman (2010). "The Sovietization of Eastern Europe, 1944–1953". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 175– 197. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Neary, Ian (1992). "Japan". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 49– 70. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press . ISBN 978-0-253-34781-7 . Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe – Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939–1945 . Ramsbury, Marlborough, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press. ISBN 978-1-86126-799-3 . Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0 . Overy, Richard (1994). War and Economy in the Third Reich . New York: Clarendon Press . ISBN 978-0-19-820290-5 . ——— (1995). Why the Allies Won . London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7453-9 . ——— (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4 . ———; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7 . O'Reilly, Charles T. (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945 . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books . ISBN 978-0-7391-0195-7 . Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" . The Journal of American History . 99 (1): 24– 39. doi : 10.1093/jahist/jas073 . Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea: Submarine Conflict During World War II . New York: John Wiley . ISBN 978-0-471-24945-0 . Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security . 18 (2): 154– 201. doi : 10.2307/2539100 . JSTOR 2539100 . S2CID 153741180 . Parker, Danny S. (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945 (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press . ISBN 978-0-306-81391-7 . Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4 . Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1 . Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and Conquest: Allied Occupation Currencies in World War II . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-0530-1 . Polley, Martin (2000). An A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4 . Portelli, Alessandro (2003). The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome . Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-1-4039-8008-3 . Preston, P. W. (1998). Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978-0-631-20238-7 . Prins, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-36960-2 . Radtke, K. W. (1997). " 'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933–7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 100– 120. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6 . Rahn, Werner (2001). "The War in the Pacific". In Horst Boog; Werner Rahn; Reinhard Stumpf; Bernd Wegner (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Global War . Vol. VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 191– 298. ISBN 978-0-19-822888-2 . Ratcliff, R. A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra, and the End of Secure Ciphers . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85522-8 . Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04800-1 . Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (2002) [1992]. The Fall Of Berlin . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-0695-0 . Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF) . Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Rees, Laurence (2008). World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . London: BBC Books . ISBN 978-0-563-49335-8 . Regan, Geoffrey (2004). The Brassey's Book of Military Blunders . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-252-0 . Reinhardt, Klaus (1992). Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 . Oxford: Berg . ISBN 978-0-85496-695-0 . Reynolds, David (2006). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 . Rich, Norman (1992) [1973]. Hitler's War Aims, Volume I: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00802-9 . Ritchie, Ella (1992). "France". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 23– 48. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Roberts, Cynthia A. (1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies . 47 (8): 1293– 1326. doi : 10.1080/09668139508412322 . JSTOR 153299 . Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7 . Roberts, J. M. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3 . Ropp, Theodore (2000). War in the Modern World (Revised ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-6445-2 . Roskill, S. W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive . History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO . Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Ross, Steven T. (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-7146-4634-3 . Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0 . Rotundo, Louis (1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs . 50 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.2307/1988530 . JSTOR 1988530 . Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific . Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-049-5 . Schain, Martin A., ed. (2001). The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . London: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-0-333-92983-4 . Schmitz, David F. (2000). Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-8420-2632-1 . Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-05988-7 . Sella, Amnon (1978). " "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (3): 555– 583. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300308 . JSTOR 260209 . S2CID 220880174 . ——— (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History . 18 (4): 651– 687. JSTOR 260307 . Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above . Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi . ISBN 978-9-0420-2225-6 . Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II: Day by Day . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0939-1 . Shepardson, Donald E. (1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". Journal of Military History . 62 (1): 135– 154. doi : 10.2307/120398 . JSTOR 120398 . Shirer, William L. (1990) [1960]. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978-0-671-72868-7 . Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-518261-3 . Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory . London: Cassell. Smith, Alan (1993). Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-08924-1 . Smith, J. W. (1994). The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment . Institute for Economic Democracy. ISBN 978-0-9624423-2-2 . Smith, Peter C. (2002) [1970]. Pedestal: The Convoy That Saved Malta (5th ed.). Manchester: Goodall. ISBN 978-0-907579-19-9 . Smith, David J.; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-28580-3 . Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3 . Last Gasp. ISBN 978-0-86719-616-0 . Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . London: The Bodley Head . ISBN 978-0-224-08141-2 . Spring, D. W. (1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies . 38 (2): 207– 226. doi : 10.1080/09668138608411636 . JSTOR 151203 . S2CID 154270850 . Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The English Historical Review . 110 (437): 620– 651. doi : 10.1093/ehr/cx.437.620 . JSTOR 578338 . Steury, Donald P. (1987). "Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Campaign and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Study in the Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval Warfare". Journal of Contemporary History . 22 (2): 209– 233. doi : 10.1177/002200948702200202 . JSTOR 260931 . S2CID 159943895 . Stueck, William (2010). "The Korean War". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 266– 287. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-195-4 . Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45 . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978-1-86508-352-0 . Swain, Geoffrey (1992). "The Cominform: Tito's International?". The Historical Journal . 35 (3): 641– 663. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00026017 . S2CID 163152235 . Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4 . Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War . London: Hamish Hamilton . ——— (1979). How Wars Begin . London: Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978-0-241-10017-2 . Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 . Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom History European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Canon Media Internet Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary contemporary Philosophy Science Values Science Values Physical culture Sport Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Relativism Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Paradox Relativism Peritrope Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European European Religion Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Culture Western / Eastern Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Law Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Contemporary integration ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Islam Culture Sunni Shia Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Culture Eastern Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX World War II World wars Conflicts in 1939 Conflicts in 1940 Conflicts in 1941 Conflicts in 1942 Conflicts in 1943 Conflicts in 1944 Conflicts in 1945 Late modern Europe Nuclear warfare Wars involving Albania Wars involving Australia Wars involving Austria Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Brazil Wars involving British India Wars involving Bulgaria Wars involving Myanmar Wars involving Cambodia Wars involving Canada Wars involving Chile Wars involving Colombia Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Cuba Wars involving Czechoslovakia Wars involving Denmark Wars involving the Dominican Republic Wars involving Ecuador Wars involving Egypt Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Estonia Wars involving Ethiopia Wars involving Finland Wars involving France Wars involving Germany Wars involving Greece Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Haiti Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Hungary Wars involving Iceland Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Italy Wars involving Iran Wars involving Iraq Wars involving Japan Wars involving Kazakhstan Wars involving Laos Wars involving Latvia Wars involving Lebanon Wars involving Liberia Wars involving Lithuania Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving Mexico Wars involving Mongolia Wars involving Montenegro Wars involving Nepal Wars involving Norway Wars involving Nicaragua Wars involving Panama Wars involving Paraguay Wars involving Peru Wars involving Poland Wars involving Rhodesia Wars involving Romania Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving Serbia Wars involving Slovakia Wars involving Slovenia Wars involving South Africa Wars involving Sri Lanka Wars involving Syria Wars involving Thailand Wars involving the Netherlands Wars involving the Philippines Wars involving the Republic of China Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States Wars involving Uruguay Wars involving Venezuela Wars involving Vietnam Wars involving Yugoslavia Wars involving India Wars involving New Zealand CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia references cleanup from January 2026 All articles needing references cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from January 2026 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with duplicate citations Use British English from December 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2025 Articles containing Italian-language text Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#CITEREFHanhim%C3%A4ki1997
|
arXiv.org > 2601.10254 > format Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Format selector for 2601.10254 Note: Many of the formats above are served gzipped ( Content-Encoding: x-gzip ). Your browser may silently uncompress after downloading so the files you see saved may appear uncompressed. Please report any problems to arXiv technical support and include the paper identifier. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
|
https://arxiv.org/format/2601.10254#content
|
Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us About Wikipedia Special pages Give to Wikipedia Create account Log in Give to Wikipedia Create account Log in Wikipedia : General disclaimer Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Bamanankan বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Chi-Chewa ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Eʋegbe فارسی Føroyskt Français Furlan Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 ગુજરાતી 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული کٲشُر Kernowek Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Malti मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch Papiamentu پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip සිංහල سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Удмурт Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Switch to legacy parser Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wiktionary Wikidata item Wikipedia's notices We may be wrong – Use at your own risk – We are not doctors – We can't help with law – You may disagree with what we include This page has our disclaimer notice in simple language, so that it can be understood by more people. For our official legal version, please see the English-language Wikipedia . WIKIPEDIA CAN BE WRONG Wikipedia is an encyclopedia on the Internet that is edited by anyone who wants to help. The way it works means that anyone with who can view the Internet can change what is written. When you read Wikipedia, you should remember that we cannot make sure that our information is checked by people who can make it complete, accurate or reliable. That does not mean that there is not useful, correct information in Wikipedia; there is lots. However, Wikipedia cannot make sure the information here is correct. Any article may have been changed or vandalized by someone who thinks they know what is correct, but is not aware of the current facts of the topics they are writing about. Wikipedia's notices We may be wrong – Use at your own risk – We are not doctors – We can't help with law – You may disagree with what we include This page has our disclaimer notice in simple language, so that it can be understood by more people. For our official legal version, please see the English-language Wikipedia . Wikipedia's notices We may be wrong – Use at your own risk – We are not doctors – We can't help with law – You may disagree with what we include This page has our disclaimer notice in simple language, so that it can be understood by more people. For our official legal version, please see the English-language Wikipedia . Wikipedia is an encyclopedia on the Internet that is edited by anyone who wants to help. The way it works means that anyone with who can view the Internet can change what is written. When you read Wikipedia, you should remember that we cannot make sure that our information is checked by people who can make it complete, accurate or reliable. That does not mean that there is not useful, correct information in Wikipedia; there is lots. However, Wikipedia cannot make sure the information here is correct. Any article may have been changed or vandalized by someone who thinks they know what is correct, but is not aware of the current facts of the topics they are writing about. No system of checks by experts We are developing ways to find versions of articles which are more correct, and show them to our readers. The people who help make Wikipedia use up-to-date lists like the Special:Recentchanges and Special:Newpages to watch new and changing pages. However, Wikipedia is not all checked by experts. Although readers might correct errors and some experts may check some articles , they do not have a duty to make changes. So, just because we have information here, this does not mean that we think it is all true, or useful for anything you want to do with it. We are not promising you that it is correct. Before you think that something might be correct, remember that all articles might have been badly changed to be wrong just before you see them, even ones that had - before - been checked by experts or chosen as very good articles . None of the editors, sponsors or administrators of Wikipedia, or anyone else connected with Wikipedia in any way at all can be responsible (their fault) for any information that is not correct. It is also not their fault if you use any of the information which is either at Wikipedia, or information on a page somewhere else which we have a web link to. No system of checks by experts We are developing ways to find versions of articles which are more correct, and show them to our readers. The people who help make Wikipedia use up-to-date lists like the Special:Recentchanges and Special:Newpages to watch new and changing pages. However, Wikipedia is not all checked by experts. Although readers might correct errors and some experts may check some articles , they do not have a duty to make changes. So, just because we have information here, this does not mean that we think it is all true, or useful for anything you want to do with it. We are not promising you that it is correct. Before you think that something might be correct, remember that all articles might have been badly changed to be wrong just before you see them, even ones that had - before - been checked by experts or chosen as very good articles . None of the editors, sponsors or administrators of Wikipedia, or anyone else connected with Wikipedia in any way at all can be responsible (their fault) for any information that is not correct. It is also not their fault if you use any of the information which is either at Wikipedia, or information on a page somewhere else which we have a web link to. No contract; limited license Please make sure that you understand that the information provided here is being provided freely, and that no kind of agreement or contract is created between you and the owners or users of this site, the owners of the servers upon which it is housed, the individual Wikipedia contributors, any project administrators, sysops or anyone else who is in any way connected with this project or sister projects subject to your claims against them directly. You are being granted a limited license to copy anything from this site; it does not create or imply any contractual or extracontractual liability on the part of Wikipedia or any of its agents, members, organizers or other users. There is no agreement or understanding between you and Wikipedia regarding your use or modification of this information beyond the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL); neither is anyone at Wikipedia responsible should someone change, edit, modify or remove any information that you may post on Wikipedia or any of its associated projects. No contract; limited license Please make sure that you understand that the information provided here is being provided freely, and that no kind of agreement or contract is created between you and the owners or users of this site, the owners of the servers upon which it is housed, the individual Wikipedia contributors, any project administrators, sysops or anyone else who is in any way connected with this project or sister projects subject to your claims against them directly. You are being granted a limited license to copy anything from this site; it does not create or imply any contractual or extracontractual liability on the part of Wikipedia or any of its agents, members, organizers or other users. There is no agreement or understanding between you and Wikipedia regarding your use or modification of this information beyond the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL); neither is anyone at Wikipedia responsible should someone change, edit, modify or remove any information that you may post on Wikipedia or any of its associated projects. Trademarks Any of the trademarks, service marks, collective marks, design rights or similar rights that are mentioned, used or cited in the articles of the Wikipedia encyclopedia are the property of their respective owners. Their use here does not imply that you may use them for any other purpose other than for the same or a similar informational use as contemplated by the original authors of these Wikipedia articles under the GFDL licensing scheme. Unless otherwise stated Wikipedia and Wikimedia sites are neither endorsed nor affiliated with any of the holders of any such rights and as such Wikipedia cannot grant any rights to use any otherwise protected materials. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk. Trademarks Any of the trademarks, service marks, collective marks, design rights or similar rights that are mentioned, used or cited in the articles of the Wikipedia encyclopedia are the property of their respective owners. Their use here does not imply that you may use them for any other purpose other than for the same or a similar informational use as contemplated by the original authors of these Wikipedia articles under the GFDL licensing scheme. Unless otherwise stated Wikipedia and Wikimedia sites are neither endorsed nor affiliated with any of the holders of any such rights and as such Wikipedia cannot grant any rights to use any otherwise protected materials. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk. Personality rights Wikipedia contains material which may portray an identifiable person who is alive or deceased recently. The use of images of living or recently deceased individuals is, in some jurisdictions, restricted by laws pertaining to personality rights , independent from their copyright status. Before using these types of content, please ensure that you have the right to use it under the laws which apply in the circumstances of your intended use. You are solely responsible for ensuring that you do not infringe someone else's personality rights. Personality rights Wikipedia contains material which may portray an identifiable person who is alive or deceased recently. The use of images of living or recently deceased individuals is, in some jurisdictions, restricted by laws pertaining to personality rights , independent from their copyright status. Before using these types of content, please ensure that you have the right to use it under the laws which apply in the circumstances of your intended use. You are solely responsible for ensuring that you do not infringe someone else's personality rights. Jurisdiction and legality of content Publication of information found in Wikipedia may be in violation of the laws of the country or jurisdiction from where you are viewing this information. The Wikipedia database is stored on a server in the State of Florida in the United States of America , and is maintained in reference to the protections afforded under local and federal law. Laws in your country or jurisdiction may not protect or allow the same kinds of speech or distribution. Wikipedia does not encourage the violation of any laws; and cannot be responsible for any violations of such laws, should you link to this domain or use, reproduce, or republish the information contained herein. Jurisdiction and legality of content Publication of information found in Wikipedia may be in violation of the laws of the country or jurisdiction from where you are viewing this information. The Wikipedia database is stored on a server in the State of Florida in the United States of America , and is maintained in reference to the protections afforded under local and federal law. Laws in your country or jurisdiction may not protect or allow the same kinds of speech or distribution. Wikipedia does not encourage the violation of any laws; and cannot be responsible for any violations of such laws, should you link to this domain or use, reproduce, or republish the information contained herein. Not professional advice If you need specific advice (for example, medical, legal, financial, or risk management) please seek a professional who is licensed or knowledgeable in that area. Thank you for reading this; we hope you enjoy your time at Simple English Wikipedia. Not professional advice If you need specific advice (for example, medical, legal, financial, or risk management) please seek a professional who is licensed or knowledgeable in that area. Thank you for reading this; we hope you enjoy your time at Simple English Wikipedia. Wikipedia disclaimer notices Wikipedia semi-protected project pages This page was last changed on 24 August 2020, at 23:05. Page was rendered with Parsoid . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License and the GFDL ; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_ref-469
|
Pendhapa Owahan anyar Warta anyar Kaca anyar Kaca sembarang Kaca mirunggan Angkringan Paguyuban Pitulung Cithakan Bab Wikipédia Bak wedhi Nyumbang dana Gawé akun Mlebu log Nyumbang dana Gawé akun Mlebu log Gapura : Paguyuban Qafár af Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил Pangcah Aragonés Ænglisc Obolo अंगिका العربية الدارجة অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी Banjar বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Basa Ugi Català Chavacano de Zamboanga Нохчийн Chamoru Chahta anumpa کوردی Čeština Kaszëbsczi Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki ދިވެހިބަސް ཇོང་ཁ Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Français Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge 贛語 Gàidhlig Galego Avañe'ẽ Bahasa Hulontalo Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hiri Motu Magyar Otsiherero Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo ꆇꉙ Iñupiatun Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Patois ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Tyap Kongo Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Kernowek Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Ligure Lombard ລາວ Lietuvių Madhurâ Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Ebon Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം ဘာသာမန် मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь Dorerin Naoero Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाल भाषा Oshiwambo Li Niha Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Pangasinan Papiamentu Deitsch Pälzisch Polski Piemontèis پښتو Português Pinayuanan Runa Simi Română Armãneashti Tarandíne Русский Русиньскый Ikinyarwanda Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Sängö Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Sakizaya தமிழ் ತುಳು తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Setswana Türkçe Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tshivenda Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Winaray 吴语 Хальмг IsiXhosa ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Gapura Parembugan Waca Besut sumber Deleng sajarah Waca Besut sumber Deleng sajarah Pranala mréné Owahan magepokan Unggah Pranala permanèn Katerangan kaca URL cekak Undhuh kodhe QR Switch to legacy parser Gawé buku Undhuh dadi PDF Vèrsi cithak Wikimedia Commons MédiaWiki Wikisumber multibasa Wikispésies Wikidata Wikifungsi Wikimania Wiji Wikidata Paguyuban Papan parembugan Angkringan ( Basa - Niti - Tèhnis - Usul - Liyané ) Nulis artikel/Nyerat artikel Sugeng rawuh! - Bak wedhi - Aturan - Hak cipta - Miwiti kaca anyar - Mbesut kaca - Paugeran tata panggon - Pasang aksara (éjaan) - Pitulungan kanggo ngetik aksara Jawa ing Wikipédia - Artikel sing disuwun - Daftar Artikel Dhasar Bab Wikipedia Apa iku Wikipedia? - Wikimedia Foundation - Wara-wara - Milis - Kliping (Wikipedia ing médhia massa) - Wikiwan lan wikiwati - Mangga di-itung cacahé besutan 'njenengan! - Panata - Nyumbang dana Gapura liyané Agama Islam Kristen Buddha Hindhu Budaya Biografi Èlmu Filsafat Geografi Jawa Seni Paguyuban Sajarah Wayang Papan parembugan Angkringan ( Basa - Niti - Tèhnis - Usul - Liyané ) Nulis artikel/Nyerat artikel Sugeng rawuh! - Bak wedhi - Aturan - Hak cipta - Miwiti kaca anyar - Mbesut kaca - Paugeran tata panggon - Pasang aksara (éjaan) - Pitulungan kanggo ngetik aksara Jawa ing Wikipédia - Artikel sing disuwun - Daftar Artikel Dhasar Bab Wikipedia Apa iku Wikipedia? - Wikimedia Foundation - Wara-wara - Milis - Kliping (Wikipedia ing médhia massa) - Wikiwan lan wikiwati - Mangga di-itung cacahé besutan 'njenengan! - Panata - Nyumbang dana Agama Agama Islam Islam Kristen Kristen Buddha Buddha Hindhu Hindhu Budaya Budaya Biografi Biografi Èlmu Èlmu Filsafat Filsafat Geografi Geografi Jawa Jawa Seni Seni Paguyuban Paguyuban Sajarah Sajarah Wayang Wayang Wikipedia Gapura Paguyuban Kaca iki pungkasan diowah nalika 20.35, 6 Sèptèmber 2025. Halaman di- rènder menggunakan Parsoid . Tèks iki cumepak kanthi Lisènsi Atribusi-DumSaèmper Creative Commons ; paugeran tambahan bokmanawa uga lumaku. Wacaa Paugeran Panganggo kanggo rerincèné. Niti privasi Bab Wikipédia Sélakan Kodhe Ètik Juru pangembang Setatistik Pranyatan kuki Praèn punsèl
|
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gapura:Paguyuban
|
Introduction to the Rodentia Introduction to the Rodentia Lodgepole Chipmunk. Photo by Dr. Lloyd Glenn Ingles © 1999 California Academy of Sciences. The single largest group of mammals is the Rodentia. Most non-flying mammals are rodents: there are about 1,500 living rodent species (out of about 4,000 living mammals overall). Most people are familiar with mice, rats, hamsters, and guinea pigs, which are commonly kept as pets. The Rodentia also includes beavers, muskrats, porcupines, woodchucks, chipmunks, squirrels, prairie dogs, marmots, chinchillas, voles, lemmings, and many others. (Incidentally, the Rodentia does not include rabbits; rabbits differ from rodents in having an extra pair of incisors and in other skeletal features. Rabbits, hares, and a few other species make up the Lagomorpha . Shrews, moles and hedgehogs are also not rodents; they are classified in the Insectivora .) Rodents are found native on all continents except Antarctica. One particular family of rodents, the Muridae, contains over 1100 species: over a quarter of all mammal species are rats, mice, voles, muskrats, lemmings, hamsters, gerbils, and other members of the Muridae. However, rodents show perhaps their greatest diversity of form in South America, which was an isolated continent for much of the Cenozoic. A few of these distinctive South American rodents include mountain viscachas, rabbit-like forms that inhabit dry mountainous regions; Patagonian cavies, very rabbit-like, fast-running forms with elongated ears and short tails; the coypu or nutria, a large marsh-dwelling rodent that has been introduced into North America and is hunted for its fur; and various burrowing forms such as pacas and tuco-tucos. Other South American rodents include guinea pigs, chinchillas, and New World porcupines (one species of which has dispersed into North America). The capybara (shown at left), yet another South American species, is the largest living rodent. About the size of a pig, and reaching a maximum weight of 50 kg (110 pounds), the capybara is truly a rodent of unusual size. Capybaras live along rivers in the llanos (plains) of South America, and are often hunted or even ranched for their meat. Despite their great species diversity, all rodents share common features. Rodents have a single pair of incisors in each jaw, and the incisors grow continually throughout life. The incisors have thick enamel layers on the front but not on the back; this causes them to retain their chisel shape as they are worn down. Behind the incisors is a large gap in the tooth rows, or diastema ; there are no canines, and typically only a few molars at the rear of the jaws. Rodents gnaw with their incisors by pushing the lower jaw forward, and chew with the molars by pulling the lower jaw backwards. In conjunction with these chewing patterns, rodents have large and complex jaw musculature, with modifications to the skull and jaws to accommodate it. Like some other mammal taxa, but unlike rabbits and other lagomorphs, male rodents have a baculum (penis bone). Most rodents are herbivorous, but some are omnivorous, and others prey on insects. Rodents show a wide range of lifestyles, ranging from burrowing forms such as gophers and mole rats to tree-dwelling squirrels and gliding "flying" squirrels, from aquatic capybaras and muskrats to desert specialists such as kangaroo rats and jerboas, and from solitary organisms such as porcupines to highly social organisms living in extensive colonies, such as prairie dogs (left) and naked mole rats. Rodents cost billions of dollars in lost crops each year, and some are carriers of human diseases such as bubonic plague, typhus, and Hanta fever. However, various rodent species are economically important as sources of food or fur in many parts of the world, and others are used extensively in biomedical research. Many early mammal taxa were superficially rodent-like, such as the extinct multituberculates . However, true rodents first appear in the fossil record towards the end of the Paleocene epoch. Their ancestry is probably to be found among a group of small fossil mammals known as anagalids, which may also have given rise to the Lagomorpha. The living rodent with the most archaic characters, most like the common ancestor of the Rodentia, is the sewellel or mountain beaver (which is not a true beaver at all) of the northwestern United States. During the Oligocene , the South American rodents began their great evolutionary radiation. By the Miocene , very modern-looking squirrels had evolved, as had the murids. Murids began their spectacular radiation in the Pliocene . Noteworthy Pleistocene rodents include the extinct giant beaver, Castoroides , which was about the size of a bear. More prosaic rodent fossils from this time period, notably the teeth of voles and mice, have become important in reconstructing global climate patterns as well as in fine-scale studies of evolution. Some rodent links: Lewis Stead's Rodents as Pets Etc. Chinchilla Naked Mole Rats , from the National Zoo Rat and Mouse Club of America Lodgepole Chipmunk. Photo by Dr. Lloyd Glenn Ingles © 1999 California Academy of Sciences. The single largest group of mammals is the Rodentia. Most non-flying mammals are rodents: there are about 1,500 living rodent species (out of about 4,000 living mammals overall). Most people are familiar with mice, rats, hamsters, and guinea pigs, which are commonly kept as pets. The Rodentia also includes beavers, muskrats, porcupines, woodchucks, chipmunks, squirrels, prairie dogs, marmots, chinchillas, voles, lemmings, and many others. (Incidentally, the Rodentia does not include rabbits; rabbits differ from rodents in having an extra pair of incisors and in other skeletal features. Rabbits, hares, and a few other species make up the Lagomorpha . Shrews, moles and hedgehogs are also not rodents; they are classified in the Insectivora .) Rodents are found native on all continents except Antarctica. One particular family of rodents, the Muridae, contains over 1100 species: over a quarter of all mammal species are rats, mice, voles, muskrats, lemmings, hamsters, gerbils, and other members of the Muridae. However, rodents show perhaps their greatest diversity of form in South America, which was an isolated continent for much of the Cenozoic. A few of these distinctive South American rodents include mountain viscachas, rabbit-like forms that inhabit dry mountainous regions; Patagonian cavies, very rabbit-like, fast-running forms with elongated ears and short tails; the coypu or nutria, a large marsh-dwelling rodent that has been introduced into North America and is hunted for its fur; and various burrowing forms such as pacas and tuco-tucos. Other South American rodents include guinea pigs, chinchillas, and New World porcupines (one species of which has dispersed into North America). The capybara (shown at left), yet another South American species, is the largest living rodent. About the size of a pig, and reaching a maximum weight of 50 kg (110 pounds), the capybara is truly a rodent of unusual size. Capybaras live along rivers in the llanos (plains) of South America, and are often hunted or even ranched for their meat. Despite their great species diversity, all rodents share common features. Rodents have a single pair of incisors in each jaw, and the incisors grow continually throughout life. The incisors have thick enamel layers on the front but not on the back; this causes them to retain their chisel shape as they are worn down. Behind the incisors is a large gap in the tooth rows, or diastema ; there are no canines, and typically only a few molars at the rear of the jaws. Rodents gnaw with their incisors by pushing the lower jaw forward, and chew with the molars by pulling the lower jaw backwards. In conjunction with these chewing patterns, rodents have large and complex jaw musculature, with modifications to the skull and jaws to accommodate it. Like some other mammal taxa, but unlike rabbits and other lagomorphs, male rodents have a baculum (penis bone). Most rodents are herbivorous, but some are omnivorous, and others prey on insects. Rodents show a wide range of lifestyles, ranging from burrowing forms such as gophers and mole rats to tree-dwelling squirrels and gliding "flying" squirrels, from aquatic capybaras and muskrats to desert specialists such as kangaroo rats and jerboas, and from solitary organisms such as porcupines to highly social organisms living in extensive colonies, such as prairie dogs (left) and naked mole rats. Rodents cost billions of dollars in lost crops each year, and some are carriers of human diseases such as bubonic plague, typhus, and Hanta fever. However, various rodent species are economically important as sources of food or fur in many parts of the world, and others are used extensively in biomedical research. Many early mammal taxa were superficially rodent-like, such as the extinct multituberculates . However, true rodents first appear in the fossil record towards the end of the Paleocene epoch. Their ancestry is probably to be found among a group of small fossil mammals known as anagalids, which may also have given rise to the Lagomorpha. The living rodent with the most archaic characters, most like the common ancestor of the Rodentia, is the sewellel or mountain beaver (which is not a true beaver at all) of the northwestern United States. During the Oligocene , the South American rodents began their great evolutionary radiation. By the Miocene , very modern-looking squirrels had evolved, as had the murids. Murids began their spectacular radiation in the Pliocene . Noteworthy Pleistocene rodents include the extinct giant beaver, Castoroides , which was about the size of a bear. More prosaic rodent fossils from this time period, notably the teeth of voles and mice, have become important in reconstructing global climate patterns as well as in fine-scale studies of evolution. Some rodent links: Lewis Stead's Rodents as Pets Etc. Chinchilla Naked Mole Rats , from the National Zoo Rat and Mouse Club of America
|
https://web.archive.org/web/20090429075637/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/rodentia/rodentia.html
|
arXiv.org > 2601.10524 > format Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Format selector for 2601.10524 Note: Many of the formats above are served gzipped ( Content-Encoding: x-gzip ). Your browser may silently uncompress after downloading so the files you see saved may appear uncompressed. Please report any problems to arXiv technical support and include the paper identifier. About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
|
https://arxiv.org/format/2601.10524#content
|
We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 2,052 results for author: Zhu, X Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10497 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV mergetune: Continued fine-tuning of vision-language models Authors: Wenqing Wang , Da Li , Xiatian Zhu , Josef Kittler Abstract : Fine-tuning vision-language models (VLMs) such as CLIP often leads to catastrophic forgetting of pretrained knowledge. Prior work primarily aims to mitigate forgetting during adaptation; however, forgetting often remains inevitable during this process. We introduce a novel paradigm, \emph{continued fine-tuning (CFT)}, which seeks to recover pretrained knowledge after a zero-shot model has already… ▽ More Fine-tuning vision-language models (VLMs) such as CLIP often leads to catastrophic forgetting of pretrained knowledge. Prior work primarily aims to mitigate forgetting during adaptation; however, forgetting often remains inevitable during this process. We introduce a novel paradigm, \emph{continued fine-tuning (CFT)}, which seeks to recover pretrained knowledge after a zero-shot model has already been adapted. We propose a simple, model-agnostic CFT strategy (named MERGETUNE) guided by linear mode connectivity (LMC), which can be applied post hoc to existing fine-tuned models without requiring architectural changes. Given a fine-tuned model, we continue fine-tuning its trainable parameters (e.g., soft prompts or linear heads) to search for a continued model which has two low-loss paths to the zero-shot (e.g., CLIP) and the fine-tuned (e.g., CoOp) solutions. By exploiting the geometry of the loss landscape, the continued model implicitly merges the two solutions, restoring pretrained knowledge lost in the fine-tuned counterpart. A challenge is that the vanilla LMC constraint requires data replay from the pretraining task. We approximate this constraint for the zero-shot model via a second-order surrogate, eliminating the need for large-scale data replay. Experiments show that MERGETUNE improves the harmonic mean of CoOp by +5.6\% on base-novel generalisation without adding parameters. % We show \emph{the first time} superior performance than CLIP on both DTD and EuroSAT, on cross-dataset transfer. On robust fine-tuning evaluations, the LMC-merged model from MERGETUNE surpasses ensemble baselines with lower inference cost, achieving further gains and state-of-the-art results when ensembled with the zero-shot model. Our code is available at \href{ △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 20 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.10497 [ pdf , ps , other ] mergetune: Continued fine-tuning of vision-language models Authors: Wenqing Wang , Da Li , Xiatian Zhu , Josef Kittler Abstract : Fine-tuning vision-language models (VLMs) such as CLIP often leads to catastrophic forgetting of pretrained knowledge. Prior work primarily aims to mitigate forgetting during adaptation; however, forgetting often remains inevitable during this process. We introduce a novel paradigm, \emph{continued fine-tuning (CFT)}, which seeks to recover pretrained knowledge after a zero-shot model has already… ▽ More Fine-tuning vision-language models (VLMs) such as CLIP often leads to catastrophic forgetting of pretrained knowledge. Prior work primarily aims to mitigate forgetting during adaptation; however, forgetting often remains inevitable during this process. We introduce a novel paradigm, \emph{continued fine-tuning (CFT)}, which seeks to recover pretrained knowledge after a zero-shot model has already been adapted. We propose a simple, model-agnostic CFT strategy (named MERGETUNE) guided by linear mode connectivity (LMC), which can be applied post hoc to existing fine-tuned models without requiring architectural changes. Given a fine-tuned model, we continue fine-tuning its trainable parameters (e.g., soft prompts or linear heads) to search for a continued model which has two low-loss paths to the zero-shot (e.g., CLIP) and the fine-tuned (e.g., CoOp) solutions. By exploiting the geometry of the loss landscape, the continued model implicitly merges the two solutions, restoring pretrained knowledge lost in the fine-tuned counterpart. A challenge is that the vanilla LMC constraint requires data replay from the pretraining task. We approximate this constraint for the zero-shot model via a second-order surrogate, eliminating the need for large-scale data replay. Experiments show that MERGETUNE improves the harmonic mean of CoOp by +5.6\% on base-novel generalisation without adding parameters. % We show \emph{the first time} superior performance than CLIP on both DTD and EuroSAT, on cross-dataset transfer. On robust fine-tuning evaluations, the LMC-merged model from MERGETUNE surpasses ensemble baselines with lower inference cost, achieving further gains and state-of-the-art results when ensembled with the zero-shot model. Our code is available at \href{ △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 20 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2601.10402 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Toward Ultra-Long-Horizon Agentic Science: Cognitive Accumulation for Machine Learning Engineering Authors: Xinyu Zhu , Yuzhu Cai , Zexi Liu , Bingyang Zheng , Cheng Wang , Rui Ye , Jiaao Chen , Hanrui Wang , Wei-Chen Wang , Yuzhi Zhang , Linfeng Zhang , Weinan E , Di Jin , Siheng Chen Abstract : The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in t… ▽ More The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in the high-dimensional, delayed-feedback environments of real-world research, failing to consolidate sparse feedback into coherent long-term guidance. Here, we present ML-Master 2.0, an autonomous agent that masters ultra-long-horizon machine learning engineering (MLE) which is a representative microcosm of scientific discovery. By reframing context management as a process of cognitive accumulation, our approach introduces Hierarchical Cognitive Caching (HCC), a multi-tiered architecture inspired by computer systems that enables the structural differentiation of experience over time. By dynamically distilling transient execution traces into stable knowledge and cross-task wisdom, HCC allows agents to decouple immediate execution from long-term experimental strategy, effectively overcoming the scaling limits of static context windows. In evaluations on OpenAI's MLE-Bench under 24-hour budgets, ML-Master 2.0 achieves a state-of-the-art medal rate of 56.44%. Our findings demonstrate that ultra-long-horizon autonomy provides a scalable blueprint for AI capable of autonomous exploration beyond human-precedent complexities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages. 5 figures arXiv:2601.10402 [ pdf , ps , other ] Toward Ultra-Long-Horizon Agentic Science: Cognitive Accumulation for Machine Learning Engineering Authors: Xinyu Zhu , Yuzhu Cai , Zexi Liu , Bingyang Zheng , Cheng Wang , Rui Ye , Jiaao Chen , Hanrui Wang , Wei-Chen Wang , Yuzhi Zhang , Linfeng Zhang , Weinan E , Di Jin , Siheng Chen Abstract : The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in t… ▽ More The advancement of artificial intelligence toward agentic science is currently bottlenecked by the challenge of ultra-long-horizon autonomy, the ability to sustain strategic coherence and iterative correction over experimental cycles spanning days or weeks. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated prowess in short-horizon reasoning, they are easily overwhelmed by execution details in the high-dimensional, delayed-feedback environments of real-world research, failing to consolidate sparse feedback into coherent long-term guidance. Here, we present ML-Master 2.0, an autonomous agent that masters ultra-long-horizon machine learning engineering (MLE) which is a representative microcosm of scientific discovery. By reframing context management as a process of cognitive accumulation, our approach introduces Hierarchical Cognitive Caching (HCC), a multi-tiered architecture inspired by computer systems that enables the structural differentiation of experience over time. By dynamically distilling transient execution traces into stable knowledge and cross-task wisdom, HCC allows agents to decouple immediate execution from long-term experimental strategy, effectively overcoming the scaling limits of static context windows. In evaluations on OpenAI's MLE-Bench under 24-hour budgets, ML-Master 2.0 achieves a state-of-the-art medal rate of 56.44%. Our findings demonstrate that ultra-long-horizon autonomy provides a scalable blueprint for AI capable of autonomous exploration beyond human-precedent complexities. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 26 pages. 5 figures arXiv:2601.09515 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL SERM: Self-Evolving Relevance Model with Agent-Driven Learning from Massive Query Streams Authors: Chenglong Wang , Canjia Li , Xingzhao Zhu , Yifu Huo , Huiyu Wang , Weixiong Lin , Yun Yang , Qiaozhi He , Tianhua Zhou , Xiaojia Chang , Jingbo Zhu , Tong Xiao Abstract : Due to the dynamically evolving nature of real-world query streams, relevance models struggle to generalize to practical search scenarios. A sophisticated solution is self-evolution techniques. However, in large-scale industrial settings with massive query streams, this technique faces two challenges: (1) informative samples are often sparse and difficult to identify, and (2) pseudo-labels generat… ▽ More Due to the dynamically evolving nature of real-world query streams, relevance models struggle to generalize to practical search scenarios. A sophisticated solution is self-evolution techniques. However, in large-scale industrial settings with massive query streams, this technique faces two challenges: (1) informative samples are often sparse and difficult to identify, and (2) pseudo-labels generated by the current model could be unreliable. To address these challenges, in this work, we propose a Self-Evolving Relevance Model approach (SERM), which comprises two complementary multi-agent modules: a multi-agent sample miner, designed to detect distributional shifts and identify informative training samples, and a multi-agent relevance annotator, which provides reliable labels through a two-level agreement framework. We evaluate SERM in a large-scale industrial setting, which serves billions of user requests daily. Experimental results demonstrate that SERM can achieve significant performance gains through iterative self-evolution, as validated by extensive offline multilingual evaluations and online testing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09515 [ pdf , ps , other ] SERM: Self-Evolving Relevance Model with Agent-Driven Learning from Massive Query Streams Authors: Chenglong Wang , Canjia Li , Xingzhao Zhu , Yifu Huo , Huiyu Wang , Weixiong Lin , Yun Yang , Qiaozhi He , Tianhua Zhou , Xiaojia Chang , Jingbo Zhu , Tong Xiao Abstract : Due to the dynamically evolving nature of real-world query streams, relevance models struggle to generalize to practical search scenarios. A sophisticated solution is self-evolution techniques. However, in large-scale industrial settings with massive query streams, this technique faces two challenges: (1) informative samples are often sparse and difficult to identify, and (2) pseudo-labels generat… ▽ More Due to the dynamically evolving nature of real-world query streams, relevance models struggle to generalize to practical search scenarios. A sophisticated solution is self-evolution techniques. However, in large-scale industrial settings with massive query streams, this technique faces two challenges: (1) informative samples are often sparse and difficult to identify, and (2) pseudo-labels generated by the current model could be unreliable. To address these challenges, in this work, we propose a Self-Evolving Relevance Model approach (SERM), which comprises two complementary multi-agent modules: a multi-agent sample miner, designed to detect distributional shifts and identify informative training samples, and a multi-agent relevance annotator, which provides reliable labels through a two-level agreement framework. We evaluate SERM in a large-scale industrial setting, which serves billions of user requests daily. Experimental results demonstrate that SERM can achieve significant performance gains through iterative self-evolution, as validated by extensive offline multilingual evaluations and online testing. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09338 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DL cs.IR cs.SI A Deep Dive into OpenStreetMap Research Since its Inception (2008-2024): Contributors, Topics, and Future Trends Authors: Yao Sun , Liqiu Meng , Andres Camero , Stefan Auer , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : OpenStreetMap (OSM) has transitioned from a pioneering volunteered geographic information (VGI) project into a global, multi-disciplinary research nexus. This study presents a bibliometric and systematic analysis of the OSM research landscape, examining its development trajectory and key driving forces. By evaluating 1,926 publications from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection and 782 State of… ▽ More OpenStreetMap (OSM) has transitioned from a pioneering volunteered geographic information (VGI) project into a global, multi-disciplinary research nexus. This study presents a bibliometric and systematic analysis of the OSM research landscape, examining its development trajectory and key driving forces. By evaluating 1,926 publications from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection and 782 State of the Map (SotM) presentations up to June 2024, we quantify publication growth, collaboration patterns, and thematic evolution. Results demonstrate simultaneous consolidation and diversification within the field. While a stable core of contributors continues to anchor OSM research, themes have shifted from initial concerns over data production and quality toward advanced analytical and applied uses. Comparative analysis of OSM-related research in WoS and SotM reveals distinct but complementary agendas between scholars and the OSM community. Building on these findings, we identify six emerging research directions and discuss how evolving partnerships among academia, the OSM community, and industry are poised to shape the future of OSM research. This study establishes a structured reference for understanding the state of OSM studies and offers strategic pathways for navigating its future trajectory.The data and code are available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09338 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Deep Dive into OpenStreetMap Research Since its Inception (2008-2024): Contributors, Topics, and Future Trends Authors: Yao Sun , Liqiu Meng , Andres Camero , Stefan Auer , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : OpenStreetMap (OSM) has transitioned from a pioneering volunteered geographic information (VGI) project into a global, multi-disciplinary research nexus. This study presents a bibliometric and systematic analysis of the OSM research landscape, examining its development trajectory and key driving forces. By evaluating 1,926 publications from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection and 782 State of… ▽ More OpenStreetMap (OSM) has transitioned from a pioneering volunteered geographic information (VGI) project into a global, multi-disciplinary research nexus. This study presents a bibliometric and systematic analysis of the OSM research landscape, examining its development trajectory and key driving forces. By evaluating 1,926 publications from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection and 782 State of the Map (SotM) presentations up to June 2024, we quantify publication growth, collaboration patterns, and thematic evolution. Results demonstrate simultaneous consolidation and diversification within the field. While a stable core of contributors continues to anchor OSM research, themes have shifted from initial concerns over data production and quality toward advanced analytical and applied uses. Comparative analysis of OSM-related research in WoS and SotM reveals distinct but complementary agendas between scholars and the OSM community. Building on these findings, we identify six emerging research directions and discuss how evolving partnerships among academia, the OSM community, and industry are poised to shape the future of OSM research. This study establishes a structured reference for understanding the state of OSM studies and offers strategic pathways for navigating its future trajectory.The data and code are available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09263 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV BrainSegNet: A Novel Framework for Whole-Brain MRI Parcellation Enhanced by Large Models Authors: Yucheng Li , Xiaofan Wang , Junyi Wang , Yijie Li , Xi Zhu , Mubai Du , Dian Sheng , Wei Zhang , Fan Zhang Abstract : Whole-brain parcellation from MRI is a critical yet challenging task due to the complexity of subdividing the brain into numerous small, irregular shaped regions. Traditionally, template-registration methods were used, but recent advances have shifted to deep learning for faster workflows. While large models like the Segment Anything Model (SAM) offer transferable feature representations, they are… ▽ More Whole-brain parcellation from MRI is a critical yet challenging task due to the complexity of subdividing the brain into numerous small, irregular shaped regions. Traditionally, template-registration methods were used, but recent advances have shifted to deep learning for faster workflows. While large models like the Segment Anything Model (SAM) offer transferable feature representations, they are not tailored for the high precision required in brain parcellation. To address this, we propose BrainSegNet, a novel framework that adapts SAM for accurate whole-brain parcellation into 95 regions. We enhance SAM by integrating U-Net skip connections and specialized modules into its encoder and decoder, enabling fine-grained anatomical precision. Key components include a hybrid encoder combining U-Net skip connections with SAM's transformer blocks, a multi-scale attention decoder with pyramid pooling for varying-sized structures, and a boundary refinement module to sharpen edges. Experimental results on the Human Connectome Project (HCP) dataset demonstrate that BrainSegNet outperforms several state-of-the-art methods, achieving higher accuracy and robustness in complex, multi-label parcellation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09263 [ pdf , ps , other ] BrainSegNet: A Novel Framework for Whole-Brain MRI Parcellation Enhanced by Large Models Authors: Yucheng Li , Xiaofan Wang , Junyi Wang , Yijie Li , Xi Zhu , Mubai Du , Dian Sheng , Wei Zhang , Fan Zhang Abstract : Whole-brain parcellation from MRI is a critical yet challenging task due to the complexity of subdividing the brain into numerous small, irregular shaped regions. Traditionally, template-registration methods were used, but recent advances have shifted to deep learning for faster workflows. While large models like the Segment Anything Model (SAM) offer transferable feature representations, they are… ▽ More Whole-brain parcellation from MRI is a critical yet challenging task due to the complexity of subdividing the brain into numerous small, irregular shaped regions. Traditionally, template-registration methods were used, but recent advances have shifted to deep learning for faster workflows. While large models like the Segment Anything Model (SAM) offer transferable feature representations, they are not tailored for the high precision required in brain parcellation. To address this, we propose BrainSegNet, a novel framework that adapts SAM for accurate whole-brain parcellation into 95 regions. We enhance SAM by integrating U-Net skip connections and specialized modules into its encoder and decoder, enabling fine-grained anatomical precision. Key components include a hybrid encoder combining U-Net skip connections with SAM's transformer blocks, a multi-scale attention decoder with pyramid pooling for varying-sized structures, and a boundary refinement module to sharpen edges. Experimental results on the Human Connectome Project (HCP) dataset demonstrate that BrainSegNet outperforms several state-of-the-art methods, achieving higher accuracy and robustness in complex, multi-label parcellation. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09044 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.CV POWDR: Pathology-preserving Outpainting with Wavelet Diffusion for 3D MRI Authors: Fei Tan , Ashok Vardhan Addala , Bruno Astuto Arouche Nunes , Xucheng Zhu , Ravi Soni Abstract : Medical imaging datasets often suffer from class imbalance and limited availability of pathology-rich cases, which constrains the performance of machine learning models for segmentation, classification, and vision-language tasks. To address this challenge, we propose POWDR, a pathology-preserving outpainting framework for 3D MRI based on a conditioned wavelet diffusion model. Unlike conventional a… ▽ More Medical imaging datasets often suffer from class imbalance and limited availability of pathology-rich cases, which constrains the performance of machine learning models for segmentation, classification, and vision-language tasks. To address this challenge, we propose POWDR, a pathology-preserving outpainting framework for 3D MRI based on a conditioned wavelet diffusion model. Unlike conventional augmentation or unconditional synthesis, POWDR retains real pathological regions while generating anatomically plausible surrounding tissue, enabling diversity without fabricating lesions. Our approach leverages wavelet-domain conditioning to enhance high-frequency detail and mitigate blurring common in latent diffusion models. We introduce a random connected mask training strategy to overcome conditioning-induced collapse and improve diversity outside the lesion. POWDR is evaluated on brain MRI using BraTS datasets and extended to knee MRI to demonstrate tissue-agnostic applicability. Quantitative metrics (FID, SSIM, LPIPS) confirm image realism, while diversity analysis shows significant improvement with random-mask training (cosine similarity reduced from 0.9947 to 0.9580; KL divergence increased from 0.00026 to 0.01494). Clinically relevant assessments reveal gains in tumor segmentation performance using nnU-Net, with Dice scores improving from 0.6992 to 0.7137 when adding 50 synthetic cases. Tissue volume analysis indicates no significant differences for CSF and GM compared to real images. These findings highlight POWDR as a practical solution for addressing data scarcity and class imbalance in medical imaging. The method is extensible to multiple anatomies and offers a controllable framework for generating diverse, pathology-preserving synthetic data to support robust model development. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09044 [ pdf , ps , other ] POWDR: Pathology-preserving Outpainting with Wavelet Diffusion for 3D MRI Authors: Fei Tan , Ashok Vardhan Addala , Bruno Astuto Arouche Nunes , Xucheng Zhu , Ravi Soni Abstract : Medical imaging datasets often suffer from class imbalance and limited availability of pathology-rich cases, which constrains the performance of machine learning models for segmentation, classification, and vision-language tasks. To address this challenge, we propose POWDR, a pathology-preserving outpainting framework for 3D MRI based on a conditioned wavelet diffusion model. Unlike conventional a… ▽ More Medical imaging datasets often suffer from class imbalance and limited availability of pathology-rich cases, which constrains the performance of machine learning models for segmentation, classification, and vision-language tasks. To address this challenge, we propose POWDR, a pathology-preserving outpainting framework for 3D MRI based on a conditioned wavelet diffusion model. Unlike conventional augmentation or unconditional synthesis, POWDR retains real pathological regions while generating anatomically plausible surrounding tissue, enabling diversity without fabricating lesions. Our approach leverages wavelet-domain conditioning to enhance high-frequency detail and mitigate blurring common in latent diffusion models. We introduce a random connected mask training strategy to overcome conditioning-induced collapse and improve diversity outside the lesion. POWDR is evaluated on brain MRI using BraTS datasets and extended to knee MRI to demonstrate tissue-agnostic applicability. Quantitative metrics (FID, SSIM, LPIPS) confirm image realism, while diversity analysis shows significant improvement with random-mask training (cosine similarity reduced from 0.9947 to 0.9580; KL divergence increased from 0.00026 to 0.01494). Clinically relevant assessments reveal gains in tumor segmentation performance using nnU-Net, with Dice scores improving from 0.6992 to 0.7137 when adding 50 synthetic cases. Tissue volume analysis indicates no significant differences for CSF and GM compared to real images. These findings highlight POWDR as a practical solution for addressing data scarcity and class imbalance in medical imaging. The method is extensible to multiple anatomies and offers a controllable framework for generating diverse, pathology-preserving synthetic data to support robust model development. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08797 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV DentalX: Context-Aware Dental Disease Detection with Radiographs Authors: Zhi Qin Tan , Xiatian Zhu , Owen Addison , Yunpeng Li Abstract : Diagnosing dental diseases from radiographs is time-consuming and challenging due to the subtle nature of diagnostic evidence. Existing methods, which rely on object detection models designed for natural images with more distinct target patterns, struggle to detect dental diseases that present with far less visual support. To address this challenge, we propose {\bf DentalX}, a novel context-aware… ▽ More Diagnosing dental diseases from radiographs is time-consuming and challenging due to the subtle nature of diagnostic evidence. Existing methods, which rely on object detection models designed for natural images with more distinct target patterns, struggle to detect dental diseases that present with far less visual support. To address this challenge, we propose {\bf DentalX}, a novel context-aware dental disease detection approach that leverages oral structure information to mitigate the visual ambiguity inherent in radiographs. Specifically, we introduce a structural context extraction module that learns an auxiliary task: semantic segmentation of dental anatomy. The module extracts meaningful structural context and integrates it into the primary disease detection task to enhance the detection of subtle dental diseases. Extensive experiments on a dedicated benchmark demonstrate that DentalX significantly outperforms prior methods in both tasks. This mutual benefit arises naturally during model optimization, as the correlation between the two tasks is effectively captured. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted at ISBI 2026 arXiv:2601.08797 [ pdf , ps , other ] DentalX: Context-Aware Dental Disease Detection with Radiographs Authors: Zhi Qin Tan , Xiatian Zhu , Owen Addison , Yunpeng Li Abstract : Diagnosing dental diseases from radiographs is time-consuming and challenging due to the subtle nature of diagnostic evidence. Existing methods, which rely on object detection models designed for natural images with more distinct target patterns, struggle to detect dental diseases that present with far less visual support. To address this challenge, we propose {\bf DentalX}, a novel context-aware… ▽ More Diagnosing dental diseases from radiographs is time-consuming and challenging due to the subtle nature of diagnostic evidence. Existing methods, which rely on object detection models designed for natural images with more distinct target patterns, struggle to detect dental diseases that present with far less visual support. To address this challenge, we propose {\bf DentalX}, a novel context-aware dental disease detection approach that leverages oral structure information to mitigate the visual ambiguity inherent in radiographs. Specifically, we introduce a structural context extraction module that learns an auxiliary task: semantic segmentation of dental anatomy. The module extracts meaningful structural context and integrates it into the primary disease detection task to enhance the detection of subtle dental diseases. Extensive experiments on a dedicated benchmark demonstrate that DentalX significantly outperforms prior methods in both tasks. This mutual benefit arises naturally during model optimization, as the correlation between the two tasks is effectively captured. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted at ISBI 2026 arXiv:2601.07695 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Smooth Operator: Smooth Verifiable Reward Activates Spatial Reasoning Ability of Vision-Language Model Authors: Siwen Jiao , Tianxiong Lv , Kangan Qian , Chenxu Zhao , Xiuyuan Zhu , Tianlun Li , Xiaolong Cheng , Jinyu Li , Zhihao Liao , Yang Cai Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) face a critical bottleneck in achieving precise numerical prediction for 3D scene understanding. Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) approaches, primarily based on relative ranking, often suffer from severe reward sparsity and gradient instability, failing to effectively exploit the verifiable signals provided by 3D physical constraints. Notably, in standard GRPO… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) face a critical bottleneck in achieving precise numerical prediction for 3D scene understanding. Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) approaches, primarily based on relative ranking, often suffer from severe reward sparsity and gradient instability, failing to effectively exploit the verifiable signals provided by 3D physical constraints. Notably, in standard GRPO frameworks, relative normalization causes "near-miss" samples (characterized by small but non-zero errors) to suffer from advantage collapse. This leads to a severe data utilization bottleneck where valuable boundary samples are discarded during optimization. To address this, we introduce the Smooth Numerical Reward Activation (SNRA) operator and the Absolute-Preserving GRPO (AP-GRPO) framework. SNRA employs a dynamically parameterized Sigmoid function to transform raw feedback into a dense, continuous reward continuum. Concurrently, AP-GRPO integrates absolute scalar gradients to mitigate the numerical information loss inherent in conventional relative-ranking mechanisms. By leveraging this approach, we constructed Numerical3D-50k, a dataset comprising 50,000 verifiable 3D subtasks. Empirical results indicate that AP-GRPO achieves performance parity with large-scale supervised methods while maintaining higher data efficiency, effectively activating latent 3D reasoning in VLMs without requiring architectural modifications. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07695 [ pdf , ps , other ] Smooth Operator: Smooth Verifiable Reward Activates Spatial Reasoning Ability of Vision-Language Model Authors: Siwen Jiao , Tianxiong Lv , Kangan Qian , Chenxu Zhao , Xiuyuan Zhu , Tianlun Li , Xiaolong Cheng , Jinyu Li , Zhihao Liao , Yang Cai Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) face a critical bottleneck in achieving precise numerical prediction for 3D scene understanding. Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) approaches, primarily based on relative ranking, often suffer from severe reward sparsity and gradient instability, failing to effectively exploit the verifiable signals provided by 3D physical constraints. Notably, in standard GRPO… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) face a critical bottleneck in achieving precise numerical prediction for 3D scene understanding. Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) approaches, primarily based on relative ranking, often suffer from severe reward sparsity and gradient instability, failing to effectively exploit the verifiable signals provided by 3D physical constraints. Notably, in standard GRPO frameworks, relative normalization causes "near-miss" samples (characterized by small but non-zero errors) to suffer from advantage collapse. This leads to a severe data utilization bottleneck where valuable boundary samples are discarded during optimization. To address this, we introduce the Smooth Numerical Reward Activation (SNRA) operator and the Absolute-Preserving GRPO (AP-GRPO) framework. SNRA employs a dynamically parameterized Sigmoid function to transform raw feedback into a dense, continuous reward continuum. Concurrently, AP-GRPO integrates absolute scalar gradients to mitigate the numerical information loss inherent in conventional relative-ranking mechanisms. By leveraging this approach, we constructed Numerical3D-50k, a dataset comprising 50,000 verifiable 3D subtasks. Empirical results indicate that AP-GRPO achieves performance parity with large-scale supervised methods while maintaining higher data efficiency, effectively activating latent 3D reasoning in VLMs without requiring architectural modifications. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; v1 submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07139 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CE AdaField: Generalizable Surface Pressure Modeling with Physics-Informed Pre-training and Flow-Conditioned Adaptation Authors: Junhong Zou , Wei Qiu , Zhenxu Sun , Xiaomei Zhang , Zhaoxiang Zhang , Xiangyu Zhu Abstract : The surface pressure field of transportation systems, including cars, trains, and aircraft, is critical for aerodynamic analysis and design. In recent years, deep neural networks have emerged as promising and efficient methods for modeling surface pressure field, being alternatives to computationally expensive CFD simulations. Currently, large-scale public datasets are available for domains such a… ▽ More The surface pressure field of transportation systems, including cars, trains, and aircraft, is critical for aerodynamic analysis and design. In recent years, deep neural networks have emerged as promising and efficient methods for modeling surface pressure field, being alternatives to computationally expensive CFD simulations. Currently, large-scale public datasets are available for domains such as automotive aerodynamics. However, in many specialized areas, such as high-speed trains, data scarcity remains a fundamental challenge in aerodynamic modeling, severely limiting the effectiveness of standard neural network approaches. To address this limitation, we propose the Adaptive Field Learning Framework (AdaField), which pre-trains the model on public large-scale datasets to improve generalization in sub-domains with limited data. AdaField comprises two key components. First, we design the Semantic Aggregation Point Transformer (SAPT) as a high-performance backbone that efficiently handles large-scale point clouds for surface pressure prediction. Second, regarding the substantial differences in flow conditions and geometric scales across different aerodynamic subdomains, we propose Flow-Conditioned Adapter (FCA) and Physics-Informed Data Augmentation (PIDA). FCA enables the model to flexibly adapt to different flow conditions with a small set of trainable parameters, while PIDA expands the training data distribution to better cover variations in object scale and velocity. Our experiments show that AdaField achieves SOTA performance on the DrivAerNet++ dataset and can be effectively transferred to train and aircraft scenarios with minimal fine-tuning. These results highlight AdaField's potential as a generalizable and transferable solution for surface pressure field modeling, supporting efficient aerodynamic design across a wide range of transportation systems. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07139 [ pdf , ps , other ] AdaField: Generalizable Surface Pressure Modeling with Physics-Informed Pre-training and Flow-Conditioned Adaptation Authors: Junhong Zou , Wei Qiu , Zhenxu Sun , Xiaomei Zhang , Zhaoxiang Zhang , Xiangyu Zhu Abstract : The surface pressure field of transportation systems, including cars, trains, and aircraft, is critical for aerodynamic analysis and design. In recent years, deep neural networks have emerged as promising and efficient methods for modeling surface pressure field, being alternatives to computationally expensive CFD simulations. Currently, large-scale public datasets are available for domains such a… ▽ More The surface pressure field of transportation systems, including cars, trains, and aircraft, is critical for aerodynamic analysis and design. In recent years, deep neural networks have emerged as promising and efficient methods for modeling surface pressure field, being alternatives to computationally expensive CFD simulations. Currently, large-scale public datasets are available for domains such as automotive aerodynamics. However, in many specialized areas, such as high-speed trains, data scarcity remains a fundamental challenge in aerodynamic modeling, severely limiting the effectiveness of standard neural network approaches. To address this limitation, we propose the Adaptive Field Learning Framework (AdaField), which pre-trains the model on public large-scale datasets to improve generalization in sub-domains with limited data. AdaField comprises two key components. First, we design the Semantic Aggregation Point Transformer (SAPT) as a high-performance backbone that efficiently handles large-scale point clouds for surface pressure prediction. Second, regarding the substantial differences in flow conditions and geometric scales across different aerodynamic subdomains, we propose Flow-Conditioned Adapter (FCA) and Physics-Informed Data Augmentation (PIDA). FCA enables the model to flexibly adapt to different flow conditions with a small set of trainable parameters, while PIDA expands the training data distribution to better cover variations in object scale and velocity. Our experiments show that AdaField achieves SOTA performance on the DrivAerNet++ dataset and can be effectively transferred to train and aircraft scenarios with minimal fine-tuning. These results highlight AdaField's potential as a generalizable and transferable solution for surface pressure field modeling, supporting efficient aerodynamic design across a wide range of transportation systems. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05640 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SGDrive: Scene-to-Goal Hierarchical World Cognition for Autonomous Driving Authors: Jingyu Li , Junjie Wu , Dongnan Hu , Xiangkai Huang , Bin Sun , Zhihui Hao , Xianpeng Lang , Xiatian Zhu , Li Zhang Abstract : Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal… ▽ More Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal representations that capture geometric relationships, scene context, and motion patterns critical for safe trajectory planning. To address these limitations, we propose SGDrive, a novel framework that explicitly structures the VLM's representation learning around driving-specific knowledge hierarchies. Built upon a pre-trained VLM backbone, SGDrive decomposes driving understanding into a scene-agent-goal hierarchy that mirrors human driving cognition: drivers first perceive the overall environment (scene context), then attend to safety-critical agents and their behaviors, and finally formulate short-term goals before executing actions. This hierarchical decomposition provides the structured spatial-temporal representation that generalist VLMs lack, integrating multi-level information into a compact yet comprehensive format for trajectory planning. Extensive experiments on the NAVSIM benchmark demonstrate that SGDrive achieves state-of-the-art performance among camera-only methods on both PDMS and EPDMS, validating the effectiveness of hierarchical knowledge structuring for adapting generalist VLMs to autonomous driving. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05640 [ pdf , ps , other ] SGDrive: Scene-to-Goal Hierarchical World Cognition for Autonomous Driving Authors: Jingyu Li , Junjie Wu , Dongnan Hu , Xiangkai Huang , Bin Sun , Zhihui Hao , Xianpeng Lang , Xiatian Zhu , Li Zhang Abstract : Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal… ▽ More Recent end-to-end autonomous driving approaches have leveraged Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to enhance planning capabilities in complex driving scenarios. However, VLMs are inherently trained as generalist models, lacking specialized understanding of driving-specific reasoning in 3D space and time. When applied to autonomous driving, these models struggle to establish structured spatial-temporal representations that capture geometric relationships, scene context, and motion patterns critical for safe trajectory planning. To address these limitations, we propose SGDrive, a novel framework that explicitly structures the VLM's representation learning around driving-specific knowledge hierarchies. Built upon a pre-trained VLM backbone, SGDrive decomposes driving understanding into a scene-agent-goal hierarchy that mirrors human driving cognition: drivers first perceive the overall environment (scene context), then attend to safety-critical agents and their behaviors, and finally formulate short-term goals before executing actions. This hierarchical decomposition provides the structured spatial-temporal representation that generalist VLMs lack, integrating multi-level information into a compact yet comprehensive format for trajectory planning. Extensive experiments on the NAVSIM benchmark demonstrate that SGDrive achieves state-of-the-art performance among camera-only methods on both PDMS and EPDMS, validating the effectiveness of hierarchical knowledge structuring for adapting generalist VLMs to autonomous driving. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04700 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL PRISM: A Unified Framework for Post-Training LLMs Without Verifiable Rewards Authors: Mukesh Ghimire , Aosong Feng , Liwen You , Youzhi Luo , Fang Liu , Xuan Zhu Abstract : Current techniques for post-training Large Language Models (LLMs) rely either on costly human supervision or on external verifiers to boost performance on tasks such as mathematical reasoning and code generation. However, as LLMs improve their problem-solving, any further improvement will potentially require high-quality solutions to difficult problems that are not available to humans. As a result… ▽ More Current techniques for post-training Large Language Models (LLMs) rely either on costly human supervision or on external verifiers to boost performance on tasks such as mathematical reasoning and code generation. However, as LLMs improve their problem-solving, any further improvement will potentially require high-quality solutions to difficult problems that are not available to humans. As a result, learning from unlabeled data is becoming increasingly attractive in the research community. Existing methods extract learning signal from a model's consistency, either by majority voting or by converting the model's internal confidence into reward. Although internal consistency metric such as entropy or self-certainty require no human intervention, as we show in this work, these are unreliable signals for large-scale and long-term training. To address the unreliability, we propose PRISM, a unified training framework that uses a Process Reward Model (PRM) to guide learning alongside model's internal confidence in the absence of ground-truth labels. We show that effectively combining PRM with self-certainty can lead to both stable training and better test-time performance, and also keep the model's internal confidence in check. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint. Under Review arXiv:2601.04700 [ pdf , ps , other ] PRISM: A Unified Framework for Post-Training LLMs Without Verifiable Rewards Authors: Mukesh Ghimire , Aosong Feng , Liwen You , Youzhi Luo , Fang Liu , Xuan Zhu Abstract : Current techniques for post-training Large Language Models (LLMs) rely either on costly human supervision or on external verifiers to boost performance on tasks such as mathematical reasoning and code generation. However, as LLMs improve their problem-solving, any further improvement will potentially require high-quality solutions to difficult problems that are not available to humans. As a result… ▽ More Current techniques for post-training Large Language Models (LLMs) rely either on costly human supervision or on external verifiers to boost performance on tasks such as mathematical reasoning and code generation. However, as LLMs improve their problem-solving, any further improvement will potentially require high-quality solutions to difficult problems that are not available to humans. As a result, learning from unlabeled data is becoming increasingly attractive in the research community. Existing methods extract learning signal from a model's consistency, either by majority voting or by converting the model's internal confidence into reward. Although internal consistency metric such as entropy or self-certainty require no human intervention, as we show in this work, these are unreliable signals for large-scale and long-term training. To address the unreliability, we propose PRISM, a unified training framework that uses a Process Reward Model (PRM) to guide learning alongside model's internal confidence in the absence of ground-truth labels. We show that effectively combining PRM with self-certainty can lead to both stable training and better test-time performance, and also keep the model's internal confidence in check. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Preprint. Under Review arXiv:2601.04682 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV HATIR: Heat-Aware Diffusion for Turbulent Infrared Video Super-Resolution Authors: Yang Zou , Xingyue Zhu , Kaiqi Han , Jun Ma , Xingyuan Li , Zhiying Jiang , Jinyuan Liu Abstract : Infrared video has been of great interest in visual tasks under challenging environments, but often suffers from severe atmospheric turbulence and compression degradation. Existing video super-resolution (VSR) methods either neglect the inherent modality gap between infrared and visible images or fail to restore turbulence-induced distortions. Directly cascading turbulence mitigation (TM) algorith… ▽ More Infrared video has been of great interest in visual tasks under challenging environments, but often suffers from severe atmospheric turbulence and compression degradation. Existing video super-resolution (VSR) methods either neglect the inherent modality gap between infrared and visible images or fail to restore turbulence-induced distortions. Directly cascading turbulence mitigation (TM) algorithms with VSR methods leads to error propagation and accumulation due to the decoupled modeling of degradation between turbulence and resolution. We introduce HATIR, a Heat-Aware Diffusion for Turbulent InfraRed Video Super-Resolution, which injects heat-aware deformation priors into the diffusion sampling path to jointly model the inverse process of turbulent degradation and structural detail loss. Specifically, HATIR constructs a Phasor-Guided Flow Estimator, rooted in the physical principle that thermally active regions exhibit consistent phasor responses over time, enabling reliable turbulence-aware flow to guide the reverse diffusion process. To ensure the fidelity of structural recovery under nonuniform distortions, a Turbulence-Aware Decoder is proposed to selectively suppress unstable temporal cues and enhance edge-aware feature aggregation via turbulence gating and structure-aware attention. We built FLIR-IVSR, the first dataset for turbulent infrared VSR, comprising paired LR-HR sequences from a FLIR T1050sc camera (1024 X 768) spanning 640 diverse scenes with varying camera and object motion conditions. This encourages future research in infrared VSR. Project page: △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04682 [ pdf , ps , other ] HATIR: Heat-Aware Diffusion for Turbulent Infrared Video Super-Resolution Authors: Yang Zou , Xingyue Zhu , Kaiqi Han , Jun Ma , Xingyuan Li , Zhiying Jiang , Jinyuan Liu Abstract : Infrared video has been of great interest in visual tasks under challenging environments, but often suffers from severe atmospheric turbulence and compression degradation. Existing video super-resolution (VSR) methods either neglect the inherent modality gap between infrared and visible images or fail to restore turbulence-induced distortions. Directly cascading turbulence mitigation (TM) algorith… ▽ More Infrared video has been of great interest in visual tasks under challenging environments, but often suffers from severe atmospheric turbulence and compression degradation. Existing video super-resolution (VSR) methods either neglect the inherent modality gap between infrared and visible images or fail to restore turbulence-induced distortions. Directly cascading turbulence mitigation (TM) algorithms with VSR methods leads to error propagation and accumulation due to the decoupled modeling of degradation between turbulence and resolution. We introduce HATIR, a Heat-Aware Diffusion for Turbulent InfraRed Video Super-Resolution, which injects heat-aware deformation priors into the diffusion sampling path to jointly model the inverse process of turbulent degradation and structural detail loss. Specifically, HATIR constructs a Phasor-Guided Flow Estimator, rooted in the physical principle that thermally active regions exhibit consistent phasor responses over time, enabling reliable turbulence-aware flow to guide the reverse diffusion process. To ensure the fidelity of structural recovery under nonuniform distortions, a Turbulence-Aware Decoder is proposed to selectively suppress unstable temporal cues and enhance edge-aware feature aggregation via turbulence gating and structure-aware attention. We built FLIR-IVSR, the first dataset for turbulent infrared VSR, comprising paired LR-HR sequences from a FLIR T1050sc camera (1024 X 768) spanning 640 diverse scenes with varying camera and object motion conditions. This encourages future research in infrared VSR. Project page: △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04630 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.HC RecruitScope: A Visual Analytics System for Multidimensional Recruitment Data Analysis Authors: Xiyuan Zhu , Wenhan Lyu , Chaochao Fu , Yilin Wang , Jie Zheng , Qiyue Tan , Qianhe Chen , Yixin Yu , Ran Wang Abstract : Online recruitment platforms have become the dominant channel for modern hiring, yet most platforms offer only basic filtering capabilities, such as job title, keyword, and salary range. This hinders comprehensive analysis of multi-attribute relationships and job market patterns across different scales. We present RecruitScope, a visual analytics system designed to support multidimensional and cro… ▽ More Online recruitment platforms have become the dominant channel for modern hiring, yet most platforms offer only basic filtering capabilities, such as job title, keyword, and salary range. This hinders comprehensive analysis of multi-attribute relationships and job market patterns across different scales. We present RecruitScope, a visual analytics system designed to support multidimensional and cross-level exploration of recruitment data for job seekers and employers, particularly HR specialists. Through coordinated visualizations, RecruitScope enables users to analyze job positions and salary patterns from multiple perspectives, interpret industry dynamics at the macro level, and identify emerging positions at the micro level. We demonstrate the effectiveness of RecruitScope through case studies that reveal regional salary distribution patterns, characterize industry growth trajectories, and discover high-demand emerging roles in the job market. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04630 [ pdf , ps , other ] RecruitScope: A Visual Analytics System for Multidimensional Recruitment Data Analysis Authors: Xiyuan Zhu , Wenhan Lyu , Chaochao Fu , Yilin Wang , Jie Zheng , Qiyue Tan , Qianhe Chen , Yixin Yu , Ran Wang Abstract : Online recruitment platforms have become the dominant channel for modern hiring, yet most platforms offer only basic filtering capabilities, such as job title, keyword, and salary range. This hinders comprehensive analysis of multi-attribute relationships and job market patterns across different scales. We present RecruitScope, a visual analytics system designed to support multidimensional and cro… ▽ More Online recruitment platforms have become the dominant channel for modern hiring, yet most platforms offer only basic filtering capabilities, such as job title, keyword, and salary range. This hinders comprehensive analysis of multi-attribute relationships and job market patterns across different scales. We present RecruitScope, a visual analytics system designed to support multidimensional and cross-level exploration of recruitment data for job seekers and employers, particularly HR specialists. Through coordinated visualizations, RecruitScope enables users to analyze job positions and salary patterns from multiple perspectives, interpret industry dynamics at the macro level, and identify emerging positions at the micro level. We demonstrate the effectiveness of RecruitScope through case studies that reveal regional salary distribution patterns, characterize industry growth trajectories, and discover high-demand emerging roles in the job market. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02649 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Effective Online 3D Bin Packing with Lookahead Parcels Using Monte Carlo Tree Search Authors: Jiangyi Fang , Bowen Zhou , Haotian Wang , Xin Zhu , Leye Wang Abstract : Online 3D Bin Packing (3D-BP) with robotic arms is crucial for reducing transportation and labor costs in modern logistics. While Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) has shown strong performance, it often fails to adapt to real-world short-term distribution shifts, which arise as different batches of goods arrive sequentially, causing performance drops. We argue that the short-term lookahead informa… ▽ More Online 3D Bin Packing (3D-BP) with robotic arms is crucial for reducing transportation and labor costs in modern logistics. While Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) has shown strong performance, it often fails to adapt to real-world short-term distribution shifts, which arise as different batches of goods arrive sequentially, causing performance drops. We argue that the short-term lookahead information available in modern logistics systems is key to mitigating this issue, especially during distribution shifts. We formulate online 3D-BP with lookahead parcels as a Model Predictive Control (MPC) problem and adapt the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) framework to solve it. Our framework employs a dynamic exploration prior that automatically balances a learned RL policy and a robust random policy based on the lookahead characteristics. Additionally, we design an auxiliary reward to penalize long-term spatial waste from individual placements. Extensive experiments on real-world datasets show that our method consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, achieving over 10\% gains under distributional shifts, 4\% average improvement in online deployment, and up to more than 8\% in the best case--demonstrating the effectiveness of our framework. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02649 [ pdf , ps , other ] Effective Online 3D Bin Packing with Lookahead Parcels Using Monte Carlo Tree Search Authors: Jiangyi Fang , Bowen Zhou , Haotian Wang , Xin Zhu , Leye Wang Abstract : Online 3D Bin Packing (3D-BP) with robotic arms is crucial for reducing transportation and labor costs in modern logistics. While Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) has shown strong performance, it often fails to adapt to real-world short-term distribution shifts, which arise as different batches of goods arrive sequentially, causing performance drops. We argue that the short-term lookahead informa… ▽ More Online 3D Bin Packing (3D-BP) with robotic arms is crucial for reducing transportation and labor costs in modern logistics. While Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) has shown strong performance, it often fails to adapt to real-world short-term distribution shifts, which arise as different batches of goods arrive sequentially, causing performance drops. We argue that the short-term lookahead information available in modern logistics systems is key to mitigating this issue, especially during distribution shifts. We formulate online 3D-BP with lookahead parcels as a Model Predictive Control (MPC) problem and adapt the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) framework to solve it. Our framework employs a dynamic exploration prior that automatically balances a learned RL policy and a robust random policy based on the lookahead characteristics. Additionally, we design an auxiliary reward to penalize long-term spatial waste from individual placements. Extensive experiments on real-world datasets show that our method consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, achieving over 10\% gains under distributional shifts, 4\% average improvement in online deployment, and up to more than 8\% in the best case--demonstrating the effectiveness of our framework. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02179 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Confidence Estimation for LLMs in Multi-turn Interactions Authors: Caiqi Zhang , Ruihan Yang , Xiaochen Zhu , Chengzu Li , Tiancheng Hu , Yijiang River Dong , Deqing Yang , Nigel Collier Abstract : While confidence estimation is a promising direction for mitigating hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), current research dominantly focuses on single-turn settings. The dynamics of model confidence in multi-turn conversations, where context accumulates and ambiguity is progressively resolved, remain largely unexplored. Reliable confidence estimation in multi-turn settings is critical f… ▽ More While confidence estimation is a promising direction for mitigating hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), current research dominantly focuses on single-turn settings. The dynamics of model confidence in multi-turn conversations, where context accumulates and ambiguity is progressively resolved, remain largely unexplored. Reliable confidence estimation in multi-turn settings is critical for many downstream applications, such as autonomous agents and human-in-the-loop systems. This work presents the first systematic study of confidence estimation in multi-turn interactions, establishing a formal evaluation framework grounded in two key desiderata: per-turn calibration and monotonicity of confidence as more information becomes available. To facilitate this, we introduce novel metrics, including a length-normalized Expected Calibration Error (InfoECE), and a new "Hinter-Guesser" paradigm for generating controlled evaluation datasets. Our experiments reveal that widely-used confidence techniques struggle with calibration and monotonicity in multi-turn dialogues. We propose P(Sufficient), a logit-based probe that achieves comparatively better performance, although the task remains far from solved. Our work provides a foundational methodology for developing more reliable and trustworthy conversational agents. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02179 [ pdf , ps , other ] Confidence Estimation for LLMs in Multi-turn Interactions Authors: Caiqi Zhang , Ruihan Yang , Xiaochen Zhu , Chengzu Li , Tiancheng Hu , Yijiang River Dong , Deqing Yang , Nigel Collier Abstract : While confidence estimation is a promising direction for mitigating hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), current research dominantly focuses on single-turn settings. The dynamics of model confidence in multi-turn conversations, where context accumulates and ambiguity is progressively resolved, remain largely unexplored. Reliable confidence estimation in multi-turn settings is critical f… ▽ More While confidence estimation is a promising direction for mitigating hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), current research dominantly focuses on single-turn settings. The dynamics of model confidence in multi-turn conversations, where context accumulates and ambiguity is progressively resolved, remain largely unexplored. Reliable confidence estimation in multi-turn settings is critical for many downstream applications, such as autonomous agents and human-in-the-loop systems. This work presents the first systematic study of confidence estimation in multi-turn interactions, establishing a formal evaluation framework grounded in two key desiderata: per-turn calibration and monotonicity of confidence as more information becomes available. To facilitate this, we introduce novel metrics, including a length-normalized Expected Calibration Error (InfoECE), and a new "Hinter-Guesser" paradigm for generating controlled evaluation datasets. Our experiments reveal that widely-used confidence techniques struggle with calibration and monotonicity in multi-turn dialogues. We propose P(Sufficient), a logit-based probe that achieves comparatively better performance, although the task remains far from solved. Our work provides a foundational methodology for developing more reliable and trustworthy conversational agents. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01562 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Logics-STEM: Empowering LLM Reasoning via Failure-Driven Post-Training and Document Knowledge Enhancement Authors: Mingyu Xu , Cheng Fang , Keyue Jiang , Yuqian Zheng , Yanghua Xiao , Baojian Zhou , Qifang Zhao , Suhang Zheng , Xiuwen Zhu , Jiyang Tang , Yongchi Zhao , Yijia Luo , Zhiqi Bai , Yuchi Xu , Wenbo Su , Wei Wang , Bing Zhao , Lin Qu , Xiaoxiao Xu Abstract : We present Logics-STEM, a state-of-the-art reasoning model fine-tuned on Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset, a high-quality and diverse dataset at 10M scale that represents one of the largest-scale open-source long chain-of-thought corpora. Logics-STEM targets reasoning tasks in the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), and exhibits exceptional performance on STEM-related bench… ▽ More We present Logics-STEM, a state-of-the-art reasoning model fine-tuned on Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset, a high-quality and diverse dataset at 10M scale that represents one of the largest-scale open-source long chain-of-thought corpora. Logics-STEM targets reasoning tasks in the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), and exhibits exceptional performance on STEM-related benchmarks with an average improvement of 4.68% over the next-best model at 8B scale. We attribute the gains to our data-algorithm co-design engine, where they are jointly optimized to fit a gold-standard distribution behind reasoning. Data-wise, the Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset is constructed from a meticulously designed data curation engine with 5 stages to ensure the quality, diversity, and scalability, including annotation, deduplication, decontamination, distillation, and stratified sampling. Algorithm-wise, our failure-driven post-training framework leverages targeted knowledge retrieval and data synthesis around model failure regions in the Supervised Fine-tuning (SFT) stage to effectively guide the second-stage SFT or the reinforcement learning (RL) for better fitting the target distribution. The superior empirical performance of Logics-STEM reveals the vast potential of combining large-scale open-source data with carefully designed synthetic data, underscoring the critical role of data-algorithm co-design in enhancing reasoning capabilities through post-training. We make both the Logics-STEM models (8B and 32B) and the Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset (10M and downsampled 2.2M versions) publicly available to support future research in the open-source community. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01562 [ pdf , ps , other ] Logics-STEM: Empowering LLM Reasoning via Failure-Driven Post-Training and Document Knowledge Enhancement Authors: Mingyu Xu , Cheng Fang , Keyue Jiang , Yuqian Zheng , Yanghua Xiao , Baojian Zhou , Qifang Zhao , Suhang Zheng , Xiuwen Zhu , Jiyang Tang , Yongchi Zhao , Yijia Luo , Zhiqi Bai , Yuchi Xu , Wenbo Su , Wei Wang , Bing Zhao , Lin Qu , Xiaoxiao Xu Abstract : We present Logics-STEM, a state-of-the-art reasoning model fine-tuned on Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset, a high-quality and diverse dataset at 10M scale that represents one of the largest-scale open-source long chain-of-thought corpora. Logics-STEM targets reasoning tasks in the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), and exhibits exceptional performance on STEM-related bench… ▽ More We present Logics-STEM, a state-of-the-art reasoning model fine-tuned on Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset, a high-quality and diverse dataset at 10M scale that represents one of the largest-scale open-source long chain-of-thought corpora. Logics-STEM targets reasoning tasks in the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), and exhibits exceptional performance on STEM-related benchmarks with an average improvement of 4.68% over the next-best model at 8B scale. We attribute the gains to our data-algorithm co-design engine, where they are jointly optimized to fit a gold-standard distribution behind reasoning. Data-wise, the Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset is constructed from a meticulously designed data curation engine with 5 stages to ensure the quality, diversity, and scalability, including annotation, deduplication, decontamination, distillation, and stratified sampling. Algorithm-wise, our failure-driven post-training framework leverages targeted knowledge retrieval and data synthesis around model failure regions in the Supervised Fine-tuning (SFT) stage to effectively guide the second-stage SFT or the reinforcement learning (RL) for better fitting the target distribution. The superior empirical performance of Logics-STEM reveals the vast potential of combining large-scale open-source data with carefully designed synthetic data, underscoring the critical role of data-algorithm co-design in enhancing reasoning capabilities through post-training. We make both the Logics-STEM models (8B and 32B) and the Logics-STEM-SFT-Dataset (10M and downsampled 2.2M versions) publicly available to support future research in the open-source community. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01448 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Adaptive Diffusion-based Augmentation for Recommendation Authors: Na Li , Fanghui Sun , Yan Zou , Yangfu Zhu , Xiatian Zhu , Ying Ma Abstract : Recommendation systems often rely on implicit feedback, where only positive user-item interactions can be observed. Negative sampling is therefore crucial to provide proper negative training signals. However, existing methods tend to mislabel potentially positive but unobserved items as negatives and lack precise control over negative sample selection. We aim to address these by generating control… ▽ More Recommendation systems often rely on implicit feedback, where only positive user-item interactions can be observed. Negative sampling is therefore crucial to provide proper negative training signals. However, existing methods tend to mislabel potentially positive but unobserved items as negatives and lack precise control over negative sample selection. We aim to address these by generating controllable negative samples, rather than sampling from the existing item pool. In this context, we propose Adaptive Diffusion-based Augmentation for Recommendation (ADAR), a novel and model-agnostic module that leverages diffusion to synthesize informative negatives. Inspired by the progressive corruption process in diffusion, ADAR simulates a continuous transition from positive to negative, allowing for fine-grained control over sample hardness. To mine suitable negative samples, we theoretically identify the transition point at which a positive sample turns negative and derive a score-aware function to adaptively determine the optimal sampling timestep. By identifying this transition point, ADAR generates challenging negative samples that effectively refine the model's decision boundary. Experiments confirm that ADAR is broadly compatible and boosts the performance of existing recommendation models substantially, including collaborative filtering and sequential recommendation, without architectural modifications. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01448 [ pdf , ps , other ] Adaptive Diffusion-based Augmentation for Recommendation Authors: Na Li , Fanghui Sun , Yan Zou , Yangfu Zhu , Xiatian Zhu , Ying Ma Abstract : Recommendation systems often rely on implicit feedback, where only positive user-item interactions can be observed. Negative sampling is therefore crucial to provide proper negative training signals. However, existing methods tend to mislabel potentially positive but unobserved items as negatives and lack precise control over negative sample selection. We aim to address these by generating control… ▽ More Recommendation systems often rely on implicit feedback, where only positive user-item interactions can be observed. Negative sampling is therefore crucial to provide proper negative training signals. However, existing methods tend to mislabel potentially positive but unobserved items as negatives and lack precise control over negative sample selection. We aim to address these by generating controllable negative samples, rather than sampling from the existing item pool. In this context, we propose Adaptive Diffusion-based Augmentation for Recommendation (ADAR), a novel and model-agnostic module that leverages diffusion to synthesize informative negatives. Inspired by the progressive corruption process in diffusion, ADAR simulates a continuous transition from positive to negative, allowing for fine-grained control over sample hardness. To mine suitable negative samples, we theoretically identify the transition point at which a positive sample turns negative and derive a score-aware function to adaptively determine the optimal sampling timestep. By identifying this transition point, ADAR generates challenging negative samples that effectively refine the model's decision boundary. Experiments confirm that ADAR is broadly compatible and boosts the performance of existing recommendation models substantially, including collaborative filtering and sequential recommendation, without architectural modifications. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01192 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Crowded Video Individual Counting Informed by Social Grouping and Spatial-Temporal Displacement Priors Authors: Hao Lu , Xuhui Zhu , Wenjing Zhang , Yanan Li , Xiang Bai Abstract : Video Individual Counting (VIC) is a recently introduced task aiming to estimate pedestrian flux from a video. It extends Video Crowd Counting (VCC) beyond the per-frame pedestrian count. In contrast to VCC that learns to count pedestrians across frames, VIC must identify co-existent pedestrians between frames, which turns out to be a correspondence problem. Existing VIC approaches, however, can u… ▽ More Video Individual Counting (VIC) is a recently introduced task aiming to estimate pedestrian flux from a video. It extends Video Crowd Counting (VCC) beyond the per-frame pedestrian count. In contrast to VCC that learns to count pedestrians across frames, VIC must identify co-existent pedestrians between frames, which turns out to be a correspondence problem. Existing VIC approaches, however, can underperform in congested scenes such as metro commuting. To address this, we build WuhanMetroCrowd, one of the first VIC datasets that characterize crowded, dynamic pedestrian flows. It features sparse-to-dense density levels, short-to-long video clips, slow-to-fast flow variations, front-to-back appearance changes, and light-to-heavy occlusions. To better adapt VIC approaches to crowds, we rethink the nature of VIC and recognize two informative priors: i) the social grouping prior that indicates pedestrians tend to gather in groups and ii) the spatial-temporal displacement prior that informs an individual cannot teleport physically. The former inspires us to relax the standard one-to-one (O2O) matching used by VIC to one-to-many (O2M) matching, implemented by an implicit context generator and a O2M matcher; the latter facilitates the design of a displacement prior injector, which strengthens not only O2M matching but also feature extraction and model training. These designs jointly form a novel and strong VIC baseline OMAN++. Extensive experiments show that OMAN++ not only outperforms state-of-the-art VIC baselines on the standard SenseCrowd, CroHD, and MovingDroneCrowd benchmarks, but also indicates a clear advantage in crowded scenes, with a 38.12% error reduction on our WuhanMetroCrowd dataset. Code, data, and pretrained models are available at △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Journal Extension of arXiv:2506.13067 arXiv:2601.01192 [ pdf , ps , other ] Crowded Video Individual Counting Informed by Social Grouping and Spatial-Temporal Displacement Priors Authors: Hao Lu , Xuhui Zhu , Wenjing Zhang , Yanan Li , Xiang Bai Abstract : Video Individual Counting (VIC) is a recently introduced task aiming to estimate pedestrian flux from a video. It extends Video Crowd Counting (VCC) beyond the per-frame pedestrian count. In contrast to VCC that learns to count pedestrians across frames, VIC must identify co-existent pedestrians between frames, which turns out to be a correspondence problem. Existing VIC approaches, however, can u… ▽ More Video Individual Counting (VIC) is a recently introduced task aiming to estimate pedestrian flux from a video. It extends Video Crowd Counting (VCC) beyond the per-frame pedestrian count. In contrast to VCC that learns to count pedestrians across frames, VIC must identify co-existent pedestrians between frames, which turns out to be a correspondence problem. Existing VIC approaches, however, can underperform in congested scenes such as metro commuting. To address this, we build WuhanMetroCrowd, one of the first VIC datasets that characterize crowded, dynamic pedestrian flows. It features sparse-to-dense density levels, short-to-long video clips, slow-to-fast flow variations, front-to-back appearance changes, and light-to-heavy occlusions. To better adapt VIC approaches to crowds, we rethink the nature of VIC and recognize two informative priors: i) the social grouping prior that indicates pedestrians tend to gather in groups and ii) the spatial-temporal displacement prior that informs an individual cannot teleport physically. The former inspires us to relax the standard one-to-one (O2O) matching used by VIC to one-to-many (O2M) matching, implemented by an implicit context generator and a O2M matcher; the latter facilitates the design of a displacement prior injector, which strengthens not only O2M matching but also feature extraction and model training. These designs jointly form a novel and strong VIC baseline OMAN++. Extensive experiments show that OMAN++ not only outperforms state-of-the-art VIC baselines on the standard SenseCrowd, CroHD, and MovingDroneCrowd benchmarks, but also indicates a clear advantage in crowded scenes, with a 38.12% error reduction on our WuhanMetroCrowd dataset. Code, data, and pretrained models are available at △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Journal Extension of arXiv:2506.13067 arXiv:2601.00759 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Unified Primitive Proxies for Structured Shape Completion Authors: Zhaiyu Chen , Yuqing Wang , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : Structured shape completion recovers missing geometry as primitives rather than as unstructured points, which enables primitive-based surface reconstruction. Instead of following the prevailing cascade, we rethink how primitives and points should interact, and find it more effective to decode primitives in a dedicated pathway that attends to shared shape features. Following this principle, we pres… ▽ More Structured shape completion recovers missing geometry as primitives rather than as unstructured points, which enables primitive-based surface reconstruction. Instead of following the prevailing cascade, we rethink how primitives and points should interact, and find it more effective to decode primitives in a dedicated pathway that attends to shared shape features. Following this principle, we present UniCo, which in a single feed-forward pass predicts a set of primitives with complete geometry, semantics, and inlier membership. To drive this unified representation, we introduce primitive proxies, learnable queries that are contextualized to produce assembly-ready outputs. To ensure consistent optimization, our training strategy couples primitives and points with online target updates. Across synthetic and real-world benchmarks with four independent assembly solvers, UniCo consistently outperforms recent baselines, lowering Chamfer distance by up to 50% and improving normal consistency by up to 7%. These results establish an attractive recipe for structured 3D understanding from incomplete data. Project page: △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00759 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unified Primitive Proxies for Structured Shape Completion Authors: Zhaiyu Chen , Yuqing Wang , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : Structured shape completion recovers missing geometry as primitives rather than as unstructured points, which enables primitive-based surface reconstruction. Instead of following the prevailing cascade, we rethink how primitives and points should interact, and find it more effective to decode primitives in a dedicated pathway that attends to shared shape features. Following this principle, we pres… ▽ More Structured shape completion recovers missing geometry as primitives rather than as unstructured points, which enables primitive-based surface reconstruction. Instead of following the prevailing cascade, we rethink how primitives and points should interact, and find it more effective to decode primitives in a dedicated pathway that attends to shared shape features. Following this principle, we present UniCo, which in a single feed-forward pass predicts a set of primitives with complete geometry, semantics, and inlier membership. To drive this unified representation, we introduce primitive proxies, learnable queries that are contextualized to produce assembly-ready outputs. To ensure consistent optimization, our training strategy couples primitives and points with online target updates. Across synthetic and real-world benchmarks with four independent assembly solvers, UniCo consistently outperforms recent baselines, lowering Chamfer distance by up to 50% and improving normal consistency by up to 7%. These results establish an attractive recipe for structured 3D understanding from incomplete data. Project page: △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.00658 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Reconstructing Building Height from Spaceborne TomoSAR Point Clouds Using a Dual-Topology Network Authors: Zhaiyu Chen , Yuanyuan Wang , Yilei Shi , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : Reliable building height estimation is essential for various urban applications. Spaceborne SAR tomography (TomoSAR) provides weather-independent, side-looking observations that capture facade-level structure, offering a promising alternative to conventional optical methods. However, TomoSAR point clouds often suffer from noise, anisotropic point distributions, and data voids on incoherent surface… ▽ More Reliable building height estimation is essential for various urban applications. Spaceborne SAR tomography (TomoSAR) provides weather-independent, side-looking observations that capture facade-level structure, offering a promising alternative to conventional optical methods. However, TomoSAR point clouds often suffer from noise, anisotropic point distributions, and data voids on incoherent surfaces, all of which hinder accurate height reconstruction. To address these challenges, we introduce a learning-based framework for converting raw TomoSAR points into high-resolution building height maps. Our dual-topology network alternates between a point branch that models irregular scatterer features and a grid branch that enforces spatial consistency. By jointly processing these representations, the network denoises the input points and inpaints missing regions to produce continuous height estimates. To our knowledge, this is the first proof of concept for large-scale urban height mapping directly from TomoSAR point clouds. Extensive experiments on data from Munich and Berlin validate the effectiveness of our approach. Moreover, we demonstrate that our framework can be extended to incorporate optical satellite imagery, further enhancing reconstruction quality. The source code is available at △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing arXiv:2601.00658 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reconstructing Building Height from Spaceborne TomoSAR Point Clouds Using a Dual-Topology Network Authors: Zhaiyu Chen , Yuanyuan Wang , Yilei Shi , Xiao Xiang Zhu Abstract : Reliable building height estimation is essential for various urban applications. Spaceborne SAR tomography (TomoSAR) provides weather-independent, side-looking observations that capture facade-level structure, offering a promising alternative to conventional optical methods. However, TomoSAR point clouds often suffer from noise, anisotropic point distributions, and data voids on incoherent surface… ▽ More Reliable building height estimation is essential for various urban applications. Spaceborne SAR tomography (TomoSAR) provides weather-independent, side-looking observations that capture facade-level structure, offering a promising alternative to conventional optical methods. However, TomoSAR point clouds often suffer from noise, anisotropic point distributions, and data voids on incoherent surfaces, all of which hinder accurate height reconstruction. To address these challenges, we introduce a learning-based framework for converting raw TomoSAR points into high-resolution building height maps. Our dual-topology network alternates between a point branch that models irregular scatterer features and a grid branch that enforces spatial consistency. By jointly processing these representations, the network denoises the input points and inpaints missing regions to produce continuous height estimates. To our knowledge, this is the first proof of concept for large-scale urban height mapping directly from TomoSAR point clouds. Extensive experiments on data from Munich and Berlin validate the effectiveness of our approach. Moreover, we demonstrate that our framework can be extended to incorporate optical satellite imagery, further enhancing reconstruction quality. The source code is available at △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing arXiv:2512.24255 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR How Would Oblivious Memory Boost Graph Analytics on Trusted Processors? Authors: Jiping Yu , Xiaowei Zhu , Kun Chen , Guanyu Feng , Yunyi Chen , Xiaoyu Fan , Wenguang Chen Abstract : Trusted processors provide a way to perform joint computations while preserving data privacy. To overcome the performance degradation caused by data-oblivious algorithms to prevent information leakage, we explore the benefits of oblivious memory (OM) integrated in processors, to which the accesses are unobservable by adversaries. We focus on graph analytics, an important application vulnerable to… ▽ More Trusted processors provide a way to perform joint computations while preserving data privacy. To overcome the performance degradation caused by data-oblivious algorithms to prevent information leakage, we explore the benefits of oblivious memory (OM) integrated in processors, to which the accesses are unobservable by adversaries. We focus on graph analytics, an important application vulnerable to access-pattern attacks. With a co-design between storage structure and algorithms, our prototype system is 100x faster than baselines given an OM sized around the per-core cache which can be implemented on existing processors with negligible overhead. This gives insights into equipping trusted processors with OM. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24255 [ pdf , ps , other ] How Would Oblivious Memory Boost Graph Analytics on Trusted Processors? Authors: Jiping Yu , Xiaowei Zhu , Kun Chen , Guanyu Feng , Yunyi Chen , Xiaoyu Fan , Wenguang Chen Abstract : Trusted processors provide a way to perform joint computations while preserving data privacy. To overcome the performance degradation caused by data-oblivious algorithms to prevent information leakage, we explore the benefits of oblivious memory (OM) integrated in processors, to which the accesses are unobservable by adversaries. We focus on graph analytics, an important application vulnerable to… ▽ More Trusted processors provide a way to perform joint computations while preserving data privacy. To overcome the performance degradation caused by data-oblivious algorithms to prevent information leakage, we explore the benefits of oblivious memory (OM) integrated in processors, to which the accesses are unobservable by adversaries. We focus on graph analytics, an important application vulnerable to access-pattern attacks. With a co-design between storage structure and algorithms, our prototype system is 100x faster than baselines given an OM sized around the per-core cache which can be implemented on existing processors with negligible overhead. This gives insights into equipping trusted processors with OM. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22745 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Split4D: Decomposed 4D Scene Reconstruction Without Video Segmentation Authors: Yongzhen Hu , Yihui Yang , Haotong Lin , Yifan Wang , Junting Dong , Yifu Deng , Xinyu Zhu , Fan Jia , Hujun Bao , Xiaowei Zhou , Sida Peng Abstract : This paper addresses the problem of decomposed 4D scene reconstruction from multi-view videos. Recent methods achieve this by lifting video segmentation results to a 4D representation through differentiable rendering techniques. Therefore, they heavily rely on the quality of video segmentation maps, which are often unstable, leading to unreliable reconstruction results. To overcome this challenge,… ▽ More This paper addresses the problem of decomposed 4D scene reconstruction from multi-view videos. Recent methods achieve this by lifting video segmentation results to a 4D representation through differentiable rendering techniques. Therefore, they heavily rely on the quality of video segmentation maps, which are often unstable, leading to unreliable reconstruction results. To overcome this challenge, our key idea is to represent the decomposed 4D scene with the Freetime FeatureGS and design a streaming feature learning strategy to accurately recover it from per-image segmentation maps, eliminating the need for video segmentation. Freetime FeatureGS models the dynamic scene as a set of Gaussian primitives with learnable features and linear motion ability, allowing them to move to neighboring regions over time. We apply a contrastive loss to Freetime FeatureGS, forcing primitive features to be close or far apart based on whether their projections belong to the same instance in the 2D segmentation map. As our Gaussian primitives can move across time, it naturally extends the feature learning to the temporal dimension, achieving 4D segmentation. Furthermore, we sample observations for training in a temporally ordered manner, enabling the streaming propagation of features over time and effectively avoiding local minima during the optimization process. Experimental results on several datasets show that the reconstruction quality of our method outperforms recent methods by a large margin. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22745 [ pdf , ps , other ] Split4D: Decomposed 4D Scene Reconstruction Without Video Segmentation Authors: Yongzhen Hu , Yihui Yang , Haotong Lin , Yifan Wang , Junting Dong , Yifu Deng , Xinyu Zhu , Fan Jia , Hujun Bao , Xiaowei Zhou , Sida Peng Abstract : This paper addresses the problem of decomposed 4D scene reconstruction from multi-view videos. Recent methods achieve this by lifting video segmentation results to a 4D representation through differentiable rendering techniques. Therefore, they heavily rely on the quality of video segmentation maps, which are often unstable, leading to unreliable reconstruction results. To overcome this challenge,… ▽ More This paper addresses the problem of decomposed 4D scene reconstruction from multi-view videos. Recent methods achieve this by lifting video segmentation results to a 4D representation through differentiable rendering techniques. Therefore, they heavily rely on the quality of video segmentation maps, which are often unstable, leading to unreliable reconstruction results. To overcome this challenge, our key idea is to represent the decomposed 4D scene with the Freetime FeatureGS and design a streaming feature learning strategy to accurately recover it from per-image segmentation maps, eliminating the need for video segmentation. Freetime FeatureGS models the dynamic scene as a set of Gaussian primitives with learnable features and linear motion ability, allowing them to move to neighboring regions over time. We apply a contrastive loss to Freetime FeatureGS, forcing primitive features to be close or far apart based on whether their projections belong to the same instance in the 2D segmentation map. As our Gaussian primitives can move across time, it naturally extends the feature learning to the temporal dimension, achieving 4D segmentation. Furthermore, we sample observations for training in a temporally ordered manner, enabling the streaming propagation of features over time and effectively avoiding local minima during the optimization process. Experimental results on several datasets show that the reconstruction quality of our method outperforms recent methods by a large margin. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21516 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CV Global-Graph Guided and Local-Graph Weighted Contrastive Learning for Unified Clustering on Incomplete and Noise Multi-View Data Authors: Hongqing He , Jie Xu , Wenyuan Yang , Yonghua Zhu , Guoqiu Wen , Xiaofeng Zhu Abstract : Recently, contrastive learning (CL) plays an important role in exploring complementary information for multi-view clustering (MVC) and has attracted increasing attention. Nevertheless, real-world multi-view data suffer from data incompleteness or noise, resulting in rare-paired samples or mis-paired samples which significantly challenges the effectiveness of CL-based MVC. That is, rare-paired issu… ▽ More Recently, contrastive learning (CL) plays an important role in exploring complementary information for multi-view clustering (MVC) and has attracted increasing attention. Nevertheless, real-world multi-view data suffer from data incompleteness or noise, resulting in rare-paired samples or mis-paired samples which significantly challenges the effectiveness of CL-based MVC. That is, rare-paired issue prevents MVC from extracting sufficient multi-view complementary information, and mis-paired issue causes contrastive learning to optimize the model in the wrong direction. To address these issues, we propose a unified CL-based MVC framework for enhancing clustering effectiveness on incomplete and noise multi-view data. First, to overcome the rare-paired issue, we design a global-graph guided contrastive learning, where all view samples construct a global-view affinity graph to form new sample pairs for fully exploring complementary information. Second, to mitigate the mis-paired issue, we propose a local-graph weighted contrastive learning, which leverages local neighbors to generate pair-wise weights to adaptively strength or weaken the pair-wise contrastive learning. Our method is imputation-free and can be integrated into a unified global-local graph-guided contrastive learning framework. Extensive experiments on both incomplete and noise settings of multi-view data demonstrate that our method achieves superior performance compared with state-of-the-art approaches. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21516 [ pdf , ps , other ] Global-Graph Guided and Local-Graph Weighted Contrastive Learning for Unified Clustering on Incomplete and Noise Multi-View Data Authors: Hongqing He , Jie Xu , Wenyuan Yang , Yonghua Zhu , Guoqiu Wen , Xiaofeng Zhu Abstract : Recently, contrastive learning (CL) plays an important role in exploring complementary information for multi-view clustering (MVC) and has attracted increasing attention. Nevertheless, real-world multi-view data suffer from data incompleteness or noise, resulting in rare-paired samples or mis-paired samples which significantly challenges the effectiveness of CL-based MVC. That is, rare-paired issu… ▽ More Recently, contrastive learning (CL) plays an important role in exploring complementary information for multi-view clustering (MVC) and has attracted increasing attention. Nevertheless, real-world multi-view data suffer from data incompleteness or noise, resulting in rare-paired samples or mis-paired samples which significantly challenges the effectiveness of CL-based MVC. That is, rare-paired issue prevents MVC from extracting sufficient multi-view complementary information, and mis-paired issue causes contrastive learning to optimize the model in the wrong direction. To address these issues, we propose a unified CL-based MVC framework for enhancing clustering effectiveness on incomplete and noise multi-view data. First, to overcome the rare-paired issue, we design a global-graph guided contrastive learning, where all view samples construct a global-view affinity graph to form new sample pairs for fully exploring complementary information. Second, to mitigate the mis-paired issue, we propose a local-graph weighted contrastive learning, which leverages local neighbors to generate pair-wise weights to adaptively strength or weaken the pair-wise contrastive learning. Our method is imputation-free and can be integrated into a unified global-local graph-guided contrastive learning framework. Extensive experiments on both incomplete and noise settings of multi-view data demonstrate that our method achieves superior performance compared with state-of-the-art approaches. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21510 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.CV Missing Pattern Tree based Decision Grouping and Ensemble for Deep Incomplete Multi-View Clustering Authors: Wenyuan Yang , Jie Xu , Hongqing He , Jiangzhang Gan , Xiaofeng Zhu Abstract : Real-world multi-view data usually exhibits highly inconsistent missing patterns which challenges the effectiveness of incomplete multi-view clustering (IMVC). Although existing IMVC methods have made progress from both imputation-based and imputation-free routes, they have overlooked the pair under-utilization issue, i.e., inconsistent missing patterns make the incomplete but available multi-view… ▽ More Real-world multi-view data usually exhibits highly inconsistent missing patterns which challenges the effectiveness of incomplete multi-view clustering (IMVC). Although existing IMVC methods have made progress from both imputation-based and imputation-free routes, they have overlooked the pair under-utilization issue, i.e., inconsistent missing patterns make the incomplete but available multi-view pairs unable to be fully utilized, thereby limiting the model performance. To address this, we propose a novel missing-pattern tree based IMVC framework entitled TreeEIC. Specifically, to achieve full exploitation of available multi-view pairs, TreeEIC first defines the missing-pattern tree model to group data into multiple decision sets according to different missing patterns, and then performs multi-view clustering within each set. Furthermore, a multi-view decision ensemble module is proposed to aggregate clustering results from all decision sets, which infers uncertainty-based weights to suppress unreliable clustering decisions and produce robust decisions. Finally, an ensemble-to-individual knowledge distillation module transfers the ensemble knowledge to view-specific clustering models, which enables ensemble and individual modules to promote each other by optimizing cross-view consistency and inter-cluster discrimination losses. Extensive experiments on multiple benchmark datasets demonstrate that our TreeEIC achieves state-of-the-art IMVC performance and exhibits superior robustness under highly inconsistent missing patterns. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21510 [ pdf , ps , other ] Missing Pattern Tree based Decision Grouping and Ensemble for Deep Incomplete Multi-View Clustering Authors: Wenyuan Yang , Jie Xu , Hongqing He , Jiangzhang Gan , Xiaofeng Zhu Abstract : Real-world multi-view data usually exhibits highly inconsistent missing patterns which challenges the effectiveness of incomplete multi-view clustering (IMVC). Although existing IMVC methods have made progress from both imputation-based and imputation-free routes, they have overlooked the pair under-utilization issue, i.e., inconsistent missing patterns make the incomplete but available multi-view… ▽ More Real-world multi-view data usually exhibits highly inconsistent missing patterns which challenges the effectiveness of incomplete multi-view clustering (IMVC). Although existing IMVC methods have made progress from both imputation-based and imputation-free routes, they have overlooked the pair under-utilization issue, i.e., inconsistent missing patterns make the incomplete but available multi-view pairs unable to be fully utilized, thereby limiting the model performance. To address this, we propose a novel missing-pattern tree based IMVC framework entitled TreeEIC. Specifically, to achieve full exploitation of available multi-view pairs, TreeEIC first defines the missing-pattern tree model to group data into multiple decision sets according to different missing patterns, and then performs multi-view clustering within each set. Furthermore, a multi-view decision ensemble module is proposed to aggregate clustering results from all decision sets, which infers uncertainty-based weights to suppress unreliable clustering decisions and produce robust decisions. Finally, an ensemble-to-individual knowledge distillation module transfers the ensemble knowledge to view-specific clustering models, which enables ensemble and individual modules to promote each other by optimizing cross-view consistency and inter-cluster discrimination losses. Extensive experiments on multiple benchmark datasets demonstrate that our TreeEIC achieves state-of-the-art IMVC performance and exhibits superior robustness under highly inconsistent missing patterns. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20469 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Bohrium + SciMaster: Building the Infrastructure and Ecosystem for Agentic Science at Scale Authors: Linfeng Zhang , Siheng Chen , Yuzhu Cai , Jingyi Chai , Junhan Chang , Kun Chen , Zhi X. Chen , Zhaohan Ding , Yuwen Du , Yuanpeng Gao , Yuan Gao , Jing Gao , Zhifeng Gao , Qiangqiang Gu , Yanhui Hong , Yuan Huang , Xi Fang , Xiaohong Ji , Guolin Ke , Zixing Lei , Xinyu Li , Yongge Li , Ruoxue Liao , Hang Lin , Xiaolu Lin , et al. (25 additional authors not shown) Abstract : AI agents are emerging as a practical way to run multi-step scientific workflows that interleave reasoning with tool use and verification, pointing to a shift from isolated AI-assisted steps toward \emph{agentic science at scale}. This shift is increasingly feasible, as scientific tools and models can be invoked through stable interfaces and verified with recorded execution traces, and increasingl… ▽ More AI agents are emerging as a practical way to run multi-step scientific workflows that interleave reasoning with tool use and verification, pointing to a shift from isolated AI-assisted steps toward \emph{agentic science at scale}. This shift is increasingly feasible, as scientific tools and models can be invoked through stable interfaces and verified with recorded execution traces, and increasingly necessary, as AI accelerates scientific output and stresses the peer-review and publication pipeline, raising the bar for traceability and credible evaluation. However, scaling agentic science remains difficult: workflows are hard to observe and reproduce; many tools and laboratory systems are not agent-ready; execution is hard to trace and govern; and prototype AI Scientist systems are often bespoke, limiting reuse and systematic improvement from real workflow signals. We argue that scaling agentic science requires an infrastructure-and-ecosystem approach, instantiated in Bohrium+SciMaster. Bohrium acts as a managed, traceable hub for AI4S assets -- akin to a HuggingFace of AI for Science -- that turns diverse scientific data, software, compute, and laboratory systems into agent-ready capabilities. SciMaster orchestrates these capabilities into long-horizon scientific workflows, on which scientific agents can be composed and executed. Between infrastructure and orchestration, a \emph{scientific intelligence substrate} organizes reusable models, knowledge, and components into executable building blocks for workflow reasoning and action, enabling composition, auditability, and improvement through use. We demonstrate this stack with eleven representative master agents in real workflows, achieving orders-of-magnitude reductions in end-to-end scientific cycle time and generating execution-grounded signals from real workloads at multi-million scale. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20469 [ pdf , ps , other ] Bohrium + SciMaster: Building the Infrastructure and Ecosystem for Agentic Science at Scale Authors: Linfeng Zhang , Siheng Chen , Yuzhu Cai , Jingyi Chai , Junhan Chang , Kun Chen , Zhi X. Chen , Zhaohan Ding , Yuwen Du , Yuanpeng Gao , Yuan Gao , Jing Gao , Zhifeng Gao , Qiangqiang Gu , Yanhui Hong , Yuan Huang , Xi Fang , Xiaohong Ji , Guolin Ke , Zixing Lei , Xinyu Li , Yongge Li , Ruoxue Liao , Hang Lin , Xiaolu Lin , et al. (25 additional authors not shown) Abstract : AI agents are emerging as a practical way to run multi-step scientific workflows that interleave reasoning with tool use and verification, pointing to a shift from isolated AI-assisted steps toward \emph{agentic science at scale}. This shift is increasingly feasible, as scientific tools and models can be invoked through stable interfaces and verified with recorded execution traces, and increasingl… ▽ More AI agents are emerging as a practical way to run multi-step scientific workflows that interleave reasoning with tool use and verification, pointing to a shift from isolated AI-assisted steps toward \emph{agentic science at scale}. This shift is increasingly feasible, as scientific tools and models can be invoked through stable interfaces and verified with recorded execution traces, and increasingly necessary, as AI accelerates scientific output and stresses the peer-review and publication pipeline, raising the bar for traceability and credible evaluation. However, scaling agentic science remains difficult: workflows are hard to observe and reproduce; many tools and laboratory systems are not agent-ready; execution is hard to trace and govern; and prototype AI Scientist systems are often bespoke, limiting reuse and systematic improvement from real workflow signals. We argue that scaling agentic science requires an infrastructure-and-ecosystem approach, instantiated in Bohrium+SciMaster. Bohrium acts as a managed, traceable hub for AI4S assets -- akin to a HuggingFace of AI for Science -- that turns diverse scientific data, software, compute, and laboratory systems into agent-ready capabilities. SciMaster orchestrates these capabilities into long-horizon scientific workflows, on which scientific agents can be composed and executed. Between infrastructure and orchestration, a \emph{scientific intelligence substrate} organizes reusable models, knowledge, and components into executable building blocks for workflow reasoning and action, enabling composition, auditability, and improvement through use. We demonstrate this stack with eleven representative master agents in real workflows, achieving orders-of-magnitude reductions in end-to-end scientific cycle time and generating execution-grounded signals from real workloads at multi-million scale. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20260 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI D^3ETOR: Debate-Enhanced Pseudo Labeling and Frequency-Aware Progressive Debiasing for Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection with Scribble Annotations Authors: Jiawei Ge , Jiuxin Cao , Xinyi Li , Xuelin Zhu , Chang Liu , Bo Liu , Chen Feng , Ioannis Patras Abstract : Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection (WSCOD) aims to locate and segment objects that are visually concealed within their surrounding scenes, relying solely on sparse supervision such as scribble annotations. Despite recent progress, existing WSCOD methods still lag far behind fully supervised ones due to two major limitations: (1) the pseudo masks generated by general-purpose segmentatio… ▽ More Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection (WSCOD) aims to locate and segment objects that are visually concealed within their surrounding scenes, relying solely on sparse supervision such as scribble annotations. Despite recent progress, existing WSCOD methods still lag far behind fully supervised ones due to two major limitations: (1) the pseudo masks generated by general-purpose segmentation models (e.g., SAM) and filtered via rules are often unreliable, as these models lack the task-specific semantic understanding required for effective pseudo labeling in COD; and (2) the neglect of inherent annotation bias in scribbles, which hinders the model from capturing the global structure of camouflaged objects. To overcome these challenges, we propose ${D}^{3}$ETOR, a two-stage WSCOD framework consisting of Debate-Enhanced Pseudo Labeling and Frequency-Aware Progressive Debiasing. In the first stage, we introduce an adaptive entropy-driven point sampling method and a multi-agent debate mechanism to enhance the capability of SAM for COD, improving the interpretability and precision of pseudo masks. In the second stage, we design FADeNet, which progressively fuses multi-level frequency-aware features to balance global semantic understanding with local detail modeling, while dynamically reweighting supervision strength across regions to alleviate scribble bias. By jointly exploiting the supervision signals from both the pseudo masks and scribble semantics, ${D}^{3}$ETOR significantly narrows the gap between weakly and fully supervised COD, achieving state-of-the-art performance on multiple benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.20260 [ pdf , ps , other ] D^3ETOR: Debate-Enhanced Pseudo Labeling and Frequency-Aware Progressive Debiasing for Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection with Scribble Annotations Authors: Jiawei Ge , Jiuxin Cao , Xinyi Li , Xuelin Zhu , Chang Liu , Bo Liu , Chen Feng , Ioannis Patras Abstract : Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection (WSCOD) aims to locate and segment objects that are visually concealed within their surrounding scenes, relying solely on sparse supervision such as scribble annotations. Despite recent progress, existing WSCOD methods still lag far behind fully supervised ones due to two major limitations: (1) the pseudo masks generated by general-purpose segmentatio… ▽ More Weakly-Supervised Camouflaged Object Detection (WSCOD) aims to locate and segment objects that are visually concealed within their surrounding scenes, relying solely on sparse supervision such as scribble annotations. Despite recent progress, existing WSCOD methods still lag far behind fully supervised ones due to two major limitations: (1) the pseudo masks generated by general-purpose segmentation models (e.g., SAM) and filtered via rules are often unreliable, as these models lack the task-specific semantic understanding required for effective pseudo labeling in COD; and (2) the neglect of inherent annotation bias in scribbles, which hinders the model from capturing the global structure of camouflaged objects. To overcome these challenges, we propose ${D}^{3}$ETOR, a two-stage WSCOD framework consisting of Debate-Enhanced Pseudo Labeling and Frequency-Aware Progressive Debiasing. In the first stage, we introduce an adaptive entropy-driven point sampling method and a multi-agent debate mechanism to enhance the capability of SAM for COD, improving the interpretability and precision of pseudo masks. In the second stage, we design FADeNet, which progressively fuses multi-level frequency-aware features to balance global semantic understanding with local detail modeling, while dynamically reweighting supervision strength across regions to alleviate scribble bias. By jointly exploiting the supervision signals from both the pseudo masks and scribble semantics, ${D}^{3}$ETOR significantly narrows the gap between weakly and fully supervised COD, achieving state-of-the-art performance on multiple benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 23 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16924 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV The World is Your Canvas: Painting Promptable Events with Reference Images, Trajectories, and Text Authors: Hanlin Wang , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Yue Yu , Yihao Meng , Wen Wang , Ka Leong Cheng , Shuailei Ma , Qingyan Bai , Yixuan Li , Cheng Chen , Yanhong Zeng , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Qifeng Chen Abstract : We present WorldCanvas, a framework for promptable world events that enables rich, user-directed simulation by combining text, trajectories, and reference images. Unlike text-only approaches and existing trajectory-controlled image-to-video methods, our multimodal approach combines trajectories -- encoding motion, timing, and visibility -- with natural language for semantic intent and reference im… ▽ More We present WorldCanvas, a framework for promptable world events that enables rich, user-directed simulation by combining text, trajectories, and reference images. Unlike text-only approaches and existing trajectory-controlled image-to-video methods, our multimodal approach combines trajectories -- encoding motion, timing, and visibility -- with natural language for semantic intent and reference images for visual grounding of object identity, enabling the generation of coherent, controllable events that include multi-agent interactions, object entry/exit, reference-guided appearance and counterintuitive events. The resulting videos demonstrate not only temporal coherence but also emergent consistency, preserving object identity and scene despite temporary disappearance. By supporting expressive world events generation, WorldCanvas advances world models from passive predictors to interactive, user-shaped simulators. Our project page is available at: △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project page and code: arXiv:2512.16924 [ pdf , ps , other ] The World is Your Canvas: Painting Promptable Events with Reference Images, Trajectories, and Text Authors: Hanlin Wang , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Yue Yu , Yihao Meng , Wen Wang , Ka Leong Cheng , Shuailei Ma , Qingyan Bai , Yixuan Li , Cheng Chen , Yanhong Zeng , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Qifeng Chen Abstract : We present WorldCanvas, a framework for promptable world events that enables rich, user-directed simulation by combining text, trajectories, and reference images. Unlike text-only approaches and existing trajectory-controlled image-to-video methods, our multimodal approach combines trajectories -- encoding motion, timing, and visibility -- with natural language for semantic intent and reference im… ▽ More We present WorldCanvas, a framework for promptable world events that enables rich, user-directed simulation by combining text, trajectories, and reference images. Unlike text-only approaches and existing trajectory-controlled image-to-video methods, our multimodal approach combines trajectories -- encoding motion, timing, and visibility -- with natural language for semantic intent and reference images for visual grounding of object identity, enabling the generation of coherent, controllable events that include multi-agent interactions, object entry/exit, reference-guided appearance and counterintuitive events. The resulting videos demonstrate not only temporal coherence but also emergent consistency, preserving object identity and scene despite temporary disappearance. By supporting expressive world events generation, WorldCanvas advances world models from passive predictors to interactive, user-shaped simulators. Our project page is available at: △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Project page and code: arXiv:2512.16279 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL QuadSentinel: Sequent Safety for Machine-Checkable Control in Multi-agent Systems Authors: Yiliu Yang , Yilei Jiang , Qunzhong Wang , Yingshui Tan , Xiaoyong Zhu , Sherman S. M. Chow , Bo Zheng , Xiangyu Yue Abstract : Safety risks arise as large language model-based agents solve complex tasks with tools, multi-step plans, and inter-agent messages. However, deployer-written policies in natural language are ambiguous and context dependent, so they map poorly to machine-checkable rules, and runtime enforcement is unreliable. Expressing safety policies as sequents, we propose \textsc{QuadSentinel}, a four-agent gua… ▽ More Safety risks arise as large language model-based agents solve complex tasks with tools, multi-step plans, and inter-agent messages. However, deployer-written policies in natural language are ambiguous and context dependent, so they map poorly to machine-checkable rules, and runtime enforcement is unreliable. Expressing safety policies as sequents, we propose \textsc{QuadSentinel}, a four-agent guard (state tracker, policy verifier, threat watcher, and referee) that compiles these policies into machine-checkable rules built from predicates over observable state and enforces them online. Referee logic plus an efficient top-$k$ predicate updater keeps costs low by prioritizing checks and resolving conflicts hierarchically. Measured on ST-WebAgentBench (ICML CUA~'25) and AgentHarm (ICLR~'25), \textsc{QuadSentinel} improves guardrail accuracy and rule recall while reducing false positives. Against single-agent baselines such as ShieldAgent (ICML~'25), it yields better overall safety control. Near-term deployments can adopt this pattern without modifying core agents by keeping policies separate and machine-checkable. Our code will be made publicly available at △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Preprint arXiv:2512.16279 [ pdf , ps , other ] QuadSentinel: Sequent Safety for Machine-Checkable Control in Multi-agent Systems Authors: Yiliu Yang , Yilei Jiang , Qunzhong Wang , Yingshui Tan , Xiaoyong Zhu , Sherman S. M. Chow , Bo Zheng , Xiangyu Yue Abstract : Safety risks arise as large language model-based agents solve complex tasks with tools, multi-step plans, and inter-agent messages. However, deployer-written policies in natural language are ambiguous and context dependent, so they map poorly to machine-checkable rules, and runtime enforcement is unreliable. Expressing safety policies as sequents, we propose \textsc{QuadSentinel}, a four-agent gua… ▽ More Safety risks arise as large language model-based agents solve complex tasks with tools, multi-step plans, and inter-agent messages. However, deployer-written policies in natural language are ambiguous and context dependent, so they map poorly to machine-checkable rules, and runtime enforcement is unreliable. Expressing safety policies as sequents, we propose \textsc{QuadSentinel}, a four-agent guard (state tracker, policy verifier, threat watcher, and referee) that compiles these policies into machine-checkable rules built from predicates over observable state and enforces them online. Referee logic plus an efficient top-$k$ predicate updater keeps costs low by prioritizing checks and resolving conflicts hierarchically. Measured on ST-WebAgentBench (ICML CUA~'25) and AgentHarm (ICLR~'25), \textsc{QuadSentinel} improves guardrail accuracy and rule recall while reducing false positives. Against single-agent baselines such as ShieldAgent (ICML~'25), it yields better overall safety control. Near-term deployments can adopt this pattern without modifying core agents by keeping policies separate and machine-checkable. Our code will be made publicly available at △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Preprint arXiv:2512.15431 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Step-GUI Technical Report Authors: Haolong Yan , Jia Wang , Xin Huang , Yeqing Shen , Ziyang Meng , Zhimin Fan , Kaijun Tan , Jin Gao , Lieyu Shi , Mi Yang , Shiliang Yang , Zhirui Wang , Brian Li , Kang An , Chenyang Li , Lei Lei , Mengmeng Duan , Danxun Liang , Guodong Liu , Hang Cheng , Hao Wu , Jie Dong , Junhao Huang , Mei Chen , Renjie Yu , et al. (74 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Recent advances in multimodal large language models unlock unprecedented opportunities for GUI automation. However, a fundamental challenge remains: how to efficiently acquire high-quality training data while maintaining annotation reliability? We introduce a self-evolving training pipeline powered by the Calibrated Step Reward System, which converts model-generated trajectories into reliable trai… ▽ More Recent advances in multimodal large language models unlock unprecedented opportunities for GUI automation. However, a fundamental challenge remains: how to efficiently acquire high-quality training data while maintaining annotation reliability? We introduce a self-evolving training pipeline powered by the Calibrated Step Reward System, which converts model-generated trajectories into reliable training signals through trajectory-level calibration, achieving >90% annotation accuracy with 10-100x lower cost. Leveraging this pipeline, we introduce Step-GUI, a family of models (4B/8B) that achieves state-of-the-art GUI performance (8B: 80.2% AndroidWorld, 48.5% OSWorld, 62.6% ScreenShot-Pro) while maintaining robust general capabilities. As GUI agent capabilities improve, practical deployment demands standardized interfaces across heterogeneous devices while protecting user privacy. To this end, we propose GUI-MCP, the first Model Context Protocol for GUI automation with hierarchical architecture that combines low-level atomic operations and high-level task delegation to local specialist models, enabling high-privacy execution where sensitive data stays on-device. Finally, to assess whether agents can handle authentic everyday usage, we introduce AndroidDaily, a benchmark grounded in real-world mobile usage patterns with 3146 static actions and 235 end-to-end tasks across high-frequency daily scenarios (8B: static 89.91%, end-to-end 52.50%). Our work advances the development of practical GUI agents and demonstrates strong potential for real-world deployment in everyday digital interactions. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 41 pages, 26 figures arXiv:2512.15431 [ pdf , ps , other ] Step-GUI Technical Report Authors: Haolong Yan , Jia Wang , Xin Huang , Yeqing Shen , Ziyang Meng , Zhimin Fan , Kaijun Tan , Jin Gao , Lieyu Shi , Mi Yang , Shiliang Yang , Zhirui Wang , Brian Li , Kang An , Chenyang Li , Lei Lei , Mengmeng Duan , Danxun Liang , Guodong Liu , Hang Cheng , Hao Wu , Jie Dong , Junhao Huang , Mei Chen , Renjie Yu , et al. (74 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Recent advances in multimodal large language models unlock unprecedented opportunities for GUI automation. However, a fundamental challenge remains: how to efficiently acquire high-quality training data while maintaining annotation reliability? We introduce a self-evolving training pipeline powered by the Calibrated Step Reward System, which converts model-generated trajectories into reliable trai… ▽ More Recent advances in multimodal large language models unlock unprecedented opportunities for GUI automation. However, a fundamental challenge remains: how to efficiently acquire high-quality training data while maintaining annotation reliability? We introduce a self-evolving training pipeline powered by the Calibrated Step Reward System, which converts model-generated trajectories into reliable training signals through trajectory-level calibration, achieving >90% annotation accuracy with 10-100x lower cost. Leveraging this pipeline, we introduce Step-GUI, a family of models (4B/8B) that achieves state-of-the-art GUI performance (8B: 80.2% AndroidWorld, 48.5% OSWorld, 62.6% ScreenShot-Pro) while maintaining robust general capabilities. As GUI agent capabilities improve, practical deployment demands standardized interfaces across heterogeneous devices while protecting user privacy. To this end, we propose GUI-MCP, the first Model Context Protocol for GUI automation with hierarchical architecture that combines low-level atomic operations and high-level task delegation to local specialist models, enabling high-privacy execution where sensitive data stays on-device. Finally, to assess whether agents can handle authentic everyday usage, we introduce AndroidDaily, a benchmark grounded in real-world mobile usage patterns with 3146 static actions and 235 end-to-end tasks across high-frequency daily scenarios (8B: static 89.91%, end-to-end 52.50%). Our work advances the development of practical GUI agents and demonstrates strong potential for real-world deployment in everyday digital interactions. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 41 pages, 26 figures arXiv:2512.15221 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SLCFormer: Spectral-Local Context Transformer with Physics-Grounded Flare Synthesis for Nighttime Flare Removal Authors: Xiyu Zhu , Wei Wang , Xin Yuan , Xiao Wang Abstract : Lens flare is a common nighttime artifact caused by strong light sources scattering within camera lenses, leading to hazy streaks, halos, and glare that degrade visual quality. However, existing methods usually fail to effectively address nonuniform scattered flares, which severely reduces their applicability to complex real-world scenarios with diverse lighting conditions. To address this issue,… ▽ More Lens flare is a common nighttime artifact caused by strong light sources scattering within camera lenses, leading to hazy streaks, halos, and glare that degrade visual quality. However, existing methods usually fail to effectively address nonuniform scattered flares, which severely reduces their applicability to complex real-world scenarios with diverse lighting conditions. To address this issue, we propose SLCFormer, a novel spectral-local context transformer framework for effective nighttime lens flare removal. SLCFormer integrates two key modules: the Frequency Fourier and Excitation Module (FFEM), which captures efficient global contextual representations in the frequency domain to model flare characteristics, and the Directionally-Enhanced Spatial Module (DESM) for local structural enhancement and directional features in the spatial domain for precise flare removal. Furthermore, we introduce a ZernikeVAE-based scatter flare generation pipeline to synthesize physically realistic scatter flares with spatially varying PSFs, bridging optical physics and data-driven training. Extensive experiments on the Flare7K++ dataset demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance, outperforming existing approaches in both quantitative metrics and perceptual visual quality, and generalizing robustly to real nighttime scenes with complex flare artifacts. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15221 [ pdf , ps , other ] SLCFormer: Spectral-Local Context Transformer with Physics-Grounded Flare Synthesis for Nighttime Flare Removal Authors: Xiyu Zhu , Wei Wang , Xin Yuan , Xiao Wang Abstract : Lens flare is a common nighttime artifact caused by strong light sources scattering within camera lenses, leading to hazy streaks, halos, and glare that degrade visual quality. However, existing methods usually fail to effectively address nonuniform scattered flares, which severely reduces their applicability to complex real-world scenarios with diverse lighting conditions. To address this issue,… ▽ More Lens flare is a common nighttime artifact caused by strong light sources scattering within camera lenses, leading to hazy streaks, halos, and glare that degrade visual quality. However, existing methods usually fail to effectively address nonuniform scattered flares, which severely reduces their applicability to complex real-world scenarios with diverse lighting conditions. To address this issue, we propose SLCFormer, a novel spectral-local context transformer framework for effective nighttime lens flare removal. SLCFormer integrates two key modules: the Frequency Fourier and Excitation Module (FFEM), which captures efficient global contextual representations in the frequency domain to model flare characteristics, and the Directionally-Enhanced Spatial Module (DESM) for local structural enhancement and directional features in the spatial domain for precise flare removal. Furthermore, we introduce a ZernikeVAE-based scatter flare generation pipeline to synthesize physically realistic scatter flares with spatially varying PSFs, bridging optical physics and data-driven training. Extensive experiments on the Flare7K++ dataset demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance, outperforming existing approaches in both quantitative metrics and perceptual visual quality, and generalizing robustly to real nighttime scenes with complex flare artifacts. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.14100 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.LO A First-Order Logic-Based Alternative to Reward Models in RLHF Authors: Chunjin Jian , Xinhua Zhu Abstract : Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) plays a crucial role in aligning large language models (LLMs) with human values and preferences. However, the quality and stability of the trained reward model largely determine the final alignment performance. Existing approaches such as Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) rely heavily on reward models to guide LLMs toward human-aligned behaviors.… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) plays a crucial role in aligning large language models (LLMs) with human values and preferences. However, the quality and stability of the trained reward model largely determine the final alignment performance. Existing approaches such as Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) rely heavily on reward models to guide LLMs toward human-aligned behaviors. In this work, we propose a logic-similarity-based reward mechanism as an alternative to conventional reward modeling. Instead of relying on heuristic reward estimation, our method leverages formal logical consistency to steer model alignment with human preferences. Since real-world questions can be interpreted from multiple perspectives, to ensure that logic-based reinforcement learning does not cause model collapse, we introduce S-GRPO, a supervised variant of the GRPO framework. S-GRPO incorporates an additional supervised component and jointly optimizes the generation term, KL-divergence regularization, and label-based objective during training. Experimental results demonstrate that S-GRPO consistently outperforms standard supervised fine-tuning (SFT) in both performance and robustness. Furthermore, it extends existing preference-learning frameworks such as GRPO and DPO, offering a more flexible and task-adaptive approach to alignment training. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.14100 [ pdf , ps , other ] A First-Order Logic-Based Alternative to Reward Models in RLHF Authors: Chunjin Jian , Xinhua Zhu Abstract : Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) plays a crucial role in aligning large language models (LLMs) with human values and preferences. However, the quality and stability of the trained reward model largely determine the final alignment performance. Existing approaches such as Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) rely heavily on reward models to guide LLMs toward human-aligned behaviors.… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) plays a crucial role in aligning large language models (LLMs) with human values and preferences. However, the quality and stability of the trained reward model largely determine the final alignment performance. Existing approaches such as Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) rely heavily on reward models to guide LLMs toward human-aligned behaviors. In this work, we propose a logic-similarity-based reward mechanism as an alternative to conventional reward modeling. Instead of relying on heuristic reward estimation, our method leverages formal logical consistency to steer model alignment with human preferences. Since real-world questions can be interpreted from multiple perspectives, to ensure that logic-based reinforcement learning does not cause model collapse, we introduce S-GRPO, a supervised variant of the GRPO framework. S-GRPO incorporates an additional supervised component and jointly optimizes the generation term, KL-divergence regularization, and label-based objective during training. Experimental results demonstrate that S-GRPO consistently outperforms standard supervised fine-tuning (SFT) in both performance and robustness. Furthermore, it extends existing preference-learning frameworks such as GRPO and DPO, offering a more flexible and task-adaptive approach to alignment training. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 16 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12842 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI cs.LG SAGA: Open-World Mobile Manipulation via Structured Affordance Grounding Authors: Kuan Fang , Yuxin Chen , Xinghao Zhu , Farzad Niroui , Lingfeng Sun , Jiuguang Wang Abstract : We present SAGA, a versatile and adaptive framework for visuomotor control that can generalize across various environments, task objectives, and user specifications. To efficiently learn such capability, our key idea is to disentangle high-level semantic intent from low-level visuomotor control by explicitly grounding task objectives in the observed environment. Using an affordance-based task repr… ▽ More We present SAGA, a versatile and adaptive framework for visuomotor control that can generalize across various environments, task objectives, and user specifications. To efficiently learn such capability, our key idea is to disentangle high-level semantic intent from low-level visuomotor control by explicitly grounding task objectives in the observed environment. Using an affordance-based task representation, we express diverse and complex behaviors in a unified, structured form. By leveraging multimodal foundation models, SAGA grounds the proposed task representation to the robot's visual observation as 3D affordance heatmaps, highlighting task-relevant entities while abstracting away spurious appearance variations that would hinder generalization. These grounded affordances enable us to effectively train a conditional policy on multi-task demonstration data for whole-body control. In a unified framework, SAGA can solve tasks specified in different forms, including language instructions, selected points, and example demonstrations, enabling both zero-shot execution and few-shot adaptation. We instantiate SAGA on a quadrupedal manipulator and conduct extensive experiments across eleven real-world tasks. SAGA consistently outperforms end-to-end and modular baselines by substantial margins. Together, these results demonstrate that structured affordance grounding offers a scalable and effective pathway toward generalist mobile manipulation. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2512.12842 [ pdf , ps , other ] SAGA: Open-World Mobile Manipulation via Structured Affordance Grounding Authors: Kuan Fang , Yuxin Chen , Xinghao Zhu , Farzad Niroui , Lingfeng Sun , Jiuguang Wang Abstract : We present SAGA, a versatile and adaptive framework for visuomotor control that can generalize across various environments, task objectives, and user specifications. To efficiently learn such capability, our key idea is to disentangle high-level semantic intent from low-level visuomotor control by explicitly grounding task objectives in the observed environment. Using an affordance-based task repr… ▽ More We present SAGA, a versatile and adaptive framework for visuomotor control that can generalize across various environments, task objectives, and user specifications. To efficiently learn such capability, our key idea is to disentangle high-level semantic intent from low-level visuomotor control by explicitly grounding task objectives in the observed environment. Using an affordance-based task representation, we express diverse and complex behaviors in a unified, structured form. By leveraging multimodal foundation models, SAGA grounds the proposed task representation to the robot's visual observation as 3D affordance heatmaps, highlighting task-relevant entities while abstracting away spurious appearance variations that would hinder generalization. These grounded affordances enable us to effectively train a conditional policy on multi-task demonstration data for whole-body control. In a unified framework, SAGA can solve tasks specified in different forms, including language instructions, selected points, and example demonstrations, enabling both zero-shot execution and few-shot adaptation. We instantiate SAGA on a quadrupedal manipulator and conduct extensive experiments across eleven real-world tasks. SAGA consistently outperforms end-to-end and modular baselines by substantial margins. Together, these results demonstrate that structured affordance grounding offers a scalable and effective pathway toward generalist mobile manipulation. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 9 pages, 7 figures arXiv:2512.12303 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV OMUDA: Omni-level Masking for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in Semantic Segmentation Authors: Yang Ou , Xiongwei Zhao , Xinye Yang , Yihan Wang , Yicheng Di , Rong Yuan , Xieyuanli Chen , Xu Zhu Abstract : Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables semantic segmentation models to generalize from a labeled source domain to an unlabeled target domain. However, existing UDA methods still struggle to bridge the domain gap due to cross-domain contextual ambiguity, inconsistent feature representations, and class-wise pseudo-label noise. To address these challenges, we propose Omni-level Masking for Unsu… ▽ More Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables semantic segmentation models to generalize from a labeled source domain to an unlabeled target domain. However, existing UDA methods still struggle to bridge the domain gap due to cross-domain contextual ambiguity, inconsistent feature representations, and class-wise pseudo-label noise. To address these challenges, we propose Omni-level Masking for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation (OMUDA), a unified framework that introduces hierarchical masking strategies across distinct representation levels. Specifically, OMUDA comprises: 1) a Context-Aware Masking (CAM) strategy that adaptively distinguishes foreground from background to balance global context and local details; 2) a Feature Distillation Masking (FDM) strategy that enhances robust and consistent feature learning through knowledge transfer from pre-trained models; and 3) a Class Decoupling Masking (CDM) strategy that mitigates the impact of noisy pseudo-labels by explicitly modeling class-wise uncertainty. This hierarchical masking paradigm effectively reduces the domain shift at the contextual, representational, and categorical levels, providing a unified solution beyond existing approaches. Extensive experiments on multiple challenging cross-domain semantic segmentation benchmarks validate the effectiveness of OMUDA. Notably, on the SYNTHIA->Cityscapes and GTA5->Cityscapes tasks, OMUDA can be seamlessly integrated into existing UDA methods and consistently achieving state-of-the-art results with an average improvement of 7%. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Submitted to TMM arXiv:2512.12303 [ pdf , ps , other ] OMUDA: Omni-level Masking for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in Semantic Segmentation Authors: Yang Ou , Xiongwei Zhao , Xinye Yang , Yihan Wang , Yicheng Di , Rong Yuan , Xieyuanli Chen , Xu Zhu Abstract : Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables semantic segmentation models to generalize from a labeled source domain to an unlabeled target domain. However, existing UDA methods still struggle to bridge the domain gap due to cross-domain contextual ambiguity, inconsistent feature representations, and class-wise pseudo-label noise. To address these challenges, we propose Omni-level Masking for Unsu… ▽ More Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables semantic segmentation models to generalize from a labeled source domain to an unlabeled target domain. However, existing UDA methods still struggle to bridge the domain gap due to cross-domain contextual ambiguity, inconsistent feature representations, and class-wise pseudo-label noise. To address these challenges, we propose Omni-level Masking for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation (OMUDA), a unified framework that introduces hierarchical masking strategies across distinct representation levels. Specifically, OMUDA comprises: 1) a Context-Aware Masking (CAM) strategy that adaptively distinguishes foreground from background to balance global context and local details; 2) a Feature Distillation Masking (FDM) strategy that enhances robust and consistent feature learning through knowledge transfer from pre-trained models; and 3) a Class Decoupling Masking (CDM) strategy that mitigates the impact of noisy pseudo-labels by explicitly modeling class-wise uncertainty. This hierarchical masking paradigm effectively reduces the domain shift at the contextual, representational, and categorical levels, providing a unified solution beyond existing approaches. Extensive experiments on multiple challenging cross-domain semantic segmentation benchmarks validate the effectiveness of OMUDA. Notably, on the SYNTHIA->Cityscapes and GTA5->Cityscapes tasks, OMUDA can be seamlessly integrated into existing UDA methods and consistently achieving state-of-the-art results with an average improvement of 7%. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Submitted to TMM arXiv:2512.11612 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV eess.IV Embodied Image Compression Authors: Chunyi Li , Rui Qing , Jianbo Zhang , Yuan Tian , Xiangyang Zhu , Zicheng Zhang , Xiaohong Liu , Weisi Lin , Guangtao Zhai Abstract : Image Compression for Machines (ICM) has emerged as a pivotal research direction in the field of visual data compression. However, with the rapid evolution of machine intelligence, the target of compression has shifted from task-specific virtual models to Embodied agents operating in real-world environments. To address the communication constraints of Embodied AI in multi-agent systems and ensure… ▽ More Image Compression for Machines (ICM) has emerged as a pivotal research direction in the field of visual data compression. However, with the rapid evolution of machine intelligence, the target of compression has shifted from task-specific virtual models to Embodied agents operating in real-world environments. To address the communication constraints of Embodied AI in multi-agent systems and ensure real-time task execution, this paper introduces, for the first time, the scientific problem of Embodied Image Compression. We establish a standardized benchmark, EmbodiedComp, to facilitate systematic evaluation under ultra-low bitrate conditions in a closed-loop setting. Through extensive empirical studies in both simulated and real-world settings, we demonstrate that existing Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) fail to reliably perform even simple manipulation tasks when compressed below the Embodied bitrate threshold. We anticipate that EmbodiedComp will catalyze the development of domain-specific compression tailored for Embodied agents , thereby accelerating the Embodied AI deployment in the Real-world. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 15 pages, 12 figures, 3 tables arXiv:2512.11612 [ pdf , ps , other ] Embodied Image Compression Authors: Chunyi Li , Rui Qing , Jianbo Zhang , Yuan Tian , Xiangyang Zhu , Zicheng Zhang , Xiaohong Liu , Weisi Lin , Guangtao Zhai Abstract : Image Compression for Machines (ICM) has emerged as a pivotal research direction in the field of visual data compression. However, with the rapid evolution of machine intelligence, the target of compression has shifted from task-specific virtual models to Embodied agents operating in real-world environments. To address the communication constraints of Embodied AI in multi-agent systems and ensure… ▽ More Image Compression for Machines (ICM) has emerged as a pivotal research direction in the field of visual data compression. However, with the rapid evolution of machine intelligence, the target of compression has shifted from task-specific virtual models to Embodied agents operating in real-world environments. To address the communication constraints of Embodied AI in multi-agent systems and ensure real-time task execution, this paper introduces, for the first time, the scientific problem of Embodied Image Compression. We establish a standardized benchmark, EmbodiedComp, to facilitate systematic evaluation under ultra-low bitrate conditions in a closed-loop setting. Through extensive empirical studies in both simulated and real-world settings, we demonstrate that existing Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) fail to reliably perform even simple manipulation tasks when compressed below the Embodied bitrate threshold. We anticipate that EmbodiedComp will catalyze the development of domain-specific compression tailored for Embodied agents , thereby accelerating the Embodied AI deployment in the Real-world. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 15 pages, 12 figures, 3 tables arXiv:2512.11545 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI doi 10.1109/JOE.2025.3619314 Graph Embedding with Mel-spectrograms for Underwater Acoustic Target Recognition Authors: Sheng Feng , Shuqing Ma , Xiaoqian Zhu Abstract : Underwater acoustic target recognition (UATR) is extremely challenging due to the complexity of ship-radiated noise and the variability of ocean environments. Although deep learning (DL) approaches have achieved promising results, most existing models implicitly assume that underwater acoustic data lie in a Euclidean space. This assumption, however, is unsuitable for the inherently complex topolog… ▽ More Underwater acoustic target recognition (UATR) is extremely challenging due to the complexity of ship-radiated noise and the variability of ocean environments. Although deep learning (DL) approaches have achieved promising results, most existing models implicitly assume that underwater acoustic data lie in a Euclidean space. This assumption, however, is unsuitable for the inherently complex topology of underwater acoustic signals, which exhibit non-stationary, non-Gaussian, and nonlinear characteristics. To overcome this limitation, this paper proposes the UATR-GTransformer, a non-Euclidean DL model that integrates Transformer architectures with graph neural networks (GNNs). The model comprises three key components: a Mel patchify block, a GTransformer block, and a classification head. The Mel patchify block partitions the Mel-spectrogram into overlapping patches, while the GTransformer block employs a Transformer Encoder to capture mutual information between split patches to generate Mel-graph embeddings. Subsequently, a GNN enhances these embeddings by modeling local neighborhood relationships, and a feed-forward network (FFN) further performs feature transformation. Experiments results based on two widely used benchmark datasets demonstrate that the UATR-GTransformer achieves performance competitive with state-of-the-art methods. In addition, interpretability analysis reveals that the proposed model effectively extracts rich frequency-domain information, highlighting its potential for applications in ocean engineering. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11545 [ pdf , ps , other ] Graph Embedding with Mel-spectrograms for Underwater Acoustic Target Recognition Authors: Sheng Feng , Shuqing Ma , Xiaoqian Zhu Abstract : Underwater acoustic target recognition (UATR) is extremely challenging due to the complexity of ship-radiated noise and the variability of ocean environments. Although deep learning (DL) approaches have achieved promising results, most existing models implicitly assume that underwater acoustic data lie in a Euclidean space. This assumption, however, is unsuitable for the inherently complex topolog… ▽ More Underwater acoustic target recognition (UATR) is extremely challenging due to the complexity of ship-radiated noise and the variability of ocean environments. Although deep learning (DL) approaches have achieved promising results, most existing models implicitly assume that underwater acoustic data lie in a Euclidean space. This assumption, however, is unsuitable for the inherently complex topology of underwater acoustic signals, which exhibit non-stationary, non-Gaussian, and nonlinear characteristics. To overcome this limitation, this paper proposes the UATR-GTransformer, a non-Euclidean DL model that integrates Transformer architectures with graph neural networks (GNNs). The model comprises three key components: a Mel patchify block, a GTransformer block, and a classification head. The Mel patchify block partitions the Mel-spectrogram into overlapping patches, while the GTransformer block employs a Transformer Encoder to capture mutual information between split patches to generate Mel-graph embeddings. Subsequently, a GNN enhances these embeddings by modeling local neighborhood relationships, and a feed-forward network (FFN) further performs feature transformation. Experiments results based on two widely used benchmark datasets demonstrate that the UATR-GTransformer achieves performance competitive with state-of-the-art methods. In addition, interpretability analysis reveals that the proposed model effectively extracts rich frequency-domain information, highlighting its potential for applications in ocean engineering. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11293 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Autoregressive Video Autoencoder with Decoupled Temporal and Spatial Context Authors: Cuifeng Shen , Lumin Xu , Xingguo Zhu , Gengdai Liu Abstract : Video autoencoders compress videos into compact latent representations for efficient reconstruction, playing a vital role in enhancing the quality and efficiency of video generation. However, existing video autoencoders often entangle spatial and temporal information, limiting their ability to capture temporal consistency and leading to suboptimal performance. To address this, we propose Autoregre… ▽ More Video autoencoders compress videos into compact latent representations for efficient reconstruction, playing a vital role in enhancing the quality and efficiency of video generation. However, existing video autoencoders often entangle spatial and temporal information, limiting their ability to capture temporal consistency and leading to suboptimal performance. To address this, we propose Autoregressive Video Autoencoder (ARVAE), which compresses and reconstructs each frame conditioned on its predecessor in an autoregressive manner, allowing flexible processing of videos with arbitrary lengths. ARVAE introduces a temporal-spatial decoupled representation that combines downsampled flow field for temporal coherence with spatial relative compensation for newly emerged content, achieving high compression efficiency without information loss. Specifically, the encoder compresses the current and previous frames into the temporal motion and spatial supplement, while the decoder reconstructs the original frame from the latent representations given the preceding frame. A multi-stage training strategy is employed to progressively optimize the model. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ARVAE achieves superior reconstruction quality with extremely lightweight models and small-scale training data. Moreover, evaluations on video generation tasks highlight its strong potential for downstream applications. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11293 [ pdf , ps , other ] Autoregressive Video Autoencoder with Decoupled Temporal and Spatial Context Authors: Cuifeng Shen , Lumin Xu , Xingguo Zhu , Gengdai Liu Abstract : Video autoencoders compress videos into compact latent representations for efficient reconstruction, playing a vital role in enhancing the quality and efficiency of video generation. However, existing video autoencoders often entangle spatial and temporal information, limiting their ability to capture temporal consistency and leading to suboptimal performance. To address this, we propose Autoregre… ▽ More Video autoencoders compress videos into compact latent representations for efficient reconstruction, playing a vital role in enhancing the quality and efficiency of video generation. However, existing video autoencoders often entangle spatial and temporal information, limiting their ability to capture temporal consistency and leading to suboptimal performance. To address this, we propose Autoregressive Video Autoencoder (ARVAE), which compresses and reconstructs each frame conditioned on its predecessor in an autoregressive manner, allowing flexible processing of videos with arbitrary lengths. ARVAE introduces a temporal-spatial decoupled representation that combines downsampled flow field for temporal coherence with spatial relative compensation for newly emerged content, achieving high compression efficiency without information loss. Specifically, the encoder compresses the current and previous frames into the temporal motion and spatial supplement, while the decoder reconstructs the original frame from the latent representations given the preceding frame. A multi-stage training strategy is employed to progressively optimize the model. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ARVAE achieves superior reconstruction quality with extremely lightweight models and small-scale training data. Moreover, evaluations on video generation tasks highlight its strong potential for downstream applications. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11239 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Cross-modal Prompting for Balanced Incomplete Multi-modal Emotion Recognition Authors: Wen-Jue He , Xiaofeng Zhu , Zheng Zhang Abstract : Incomplete multi-modal emotion recognition (IMER) aims at understanding human intentions and sentiments by comprehensively exploring the partially observed multi-source data. Although the multi-modal data is expected to provide more abundant information, the performance gap and modality under-optimization problem hinder effective multi-modal learning in practice, and are exacerbated in the confron… ▽ More Incomplete multi-modal emotion recognition (IMER) aims at understanding human intentions and sentiments by comprehensively exploring the partially observed multi-source data. Although the multi-modal data is expected to provide more abundant information, the performance gap and modality under-optimization problem hinder effective multi-modal learning in practice, and are exacerbated in the confrontation of the missing data. To address this issue, we devise a novel Cross-modal Prompting (ComP) method, which emphasizes coherent information by enhancing modality-specific features and improves the overall recognition accuracy by boosting each modality's performance. Specifically, a progressive prompt generation module with a dynamic gradient modulator is proposed to produce concise and consistent modality semantic cues. Meanwhile, cross-modal knowledge propagation selectively amplifies the consistent information in modality features with the delivered prompts to enhance the discrimination of the modality-specific output. Additionally, a coordinator is designed to dynamically re-weight the modality outputs as a complement to the balance strategy to improve the model's efficacy. Extensive experiments on 4 datasets with 7 SOTA methods under different missing rates validate the effectiveness of our proposed method. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.11239 [ pdf , ps , other ] Cross-modal Prompting for Balanced Incomplete Multi-modal Emotion Recognition Authors: Wen-Jue He , Xiaofeng Zhu , Zheng Zhang Abstract : Incomplete multi-modal emotion recognition (IMER) aims at understanding human intentions and sentiments by comprehensively exploring the partially observed multi-source data. Although the multi-modal data is expected to provide more abundant information, the performance gap and modality under-optimization problem hinder effective multi-modal learning in practice, and are exacerbated in the confron… ▽ More Incomplete multi-modal emotion recognition (IMER) aims at understanding human intentions and sentiments by comprehensively exploring the partially observed multi-source data. Although the multi-modal data is expected to provide more abundant information, the performance gap and modality under-optimization problem hinder effective multi-modal learning in practice, and are exacerbated in the confrontation of the missing data. To address this issue, we devise a novel Cross-modal Prompting (ComP) method, which emphasizes coherent information by enhancing modality-specific features and improves the overall recognition accuracy by boosting each modality's performance. Specifically, a progressive prompt generation module with a dynamic gradient modulator is proposed to produce concise and consistent modality semantic cues. Meanwhile, cross-modal knowledge propagation selectively amplifies the consistent information in modality features with the delivered prompts to enhance the discrimination of the modality-specific output. Additionally, a coordinator is designed to dynamically re-weight the modality outputs as a complement to the balance strategy to improve the model's efficacy. Extensive experiments on 4 datasets with 7 SOTA methods under different missing rates validate the effectiveness of our proposed method. △ Less Submitted 27 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.10309 [ pdf , ps , other ] q-bio.MN cs.LG physics.bio-ph Tracking large chemical reaction networks and rare events by neural networks Authors: Jiayu Weng , Xinyi Zhu , Jing Liu , Linyuan Lü , Pan Zhang , Ying Tang Abstract : Chemical reaction networks are widely used to model stochastic dynamics in chemical kinetics, systems biology and epidemiology. Solving the chemical master equation that governs these systems poses a significant challenge due to the large state space exponentially growing with system sizes. The development of autoregressive neural networks offers a flexible framework for this problem; however, its… ▽ More Chemical reaction networks are widely used to model stochastic dynamics in chemical kinetics, systems biology and epidemiology. Solving the chemical master equation that governs these systems poses a significant challenge due to the large state space exponentially growing with system sizes. The development of autoregressive neural networks offers a flexible framework for this problem; however, its efficiency is limited especially for high-dimensional systems and in scenarios with rare events. Here, we push the frontier of neural-network approach by exploiting faster optimizations such as natural gradient descent and time-dependent variational principle, achieving a 5- to 22-fold speedup, and by leveraging enhanced-sampling strategies to capture rare events. We demonstrate reduced computational cost and higher accuracy over the previous neural-network method in challenging reaction networks, including the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade network, the hitherto largest biological network handled by the previous approaches of solving the chemical master equation. We further apply the approach to spatially extended reaction-diffusion systems, the Schlögl model with rare events, on two-dimensional lattices, beyond the recent tensor-network approach that handles one-dimensional lattices. The present approach thus enables efficient modeling of chemical reaction networks in general. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10309 [ pdf , ps , other ] Tracking large chemical reaction networks and rare events by neural networks Authors: Jiayu Weng , Xinyi Zhu , Jing Liu , Linyuan Lü , Pan Zhang , Ying Tang Abstract : Chemical reaction networks are widely used to model stochastic dynamics in chemical kinetics, systems biology and epidemiology. Solving the chemical master equation that governs these systems poses a significant challenge due to the large state space exponentially growing with system sizes. The development of autoregressive neural networks offers a flexible framework for this problem; however, its… ▽ More Chemical reaction networks are widely used to model stochastic dynamics in chemical kinetics, systems biology and epidemiology. Solving the chemical master equation that governs these systems poses a significant challenge due to the large state space exponentially growing with system sizes. The development of autoregressive neural networks offers a flexible framework for this problem; however, its efficiency is limited especially for high-dimensional systems and in scenarios with rare events. Here, we push the frontier of neural-network approach by exploiting faster optimizations such as natural gradient descent and time-dependent variational principle, achieving a 5- to 22-fold speedup, and by leveraging enhanced-sampling strategies to capture rare events. We demonstrate reduced computational cost and higher accuracy over the previous neural-network method in challenging reaction networks, including the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade network, the hitherto largest biological network handled by the previous approaches of solving the chemical master equation. We further apply the approach to spatially extended reaction-diffusion systems, the Schlögl model with rare events, on two-dimensional lattices, beyond the recent tensor-network approach that handles one-dimensional lattices. The present approach thus enables efficient modeling of chemical reaction networks in general. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.10047 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cond-mat.stat-mech cs.AI nlin.AO physics.data-an Detailed balance in large language model-driven agents Authors: Zhuo-Yang Song , Qing-Hong Cao , Ming-xing Luo , Hua Xing Zhu Abstract : Large language model (LLM)-driven agents are emerging as a powerful new paradigm for solving complex problems. Despite the empirical success of these practices, a theoretical framework to understand and unify their macroscopic dynamics remains lacking. This Letter proposes a method based on the least action principle to estimate the underlying generative directionality of LLMs embedded within agen… ▽ More Large language model (LLM)-driven agents are emerging as a powerful new paradigm for solving complex problems. Despite the empirical success of these practices, a theoretical framework to understand and unify their macroscopic dynamics remains lacking. This Letter proposes a method based on the least action principle to estimate the underlying generative directionality of LLMs embedded within agents. By experimentally measuring the transition probabilities between LLM-generated states, we statistically discover a detailed balance in LLM-generated transitions, indicating that LLM generation may not be achieved by generally learning rule sets and strategies, but rather by implicitly learning a class of underlying potential functions that may transcend different LLM architectures and prompt templates. To our knowledge, this is the first discovery of a macroscopic physical law in LLM generative dynamics that does not depend on specific model details. This work is an attempt to establish a macroscopic dynamics theory of complex AI systems, aiming to elevate the study of AI agents from a collection of engineering practices to a science built on effective measurements that are predictable and quantifiable. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2512.10047 [ pdf , ps , other ] Detailed balance in large language model-driven agents Authors: Zhuo-Yang Song , Qing-Hong Cao , Ming-xing Luo , Hua Xing Zhu Abstract : Large language model (LLM)-driven agents are emerging as a powerful new paradigm for solving complex problems. Despite the empirical success of these practices, a theoretical framework to understand and unify their macroscopic dynamics remains lacking. This Letter proposes a method based on the least action principle to estimate the underlying generative directionality of LLMs embedded within agen… ▽ More Large language model (LLM)-driven agents are emerging as a powerful new paradigm for solving complex problems. Despite the empirical success of these practices, a theoretical framework to understand and unify their macroscopic dynamics remains lacking. This Letter proposes a method based on the least action principle to estimate the underlying generative directionality of LLMs embedded within agents. By experimentally measuring the transition probabilities between LLM-generated states, we statistically discover a detailed balance in LLM-generated transitions, indicating that LLM generation may not be achieved by generally learning rule sets and strategies, but rather by implicitly learning a class of underlying potential functions that may transcend different LLM architectures and prompt templates. To our knowledge, this is the first discovery of a macroscopic physical law in LLM generative dynamics that does not depend on specific model details. This work is an attempt to establish a macroscopic dynamics theory of complex AI systems, aiming to elevate the study of AI agents from a collection of engineering practices to a science built on effective measurements that are predictable and quantifiable. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables arXiv:2512.08323 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Detecting Dental Landmarks from Intraoral 3D Scans: the 3DTeethLand challenge Authors: Achraf Ben-Hamadou , Nour Neifar , Ahmed Rekik , Oussama Smaoui , Firas Bouzguenda , Sergi Pujades , Niels van Nistelrooij , Shankeeth Vinayahalingam , Kaibo Shi , Hairong Jin , Youyi Zheng , Tibor Kubík , Oldřich Kodym , Petr Šilling , Kateřina Trávníčková , Tomáš Mojžiš , Jan Matula , Jeffry Hartanto , Xiaoying Zhu , Kim-Ngan Nguyen , Tudor Dascalu , Huikai Wu , and Weijie Liu , Shaojie Zhuang , Guangshun Wei , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Teeth landmark detection is a critical task in modern clinical orthodontics. Their precise identification enables advanced diagnostics, facilitates personalized treatment strategies, and supports more effective monitoring of treatment progress in clinical dentistry. However, several significant challenges may arise due to the intricate geometry of individual teeth and the substantial variations ob… ▽ More Teeth landmark detection is a critical task in modern clinical orthodontics. Their precise identification enables advanced diagnostics, facilitates personalized treatment strategies, and supports more effective monitoring of treatment progress in clinical dentistry. However, several significant challenges may arise due to the intricate geometry of individual teeth and the substantial variations observed across different individuals. To address these complexities, the development of advanced techniques, especially through the application of deep learning, is essential for the precise and reliable detection of 3D tooth landmarks. In this context, the 3DTeethLand challenge was held in collaboration with the International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention (MICCAI) in 2024, calling for algorithms focused on teeth landmark detection from intraoral 3D scans. This challenge introduced the first publicly available dataset for 3D teeth landmark detection, offering a valuable resource to assess the state-of-the-art methods in this task and encourage the community to provide methodological contributions towards the resolution of their problem with significant clinical implications. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: MICCAI 2024, 3DTeethLand, Challenge report, under review arXiv:2512.08323 [ pdf , ps , other ] Detecting Dental Landmarks from Intraoral 3D Scans: the 3DTeethLand challenge Authors: Achraf Ben-Hamadou , Nour Neifar , Ahmed Rekik , Oussama Smaoui , Firas Bouzguenda , Sergi Pujades , Niels van Nistelrooij , Shankeeth Vinayahalingam , Kaibo Shi , Hairong Jin , Youyi Zheng , Tibor Kubík , Oldřich Kodym , Petr Šilling , Kateřina Trávníčková , Tomáš Mojžiš , Jan Matula , Jeffry Hartanto , Xiaoying Zhu , Kim-Ngan Nguyen , Tudor Dascalu , Huikai Wu , and Weijie Liu , Shaojie Zhuang , Guangshun Wei , et al. (1 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Teeth landmark detection is a critical task in modern clinical orthodontics. Their precise identification enables advanced diagnostics, facilitates personalized treatment strategies, and supports more effective monitoring of treatment progress in clinical dentistry. However, several significant challenges may arise due to the intricate geometry of individual teeth and the substantial variations ob… ▽ More Teeth landmark detection is a critical task in modern clinical orthodontics. Their precise identification enables advanced diagnostics, facilitates personalized treatment strategies, and supports more effective monitoring of treatment progress in clinical dentistry. However, several significant challenges may arise due to the intricate geometry of individual teeth and the substantial variations observed across different individuals. To address these complexities, the development of advanced techniques, especially through the application of deep learning, is essential for the precise and reliable detection of 3D tooth landmarks. In this context, the 3DTeethLand challenge was held in collaboration with the International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention (MICCAI) in 2024, calling for algorithms focused on teeth landmark detection from intraoral 3D scans. This challenge introduced the first publicly available dataset for 3D teeth landmark detection, offering a valuable resource to assess the state-of-the-art methods in this task and encourage the community to provide methodological contributions towards the resolution of their problem with significant clinical implications. △ Less Submitted 9 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: MICCAI 2024, 3DTeethLand, Challenge report, under review arXiv:2512.08170 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV RAVES-Calib: Robust, Accurate and Versatile Extrinsic Self Calibration Using Optimal Geometric Features Authors: Haoxin Zhang , Shuaixin Li , Xiaozhou Zhu , Hongbo Chen , Wen Yao Abstract : In this paper, we present a user-friendly LiDAR-camera calibration toolkit that is compatible with various LiDAR and camera sensors and requires only a single pair of laser points and a camera image in targetless environments. Our approach eliminates the need for an initial transform and remains robust even with large positional and rotational LiDAR-camera extrinsic parameters. We employ the Glues… ▽ More In this paper, we present a user-friendly LiDAR-camera calibration toolkit that is compatible with various LiDAR and camera sensors and requires only a single pair of laser points and a camera image in targetless environments. Our approach eliminates the need for an initial transform and remains robust even with large positional and rotational LiDAR-camera extrinsic parameters. We employ the Gluestick pipeline to establish 2D-3D point and line feature correspondences for a robust and automatic initial guess. To enhance accuracy, we quantitatively analyze the impact of feature distribution on calibration results and adaptively weight the cost of each feature based on these metrics. As a result, extrinsic parameters are optimized by filtering out the adverse effects of inferior features. We validated our method through extensive experiments across various LiDAR-camera sensors in both indoor and outdoor settings. The results demonstrate that our method provides superior robustness and accuracy compared to SOTA techniques. Our code is open-sourced on GitHub to benefit the community. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.08170 [ pdf , ps , other ] RAVES-Calib: Robust, Accurate and Versatile Extrinsic Self Calibration Using Optimal Geometric Features Authors: Haoxin Zhang , Shuaixin Li , Xiaozhou Zhu , Hongbo Chen , Wen Yao Abstract : In this paper, we present a user-friendly LiDAR-camera calibration toolkit that is compatible with various LiDAR and camera sensors and requires only a single pair of laser points and a camera image in targetless environments. Our approach eliminates the need for an initial transform and remains robust even with large positional and rotational LiDAR-camera extrinsic parameters. We employ the Glues… ▽ More In this paper, we present a user-friendly LiDAR-camera calibration toolkit that is compatible with various LiDAR and camera sensors and requires only a single pair of laser points and a camera image in targetless environments. Our approach eliminates the need for an initial transform and remains robust even with large positional and rotational LiDAR-camera extrinsic parameters. We employ the Gluestick pipeline to establish 2D-3D point and line feature correspondences for a robust and automatic initial guess. To enhance accuracy, we quantitatively analyze the impact of feature distribution on calibration results and adaptively weight the cost of each feature based on these metrics. As a result, extrinsic parameters are optimized by filtering out the adverse effects of inferior features. We validated our method through extensive experiments across various LiDAR-camera sensors in both indoor and outdoor settings. The results demonstrate that our method provides superior robustness and accuracy compared to SOTA techniques. Our code is open-sourced on GitHub to benefit the community. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.06486 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Entropy-Controlled Intrinsic Motivation Reinforcement Learning for Quadruped Robot Locomotion in Complex Terrains Authors: Wanru Gong , Xinyi Zheng , Yuan Hui , Zhongjun Li , Weiqiang Wang , Xiaoqing Zhu Abstract : Learning is the basis of both biological and artificial systems when it comes to mimicking intelligent behaviors. From the classical PPO (Proximal Policy Optimization), there is a series of deep reinforcement learning algorithms which are widely used in training locomotion policies for quadrupedal robots because of their stability and sample efficiency. However, among all these variants, experimen… ▽ More Learning is the basis of both biological and artificial systems when it comes to mimicking intelligent behaviors. From the classical PPO (Proximal Policy Optimization), there is a series of deep reinforcement learning algorithms which are widely used in training locomotion policies for quadrupedal robots because of their stability and sample efficiency. However, among all these variants, experiments and simulations often converge prematurely, leading to suboptimal locomotion and reduced task performance. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce Entropy-Controlled Intrinsic Motivation (ECIM), an entropy-based reinforcement learning algorithm in contrast with the PPO series, that can reduce premature convergence by combining intrinsic motivation with adaptive exploration. For experiments, in order to parallel with other baselines, we chose to apply it in Isaac Gym across six terrain categories: upward slopes, downward slopes, uneven rough terrain, ascending stairs, descending stairs, and flat ground as widely used. For comparison, our experiments consistently achieve better performance: task rewards increase by 4--12%, peak body pitch oscillation is reduced by 23--29%, joint acceleration decreases by 20--32%, and joint torque consumption declines by 11--20%. Overall, our model ECIM, by combining entropy control and intrinsic motivation control, achieves better results in stability across different terrains for quadrupedal locomotion, and at the same time reduces energetic cost and makes it a practical choice for complex robotic control tasks. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; v1 submitted 6 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.06486 [ pdf , ps , other ] Entropy-Controlled Intrinsic Motivation Reinforcement Learning for Quadruped Robot Locomotion in Complex Terrains Authors: Wanru Gong , Xinyi Zheng , Yuan Hui , Zhongjun Li , Weiqiang Wang , Xiaoqing Zhu Abstract : Learning is the basis of both biological and artificial systems when it comes to mimicking intelligent behaviors. From the classical PPO (Proximal Policy Optimization), there is a series of deep reinforcement learning algorithms which are widely used in training locomotion policies for quadrupedal robots because of their stability and sample efficiency. However, among all these variants, experimen… ▽ More Learning is the basis of both biological and artificial systems when it comes to mimicking intelligent behaviors. From the classical PPO (Proximal Policy Optimization), there is a series of deep reinforcement learning algorithms which are widely used in training locomotion policies for quadrupedal robots because of their stability and sample efficiency. However, among all these variants, experiments and simulations often converge prematurely, leading to suboptimal locomotion and reduced task performance. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce Entropy-Controlled Intrinsic Motivation (ECIM), an entropy-based reinforcement learning algorithm in contrast with the PPO series, that can reduce premature convergence by combining intrinsic motivation with adaptive exploration. For experiments, in order to parallel with other baselines, we chose to apply it in Isaac Gym across six terrain categories: upward slopes, downward slopes, uneven rough terrain, ascending stairs, descending stairs, and flat ground as widely used. For comparison, our experiments consistently achieve better performance: task rewards increase by 4--12%, peak body pitch oscillation is reduced by 23--29%, joint acceleration decreases by 20--32%, and joint torque consumption declines by 11--20%. Overall, our model ECIM, by combining entropy control and intrinsic motivation control, achieves better results in stability across different terrains for quadrupedal locomotion, and at the same time reduces energetic cost and makes it a practical choice for complex robotic control tasks. △ Less Submitted 13 December, 2025; v1 submitted 6 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04678 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Reward Forcing: Efficient Streaming Video Generation with Rewarded Distribution Matching Distillation Authors: Yunhong Lu , Yanhong Zeng , Haobo Li , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Ka Leong Cheng , Jiapeng Zhu , Hengyuan Cao , Zhipeng Zhang , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Min Zhang Abstract : Efficient streaming video generation is critical for simulating interactive and dynamic worlds. Existing methods distill few-step video diffusion models with sliding window attention, using initial frames as sink tokens to maintain attention performance and reduce error accumulation. However, video frames become overly dependent on these static tokens, resulting in copied initial frames and dimini… ▽ More Efficient streaming video generation is critical for simulating interactive and dynamic worlds. Existing methods distill few-step video diffusion models with sliding window attention, using initial frames as sink tokens to maintain attention performance and reduce error accumulation. However, video frames become overly dependent on these static tokens, resulting in copied initial frames and diminished motion dynamics. To address this, we introduce Reward Forcing, a novel framework with two key designs. First, we propose EMA-Sink, which maintains fixed-size tokens initialized from initial frames and continuously updated by fusing evicted tokens via exponential moving average as they exit the sliding window. Without additional computation cost, EMA-Sink tokens capture both long-term context and recent dynamics, preventing initial frame copying while maintaining long-horizon consistency. Second, to better distill motion dynamics from teacher models, we propose a novel Rewarded Distribution Matching Distillation (Re-DMD). Vanilla distribution matching treats every training sample equally, limiting the model's ability to prioritize dynamic content. Instead, Re-DMD biases the model's output distribution toward high-reward regions by prioritizing samples with greater dynamics rated by a vision-language model. Re-DMD significantly enhances motion quality while preserving data fidelity. We include both quantitative and qualitative experiments to show that Reward Forcing achieves state-of-the-art performance on standard benchmarks while enabling high-quality streaming video generation at 23.1 FPS on a single H100 GPU. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04678 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reward Forcing: Efficient Streaming Video Generation with Rewarded Distribution Matching Distillation Authors: Yunhong Lu , Yanhong Zeng , Haobo Li , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Ka Leong Cheng , Jiapeng Zhu , Hengyuan Cao , Zhipeng Zhang , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Min Zhang Abstract : Efficient streaming video generation is critical for simulating interactive and dynamic worlds. Existing methods distill few-step video diffusion models with sliding window attention, using initial frames as sink tokens to maintain attention performance and reduce error accumulation. However, video frames become overly dependent on these static tokens, resulting in copied initial frames and dimini… ▽ More Efficient streaming video generation is critical for simulating interactive and dynamic worlds. Existing methods distill few-step video diffusion models with sliding window attention, using initial frames as sink tokens to maintain attention performance and reduce error accumulation. However, video frames become overly dependent on these static tokens, resulting in copied initial frames and diminished motion dynamics. To address this, we introduce Reward Forcing, a novel framework with two key designs. First, we propose EMA-Sink, which maintains fixed-size tokens initialized from initial frames and continuously updated by fusing evicted tokens via exponential moving average as they exit the sliding window. Without additional computation cost, EMA-Sink tokens capture both long-term context and recent dynamics, preventing initial frame copying while maintaining long-horizon consistency. Second, to better distill motion dynamics from teacher models, we propose a novel Rewarded Distribution Matching Distillation (Re-DMD). Vanilla distribution matching treats every training sample equally, limiting the model's ability to prioritize dynamic content. Instead, Re-DMD biases the model's output distribution toward high-reward regions by prioritizing samples with greater dynamics rated by a vision-language model. Re-DMD significantly enhances motion quality while preserving data fidelity. We include both quantitative and qualitative experiments to show that Reward Forcing achieves state-of-the-art performance on standard benchmarks while enabling high-quality streaming video generation at 23.1 FPS on a single H100 GPU. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04399 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Development of a 15-Degree-of-Freedom Bionic Hand with Cable-Driven Transmission and Distributed Actuation Authors: Haoqi Han , Yi Yang , Yifei Yu , Yixuan Zhou , Xiaohan Zhu , Hesheng Wang Abstract : In robotic hand research, minimizing the number of actuators while maintaining human-hand-consistent dimensions and degrees of freedom constitutes a fundamental challenge. Drawing bio-inspiration from human hand kinematic configurations and muscle distribution strategies, this work proposes a novel 15-DoF dexterous robotic hand, with detailed analysis of its mechanical architecture, electrical sys… ▽ More In robotic hand research, minimizing the number of actuators while maintaining human-hand-consistent dimensions and degrees of freedom constitutes a fundamental challenge. Drawing bio-inspiration from human hand kinematic configurations and muscle distribution strategies, this work proposes a novel 15-DoF dexterous robotic hand, with detailed analysis of its mechanical architecture, electrical system, and control system. The bionic hand employs a new tendon-driven mechanism, significantly reducing the number of motors required by traditional tendon-driven systems while enhancing motion performance and simplifying the mechanical structure. This design integrates five motors in the forearm to provide strong gripping force, while ten small motors are installed in the palm to support fine manipulation tasks. Additionally, a corresponding joint sensing and motor driving electrical system was developed to ensure efficient control and feedback. The entire system weighs only 1.4kg, combining lightweight and high-performance features. Through experiments, the bionic hand exhibited exceptional dexterity and robust grasping capabilities, demonstrating significant potential for robotic manipulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04399 [ pdf , ps , other ] Development of a 15-Degree-of-Freedom Bionic Hand with Cable-Driven Transmission and Distributed Actuation Authors: Haoqi Han , Yi Yang , Yifei Yu , Yixuan Zhou , Xiaohan Zhu , Hesheng Wang Abstract : In robotic hand research, minimizing the number of actuators while maintaining human-hand-consistent dimensions and degrees of freedom constitutes a fundamental challenge. Drawing bio-inspiration from human hand kinematic configurations and muscle distribution strategies, this work proposes a novel 15-DoF dexterous robotic hand, with detailed analysis of its mechanical architecture, electrical sys… ▽ More In robotic hand research, minimizing the number of actuators while maintaining human-hand-consistent dimensions and degrees of freedom constitutes a fundamental challenge. Drawing bio-inspiration from human hand kinematic configurations and muscle distribution strategies, this work proposes a novel 15-DoF dexterous robotic hand, with detailed analysis of its mechanical architecture, electrical system, and control system. The bionic hand employs a new tendon-driven mechanism, significantly reducing the number of motors required by traditional tendon-driven systems while enhancing motion performance and simplifying the mechanical structure. This design integrates five motors in the forearm to provide strong gripping force, while ten small motors are installed in the palm to support fine manipulation tasks. Additionally, a corresponding joint sensing and motor driving electrical system was developed to ensure efficient control and feedback. The entire system weighs only 1.4kg, combining lightweight and high-performance features. Through experiments, the bionic hand exhibited exceptional dexterity and robust grasping capabilities, demonstrating significant potential for robotic manipulation tasks. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.04031 [ pdf , ps , other ] astro-ph.IM astro-ph.HE cs.AI Large Language Models for Limited Noisy Data: A Gravitational Wave Identification Study Authors: Yixuan Li , Yuhao Lu , Yang Liu , Liang Li , R. Ruffini , Di Li , Rong-Gen Cai , Xiaoyan Zhu , Wenbin Lin , Yu Wang Abstract : This work investigates whether large language models (LLMs) offer advantages over traditional neural networks for astronomical data processing, in regimes with non-Gaussian, non-stationary noise and limited labeled samples. Gravitational wave observations provide an suitable test case, using only 90 LIGO events, finetuned LLMs achieve 97.4\% accuracy for identifying signals. Further experiments sh… ▽ More This work investigates whether large language models (LLMs) offer advantages over traditional neural networks for astronomical data processing, in regimes with non-Gaussian, non-stationary noise and limited labeled samples. Gravitational wave observations provide an suitable test case, using only 90 LIGO events, finetuned LLMs achieve 97.4\% accuracy for identifying signals. Further experiments show that, in contrast to traditional networks that rely on large simulated datasets, additional simulated samples do not improve LLM performance, while scaling studies reveal predictable gains with increasing model size and dataset size. These results indicate that LLMs can extract discriminative structure directly from observational data and provide an efficient assessment for gravitational wave identification. The same strategy may extend to other astronomical domains with similar noise properties, such as radio or pulsar observations. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures, submitted to ApJ arXiv:2512.04031 [ pdf , ps , other ] Large Language Models for Limited Noisy Data: A Gravitational Wave Identification Study Authors: Yixuan Li , Yuhao Lu , Yang Liu , Liang Li , R. Ruffini , Di Li , Rong-Gen Cai , Xiaoyan Zhu , Wenbin Lin , Yu Wang Abstract : This work investigates whether large language models (LLMs) offer advantages over traditional neural networks for astronomical data processing, in regimes with non-Gaussian, non-stationary noise and limited labeled samples. Gravitational wave observations provide an suitable test case, using only 90 LIGO events, finetuned LLMs achieve 97.4\% accuracy for identifying signals. Further experiments sh… ▽ More This work investigates whether large language models (LLMs) offer advantages over traditional neural networks for astronomical data processing, in regimes with non-Gaussian, non-stationary noise and limited labeled samples. Gravitational wave observations provide an suitable test case, using only 90 LIGO events, finetuned LLMs achieve 97.4\% accuracy for identifying signals. Further experiments show that, in contrast to traditional networks that rely on large simulated datasets, additional simulated samples do not improve LLM performance, while scaling studies reveal predictable gains with increasing model size and dataset size. These results indicate that LLMs can extract discriminative structure directly from observational data and provide an efficient assessment for gravitational wave identification. The same strategy may extend to other astronomical domains with similar noise properties, such as radio or pulsar observations. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures, submitted to ApJ arXiv:2512.03500 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV EEA: Exploration-Exploitation Agent for Long Video Understanding Authors: Te Yang , Xiangyu Zhu , Bo Wang , Quan Chen , Peng Jiang , Zhen Lei Abstract : Long-form video understanding requires efficient navigation of extensive visual data to pinpoint sparse yet critical information. Current approaches to longform video understanding either suffer from severe computational overhead due to dense preprocessing, or fail to effectively balance exploration and exploitation, resulting in incomplete information coverage and inefficiency. In this work, we i… ▽ More Long-form video understanding requires efficient navigation of extensive visual data to pinpoint sparse yet critical information. Current approaches to longform video understanding either suffer from severe computational overhead due to dense preprocessing, or fail to effectively balance exploration and exploitation, resulting in incomplete information coverage and inefficiency. In this work, we introduce EEA, a novel video agent framework that archives exploration-exploitation balance through semantic guidance with hierarchical tree search process. EEA autonomously discovers and dynamically updates task-relevant semantic queries, and collects video frames closely matched to these queries as semantic anchors. During the tree search process, instead of uniform expansion, EEA preferentially explores semantically relevant frames while ensuring sufficient coverage within unknown segments. Moreover, EEA adaptively combines intrinsic rewards from visionlanguage models (VLMs) with semantic priors by explicitly modeling uncertainty to achieve stable and precise evaluation of video segments. Experiments across various long-video benchmarks validate the superior performance and computational efficiency of our proposed method. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.03500 [ pdf , ps , other ] EEA: Exploration-Exploitation Agent for Long Video Understanding Authors: Te Yang , Xiangyu Zhu , Bo Wang , Quan Chen , Peng Jiang , Zhen Lei Abstract : Long-form video understanding requires efficient navigation of extensive visual data to pinpoint sparse yet critical information. Current approaches to longform video understanding either suffer from severe computational overhead due to dense preprocessing, or fail to effectively balance exploration and exploitation, resulting in incomplete information coverage and inefficiency. In this work, we i… ▽ More Long-form video understanding requires efficient navigation of extensive visual data to pinpoint sparse yet critical information. Current approaches to longform video understanding either suffer from severe computational overhead due to dense preprocessing, or fail to effectively balance exploration and exploitation, resulting in incomplete information coverage and inefficiency. In this work, we introduce EEA, a novel video agent framework that archives exploration-exploitation balance through semantic guidance with hierarchical tree search process. EEA autonomously discovers and dynamically updates task-relevant semantic queries, and collects video frames closely matched to these queries as semantic anchors. During the tree search process, instead of uniform expansion, EEA preferentially explores semantically relevant frames while ensuring sufficient coverage within unknown segments. Moreover, EEA adaptively combines intrinsic rewards from visionlanguage models (VLMs) with semantic priors by explicitly modeling uncertainty to achieve stable and precise evaluation of video segments. Experiments across various long-video benchmarks validate the superior performance and computational efficiency of our proposed method. △ Less Submitted 3 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.03046 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MagicQuillV2: Precise and Interactive Image Editing with Layered Visual Cues Authors: Zichen Liu , Yue Yu , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Shuailei Ma , Ka Leong Cheng , Wen Wang , Qingyan Bai , Yuxuan Zhang , Yanhong Zeng , Yixuan Li , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Qifeng Chen Abstract : We propose MagicQuill V2, a novel system that introduces a \textbf{layered composition} paradigm to generative image editing, bridging the gap between the semantic power of diffusion models and the granular control of traditional graphics software. While diffusion transformers excel at holistic generation, their use of singular, monolithic prompts fails to disentangle distinct user intentions for… ▽ More We propose MagicQuill V2, a novel system that introduces a \textbf{layered composition} paradigm to generative image editing, bridging the gap between the semantic power of diffusion models and the granular control of traditional graphics software. While diffusion transformers excel at holistic generation, their use of singular, monolithic prompts fails to disentangle distinct user intentions for content, position, and appearance. To overcome this, our method deconstructs creative intent into a stack of controllable visual cues: a content layer for what to create, a spatial layer for where to place it, a structural layer for how it is shaped, and a color layer for its palette. Our technical contributions include a specialized data generation pipeline for context-aware content integration, a unified control module to process all visual cues, and a fine-tuned spatial branch for precise local editing, including object removal. Extensive experiments validate that this layered approach effectively resolves the user intention gap, granting creators direct, intuitive control over the generative process. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code and demo available at arXiv:2512.03046 [ pdf , ps , other ] MagicQuillV2: Precise and Interactive Image Editing with Layered Visual Cues Authors: Zichen Liu , Yue Yu , Hao Ouyang , Qiuyu Wang , Shuailei Ma , Ka Leong Cheng , Wen Wang , Qingyan Bai , Yuxuan Zhang , Yanhong Zeng , Yixuan Li , Xing Zhu , Yujun Shen , Qifeng Chen Abstract : We propose MagicQuill V2, a novel system that introduces a \textbf{layered composition} paradigm to generative image editing, bridging the gap between the semantic power of diffusion models and the granular control of traditional graphics software. While diffusion transformers excel at holistic generation, their use of singular, monolithic prompts fails to disentangle distinct user intentions for… ▽ More We propose MagicQuill V2, a novel system that introduces a \textbf{layered composition} paradigm to generative image editing, bridging the gap between the semantic power of diffusion models and the granular control of traditional graphics software. While diffusion transformers excel at holistic generation, their use of singular, monolithic prompts fails to disentangle distinct user intentions for content, position, and appearance. To overcome this, our method deconstructs creative intent into a stack of controllable visual cues: a content layer for what to create, a spatial layer for where to place it, a structural layer for how it is shaped, and a color layer for its palette. Our technical contributions include a specialized data generation pipeline for context-aware content integration, a unified control module to process all visual cues, and a fine-tuned spatial branch for precise local editing, including object removal. Extensive experiments validate that this layered approach effectively resolves the user intention gap, granting creators direct, intuitive control over the generative process. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Code and demo available at arXiv:2512.02895 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MindGPT-4ov: An Enhanced MLLM via a Multi-Stage Post-Training Paradigm Authors: Wei Chen , Chaoqun Du , Feng Gu , Wei He , Qizhen Li , Zide Liu , Xuhao Pan , Chang Ren , Xudong Rao , Chenfeng Wang , Tao Wei , Chengjun Yu , Pengfei Yu , Yufei Zheng , Chunpeng Zhou , Pan Zhou , Xuhan Zhu Abstract : We present MindGPT-4ov, a multimodal large language model (MLLM) that introduces a general post-training paradigm spanning data production, model training, and efficient deployment. It achieves state-of-the-art performance across multiple benchmarks at low cost, effectively enhancing the foundational capabilities of MLLMs and the generalization ability. Focusing on data construction, supervised fi… ▽ More We present MindGPT-4ov, a multimodal large language model (MLLM) that introduces a general post-training paradigm spanning data production, model training, and efficient deployment. It achieves state-of-the-art performance across multiple benchmarks at low cost, effectively enhancing the foundational capabilities of MLLMs and the generalization ability. Focusing on data construction, supervised fine-tuning strategies, and multimodal reinforcement learning methods, this work proposes three key innovations: (1) An information density-based data generation scheme, integrated with a dual-dimensional tree-structured label system, enabling automated generation of high-quality cross-domain data. (2) A collaborative curriculum supervised fine-tuning approach that balances the injection of domain-specific knowledge with the preservation of general capabilities. (3) A hybrid reinforcement learning paradigm that enhances reasoning ability while simultaneously addressing multi-objective optimization such as diversity exploration, maintenance of multimodal perception, and response conciseness. Moreover, we implement a series of infrastructure optimizations, such as 5D parallel training, operator optimization, and inference quantization to enhance training and inference efficiency while reducing the cost of domain adaptation. Experimental results demonstrate that the MindGPT-4ov model outperforms state-of-the-art models on benchmarks such as MMBench, MMStar, MathVision, and MathVista. In addition, MindGPT-4ov also demonstrates superior user experience in vertical domain tasks, enabling a seamless transition from academic research to industrial deployment. MindGPT-4ov provides a general post-training paradigm applicable to a wide range of MLLMs. The model weights, datasets, and code for the Qwen3-VL-based variants will be recently open-sourced to support the community's development of MLLMs. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 33 pages, 14 figures arXiv:2512.02895 [ pdf , ps , other ] MindGPT-4ov: An Enhanced MLLM via a Multi-Stage Post-Training Paradigm Authors: Wei Chen , Chaoqun Du , Feng Gu , Wei He , Qizhen Li , Zide Liu , Xuhao Pan , Chang Ren , Xudong Rao , Chenfeng Wang , Tao Wei , Chengjun Yu , Pengfei Yu , Yufei Zheng , Chunpeng Zhou , Pan Zhou , Xuhan Zhu Abstract : We present MindGPT-4ov, a multimodal large language model (MLLM) that introduces a general post-training paradigm spanning data production, model training, and efficient deployment. It achieves state-of-the-art performance across multiple benchmarks at low cost, effectively enhancing the foundational capabilities of MLLMs and the generalization ability. Focusing on data construction, supervised fi… ▽ More We present MindGPT-4ov, a multimodal large language model (MLLM) that introduces a general post-training paradigm spanning data production, model training, and efficient deployment. It achieves state-of-the-art performance across multiple benchmarks at low cost, effectively enhancing the foundational capabilities of MLLMs and the generalization ability. Focusing on data construction, supervised fine-tuning strategies, and multimodal reinforcement learning methods, this work proposes three key innovations: (1) An information density-based data generation scheme, integrated with a dual-dimensional tree-structured label system, enabling automated generation of high-quality cross-domain data. (2) A collaborative curriculum supervised fine-tuning approach that balances the injection of domain-specific knowledge with the preservation of general capabilities. (3) A hybrid reinforcement learning paradigm that enhances reasoning ability while simultaneously addressing multi-objective optimization such as diversity exploration, maintenance of multimodal perception, and response conciseness. Moreover, we implement a series of infrastructure optimizations, such as 5D parallel training, operator optimization, and inference quantization to enhance training and inference efficiency while reducing the cost of domain adaptation. Experimental results demonstrate that the MindGPT-4ov model outperforms state-of-the-art models on benchmarks such as MMBench, MMStar, MathVision, and MathVista. In addition, MindGPT-4ov also demonstrates superior user experience in vertical domain tasks, enabling a seamless transition from academic research to industrial deployment. MindGPT-4ov provides a general post-training paradigm applicable to a wide range of MLLMs. The model weights, datasets, and code for the Qwen3-VL-based variants will be recently open-sourced to support the community's development of MLLMs. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 33 pages, 14 figures arXiv:2512.02556 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL DeepSeek-V3.2: Pushing the Frontier of Open Large Language Models Authors: DeepSeek-AI , Aixin Liu , Aoxue Mei , Bangcai Lin , Bing Xue , Bingxuan Wang , Bingzheng Xu , Bochao Wu , Bowei Zhang , Chaofan Lin , Chen Dong , Chengda Lu , Chenggang Zhao , Chengqi Deng , Chenhao Xu , Chong Ruan , Damai Dai , Daya Guo , Dejian Yang , Deli Chen , Erhang Li , Fangqi Zhou , Fangyun Lin , Fucong Dai , Guangbo Hao , et al. (239 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2)… ▽ More We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2) Scalable Reinforcement Learning Framework: By implementing a robust reinforcement learning protocol and scaling post-training compute, DeepSeek-V3.2 performs comparably to GPT-5. Notably, our high-compute variant, DeepSeek-V3.2-Speciale, surpasses GPT-5 and exhibits reasoning proficiency on par with Gemini-3.0-Pro, achieving gold-medal performance in both the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) and the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). (3) Large-Scale Agentic Task Synthesis Pipeline: To integrate reasoning into tool-use scenarios, we developed a novel synthesis pipeline that systematically generates training data at scale. This methodology facilitates scalable agentic post-training, yielding substantial improvements in generalization and instruction-following robustness within complex, interactive environments. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.02556 [ pdf , ps , other ] DeepSeek-V3.2: Pushing the Frontier of Open Large Language Models Authors: DeepSeek-AI , Aixin Liu , Aoxue Mei , Bangcai Lin , Bing Xue , Bingxuan Wang , Bingzheng Xu , Bochao Wu , Bowei Zhang , Chaofan Lin , Chen Dong , Chengda Lu , Chenggang Zhao , Chengqi Deng , Chenhao Xu , Chong Ruan , Damai Dai , Daya Guo , Dejian Yang , Deli Chen , Erhang Li , Fangqi Zhou , Fangyun Lin , Fucong Dai , Guangbo Hao , et al. (239 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2)… ▽ More We introduce DeepSeek-V3.2, a model that harmonizes high computational efficiency with superior reasoning and agent performance. The key technical breakthroughs of DeepSeek-V3.2 are as follows: (1) DeepSeek Sparse Attention (DSA): We introduce DSA, an efficient attention mechanism that substantially reduces computational complexity while preserving model performance in long-context scenarios. (2) Scalable Reinforcement Learning Framework: By implementing a robust reinforcement learning protocol and scaling post-training compute, DeepSeek-V3.2 performs comparably to GPT-5. Notably, our high-compute variant, DeepSeek-V3.2-Speciale, surpasses GPT-5 and exhibits reasoning proficiency on par with Gemini-3.0-Pro, achieving gold-medal performance in both the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) and the International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). (3) Large-Scale Agentic Task Synthesis Pipeline: To integrate reasoning into tool-use scenarios, we developed a novel synthesis pipeline that systematically generates training data at scale. This methodology facilitates scalable agentic post-training, yielding substantial improvements in generalization and instruction-following robustness within complex, interactive environments. △ Less Submitted 2 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01340 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV EvalTalker: Learning to Evaluate Real-Portrait-Driven Multi-Subject Talking Humans Authors: Yingjie Zhou , Xilei Zhu , Siyu Ren , Ziyi Zhao , Ziwen Wang , Farong Wen , Yu Zhou , Jiezhang Cao , Xiongkuo Min , Fengjiao Chen , Xiaoyu Li , Xuezhi Cao , Guangtao Zhai , Xiaohong Liu Abstract : Speech-driven Talking Human (TH) generation, commonly known as "Talker," currently faces limitations in multi-subject driving capabilities. Extending this paradigm to "Multi-Talker," capable of animating multiple subjects simultaneously, introduces richer interactivity and stronger immersion in audiovisual communication. However, current Multi-Talkers still exhibit noticeable quality degradation c… ▽ More Speech-driven Talking Human (TH) generation, commonly known as "Talker," currently faces limitations in multi-subject driving capabilities. Extending this paradigm to "Multi-Talker," capable of animating multiple subjects simultaneously, introduces richer interactivity and stronger immersion in audiovisual communication. However, current Multi-Talkers still exhibit noticeable quality degradation caused by technical limitations, resulting in suboptimal user experiences. To address this challenge, we construct THQA-MT, the first large-scale Multi-Talker-generated Talking Human Quality Assessment dataset, consisting of 5,492 Multi-Talker-generated THs (MTHs) from 15 representative Multi-Talkers using 400 real portraits collected online. Through subjective experiments, we analyze perceptual discrepancies among different Multi-Talkers and identify 12 common types of distortion. Furthermore, we introduce EvalTalker, a novel TH quality assessment framework. This framework possesses the ability to perceive global quality, human characteristics, and identity consistency, while integrating Qwen-Sync to perceive multimodal synchrony. Experimental results demonstrate that EvalTalker achieves superior correlation with subjective scores, providing a robust foundation for future research on high-quality Multi-Talker generation and evaluation. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01340 [ pdf , ps , other ] EvalTalker: Learning to Evaluate Real-Portrait-Driven Multi-Subject Talking Humans Authors: Yingjie Zhou , Xilei Zhu , Siyu Ren , Ziyi Zhao , Ziwen Wang , Farong Wen , Yu Zhou , Jiezhang Cao , Xiongkuo Min , Fengjiao Chen , Xiaoyu Li , Xuezhi Cao , Guangtao Zhai , Xiaohong Liu Abstract : Speech-driven Talking Human (TH) generation, commonly known as "Talker," currently faces limitations in multi-subject driving capabilities. Extending this paradigm to "Multi-Talker," capable of animating multiple subjects simultaneously, introduces richer interactivity and stronger immersion in audiovisual communication. However, current Multi-Talkers still exhibit noticeable quality degradation c… ▽ More Speech-driven Talking Human (TH) generation, commonly known as "Talker," currently faces limitations in multi-subject driving capabilities. Extending this paradigm to "Multi-Talker," capable of animating multiple subjects simultaneously, introduces richer interactivity and stronger immersion in audiovisual communication. However, current Multi-Talkers still exhibit noticeable quality degradation caused by technical limitations, resulting in suboptimal user experiences. To address this challenge, we construct THQA-MT, the first large-scale Multi-Talker-generated Talking Human Quality Assessment dataset, consisting of 5,492 Multi-Talker-generated THs (MTHs) from 15 representative Multi-Talkers using 400 real portraits collected online. Through subjective experiments, we analyze perceptual discrepancies among different Multi-Talkers and identify 12 common types of distortion. Furthermore, we introduce EvalTalker, a novel TH quality assessment framework. This framework possesses the ability to perceive global quality, human characteristics, and identity consistency, while integrating Qwen-Sync to perceive multimodal synchrony. Experimental results demonstrate that EvalTalker achieves superior correlation with subjective scores, providing a robust foundation for future research on high-quality Multi-Talker generation and evaluation. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
|
https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Zhu,+X
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} From top to bottom, left to right: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64. ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-3945-8530-7 ^ Ben-Horin 1943 , p. 169; Taylor 1979 , p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies , p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way . Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 978-0-7641-1973-6 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same " European Civil War " or " Second Thirty Years' War ": Canfora 2006 , p. 155; Prins 2002 , p. 11. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10. ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' " . Fresh Air . NPR. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War" . The International History Review . 9 (3): 368– 409. doi : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 . JSTOR 40105814 . Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4. ^ "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany" . usa.usembassy.de. 12 September 1990. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . ^ "Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty" . Asia Times . Reuters. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. ^ "Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol" . The New York Times . 20 October 1956. p. 2. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". "The state of war between the USSR and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...] ^ Mintz, Steven. "Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I" . The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Gerwarth, Robert (21 January 2019). "Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021 . ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76–78 . ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149. ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35. ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4. ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62. ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96; Record 2005 , p. 50. ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124. ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 298–299. ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104. ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458. ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28. ^ Coogan 1993 : "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131–132. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 289. ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231. ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 25. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146. ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547–551. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195–200. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9672-5 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ^ Dorn, Frank (1974). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 . Macmillan. ^ a b Wakabayashi, Bob (2007). The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture . Berghahn Books. p. 384. ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–224 ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–299. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221–230. ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566. ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150–152. ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651–687. ^ Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Paine, Sarah. The Wars for Asia . Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342. ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Neeno, Timothy. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War" . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121–122. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157. ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.). ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 461–462. ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 471. ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695– 722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . JSTOR 153322 . S2CID 144385167 . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608. ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)" . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis" . ww2db.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ "Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"!" . PolskieRadio.pl (in Polish) . Retrieved 18 March 2025 . ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1–2. ^ Zabecki, David T. (2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-1358-1242-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2019 . The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35. Cienciala 2010 , p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248–249; Roskill 1954 , p. 64. ^ "Battle of the Atlantic" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Archived from the original on 20 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80, 83. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law . 52 (1): 69– 84. doi : 10.2307/2195670 . JSTOR 2195670 . S2CID 146904066 . ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24. ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88–89. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39–40. ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.). ^ Deighton, Len (1979). Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk . Jonathan Cape. pp. 186– 187. ISBN 978-0-2240-1648-3 . Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place." ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24. ^ a b Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55–56. ^ Spring 1986 , pp. 207–226. ^ van Dyke, Carl (1997). The Soviet Invasion of Finland . Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7146-4753-1 . ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745, 975. ^ Haynes, Rebecca (2000). Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 205. ISBN 978-0-3122-3260-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 February 2022 . ^ Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327 ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367, 376, 379, 417. ^ Snyder 2010 , pp. 118ff. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSnyder2010 ( help ) ^ Koch 1983 , pp. 912–914, 917–920. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57–63. ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9. ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122–123. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59–60. ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152. ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66–67. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207. ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311. ^ Brown 2004 , p. 198. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ a b Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108–109. ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328–330. ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52. ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390. ^ a b "Major international events of 1940, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain" . US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations . Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745–746. ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986 , pp. 4–6 ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9–10. ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106. ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7–8. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263–276. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 174–175. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 184–187. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 208, 575, 604. ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80. ^ Morrisey, Will (2019). "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War". Winston Churchill . Routledge. pp. 119– 126. doi : 10.4324/9780429027642-6 . ISBN 978-0-4290-2764-2 . S2CID 189257503 . ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195. ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Förster 1998 , p. 26. ^ Förster 1998 , pp. 38–42. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 810–812. ^ a b Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 267–312 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Sella 1978 , p. 555. ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66–69. ^ Steinberg 1995 . ^ Hauner 1978 . ^ Roberts 1995 . ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. pp. 176– 180. ^ Wilt 1981 . ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114–137. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9. ^ Farrell 1993 . ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220. ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425. ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227. ^ Milward 1964 . ^ Rotundo 1986 . ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26. ^ Deighton, Len (1993). Blood, Tears and Folly . London: Pimlico. p. 479 . ISBN 978-0-7126-6226-0 . ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41–42; Evans 2008 , pp. 213–214, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941" . U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87– 97. 1983. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War . History Today. December 2000 ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289. ^ Frank 2020 , p. 161. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFrank2020 ( help ) ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224. ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33. ^ "Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 45– 66. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201. ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456. ^ Coox, Alvin (1985). Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1046– 1049. ISBN 978-0-8047-1835-6 . ^ a b "The decision for War" . US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 113– 127. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ a b "The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63– 96. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 399–414. ^ Kitano, Ryuichi (6 December 2021). "Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack" . The Asahi Shimbun . Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 8 June 2022 . ^ Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō . p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 417–420. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 418. ^ Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan . University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 29, 35. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5 . Archived from the original on 15 March 2024 . Retrieved 15 January 2024 . ^ Bix 2000 , p. 424. ^ The United States Replies Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack. ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure." ^ Wood 2007 , p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11–12. ^ a b Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341–343. ^ Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War . New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-0-3995-0434-1 ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157. According to May 1955 , p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front." ^ Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource. ^ Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. p. 310 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313–314. ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 904. ^ "The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97– 119. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266– 292. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18– 42. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126– 145. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247–267, 345. ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 (Table 11). ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71–74. ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158. ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145. ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111–112. ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186. ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28. ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19. ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot. p. 259 . ISBN 978-1-5922-8027-8 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2019 . Retrieved 26 June 2019 . ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111. ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31. ^ Read 2004 , p. 764. ^ Bellamy, Chris (2008). Absolute War . ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 (2008 ed.). ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239–265. ^ Black 2003 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383–391. ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142. ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224–228. ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91. ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380–381. ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178. ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129. ^ Neillands 2005 , p. 60. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277. ^ Smith 2002 . ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8. ^ a b c d Ross 1997 , p. 38. ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24. ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11. ^ "The Civilians" Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119–120. ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164. ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610. ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228. ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149–159. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32. ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35. ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90. ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50–55. ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362. ^ Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151. ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52. ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129. ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335–336. ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211, 235, 267–268. ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154. ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286. ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268–274. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660–661. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327–366. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367–414. ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122. ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169–184; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568–573. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500–502). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ), Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10–11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224. ^ a b Zeiler 2004 , p. 60. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555–560. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163. ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85. ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406–407: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war." ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695. ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562. ^ Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II." ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944" . Museum of the Slovak National Uprising . Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" . US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653. ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65–66. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 . Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 978-9-0411-0584-4 . ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 1085. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8. ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54. ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305. ^ Parker 2004 , pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330 ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709–722. ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 793–829. ^ Shepardson 1998 ^ Glass, Andrew (12 April 2016). "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945" . Politico . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244. ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737. ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24. ^ Selby, Scott A. (28 July 2021). The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It . Scott Andrew Selby. p. 8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7102-0718-0 . ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy" . Wired . Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57. ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" . U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . ^ Zuberi, Matin (August 2001). "Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Strategic Analysis . 25 (5): 623– 662. doi : 10.1080/09700160108458986 . S2CID 154800868 . ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90. ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201. ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203–204. ^ Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". International Security , Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179. ^ Glantz 2005 . ^ Pape 1993 "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.". ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 525–526. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 526–528. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776. ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96–100. ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41–66. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality" . Geographia Polonica . 88 (1): 77– 105. doi : 10.7163/GPol.0007 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 (PDF) . Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 978-1-5361-1035-7 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015. ^ a b Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) (PDF) . Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8-3615-9046-0 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background" . Geographia Polonica . 85 (1): 5– 21. doi : 10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794. ^ Kennedy-Pipe 1995 . ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20–21. ^ Senn 2007 , p. ?. ^ "Italy since 1945" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 October 2023 . ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39. ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2022 . ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here [1] Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ The UN Security Council . Archived from the original on 20 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2012 . ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6. ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33. ^ Applebaum 2012 . ^ Naimark 2010 . ^ Swain 1992 . ^ "Greek Civil War" . Encyclopedia Britannica . 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2023 . ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318. ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911. ^ Stueck 2010 , p. 71. ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12–13. ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589. ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441–443, 464–68. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34–55. ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207. ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263. ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208–209. ^ "The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944" . United States Department of State. 7 January 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 April 2022 . ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190–191 ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212. ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29–30, 32 ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20–21 ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23. ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117. ^ Schain 2001 . ^ Emadi-Coffin 2002 , p. 64. ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32. ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945 . Wiley. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-1188-9024-0 . ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-9631-8643-0 . ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 1. ^ Hastings 2011 , pp. 669–670. ^ Aubin, Bernard & Guillerat 2019 , p. 147. ^ Hanson 2017 , p. 470. ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 468. ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204. ^ Herf 2003 . ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology (2005). "Victims" . A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Archived from the original on 16 May 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ a b Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45–52. ^ Snyder, Timothy (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality" . The New York Review of Books . 56 (12). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others" . BBC . April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . ^ Hastings 2011 , p. 465. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158–160, 234–236. ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators" . Review of Croatian History . VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 117. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 October 2015 . ^ Massacre, Volhynia. "The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres" . Volhynia Massacre . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947" . dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 . Retrieved 10 March 2018 . ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . W.W. Norton & CO. p. 296. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . p. 381. ^ Hastings, Max (2012). Inferno . Vintage. p. 670. ^ Frank, Richard (2020). Tower of Skulls . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 576. ^ Dower, John (1999). Embracing Defeat . W.W. Norton and Company. ^ Mitter 2013 , pp. 5, 381. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMitter2013 ( help ) ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 163. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 367. ^ Hastings, Max (2007). Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–1945 . London. p. 13. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 472. ^ Hanson, Victor (2017). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won . Basic Books. p. 498. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . p. 296. ^ Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide . Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-3678-6706-5 . ^ Gold, Hal (1996). Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle. pp. 75– 77. ISBN 978-0-8048-3565-7 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320. ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74. ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69. ^ "Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence" . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011. ^ Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf, ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6 p. 391 ^ Women and War . ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. ISBN 978-1-8510-9770-8 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2023 . ^ Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs . 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914– 916. ^ Naimark, Norman (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 . Cambridge: Belknap. p. 70. ^ Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Kiel. 1999. ^ Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025 ^ Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-8454-5844-7 . ^ Dower, John (2007). "Lessons from Iwo Jima" . Perspectives . 45 (6): 54– 56. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568–569. ^ a b Marek, Michael (27 October 2005). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers" . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . ^ Pearson, Alexander (19 March 2018). "Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2023 . Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. ^ J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–1049 ^ Applebaum 2003 , pp. 389–396. ^ Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" . American Experience: the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online. Archived from the original on 27 July 2003 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2–3. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War" . Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" . Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on 30 October 2004 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148. ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232. ^ Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 "Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000" . ^ Cooke, Philip; Shepherd, Ben H. (31 January 2020). European Resistance in the Second World War . Pen and Sword. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4738-3162-9 . From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5. ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107. ^ a b Rahn 2001 , p. 266. ^ Leith, C. K. (July 1939). "The Struggle for Mineral Resources" . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 204, Democracy and the Americas: 42– 48. JSTOR 1021443 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...]. ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2. ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . Diane Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-5856-6069-8 . ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26. ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration . United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 978-9-2110-9147-2 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76. ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227. ^ Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247–251. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-8450-9079-1 . ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4027-3099-3 . ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25. ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14. ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16. ^ Burns, R. W. (September 1994). "Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943" . IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology . 141 (5): 343– 355. doi : 10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group . p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7106-0123-0 . ^ "The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War" . Imperial War Museums . Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Castaldi, Carolina; Fontana, Roberto; Nuvolari, Alessandro (1 August 2009). " 'Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945" . Journal of Evolutionary Economics . 19 (4): 545– 566. doi : 10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 . hdl : 10419/89322 . ISSN 1432-1386 . S2CID 36789517 . ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734. ^ a b Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF) . controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War I" . History Department at the University of San Diego. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times . London. p. 27. Gale IF0504159516 . ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ "The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II" . New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "World War – II" . Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation . Archived from the original on 11 July 2022 . Retrieved 17 September 2022 . ^ Gaynes, Robert (May 2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 23 (5): 849– 853. Bibcode : 2017EIDis..23..849G . doi : 10.3201/eid2305.161556 . PMC 5403050 . Sources Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (1992). The Making of the Second World War . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90716-3 . Anderson, Irvine H. Jr. (1975). "The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review . 44 (2): 201– 231. doi : 10.2307/3638003 . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9322-6 . ——— (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9868-9 . Aubin, Nicolas; Bernard, Vincent; Guillerat, Nicolas (2019). Lopez, Jean (ed.). World War II Infographics . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02292-4 . Bacon, Edwin (1992). " Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II". Soviet Studies . 44 (6): 1069– 1086. doi : 10.1080/09668139208412066 . JSTOR 152330 . Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-0-85045-921-0 . Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press . Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Ronald Grigor Suny (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia – The Twentieth Century . Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 217– 242. ISBN 978-0-521-81144-6 . Barker, A. J. (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York: Ballantine Books . ISBN 978-0-345-02462-6 . Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad . New York: Viking . ISBN 978-0-670-87095-0 . ——— (2012). The Second World War . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978-0-297-84497-6 . Belco, Victoria (2010). War, Massacre, and Recovery in Central Italy: 1943–1948 . Toronto: University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978-0-8020-9314-1 . Bellamy, Chris T. (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4 . Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History . New York: W. W. Norton. Berend, Ivan T. (1996). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-55066-6 . Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2 . Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . ISBN 978-0-7656-1821-4 . Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood . ISBN 978-0-275-96363-7 . Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York: HarperCollins . ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0 . Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-30534-1 . Blinkhorn, Martin (2006) [1984]. Mussolini and Fascist Italy (3rd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26206-4 . Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0870-7 . Borstelmann, Thomas (2005). "The United States, the Cold War, and the colour line". In Melvyn P. Leffler; David S. Painter (eds.). Origins of the Cold War: An International History (2nd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . pp. 317– 332. ISBN 978-0-415-34109-7 . Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313– 314. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Brayley, Martin J. (2002). The British Army 1939–45, Volume 3: The Far East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-238-8 . British Bombing Survey Unit (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945 . London & Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7146-4722-7 . Brody, J. Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7658-0622-2 . Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5461-4 . Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000 . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-0-631-22162-3 . Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce ; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-02546-1 . Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James L. (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress . Polity . ISBN 978-0-7456-1298-0 . Bullock, Alan (1990) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0 . Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). "Concepts in Submarine Design" . Journal of Applied Mechanics . 62 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press : 268. Bibcode : 1995JAM....62R.268B . doi : 10.1115/1.2895927 . ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3 . Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97733-7 . Canfora, Luciano (2006) [2004]. Democracy in Europe: A History . Oxford & Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-1-4051-1131-7 . Cantril, Hadley (1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". Public Opinion Quarterly . 4 (3): 387– 407. doi : 10.1086/265420 . JSTOR 2745078 . Chang, Iris (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . New York: Basic Books . ISBN 978-0-465-06835-7 . Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation . New York: Fordham University Press . ISBN 978-0-8232-2562-0 . Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras . London & New York: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-1350-5 . Ch'i, Hsi-Sheng (1992). "The Military Dimension, 1942–1945". In James C. Hsiung; Steven I. Levine (eds.). China's Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 157– 184. ISBN 978-1-56324-246-5 . Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review . 55 (1): 123– 143. doi : 10.2307/25779864 . JSTOR 25779864 . S2CID 159445902 . Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80872-9 . Coble, Parks M. (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-23268-6 . Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-539-6 . Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45 . Oxford: Heinemann . ISBN 978-0-435-32721-7 . Commager, Henry Steele (2004). The Story of the Second World War . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-741-9 . Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" . History Today . 43 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History . London: UCL Press . ISBN 978-1-85728-532-1 . Cowley, Robert ; Parker, Geoffrey , eds. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company . ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9 . Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-101022-9 . Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory . London: Macmillan . ix+544 pages . ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1 . OCLC 70401618 . Dear, I. C. B. ; Foot, M. R. D. , eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4 . DeLong, J. Bradford ; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 189– 230. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN 978-0-394-50030-0 . Drea, Edward J. (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978-0-8032-6638-4 . de Grazia, Victoria; Paggi, Leonardo (Autumn 1991). "Story of an Ordinary Massacre: Civitella della Chiana, 29 June, 1944". Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature . 3 (2): 153– 169. doi : 10.1525/lal.1991.3.2.02a00030 . JSTOR 743479 . Dunn, Dennis J. (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow . Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2023-2 . Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945". In John K. Fairbank; Denis Twitchett (eds.). The Cambridge History of China – Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2 . Vol. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-24338-4 . Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1151– 1172. doi : 10.1080/0966813022000017177 . JSTOR 826310 . S2CID 43510161 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Copy ———; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 46 (4): 671– 680. doi : 10.1080/09668139408412190 . JSTOR 152934 . PMID 12288331 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9 . Erickson, John (2001). "Moskalenko". In Shukman, Harold (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 137– 154. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . ——— (2003). The Road to Stalingrad . London: Cassell Military . ISBN 978-0-304-36541-8 . Evans, David C.; Peattie, Mark R. (2012) [1997]. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978-1-59114-244-7 . Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . Fairbank, John King ; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1994]. China: A New History (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-01828-0 . Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". Journal of Military History . 57 (4): 599– 625. doi : 10.2307/2944096 . JSTOR 2944096 . Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6 . Forrest, Glen; Evans, Anthony; Gibbons, David (2012). The Illustrated Timeline of Military History . New York: Rosen. ISBN 978-1-4488-4794-5 . Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Hitler's Decision in Favour of War". In Horst Boog; Jürgen Förster; Joachim Hoffmann; Ernst Klink; Rolf-Dieter Muller; Gerd R. Ueberschar (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Attack on the Soviet Union . Vol. IV. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 13– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-822886-8 . Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide" . In Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (eds.). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 53– 68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . Frank, Richard B. (2020). Tower of Skulls: A History of The Asia-Pacific War July 1937-May 1942 . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-324-00210-9 . Frei, Norbert (2002). Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11882-8 . Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K., eds. (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945 . London: Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978-0-85177-953-9 . Garver, John W. (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-505432-3 . Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9 . Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" . Combined Arms Research Library . CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ——— (1989). Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War . Abingdon & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3 . ——— (1998). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-0899-7 . ——— (2001). "The Soviet-German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. ——— (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1208-6 . ——— (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" . Combined Arms Research Library . Leavenworth Papers. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 78918907 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Goldstein, Margaret J. (2004). World War II: Europe . Minneapolis: Lerner Publications . ISBN 978-0-8225-0139-8 . Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched" . In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . pp. 127–144 . ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6 . Gordon, Robert S. C. (2012). The Holocaust in Italian Culture, 1944–2010 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-6346-2 . Grove, Eric J. (1995). "A Service Vindicated, 1939–1946". In J. R. Hill (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy . Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 348– 380. ISBN 978-0-19-211675-8 . Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-3756-2 . Hanhimäki, Jussi M. (1997). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press . ISBN 978-0-87338-558-9 . Harris, Sheldon H. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-93214-1 . Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World War II: an overview". In Mark Harrison (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 42. ISBN 978-0-521-62046-8 . Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-1-86227-073-2 . Hastings, Max (2011). All Hell Let Loose: the World at War 1939-1945 . London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780-00-733809-2 . Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (1): 15– 32. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300102 . JSTOR 260090 . S2CID 154865385 . Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns in the East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0 . Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4 . Hempel, Andrew (2005). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History . New York: Hippocrene Books . ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3 . Herbert, Ulrich (1994). "Labor as spoils of conquest, 1933–1945". In David F. Crew (ed.). Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 219–273 . ISBN 978-0-415-08239-6 . Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History . 4 (4): 913– 930. doi : 10.1353/kri.2003.0059 . S2CID 159958616 . Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5711-0 . Holland, James (2008). Italy's Sorrow: A Year of War 1944–45 . London: HarperPress . ISBN 978-0-00-717645-8 . Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union . Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5 . Howard, Joshua H. (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-4896-4 . Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210 . OCLC 12828898 . Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman ; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought . New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 76–78 . ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4 . Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-69580-1 . Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War . London & New York: Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 978-1-85285-417-1 . Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2339-4 . Jowett, Philip S. (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45, Volume 2: Africa 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-865-5 . ———; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-353-8 . Jukes, Geoffrey (2001). "Kuznetzov". In Harold Shukman (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 109– 116. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . Kantowicz, Edward R. (1999). The Rage of Nations . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4455-2 . ——— (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9 . Keeble, Curtis (1990). "The historical perspective". In Alex Pravda; Peter J. Duncan (eds.). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-37494-1 . Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-7348-8 . Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1 . Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 . Manchester: Manchester University Press . ISBN 978-0-7190-4201-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04994-7 . ——— (2007). Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5 . Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-913417-5 . Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues . 9 (1): 13– 361. JSTOR 40604127 . Kleinfeld, Gerald R. (1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs . 47 (3): 122– 128. doi : 10.2307/1988082 . JSTOR 1988082 . Koch, H. W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa' ". The Historical Journal . 26 (4): 891– 920. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00012747 . JSTOR 2639289 . S2CID 159671713 . Kolko, Gabriel (1990) [1968]. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945 . New York: Random House . ISBN 978-0-679-72757-6 . Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6 . Lee, En-han (2002). "The Nanking Massacre Reassessed: A Study of the Sino-Japanese Controversy over the Factual Number of Massacred Victims". In Robert Sabella; Fei Fei Li; David Liu (eds.). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 47– 74. ISBN 978-0-7656-0816-1 . Leffler, Melvyn P. ; Westad, Odd Arne , eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-83938-9 , in 3 volumes. Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6 . Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses" . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines . Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office . LCCN 53-63678 . Archived from the original on 8 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 October 2009 . Liberman, Peter (1996). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-02986-3 . Liddell Hart, Basil (1977). History of the Second World War (4th ed.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23770-3 . Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-22404-8 . Lindberg, Michael; Todd, Daniel (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-96486-3 . Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26681-9 . Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3 . Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-0437-3 . Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2241-4 . Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . Cambridge University Press . p. 96 . ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6 . Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-882-3 . Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese Relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987 . Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications . ISBN 978-0-87727-122-2 . May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review . 24 (2): 153– 174. doi : 10.2307/3634575 . JSTOR 3634575 . Mazower, Mark (2008). Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-1-59420-188-2 . Milner, Marc (1990). "The Battle of the Atlantic". In Gooch, John (ed.). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War . Abingdon: Frank Cass . pp. 45– 66. ISBN 978-0-7146-3369-5 . Milward, A. S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review . 16 (3): 499– 518. JSTOR 2592851 . ——— (1992) [1977]. War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 . Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1 . Minford, Patrick (1993). "Reconstruction and the UK Postwar Welfare State: False Start and New Beginning". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 115– 138. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-4346-4 . Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8 . Mitcham, Samuel W. (2007) [1982]. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3413-4 . Mitter, Rana (2014). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 . Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-544-33450-2 . Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84603-006-2 . Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933–1945 . Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama: Air University Press . ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ———; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-00680-5 . Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-10222-1 . Naimark, Norman (2010). "The Sovietization of Eastern Europe, 1944–1953". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 175– 197. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Neary, Ian (1992). "Japan". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 49– 70. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press . ISBN 978-0-253-34781-7 . Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe – Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939–1945 . Ramsbury, Marlborough, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press. ISBN 978-1-86126-799-3 . Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0 . Overy, Richard (1994). War and Economy in the Third Reich . New York: Clarendon Press . ISBN 978-0-19-820290-5 . ——— (1995). Why the Allies Won . London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7453-9 . ——— (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4 . ———; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7 . O'Reilly, Charles T. (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945 . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books . ISBN 978-0-7391-0195-7 . Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" . The Journal of American History . 99 (1): 24– 39. doi : 10.1093/jahist/jas073 . Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea: Submarine Conflict During World War II . New York: John Wiley . ISBN 978-0-471-24945-0 . Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security . 18 (2): 154– 201. doi : 10.2307/2539100 . JSTOR 2539100 . S2CID 153741180 . Parker, Danny S. (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945 (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press . ISBN 978-0-306-81391-7 . Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4 . Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1 . Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and Conquest: Allied Occupation Currencies in World War II . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-0530-1 . Polley, Martin (2000). An A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4 . Portelli, Alessandro (2003). The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome . Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-1-4039-8008-3 . Preston, P. W. (1998). Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978-0-631-20238-7 . Prins, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-36960-2 . Radtke, K. W. (1997). " 'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933–7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 100– 120. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6 . Rahn, Werner (2001). "The War in the Pacific". In Horst Boog; Werner Rahn; Reinhard Stumpf; Bernd Wegner (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Global War . Vol. VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 191– 298. ISBN 978-0-19-822888-2 . Ratcliff, R. A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra, and the End of Secure Ciphers . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85522-8 . Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04800-1 . Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (2002) [1992]. The Fall Of Berlin . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-0695-0 . Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF) . Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Rees, Laurence (2008). World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . London: BBC Books . ISBN 978-0-563-49335-8 . Regan, Geoffrey (2004). The Brassey's Book of Military Blunders . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-252-0 . Reinhardt, Klaus (1992). Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 . Oxford: Berg . ISBN 978-0-85496-695-0 . Reynolds, David (2006). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 . Rich, Norman (1992) [1973]. Hitler's War Aims, Volume I: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00802-9 . Ritchie, Ella (1992). "France". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 23– 48. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Roberts, Cynthia A. (1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies . 47 (8): 1293– 1326. doi : 10.1080/09668139508412322 . JSTOR 153299 . Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7 . Roberts, J. M. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3 . Ropp, Theodore (2000). War in the Modern World (Revised ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-6445-2 . Roskill, S. W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive . History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO . Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Ross, Steven T. (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-7146-4634-3 . Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0 . Rotundo, Louis (1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs . 50 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.2307/1988530 . JSTOR 1988530 . Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific . Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-049-5 . Schain, Martin A., ed. (2001). The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . London: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-0-333-92983-4 . Schmitz, David F. (2000). Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-8420-2632-1 . Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-05988-7 . Sella, Amnon (1978). " "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (3): 555– 583. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300308 . JSTOR 260209 . S2CID 220880174 . ——— (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History . 18 (4): 651– 687. JSTOR 260307 . Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above . Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi . ISBN 978-9-0420-2225-6 . Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II: Day by Day . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0939-1 . Shepardson, Donald E. (1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". Journal of Military History . 62 (1): 135– 154. doi : 10.2307/120398 . JSTOR 120398 . Shirer, William L. (1990) [1960]. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978-0-671-72868-7 . Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-518261-3 . Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory . London: Cassell. Smith, Alan (1993). Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-08924-1 . Smith, J. W. (1994). The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment . Institute for Economic Democracy. ISBN 978-0-9624423-2-2 . Smith, Peter C. (2002) [1970]. Pedestal: The Convoy That Saved Malta (5th ed.). Manchester: Goodall. ISBN 978-0-907579-19-9 . Smith, David J.; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-28580-3 . Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3 . Last Gasp. ISBN 978-0-86719-616-0 . Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . London: The Bodley Head . ISBN 978-0-224-08141-2 . Spring, D. W. (1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies . 38 (2): 207– 226. doi : 10.1080/09668138608411636 . JSTOR 151203 . S2CID 154270850 . Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The English Historical Review . 110 (437): 620– 651. doi : 10.1093/ehr/cx.437.620 . JSTOR 578338 . Steury, Donald P. (1987). "Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Campaign and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Study in the Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval Warfare". Journal of Contemporary History . 22 (2): 209– 233. doi : 10.1177/002200948702200202 . JSTOR 260931 . S2CID 159943895 . Stueck, William (2010). "The Korean War". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 266– 287. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-195-4 . Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45 . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978-1-86508-352-0 . Swain, Geoffrey (1992). "The Cominform: Tito's International?". The Historical Journal . 35 (3): 641– 663. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00026017 . S2CID 163152235 . Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4 . Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War . London: Hamish Hamilton . ——— (1979). How Wars Begin . London: Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978-0-241-10017-2 . Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 . Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom History European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Canon Media Internet Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary contemporary Philosophy Science Values Science Values Physical culture Sport Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Relativism Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Paradox Relativism Peritrope Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European European Religion Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Culture Western / Eastern Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Law Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Contemporary integration ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Islam Culture Sunni Shia Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Culture Eastern Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX World War II World wars Conflicts in 1939 Conflicts in 1940 Conflicts in 1941 Conflicts in 1942 Conflicts in 1943 Conflicts in 1944 Conflicts in 1945 Late modern Europe Nuclear warfare Wars involving Albania Wars involving Australia Wars involving Austria Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Brazil Wars involving British India Wars involving Bulgaria Wars involving Myanmar Wars involving Cambodia Wars involving Canada Wars involving Chile Wars involving Colombia Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Cuba Wars involving Czechoslovakia Wars involving Denmark Wars involving the Dominican Republic Wars involving Ecuador Wars involving Egypt Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Estonia Wars involving Ethiopia Wars involving Finland Wars involving France Wars involving Germany Wars involving Greece Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Haiti Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Hungary Wars involving Iceland Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Italy Wars involving Iran Wars involving Iraq Wars involving Japan Wars involving Kazakhstan Wars involving Laos Wars involving Latvia Wars involving Lebanon Wars involving Liberia Wars involving Lithuania Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving Mexico Wars involving Mongolia Wars involving Montenegro Wars involving Nepal Wars involving Norway Wars involving Nicaragua Wars involving Panama Wars involving Paraguay Wars involving Peru Wars involving Poland Wars involving Rhodesia Wars involving Romania Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving Serbia Wars involving Slovakia Wars involving Slovenia Wars involving South Africa Wars involving Sri Lanka Wars involving Syria Wars involving Thailand Wars involving the Netherlands Wars involving the Philippines Wars involving the Republic of China Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States Wars involving Uruguay Wars involving Venezuela Wars involving Vietnam Wars involving Yugoslavia Wars involving India Wars involving New Zealand CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia references cleanup from January 2026 All articles needing references cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from January 2026 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with duplicate citations Use British English from December 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2025 Articles containing Italian-language text Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitson2001231_36-0
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Category : Science by year العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Čeština Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Category Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Science portal See also: List of years in science Contents Top 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 1680 1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Subcategories This category has the following 200 subcategories, out of 522 total. Archaeology by year (1 C, 406 P) Biology by year (168 C) Meteorology by year (216 C) * Science timelines by year (28 P) 0–9 1446 in science (1 C) 1471 in science (1 C) 1489 in science (1 C) 1504 in science (2 P) 1506 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1509 in science (2 P) 1511 in science (2 P) 1512 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1519 in science (2 P) 1520 in science (2 P) 1521 in science (2 P) 1522 in science (2 P) 1525 in science (2 P) 1527 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1528 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1531 in science (3 P) 1543 in science (3 P) 1545 in science (2 P) 1551 in science (2 P) 1556 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1560 in science (2 P) 1566 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1569 in science (2 P) 1570 in science (3 P) 1572 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1573 in science (2 P) 1575 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1577 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1580 in science (2 P) 1582 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1585 in science (2 P) 1586 in science (4 P) 1587 in science (2 P) 1589 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1590 in science (2 P) 1595 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1596 in science (2 P) 1598 in science (2 P) 1599 in science (3 P) 1600 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1603 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1604 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1605 in science (2 P) 1607 in science (2 P) 1609 in science (3 P) 1610 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1613 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1619 in science (4 P) 1621 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1623 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1625 in science (1 C) 1626 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1627 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1628 in science (2 P) 1629 in science (2 P) 1631 in science (2 P) 1632 in science (2 P) 1633 in science (2 P) 1637 in science (3 P) 1638 in science (3 P) 1639 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1640 in science (2 P) 1641 in science (3 P) 1643 in science (3 P) 1644 in science (1 P) 1645 in science (2 P) 1646 in science (3 P) 1647 in science (2 P) 1648 in science (2 P) 1650 in science (3 P) 1652 in science (2 C, 4 P) 1654 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1655 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1656 in science (4 P) 1657 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1658 in science (1 C, 5 P) 1660 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1661 in science (5 P) 1662 in science (1 C, 5 P) 1663 in science (3 P) 1664 in science (5 P) 1665 in science (1 C, 6 P) 1666 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1667 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1668 in science (4 P) 1669 in science (2 P) 1670 in science (3 P) 1671 in science (1 C, 5 P) 1672 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1673 in science (6 P) 1674 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1675 in science (3 P) 1676 in science (4 P) 1677 in science (2 P) 1678 in science (3 P) 1679 in science (4 P) 1680 in science (2 C, 3 P) 1681 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1682 in science (3 P) 1683 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1684 in science (2 C, 4 P) 1685 in science (3 P) 1686 in science (5 P) 1687 in science (4 P) 1688 in science (2 P) 1689 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1690 in science (1 C, 5 P) 1691 in science (2 P) 1692 in science (2 P) 1693 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1694 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1695 in science (2 P) 1696 in science (3 P) 1697 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1698 in science (2 P) 1699 in science (5 P) 1700 in science (2 C, 5 P) 1701 in science (2 P) 1702 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1703 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1704 in science (2 C, 4 P) 1705 in science (2 P) 1706 in science (3 P) 1707 in science (2 P) 1708 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1709 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1710 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1711 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1712 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1713 in science (4 P) 1714 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1715 in science (3 P) 1716 in science (3 P) 1717 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1718 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1719 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1720 in science (2 P) 1721 in science (3 P) 1722 in science (2 P) 1723 in science (2 P) 1724 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1725 in science (2 P) 1726 in science (3 P) 1727 in science (3 P) 1728 in science (1 P) 1729 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1731 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1732 in science (3 P) 1734 in science (2 C, 1 P) 1735 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1736 in science (5 P) 1737 in science (5 P) 1738 in science (1 C, 4 P) 1739 in science (2 C, 3 P) 1740 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1741 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1742 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1743 in science (2 C, 3 P) 1745 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1746 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1747 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1748 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1749 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1750 in science (3 P) 1751 in science (2 C, 3 P) 1752 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1753 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1754 in science (2 C, 1 P) 1755 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1756 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1757 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1758 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1759 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1760 in science (2 C, 2 P) 1761 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1762 in science (1 C, 2 P) 1763 in science (2 C, 4 P) 1764 in science (4 C, 1 P) 1765 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1766 in science (2 C, 5 P) 1767 in science (1 C, 1 P) 1768 in science (2 C, 1 P) 1769 in science (3 C, 3 P) 1770 in science (3 C, 1 P) 1771 in science (4 C, 3 P) 1772 in science (5 C, 2 P) 1773 in science (3 C, 2 P) 1774 in science (3 C, 3 P) 1775 in science (3 C, 1 P) 1776 in science (1 C, 3 P) 1777 in science (2 C, 1 P) 1778 in science (3 C, 3 P) 1779 in science (4 C, 3 P) 1780 in science (4 C, 2 P) 1781 in science (3 C, 1 P) 1782 in science (3 C, 2 P) Pages in category "Science by year" The following 2 pages are in this category, out of 2 total. This list may not reflect recent changes . * List of years in science 0–9 1576 in science History of science by period Categories by year Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 December 2024, at 08:24 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_by_year
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 1.1 Childhood and early education 1.2 World War II 1.3 University, marriage and politics 1.1 Childhood and early education 1.2 World War II 1.3 University, marriage and politics 2 Early career (1951–1955) Toggle Early career (1951–1955) subsection 2.1 Litigation practice 2.2 Forming the PAP 2.1 Litigation practice 2.2 Forming the PAP 3 Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) Toggle Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) subsection 3.1 Strikes and power struggle 3.2 Merdeka talks 3.3 1957 and 1959 elections 3.1 Strikes and power struggle 3.2 Merdeka talks 3.3 1957 and 1959 elections 4 Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) Toggle Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) subsection 4.1 First years in power 4.2 PAP split of 1961 4.3 Leadup to referendum and merger 4.4 Operation Coldstore detentions 4.1 First years in power 4.2 PAP split of 1961 4.3 Leadup to referendum and merger 4.4 Operation Coldstore detentions 5 Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) Toggle Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) subsection 5.1 Elections and tensions 5.2 Malaysian Malaysia and separation 5.1 Elections and tensions 5.2 Malaysian Malaysia and separation 6 Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) Toggle Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) subsection 6.1 Defence 6.2 Economy 6.3 Anti-corruption measures 6.4 Population policies 6.5 Water resources 6.6 Environment 6.7 Foreign policy 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 6.1 Defence 6.2 Economy 6.3 Anti-corruption measures 6.4 Population policies 6.5 Water resources 6.6 Environment 6.7 Foreign policy 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 6.7.1 Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad 6.7.2 Indonesia 6.7.3 United States 6.7.4 China 6.7.5 United Kingdom 6.7.6 Australia 6.7.7 Cambodia 7 Senior Minister (1990–2004) Toggle Senior Minister (1990–2004) subsection 7.1 Condominium rebates 7.1 Condominium rebates 8 Minister Mentor (2004–2011) 9 Illness and death 10 Legacy 11 Legal suits Toggle Legal suits subsection 11.1 Action against Far Eastern Economic Review 11.2 Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam 11.3 Action against Devan Nair 11.4 International Herald Tribune defamation case 11.1 Action against Far Eastern Economic Review 11.2 Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam 11.3 Action against Devan Nair 11.4 International Herald Tribune defamation case 12 Political positions Toggle Political positions subsection 12.1 Criticism of Chinese marginalisation 12.2 Eugenics 12.3 Islam 12.4 Homosexuality 12.5 Corporal punishment 12.6 Press 12.7 Immigration 12.1 Criticism of Chinese marginalisation 12.2 Eugenics 12.3 Islam 12.4 Homosexuality 12.5 Corporal punishment 12.6 Press 12.7 Immigration 13 Personal life 14 Cultural depictions 15 Awards 16 See also 17 Notes 18 References Toggle References subsection 18.1 Works cited 18.1 Works cited 19 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 19.1 Primary sources 19.2 Other sources 19.1 Primary sources 19.2 Other sources 20 External links Lee Kuan Yew Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Simple English سنڌي Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Volapük 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikidata item The Honourable Lee Kuan Yew GCMG CH SPMJ DK Lee in 1975 1st Prime Minister of Singapore In office 5 June 1959 – 28 November 1990 Monarchs .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Elizabeth II (1959–1963) Putra of Perlis (1963–1965) Elizabeth II (1959–1963) Putra of Perlis (1963–1965) President Yusof Ishak Benjamin Sheares Devan Nair Wee Kim Wee Yusof Ishak Benjamin Sheares Devan Nair Wee Kim Wee Deputy Toh Chin Chye Goh Keng Swee S. Rajaratnam Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Toh Chin Chye Goh Keng Swee S. Rajaratnam Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Preceded by Office established Lim Yew Hock (Chief Minister of Singapore) Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Secretary-General of the People's Action Party In office 20 October 1957 – 14 November 1992 Chairman Toh Chin Chye Ong Teng Cheong Toh Chin Chye Ong Teng Cheong Preceded by T. T. Rajah Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong In office 21 November 1954 – 3 August 1957 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by T. T. Rajah 1st Leader of the Opposition In office 22 April 1955 – 31 March 1959 Chief Minister David Marshall Lim Yew Hock Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Lim Yew Hock Ministerial offices Minister Mentor of Singapore In office 12 August 2004 – 20 May 2011 Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Office abolished Senior Minister of Singapore In office 28 November 1990 – 12 August 2004 Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong Preceded by S. Rajaratnam Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ministerial offices Minister Mentor of Singapore In office 12 August 2004 – 20 May 2011 Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Office abolished Senior Minister of Singapore In office 28 November 1990 – 12 August 2004 Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong Preceded by S. Rajaratnam Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliamentary offices Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 – 9 August 1965 [ 1 ] Parliamentary offices Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 – 9 August 1965 [ 1 ] Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar GRC In office 21 August 1991 – 23 March 2015 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by PAP held Majority All elections: N/A (walkover) Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar SMC In office 2 April 1955 – 26 April 1957 Preceded by Constituency established In office 29 June 1957 – 14 August 1991 Succeeded by Constituency abolished Majority 1955: 5,121 (66.53%) 1957: 3,392 (49.51%) 1959: 4,512 (42.08%) 1963: 2,780 (25.94%) 1968: 8,580 (88.68%) 1972: 6,114 (68.16%) 1976: 8,764 (78.06%) 1980: 11,175 (88.35%) 1984: N/A (walkover) 1988: 10,876 (63.20%) 1955: 5,121 (66.53%) 1957: 3,392 (49.51%) 1959: 4,512 (42.08%) 1963: 2,780 (25.94%) 1968: 8,580 (88.68%) 1972: 6,114 (68.16%) 1976: 8,764 (78.06%) 1980: 11,175 (88.35%) 1984: N/A (walkover) 1988: 10,876 (63.20%) Personal details Born Harry Lee Kuan Yew ( 1923-09-16 ) 16 September 1923 Singapore Died 23 March 2015 (2015-03-23) (aged 91) Singapore Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Party People's Action Party Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Kwa Geok Choo ( m. 1950; died 2010) Children Lee Hsien Loong (son) Lee Wei Ling (daughter) Lee Hsien Yang (son) Lee Hsien Loong (son) Lee Wei Ling (daughter) Lee Hsien Yang (son) Parents Lee Chin Koon (father) Chua Jim Neo (mother) Lee Chin Koon (father) Chua Jim Neo (mother) Relatives Lee family Education Raffles College London School of Economics Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge ( BA ) Raffles College London School of Economics Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge ( BA ) Signature Chinese name Chinese 李光耀 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Guāngyào Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄍㄨㄤ ㄧㄠˋ Wade–Giles Li 3 Kuang 1 -yao 4 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Guang-yào Yale Romanization Lǐ Gwāngyàu IPA [lì kwáŋ.jâʊ] Hakka Romanization Li2 Gong1 Yau5 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Leíh Gwōngjiuh Jyutping lei5 gwong1 jiu6 IPA [lej˩˧ kʷɔŋ˥ jiw˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Lí Kong-iāu Teochew Peng'im Li6 Guang1 Iou7 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Lǐ Guāngyào Bopomofo ㄌㄧˇ ㄍㄨㄤ ㄧㄠˋ Wade–Giles Li 3 Kuang 1 -yao 4 Tongyong Pinyin Lǐ Guang-yào Yale Romanization Lǐ Gwāngyàu IPA [lì kwáŋ.jâʊ] Hakka Romanization Li2 Gong1 Yau5 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Leíh Gwōngjiuh Jyutping lei5 gwong1 jiu6 IPA [lej˩˧ kʷɔŋ˥ jiw˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Lí Kong-iāu Teochew Peng'im Li6 Guang1 Iou7 Lee Kuan Yew [ a ] GCMG CH SPMJ DK (born Harry Lee Kuan Yew ; 16 September 1923 – 23 March 2015), often referred to by his initials LKY , was a Singaporean statesman and barrister who was the first prime minister of Singapore from 1959 to 1990. A founding father of the modern Singaporean state, his authoritarian political leadership transformed post-independence Singapore into a highly developed country and one of the four Asian Tigers . Born in Singapore during British colonial rule to a family of Chinese descent, Lee studied law in England at Cambridge University and was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1950. Shortly after, he returned to Singapore and practised law, founding the law firm Lee & Lee . In 1954, Lee co-founded the People's Action Party (PAP), which won significant support among the working class and trade unions in the lead up to the 1955 general election , securing him a seat in the Tanjong Pagar division and making him the de facto leader of the opposition . In 1959, Lee led the PAP to its first electoral victory , becoming Singapore's first prime minister. Seeking sovereignty from the British Empire , Lee led Singapore to a merger with Malaya along with Sarawak and Sabah , forming Malaysia in 1963. Racial strife and ideological differences later led to Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia and consequent independence in 1965. Lee oversaw major economic reforms and urban development, instituting policies promoting meritocracy , multiracialism and anti-corruption . His administration, generally characterised as an illiberal democracy with nanny state tendencies, restricted press freedoms , public assembly , labour activism and civil liberties . From 1968 to 1981 , Singapore was a de facto one-party state , with the PAP facing no opposition in Parliament. Although Lee maintained legal and institutional procedures that formally characterised Singapore as a democratic parliamentary republic , he employed defamation laws , detention without trial and social engineering to ensure continued electoral success. In justifying his policies, Lee was a major proponent of Asian values , arguing that communitarianism and limited human rights were necessary for the social cohesion , political stability and rapid economic development of Singapore. Lee stepped down as prime minister in 1990 but continued to serve in the Cabinet as senior minister until 2004 and subsequently as minister mentor until his retirement in 2011. Throughout his political career, he remained an influential figure in shaping Singapore's domestic and foreign policies, at the same time serving as an advisor to foreign leaders as an elder statesman. Lee died of pneumonia on 23 March 2015 at the age of 91. In Singapore, Lee is widely regarded as instrumental in the development of Singapore's economy , bureaucracy , education system , foreign policy , public housing and healthcare . The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University of Singapore is named in his honor. Following his death, a week of national mourning was announced, during which approximately 1.7 million people paid their respects at tribute sites around the country. Early life Childhood and early education Harry Lee Kuan Yew was born on 16 September 1923, the first child of Lee Chin Koon , who was born in Semarang during Dutch colonial rule and subsequently moved to Singapore, [ 2 ] and Chua Jim Neo , at 92 Kampong Java Road in Singapore, then part of the Straits Settlements . [ 3 ] Both of Lee's parents were English-educated third-generation Peranakan Chinese , [ 4 ] with his paternal side being of Hakka descent from Dabu County . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] He was named 'Kuan Yew', [ b ] meaning 'light and brightness', alternately meaning 'bringing great glory to one's ancestors'. Lee's paternal grandfather Lee Hoon Leong, who was described as "especially westernised", had worked on British ships as a purser , and hence gave Lee the Western name 'Harry'. [ 7 ] While the family spoke English as its first language, Lee also learned Malay. [ 3 ] Lee had three brothers and one sister, all of whom lived to old age. [ 8 ] Lee was not close to his father, who worked as a storekeeper within the Shell Oil Company and had a gambling addiction. His mother Chua often stood up against her husband for his poor financial management and parenting skills. [ 9 ] The family was considered prosperous with a high social standing compared to recent immigrants, and had the means to hire servants. [ 10 ] During the Great Depression the family fortunes declined considerably, though Lee's father retained his job at Shell. [ 3 ] Later in life, Lee described his father as a man with a nasty temper, and he credited his mother with holding the family together amidst her husband's gambling addiction. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In 1930, Lee enrolled at Telok Kurau English School where he spent six years of his primary education. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Attending Raffles Institution in 1935, Lee did poorly in his first two years but later topped the Junior Cambridge examinations. [ 15 ] He also joined the Scouts and partook in several physical activities such as cricket, tennis, swimming as well as debates. [ 16 ] Lee was the top scorer in the Senior Cambridge examinations in 1940 across the Straits Settlements and Malaya, earning the John Anderson scholarship to attend Raffles College, as well as the Tan Jiak Kim scholarship. [ 16 ] [ c ] During the prize-awarding ceremony, Lee met his future wife Kwa Geok Choo ; she was the only girl at the school. [ 15 ] Lee's subsequent university studies at Raffles College were disrupted by the onset of World War II in Asia, with the school being converted into a medical facility in 1941. The war arrived in December of that year and following the British surrender in February 1942, the Japanese occupation of Singapore began. [ 17 ] World War II Lee was amongst the Chinese men rounded up by the Japanese Sook Ching operation. By his own account, he feared getting caught by the Kempeitai (military police) and reported with a friend to be screened. He attempted to leave the next morning but was ordered to join a group of already segregated men. Lee requested to collect his clothes first and managed to spend a second night in the dormitory before successfully leaving the site the next day when a different guard cleared him through. [ 18 ] He later learned that the group of men were likely taken to the beach and executed. [ 19 ] Lee obtained a Japanese language proficiency certificate in August 1942 and worked in a friend's company and then the Kumiai , which controlled essential items. [ 20 ] He got a job with the Japanese propaganda department ( Hōdōbu ) in late 1943 and worked for the Japanese occupation force as an English specialist. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Working at the top of the Cathay Building , he was assigned to listen to Allied radio stations for Morse code signals. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] By late 1944, Lee knew Japan had suffered major setbacks and planned to move to the Cameron Highlands with his family to avoid a possible British invasion. He was tipped off that he was being followed and abandoned the plan. [ 26 ] He engaged in private enterprises and black market sales for the rest of the war. [ 27 ] During this time, Lee helped develop a glue based on tapioca, which he sold under the name Stikfas, as a means to support himself during the war. [ 28 ] The Stikfas logo later appeared on the base of his wedding cake. [ 29 ] The rapid Japanese victory in the Malaya and Singapore campaign had a major impact on Lee as he recalled: "In 70 days of surprises, upsets and stupidities, British colonial society was shattered, and with it all the assumptions of the Englishman's superiority". [ 30 ] In a radio broadcast made in 1961, Lee said he "emerged [from the war] determined that no one—neither Japanese nor British—had the right to push and kick us around... (and) that we could govern ourselves." [ 31 ] It also influenced his perceptions of raw power and the effectiveness of harsh punishment in deterring crime. [ 32 ] University, marriage and politics Lee chose not to return to Raffles College after the war and pursued higher education in the United Kingdom. [ 9 ] He sailed from Singapore in 1946 on his 23rd birthday on the MV Britannic , arriving in the UK on 3 October. [ 33 ] He initially enrolled at the London School of Economics , but found himself disliking life in the British capital. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] He visited Cambridge in November and was introduced to W. S. Thatcher , Censor of Fitzwilliam House. He was admitted into the following year's Lent term and matriculated in January 1947, reading law at Fitzwilliam College . [ 36 ] Prior to his departure from Singapore, Lee had begun a relationship with Kwa, with whom he had kept in contact during the war. They married in secret at Stratford-upon-Avon in December. [ 9 ] Lee achieved a first class result in both the Prelims and Part I of the Tripos , and graduated with a Starred First for Part II Law in 1949. As the top student of his cohort, he was awarded the Fitzwilliam's Whitlock Prize; Lee was called to the bar from the Middle Temple in 1950. [ 36 ] If you value fairness and social justice, not only to the people of Britain but also to the millions of British subjects in the colonies, return another Labour government. If you value fairness and social justice, not only to the people of Britain but also to the millions of British subjects in the colonies, return another Labour government. During his studies, Lee's political convictions and anti-colonial sentiments were hardened by personal experiences and an increasing belief that the British were ruling Singapore for their own benefit. He supported the Labour Party against the Conservatives whom he perceived as opposing decolonisation . [ 38 ] In the leadup to the 1950 United Kingdom general election , Lee engaged in politics for the first time and actively campaigned for a friend, David Widdicombe in Totnes constituency, driving Widdicombe around in a lorry and delivering several speeches on his behalf. [ 39 ] Before returning to Singapore, Lee dropped his English name, Harry. [ d ] Notwithstanding, even until the end of his life, old friends and relatives referred to him as Harry. [ 41 ] Early career (1951–1955) Litigation practice Lee and his wife returned to Singapore in August 1950 on board the MS Willem Ruys . [ 42 ] He joined the Laycock and Ong law firm founded by British lawyer John Laycock . [ 43 ] Laycock was a co-founder of the pro-British Progressive Party and Lee represented the party during the 1951 legislative council election as an election agent. [ 44 ] Lee was called to the Singapore bar on 7 August 1951. [ 45 ] During the postal union strike in May 1952, Lee negotiated a settlement marking his first step into the labour movement. [ 46 ] In due course, Lee represented nearly fifty trade unions and associations against the British authorities on a pro bono basis. [ 47 ] The disputes often centered around wages and Laycock eventually requested Lee to cease taking on such cases as it was hurting the firm. [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] In May 1954, the left-wing University Socialist Club published an article 'Aggression in Asia' in the club's magazine The Fajar , and the student editors were charged with sedition. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Lee became junior counsel to Denis Pritt . The court quashed the charges and the two counsel gained a reputation through the trial, with Lee thereafter becoming a "major leader" of the movement against British rule. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] During the same year, Lee also appealed on behalf of the students arrested during the 13 May incident . The colonial government upheld the sentences, though the case enhanced Lee's reputation as a "left-wing lawyer" and marked his first involvement with the Chinese intelligentsia. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Forming the PAP During his studies in Britain, Lee met Goh Keng Swee and Toh Chin Chye via the Malayan Forum . [ 57 ] The forum sought to promote an independent Malaya which included Singapore and met at 44 Bryanston Square in London. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Lee and his contemporaries deliberately avoided the topic of forming a political party to avoid charges of subversion , beginning work on forming a political party only after returning to Singapore. [ 60 ] Lee had sought to build support among the English-educated, Malay, and Indian communities by taking on cases against the British authorities. In the course of his work, Lee became acquainted with the journalist Sinnathamby Rajaratnam ; Abdul Samad Ismail , a writer for the Malay newspaper Utusan Melayu ; and Devan Nair . [ 61 ] He next turned his attention to the Chinese-speaking majority and was introduced to Lim Chin Siong and Fong Swee Suan, leaders of the influential bus and factories unions. While the unions had been infiltrated by communists, Lee consciously sought their support as he wanted a popular front. [ 62 ] With elections approaching in 1955, Lee and his associates debated the name, ideology, and policies of the party they wanted to create at 38 Oxley Road . [ 63 ] The People's Action Party (PAP) was inaugurated on 21 November 1954 at the Victoria Memorial Hall . As the party still lacked members, trade union leaders rounded up an estimated audience of 800 to 1,500 supporters. [ 64 ] Lee had also invited Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock , presidents of the United Malays National Organisation and Malayan Chinese Association . In his inaugural speech, Lee denounced the British for the slow transition to self-rule, demanded their immediate withdrawal, and said that the PAP would pursue a Singapore-Malaya union. Lee became secretary-general of the party, a post he held until 1992, barring a brief period in 1957 when the post was taken up by T. T. Rajah . [ 65 ] [ 66 ] In July 1953, Governor John Nicoll initiated the Rendel Commission to provide for a transition to self-rule. The commission created the legislative assembly and opened 25 of 32 seats for direct contest in the upcoming 1955 election . The PAP and Labour Front , led by Lee and David Marshall respectively, both criticised the concessions as "inadequate". The PAP faced manpower constraints but decided to prioritise resources and contest four seats as a protest gesture. [ 67 ] In a rally speech, Lee said he chose the Tanjong Pagar division as it was a "working class area" and that he did not want to represent "wealthy merchants or landlords". [ 68 ] During the campaigning period, the British press labelled Lee as a " commissar " and accused the PAP of being a "communist-backed party". [ 69 ] Democratic Party (DP) challenger Lam Thian also capitalised on Lee's inability to converse in Chinese. Lee's proposal for a multilingual debate was never reciprocated by Thian, though he eventually made his maiden Chinese speech after several hours of coaching. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] On polling day, 2 April, the ruling Progressive Party captured only four seats, shocking both the British establishment and its opposition. Lee defeated his competitors and won Tanjong Pagar, with the PAP winning three of their four contested seats. He pledged to work with Marshall and the new Labour Front government. [ 72 ] As independent member Ahmad Ibrahim joined PAP following the election, PAP had 4 members in the Assembly and thus Lee became the new Leader of the Opposition. [ 73 ] Leader of the Opposition (1955–1959) Strikes and power struggle Any man in Singapore who wants to carry the Chinese-speaking people with him cannot afford to be anti-Communist. The Chinese are very proud of China. If I had to choose between colonialism and communism, I would vote for communism and so would the great majority. Any man in Singapore who wants to carry the Chinese-speaking people with him cannot afford to be anti-Communist. The Chinese are very proud of China. If I had to choose between colonialism and communism, I would vote for communism and so would the great majority. On 23 April 1955, workers from the Hock Lee Amalgamated Bus Company began a strike under the direction of Fong Swee Suan, leader of the Singapore Buses Workers' Union (SBWU). [ 75 ] [ 76 ] As SBWU's legal advisor, Lee worked with Marshall's government to negotiate a resolution, which was initially agreed by the SBWU but then reneged on by the company. [ 77 ] Seeking to exert greater pressure, Lee, Fong and Lim Chin Siong addressed the strikers on 1 May ( May Day ), where Lee called the government a "half-past six democracy". [ 78 ] The strike subsequently escalated into a riot on 12 May . [ 79 ] Lee, Marshall and the company agreed on a further resolution on 14 May, which conceded to several of the strikers' demands. [ 80 ] In an emergency legislative assembly sitting on 16 May, Chief Secretary William Goode accused Lee of losing control of the PAP to Lim. [ 77 ] Lee was constrained between defending the actions of his colleagues and denouncing them, instead reiterating the PAP's committal to non-violence. [ 81 ] Marshall defended him and the PAP as "decent men" against Goode's accusations and called upon the party to "purge themselves of communists". [ 77 ] [ 80 ] The riot led the public to perceive the PAP as being led by "young, immature and troublesome politicians", resulting in a shortfall of new members. [ 82 ] It deepened the divide between two emerging factions, with Lee's faction advocating Fabian 's brand of socialism for gradual reform and Lim's faction, later described by Fong as "favour(ing) a more radical approach". [ 83 ] Lee was convinced that Lim and Fong's influence were pushing the party toward "political disaster". [ 74 ] After consulting his allies Toh Chin Chye , S. Rajaratnam and Byrne , Lee censured the two men privately and demanded they change strategies or leave the party. [ 84 ] By 1956, Lee believed that the PAP "had been captured by the communists" and privately endorsed the Labour Front government purge of suspected "leftists" in the aftermath of the 1956 Chinese middle schools riots . The arrestees included his rival Lim and several other PAP members. [ 85 ] When other leftist members captured six seats in the PAP central executive committee (CEC) elections on 4 August 1957, [ 86 ] Lee refused to allow his allies to assume their appointments and said that his faction had "lost their moral right" to enforce the party's founding philosophy. [ 87 ] Overtures were made by fellow CEC member T. T. Rajah to remain in his post, to which he declined. [ 86 ] The government arrested the leftist leaders on 22 August [ 88 ] [ 89 ] and Lee was restored as secretary-general on 20 October. He later blamed the attempted takeover on lax admission rules to the party [ 90 ] [ 91 ] and permanently distrusted the leftists thereafter. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] On 23 November 1958, the party constitution was amended to implement a cadre system. [ 91 ] The right to vote in party elections and run for office were revoked from ordinary party members, whom now had to seek approval from the CEC to be a cadre and regain these privileges. [ 92 ] Lee credited the Vatican system where the pope pre-selects its cardinals for the idea. [ 93 ] Merdeka talks The Labour Front government's conciliatory approach to the Hock Lee strikers led to a drastic increase in strikes. [ 80 ] Frustrated by his limited powers, Marshall demanded further constitutional reforms towards the aim of "true self-government". Lee supported Marshall in his efforts, though he initially threatened an opposition boycott over wording disputes in the agreement. [ 94 ] Between 1956 and 1958, there were three rounds of constitutional talks. [ 95 ] Lee was part of Marshall's 13-member delegation to London in April 1956. Marshall's demands for independence were repeatedly rejected by Colonial Secretary Alan Lennox-Boyd and Lee departed early over Marshall's refusal to compromise. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] He criticised Marshall for his "political ineptitude" in the British press and received widespread media and radio coverage. [ 98 ] He returned to London in March 1957 as part of a five-member delegation led by the new chief minister Lim Yew Hock . [ 99 ] Britain conceded to Singapore's self-governance but also demanded that a tripartite Internal Security Council be established, which proved controversial back home. [ 99 ] Marshall challenged Lee to seek a fresh mandate from his Tanjong Pagar constituents, which Lee accepted. [ 100 ] In the June 1957 by-elections , Lee was reelected with 68.1% of the vote. [ 101 ] Lee returned to London for the third and final talks in May 1958, [ 102 ] where it was agreed that Singapore would assume self-governance with a Yang di-Pertuan Negara as head of state, with Britain retaining control of defence and foreign policy. [ 103 ] The British House of Lords passed the State of Singapore Act on 24 July 1958, which received royal assent on 1 August, and became law following the subsequent general election. [ 104 ] 1957 and 1959 elections As the 1957 City Council election in December approached, a Hokkien-speaking candidate, Ong Eng Guan , became the PAP's new face to the Chinese electorate. [ 89 ] The 32-seat city council's functions were restricted to up-keeping public amenities within city limits, but party leaders decided to contest the election as a "dry run" for the upcoming general election. [ 105 ] Lee limited the PAP to contesting 14 seats to avoid provoking the government and formed an electoral pact with the Labour Front and United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) to jointly tackle the new Liberal Socialist Party . [ e ] [ 107 ] The PAP campaigned on a slogan to "sweep the city clean" [ 106 ] and emerged with 13 seats, allowing it to form a minority administration with UMNO's support. Lee and the rest of the CEC unanimously endorsed Ong to become mayor . [ 105 ] External image Portrait of Lee being sworn in as Prime Minister of Singapore National Heritage Board Early in 1959, Communications and Works Minister Francis Thomas received evidence of corruption on Education Minister Chew Swee Kee . Thomas brought the evidence to Lee after the chief minister dismissed the matter. [ 108 ] Lee tabled a motion in the assembly on 17 February, which forced Chew's resignation. [ 108 ] As the expiry of the assembly's term approached, the PAP was initially split on whether to capture power but Lee chose to proceed. [ 109 ] While picking the candidates, Lee deliberately chose people from different racial and education backgrounds to repair the party's image of being run by intellectuals. [ 110 ] In the 1959 general election held on 30 May 1959, the PAP won a landslide victory with 43 of the 51 seats, though with only 53.4% of the popular vote which Lee noted. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The PAP's victory reportedly created a dilemma within the 12-member CEC as there was no formal process in place to choose a prime minister-elect. [ 112 ] A vote was purportedly held between Lee and Ong Eng Guan and after both men received six votes, party chairman Toh Chin Chye cast the tie-breaking vote for Lee. [ 113 ] When interviewed nearly five decades later, Toh and one other party member recalled the vote, but Lee and several others denied the account. [ 113 ] Lee was summoned by Governor William Goode to form a new government on 1 June, to which he requested the release of arrested PAP members. [ 114 ] On 3 June, Singapore became a self-governing state, ending 140 years of direct British rule. [ 114 ] Lee was sworn in as Prime Minister of Singapore on 5 June at City Hall , along with the rest of his Cabinet . [ 114 ] Prime Minister, State of Singapore (1959–1963) First years in power Lee's first speech as prime minister to a 50,000-strong audience at the Padang sought to dampen his supporters' euphoria of the PAP's electoral win. [ 111 ] In the first month of Lee taking power, Singapore experienced an economic slump as foreign capital fell and Western businesses and expatriates left for Kuala Lumpur in Malaya, fearing the new government's anti-colonial zeal. [ 111 ] As part of an 'anti-yellow culture' drive, Lee banned jukeboxes and pinball machines, while the police under Home Affairs Minister Ong Pang Boon raided pubs and pornography publications. [ f ] [ 115 ] The government cracked down on secret societies , prostitution and other illegal activities, with TIME magazine later reporting that a full week passed without "kidnapping, extortion or gangland rumble(s)" for the first time. [ 115 ] Lee also spearheaded several 'mobilisation campaigns' to clean the city, introduced air-conditioning to government offices, and slashed the salaries of civil servants. The last act provoked anger from the sector, which Lee justified as necessary to balance the budget. [ 116 ] In February 1960, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) superseded the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) and assumed responsibility of public housing . With strong government support, the HDB under chairman Lim Kim San completed more flats in three years than its predecessor did in thirty-two. [ 117 ] Government expenditure for public utilities, healthcare and education also increased significantly. [ 117 ] By the end of the year, however, unemployment began to rise drastically as the economy slowed. Lee reversed anti-colonial policies and launched a five-year plan to build new industries, seeking to attract foreign investors and rival Hong Kong . [ 118 ] [ 119 ] Jurong , a swampland to the island's western coast was chosen to be the site of a new industrial estate and would house steel mills, shipyards, and oil refineries, though Finance Minister Goh Keng Swee was initially worried the venture would fail. [ 120 ] The government promoted multiculturalism by recognising Chinese, English, Malay, and Tamil as the official languages of the new state and sought to create a new national Malayan identity. The Ministry of Culture under S. Rajaratnam held free outdoor concerts with every ethnic race represented in the performances. [ 121 ] Lee also introduced the People's Association , a government-linked organisation to run community centers and youth clubs, with its leaders trained to spread the PAP's ideology. [ 121 ] Youth unemployment was alleviated by the establishment of work brigades. [ 121 ] PAP split of 1961 Lee took measures to secure his position in the aftermath of the 1957 party elections. In 1959, he delayed the release of leftist PAP members arrested under the former Labour Front government and appointed five of its leaders, [ g ] including Lim Chin Siong, as parliamentary secretaries lacking political power. [ 114 ] [ 123 ] Lee clashed further with Lim when the government sought to create a centralised labour union in the first half of 1960. [ 124 ] Trouble also arose from former mayor and Minister of National Development Ong Eng Guan , who Lee had appointed in recognition of Ong's contribution to the PAP's electoral win. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Ong's relocation of his ministry to his Hong Lim stronghold and continued castigation of the British and civil servants was regarded by his colleagues as disruptive and Lee removed several portfolios from Ong's purview in February 1960. [ 125 ] [ 126 ] In the party conference on 18 June 1960, Ong filed "16 resolutions" against the leadership, accusing Lee of failing to seek party consensus when deciding policy, not adhering to anti-colonialism and suspending left-wing unions. [ 127 ] Lee regarded it as a move to split the party and together with his allies expelled Ong from the party. [ 128 ] Ong resigned his seat in December, precipitating the Hong Lim by-election on in April 1961 which he won against a PAP candidate. [ 126 ] [ 129 ] The death of the PAP assemblyman for Anson that April triggered a second by-election. For the first time, Lim's faction openly revolted against Lee and endorsed Workers' Party chairman David Marshall who won the seat. [ 126 ] [ 130 ] Lee assumed responsibility for the two by-election defeats and submitted his resignation to party chairman Toh Chin Chye on 17 July. Toh rejected it and upheld Lee's mandate. [ 131 ] Lee moved a motion of confidence in his own government in the early hours of 21 July after a thirteen-hour debate which had begun the preceding day, narrowly surviving it with 27 "Ayes", 8 "Noes" and 16 abstentions. [ 132 ] The PAP now commanded a single seat majority in the 51-seat assembly after 13 of its members had abstained. [ 133 ] Lee expelled the 13 who had broken ranks in addition to Lim, Fong and Woodhull. [ 133 ] Leadup to referendum and merger Lee and his colleagues believed that Singapore could only survive through merger with Malaya and was unwilling to call for complete independence. [ 134 ] Merger would allow goods to be exported to the peninsula under a common market , while devolving unpopular internal security measures to Kuala Lumpur . [ 134 ] [ 135 ] Malaya's ruling Alliance Party coalition dominated by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) had repeatedly opposed the scheme and was apprehensive that Singapore's Chinese majority would reduce 'Malay political supremacy'. [ 136 ] Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman backtracked after the PAP's Hong Lim by-election defeat, fearing a "pro-communist government" in Singapore should Lee fall from power. [ 135 ] On 27 May 1961, Tunku announced that Malaya, Singapore, and the British colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak should pursue "political and economic cooperation". [ 135 ] Lee endorsed the program six days later and commenced negotiations on the formation of Malaysia. [ 135 ] In August 1961, Lee and Tunku agreed that Singapore's defence, foreign affairs and internal security would be transferred to the federal government, while education and labour policy remained with the state government. [ 135 ] [ 137 ] Lim Chin Siong and his supporters saw Lee's ceding control of internal security—then controlled by the Internal Security Council with British, Malayan, Singaporean representatives—to the federal government as a threat as Tunku was convinced they were communists. [ 135 ] In a meeting with British Commissioner General Lord Selkirk , Selkirk reaffirmed that the British would not suspend Singapore's constitution should Lee be voted out. [ 135 ] Lee saw the meeting as a British endorsement of Lim and accused it as a plot against his government. [ 138 ] On 13 August, Lim founded the Barisan Sosialis and became its secretary-general, with 35 of 51 branches of the PAP defecting. [ 133 ] [ 139 ] Lee anticipated a Barisan win in the next election and saw 'independence through merger' as the only means for the PAP to retain power. [ 136 ] Beginning on 13 September 1961, Lee gave twelve multilingual radio speeches outlining the benefits of merger in what he called the 'Battle for Merger'. The speeches proved to be a massive success for Lee's campaign, while Barisan's demands for equal airtime were rejected. [ 140 ] Lee employed full use of state resources to suppress his opponents by revoking the Barisan's printing permits, banning or relocating its rallies, and purging its supporters from the government, while the judiciary and police engaged to "obstruct, provoke and isolate" the party. [ 141 ] The Barisan lambasted Lee for securing only 15 seats in the Malaysian parliament for Singapore in contrast to North Borneo (16) and Sarawak (24), despite both having a combined population well below Singapore's 1.7 million. [ 142 ] Singapore citizens would also be categorised as "nationals" and not be granted Malaysian citizenship. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] On 6 December, the legislative assembly voted 33–0 in favour of the agreements struck by Lee and Tunku, which the Barisan boycotted. [ 144 ] A referendum for merger was scheduled for 1 September 1962. Lee ensured that the ballot lacked a "no" option, with all three options having varying terms for admission into Malaysia. [ 142 ] The ballot was crafted by Lee and Goh Keng Swee to capitalise on a mistake which the Barisan had made the previous year. The Barisan had inadvertently endorsed merger under terms "like Penang " (a state of Malaya) with full citizenship rights, not realising that Malayan law entitled only a native-born to qualify for automatic citizenship, which would disenfranchise nearly one third of those eligible to vote; [ 145 ] it issued a clarification but never recovered from the mistake. [ 146 ] Lee placed the flag of Singapore alongside option A with the terms of Singapore retaining control of education and labour policy, while portraying the Barisan's choice as option B favouring entry into the federation with no special rights, next to the flag of Penang . [ 147 ] When Lim called for his supporters to submit blank votes , Lee countered that blank votes would count as a vote for the majority choice. 71% eventually voted for option A, while 26% cast blank votes. [ 148 ] In November, Lee embarked on a ten-month visit to all fifty-one constituencies, prioritising those with the highest count of blank votes. [ 149 ] Operation Coldstore detentions The Malayan government considered the arrests of Singapore's left-wing groups as non-negotiable for the formation of Malaysia. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] Tunku felt that Lee lacked the initiative to suppress "pro-communist elements" and warned that a Malay-led dictatorship would be instated to prevent a "socialist majority" in the next Malayan election. [ 144 ] As the Malayans increased pressure on the Internal Security Council (ISC) to take action, Lee began supporting the idea of a purge in March 1962. [ 152 ] The Malayan and Singapore special branches collaborated on an arrest list of major opposition members, though doubts arose if Lim Chin Siong and Fong Swee Suan could be classified as 'communists'. [ 152 ] Up until the end of November 1962, the British declined to support the operation without a pretext, noting that Lim and the Barisan Sosialis had not broken any laws. [ 153 ] The Brunei revolt on 8 December led by A. M. Azahari provided a "heaven-sent opportunity" to take action, as Lim had met Azahari on 3 December. [ 154 ] The Malayan government convened the ISC to discuss the operation, while Singapore's Special Branch produced alleged evidence of the communist control of Barisan. [ 154 ] On 13 December, Lord Selkirk gave his authorisation for the arrests to proceed on 16 December. However, Lee's attempt to add two Malayan parliamentarians opposed to the formation of Malaysia into the arrest list caused the Malayan representative to rescind his consent, stopping the operation. [ 154 ] Tunku suspected that Lee was trying to eliminate his entire opposition, while Lee felt that Tunku was evading his shared responsibility for the arrests. [ 149 ] An ISC meeting was scheduled to be held on 1 February 1963 to remount the operation. [ 155 ] During the interim period, Lee had added three names from the United People's Party, one of them being former PAP minister Ong Eng Guan. [ 155 ] Selkirk expressed concerns that Ong's arrest lacked any justification and Lee conceded that it was meant as a "warning" to Ong. [ 155 ] Tunku told Geofroy Tory , the British High Commissioner in Kuala Lumpur on 30 January, that 'if this operation failed, merger with Singapore was off'. [ 155 ] Selkirk was pressured to put his reservations aside and finally consented. [ 155 ] On 2 February, Operation Coldstore commenced across Singapore, with 113 detained including Lim and 23 others from Barisan Sosialis. [ 156 ] [ 157 ] Lee offered Lim a path into exile which Lim rejected. [ 158 ] The Malayans and British later pressured Lee to retract his comment when he said he "disapproved" of the operation. [ 156 ] In his memoirs, Lee portrayed himself as reluctant in supporting the operation, though declassified British documents revealed that Lee was "somewhat more enthusiastic" than he eventually admitted. [ 159 ] Prime Minister, Singapore in Malaysia (1963–1965) Elections and tensions On 31 August 1963, Lee declared Singapore's independence in a ceremony at the Padang and pledged loyalty to the federal government. [ 160 ] With the conclusion of the trials of Barisan Sosialis' leaders, Lee dissolved the legislative assembly on 3 September and called for a snap election . [ 161 ] [ 162 ] He touted "independence through merger" as a success and utilised television and the mass media effectively. [ 163 ] In conjunction with Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and Sarawak , Lee proclaimed Singapore as part of Malaysia in a second ceremony on 16 September accompanied by a military parade. [ 164 ] [ h ] Lim Chin Siong's arrest had, however, generated widespread sympathy for the Barisan and a close result was predicted. Australian and British officials expected a Barisan win. [ 165 ] When the PAP defeated the Barisan in a landslide victory on 21 September, it was seen as a public endorsement of merger and Lee's socio-economic policies. [ 163 ] [ 166 ] Relations between the PAP and Malaysia's ruling Alliance Party quickly deteriorated as Lee began espousing his policies to the rest of the country. The United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was also shocked by the loss of three Malay-majority seats to the PAP in the recent 1963 Singapore election. [ 167 ] Ultra-nationalists within UMNO alleged that Lee sought to overthrow the Malay monarchies and infringe on rural life . [ 167 ] Lee's attempts to reconcile the PAP with UMNO were rebuffed as the latter remained committed to the Malaysian Chinese Association . [ 167 ] Further hostility ensued when the PAP decided to contest in the 1964 Malaysian general election in contravention of a gentlemen's agreement that it disavow itself from peninsula politics, but PAP already regarded the agreement to be rendered moot as the Alliance contested the 1963 Singapore state election and broke the agreement first. [ 168 ] Lee's speeches in Malaysia attracted large crowds and he expected the PAP to win at least seven parliamentary seats. [ 169 ] The party ultimately won only one seat in Bangsar , Selangor under Devan Nair. [ 168 ] Lee and other party insiders later conceded that UMNO's portrayal of the PAP as a "Chinese party" and its lack of grassroots in the peninsula had undermined its support from the Malay majority. [ 168 ] [ 170 ] Ethnic tensions had risen prior to the April election when UMNO secretary-general Syed Jaafar Albar utilised the Utusan Melayu to accuse Lee of evicting Malays from their homes in March 1964. [ 171 ] Lee explained personally to the affected neighbourhoods that the scheme was part of an urban renewal plan and that eviction notices had been sent to everyone irrespective of race. [ 172 ] Albar responded by warning Lee to not "treat the sons of the soil as step-children" and led calls for the deaths of Lee and Social Affairs Minister Othman bin Wok on 12 July. [ 172 ] On 21 July, the 1964 race riots in Singapore erupted during a celebration of Prophet Muhammad's birthday , lasting four days, killing 22 and injuring 461. [ 173 ] Further riots occurred in late-August and early-September resulting in communities self-segregating from each other, which Lee characterised as "terribly disheartening" and against "everything we had believed in and worked for". [ 171 ] Lee never forgot the Malay PAP leaders who stood against UMNO during the turmoil and as late as 1998, paid tribute to them for Singapore's survival. [ 174 ] Malaysian Malaysia and separation Lee's perceptions that merger was becoming infeasible was also due to the federal government's obstruction of his industrialisation program and its imposition of new taxes on Singapore in the November 1964 federal budget. [ 172 ] Tunku mentioned to deputy prime minister Goh Keng Swee in December 1964 about his desire to have Singapore “hived off” from Malaysia. [ 175 ] Lee authorized Goh to renegotiate with Deputy Prime Minister Abdul Razak Hussein on Singapore's place in the federation in early 1965. [ 172 ] Seeking to provide an alternative to the Alliance Party government, Lee and his colleagues formed the Malaysian Solidarity Convention (MSC) with the Malayan and Sarawakian opposition on 9 May, with its goals for a Malaysian Malaysia and race-blind society. [ 172 ] [ 176 ] The MSC was seen by UMNO as a threat to the Malay monopoly of power and special rights granted to Malays under Article 153 . [ 177 ] [ 178 ] UMNO supreme council member and future prime minister Mahathir Mohamad called the PAP "pro-Chinese, communist-oriented and positively anti-Malay", while others called for Lee's arrest under the Internal Security Act for trying to split the federation. [ 177 ] [ 179 ] Mathathir in his speech stated the huaren (ethnic Chinese) of Singapore were of "the insular, selfish and arrogant type of which Mr. Lee is a good example...They are in fact Chinese first, seeing China as the center of the world and Malaysia as a very poor second". [ 180 ] Such fears were sincerely felt by the UMNO leaders as one UMNO politician who was friendly with Lee privately told him: "You Chinese are too energetic and clever for us...we cannot stand the pressure". [ 181 ] Many UMNO politicians felt threatened by Lee, a politician who sought to appeal to both ethnic Chinese and Malay voters. [ 180 ] Albar warned in a speech that the Malay voters of Singapore must have been "misled" into voting for the PAP, and the UNMO would not allow this to happen in the next election. [ 180 ] Lee later wrote of Tunku that was "a nice man", but "he was a prince who understood power and knew how to use it. He did not carry a big stick, but he had many hatchet-bearers who would do the job for him while he looked the other way and appeared as benign as ever". [ 180 ] Tunku was a Malay aristocrat who spent his undergraduate years at Cambridge by his own admission on "fast women" rather than studying and whom Lee contemptuously noted had been awarded a degree at Cambridge that he did not deserve solely because he was an aristocrat. [ 182 ] Tunku in turn felt threatened by Lee, a man who had worked his way up via his intelligence and self-discipline, which made him very different from the people in his world. [ 182 ] On 26 May 1965, Lee addressed the Malaysian parliament for the final time, delivering his speech entirely in the Malay language. He challenged the Alliance Party to commit itself to a Malaysian Malaysia and denounce its extremists, and also argued that the PAP could better uplift the livelihood of the Malays. [ 177 ] Then-social affairs minister Othman Wok later recounted: "I noticed that while he was speaking, the Alliance leaders sitting in front of us, they sank lower and lower because they were embarrassed this man (Lee) could speak Malay better than them". [ 183 ] Then-national development minister Lim Kim San also noted: "That was the turning point. They perceived [Lee] as a dangerous man who could one day be the prime minister of Malaya. This was the speech that changed history." [ 183 ] Prime Minister Tunku labelled the speech as the final straw which contributed to his decision in July 1965, while being treated for shingles in London, [ 184 ] [ 185 ] that Singapore's secession was necessary. [ 186 ] The more extreme UMNO politicians such as Albar were pressing to have Lee arrested and martial law proclaimed, but Tunku chose to accept Singapore's secession instead. [ 182 ] The British government received allegations of a plot to arrest Lee, and thus the British prime minister Harold Wilson quietly pressured Tunku against taking any such action, warning of potential repercussions on the Malaysian government. [ 182 ] As Britain was defending Malaysia from Indonesian attempts to annex the country, Britain was in a strong position to apply pressure on Malaysia. Lee in his memoirs stated that Singapore owed Wilson a major debt for his role in pressuring Tunku for a peaceful resolution of the crisis, calling Wilson a "good friend". [ 187 ] On 13 July 1965, Deputy Prime Minister Goh Keng Swee met with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak Hussein and Home Affairs Minister Ismail Abdul Rahman , in Razak's office while Tunku was still overseas, being treated for shingles. Goh proposed separation of Singapore from Malaysia, before reporting back to Lee about the proposal. [ 188 ] Lee agreed, and during another meeting between Goh, Razak and Ismail on 20 July 1965, Goh told the Malaysians that Lee had given the greenlight for separation arrangements to be done quickly. [ 185 ] [ 188 ] Lee then summoned Law Minister E. W. Barker to draft documents effecting Singapore's separation from the federation and its proclamation of independence. To ensure that a 1962 agreement to draw water from Johor was retained, Lee insisted that it be enshrined in the separation agreement and Malaysian constitution. [ 189 ] The negotiations of post-separation relations were held in utmost secrecy and Lee tried to prevent secession to the last minute, trying to convince Tunku upon his return from London to continue negotiating a looser confederation. However, Tunku's mind was already made up. [ 188 ] Lee was persuaded to finally relent by Goh on 7 August. [ 177 ] [ 190 ] That day, Lee and several cabinet ministers signed the separation agreement at Razak's home, which stipulated continued co-operation in trade and mutual defence. [ 191 ] Cabinet ministers Toh Chin Chye and S. Rajaratnam , were asked to meet Lee in Kuala Lumpur. Upon being informed of the impending separation, they refused to sign the agreement at first and were distraught at the idea, before the fear of further violence and bloodshed finally convinced them to sign. [ 192 ] Lee returned to Singapore the following day and convened the rest of his cabinet to sign the document, whereupon it was flown back to Kuala Lumpur. [ 190 ] [ 193 ] On 9 August 1965 at 10am, Tunku convened the Malaysian parliament and moved the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Bill 1965 , which passed unanimously by a vote of 126–0 with no PAP representatives present. [ 194 ] Singapore's independence was announced locally via radio at the same time and Lee broke the news to senior diplomats and civil servants. [ 193 ] [ 195 ] In a televised press conference that day, Lee fought back tears and briefly stopped to regain his composure as he formally announced the news to an anxious population: [ 196 ] Every time we look back on this moment when we signed this agreement which severed Singapore from Malaysia, it will be a moment of anguish. For me it is a moment of anguish because all my life. ... You see, the whole of my adult life [...] I have believed in Malaysian merger and the unity of these two territories. You know, it's a people connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship.... We could not achieve multiracialism and integration in Malaysia. [ 197 ] Every time we look back on this moment when we signed this agreement which severed Singapore from Malaysia, it will be a moment of anguish. For me it is a moment of anguish because all my life. ... You see, the whole of my adult life [...] I have believed in Malaysian merger and the unity of these two territories. You know, it's a people connected by geography, economics, and ties of kinship.... We could not achieve multiracialism and integration in Malaysia. [ 197 ] Prime Minister, Republic of Singapore (1965–1990) Despite the momentous event, Lee did not call for the parliament to convene to reconcile the issues that Singapore would face immediately as a new nation. Without giving further instructions on who should act in his absence, he went into isolation for six weeks, unreachable by phone, at Changi Cottage . According to then-deputy prime minister Toh Chin Chye , the parliament hung in "suspended animation" until the sitting in December that year. [ 198 ] In his memoirs, Lee said that he was unable to sleep and was prescribed tranquilizers from doctors. Upon learning of Lee's condition from the British High Commissioner to Singapore, John Robb, the British prime minister, Harold Wilson , expressed concern, in response to which Lee replied: Do not worry about Singapore. My colleagues and I are sane, rational people even in our moments of anguish. We will weigh all possible consequences before we make any move on the political chessboard. [ 200 ] Do not worry about Singapore. My colleagues and I are sane, rational people even in our moments of anguish. We will weigh all possible consequences before we make any move on the political chessboard. [ 200 ] Lee began to seek international recognition of Singapore's independence. Singapore joined the United Nations on 21 September 1965, and founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on 8 August 1967 with four other South-East Asian countries. Lee made his first official visit to Indonesia on 25 May 1973, just a few years after the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation under Sukarno 's regime. Relations between Singapore and Indonesia substantially improved as subsequent visits were made between the two countries. Singapore has never had a dominant culture to which immigrants could assimilate, even though Malay was the dominant language at that time. [ 201 ] Together with efforts from the government and ruling party, Lee tried to create a unique Singaporean identity in the 1970s and 1980s—one which heavily recognised racial consciousness within the umbrella of multiculturalism . Lee and his government stressed the importance of maintaining religious tolerance and racial harmony, and they were ready to use the law to counter any threat that might incite ethnic and religious violence. [ 202 ] [ 203 ] For example, Lee warned against "insensitive evangelisation", by which he referred to instances of Christian proselytising directed at Malays. In 1974 the government advised the Bible Society of Singapore to stop publishing religious material in Malay. [ 204 ] Defence The vulnerability of Singapore was deeply felt, with threats from multiple sources, including the communists and Indonesia with its confrontational stance. Adding to this vulnerability was the impending withdrawal of British forces from East of Suez . As Singapore gained admission to the United Nations, Lee quickly sought international recognition of Singapore's independence. He appointed Goh Keng Swee as Minister for the Interior and Defence to build up the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and requested help from other countries, particularly Israel and Taiwan, for advice, training and facilities. [ 205 ] In 1967, Lee introduced conscription for all able-bodied male Singaporean citizens 18 years of age to serve National Service (NS) either in the SAF, Singapore Police Force or the Singapore Civil Defence Force . By 1971, Singapore had 17 national service battalions (16,000 men) with 14 battalions (11,000 men) in the reserves. [ 206 ] In 1975, Lee and Republic of China premier Chiang Ching-kuo signed an agreement permitting Singaporean troops to train in Taiwan, under the codename " Project Starlight ". [ 207 ] Economy One of Lee's most urgent tasks upon Singapore's independence was to address high unemployment. Together with his economic aide, Economic Development Board chairman Hon Sui Sen , and in consultation with Dutch economist Albert Winsemius , Lee set up factories and initially focused on the manufacturing industry. Before the British completely withdrew from Singapore in 1971, Lee also persuaded the British not to destroy their dock and had the British naval dockyard later converted for civilian use. Eventually, Lee and his cabinet decided the best way to boost Singapore's economy was to attract foreign investments from multinational corporations (MNCs). By establishing First World infrastructure and standards in Singapore, the new nation could attract American, Japanese and European business. By the 1970s multinational corporations like Texas Instruments , Hewlett-Packard , and General Electric began turning Singapore into a major electronics exporter. [ 208 ] Workers were frequently trained to familiarise themselves with the work systems and cultures of foreign companies. The government also started several new industries, such as steel mills under 'National Iron and Steel Mills', service industries like Neptune Orient Lines , and the Singapore Airlines . [ 209 ] Lee and his cabinet also worked to establish Singapore as an international financial centre. Foreign bankers were assured of the reliability of Singapore's social conditions, with top-class infrastructure and skilled professionals, and investors were made to understand that the Singapore government would pursue sound macroeconomic policies, with budget surpluses , leading to a stable valued Singapore dollar. [ 210 ] Throughout the tenure of his office, Lee placed great importance on developing the economy, and his attention to detail on this aspect went even to the extent of connecting it with other facets of Singapore, including the country's extensive and meticulous tending of its international image of being a "Garden City". [ 211 ] The 1967 "Garden City" planning initiative included prominent roadside greenery along the East Coast Parkway (ECP) highway connecting Singapore Changi Airport with Singapore Central Area . [ 212 ] Anti-corruption measures Lee introduced legislation giving the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (CPIB) greater power to conduct arrests, search, call up witnesses, and investigate bank accounts and income-tax returns of suspected persons and their families. [ 213 ] Lee believed that ministers should be well paid in order to maintain a clean and honest government. On 21 November 1986, Lee received a complaint of corruption against then Minister for National Development Teh Cheang Wan . [ 214 ] Lee authorised the CPIB to carry out investigations on Teh, but Teh committed suicide before any charges could be pressed against him. [ 215 ] In 1994, he proposed to link the salaries of ministers, judges, and top civil servants to the salaries of top professionals in the private sector, arguing that this would help recruit and retain talent to serve in the public sector. [ 216 ] Population policies In the late 1960s, fearing that Singapore's growing population might overburden the developing economy, Lee started a " Stop at Two " family planning campaign. Couples were urged to undergo sterilisation after their second child. Third or fourth children were given lower priorities in education and such families received fewer economic rebates . [ 216 ] In 1983, Lee sparked the "Great Marriage Debate" when he encouraged Singapore men to choose highly educated women as wives. [ 217 ] He was concerned that a large number of graduate women were unmarried. [ 218 ] Some sections of the population, including graduate women, were upset by his views. [ 218 ] Nevertheless, a match-making agency, the Social Development Unit (SDU), [ 219 ] was set up to promote socialising among men and women graduates. [ 216 ] In the Graduate Mothers Scheme, Lee also introduced incentives such as tax rebates , schooling, and housing priorities for graduate mothers who had three or four children, in a reversal of the over-successful "Stop at Two" family planning campaign in the 1960s and 1970s. Lee suggested that perhaps the campaign for women's rights had been too successful: Equal employment opportunities, yes, but we shouldn't get our women into jobs where they cannot, at the same time, be mothers...our most valuable asset is in the ability of our people, yet we are frittering away this asset through the unintended consequences of changes in our education policy and equal career opportunities for women. This has affected their traditional role ... as mothers, the creators and protectors of the next generation. Equal employment opportunities, yes, but we shouldn't get our women into jobs where they cannot, at the same time, be mothers...our most valuable asset is in the ability of our people, yet we are frittering away this asset through the unintended consequences of changes in our education policy and equal career opportunities for women. This has affected their traditional role ... as mothers, the creators and protectors of the next generation. — Lee Kuan Yew, "Talent for the future", 14 August 1983 [ 220 ] The uproar over the proposal led to a swing of 12.9 per cent against the PAP government in the 1984 general election . In 1985, some especially controversial portions of the policy, that gave education and housing priorities to educated women, were abandoned or modified. [ 216 ] [ 221 ] By the late 1990s the birth rate had fallen so low that Lee's successor Goh Chok Tong extended these incentives to all married women, and gave even more incentives, such as the "baby bonus" scheme. [ 216 ] Water resources Singapore has traditionally relied on water from Malaysia. However, this reliance has made Singapore subject to the possibility of price increases and allowed Malaysian officials to use the water reliance as political leverage by threatening to cut off supply . To reduce this problem, Lee decided to experiment with water recycling in 1974. [ 222 ] As a result of such efforts, Singapore has achieved self-sufficiency with its water supply since the mid-2010s. [ 223 ] Under Lee tree planting was pursued, in 1963 he began a tree-planting campaign which aimed to plant 10,000 saplings a year and in 1971 a 'Tree-Planting Day' was established. One of the goals of this was to increase rainfall. [ 224 ] [ 225 ] He also made efforts to clean Singapore's waters for collection and use. [ 226 ] Environment Lee envisioned Singapore as a garden city , [ 227 ] declaring that "no other hallmark of success will be more distinctive than that of achieving our position as the cleanest and greenest city in Southeast Asia ". [ 228 ] He later said that " greening is the most cost-effective project I have launched". [ 229 ] Lee set up an 'Anti-Pollution Unit' stating that its importance resided in giving citizens "respite from city centres" and in the small size of Singapore which made it necessary to "preserve a clean and gracious environment for rich and poor alike". [ 230 ] In 1995 Lee declared "I have always believed that a blighted urban landscape, a concrete jungle, destroys the human spirit. We need the greenery of nature to lift our spirits". [ 231 ] Lee saw this as a means of attracting tourists and businesspeople to the city. [ 232 ] He wrote that "without a word being said, they would know that Singaporeans were competent, disciplined, and reliable, a people who would learn the skills they required soon enough". [ 233 ] After independence Lee sought for "some dramatic way to distinguish ourselves from other Third World countries. I settled for a clean and green Singapore" [ 234 ] because "if we had First World standards then business people and tourists would make us a base for their business and tours of the region". [ 235 ] Lee considered air conditioning the most important invention of the 20th century for Singapore. [ 236 ] Air quality relates to work quality and as such Lee made sure air conditioning was installed in the offices of the Singaporean civil service in the 1960s. [ 237 ] Foreign policy Malaysia and Mahathir Mohamad Lee looked forward to improving relationships with Mahathir Mohamad upon the latter's promotion to Deputy Prime Minister. Knowing that Mahathir was in line to become the next Prime Minister of Malaysia , Lee invited Mahathir to visit Singapore in 1978. The first and subsequent visits improved both personal and diplomatic relationships between them. Then UMNO 's Secretary-General Mahathir asked Lee to cut off all links with the Democratic Action Party (DAP); in exchange, Mahathir undertook not to interfere in the affairs of Malay Singaporeans . [ 238 ] In June 1988, Lee and Mahathir reached an agreement in Kuala Lumpur to build the Linggui dam on the Johor River . [ 239 ] Lee said he had made more progress solving bilateral issues with Dr Mahathir from 1981 to 1990 than in the previous 12 years with the latter's two predecessors. [ 179 ] Mahathir ordered the lifting of the ban on the export of construction materials to Singapore in 1981, agreed to sort out Malaysia's claim to Pedra Branca island and affirmed it would honour the 1962 Water Agreement. [ 179 ] One day before Lee left office in November 1990, Malaysia and Singapore signed the Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990 (POA). Malayan Railways (KTM) would vacate the Tanjong Pagar railway station and move to Bukit Timah while all KTM's land between Bukit Timah and Tanjong Pagar would revert to Singapore. Railway land at Tanjong Pagar would be handed over to a private limited company for joint development, the equity of which would be divided 60% to Malaysia and 40% to Singapore. However, Prime Minister Mahathir expressed his displeasure with the POA, for it failed to include a piece of railway land in Bukit Timah for joint development in 1993. Following Lee's death, Mahathir posted a blog post that suggested his respect for Lee despite their differences, stating that while "I am afraid on most other issues we could not agree [...] [h]is passage marks the end of the period when those who fought for independence lead their countries and knew the value of independence. ASEAN lost a strong leadership after President Suharto and Lee Kuan Yew". [ 240 ] Indonesia In March 1967, the president of Indonesia , Sukarno , who had initiated the Konfrontasi , resigned from the presidency under pressure by military general Suharto amidst the 30 September Movement . A clemency plea by President Suharto for Osman bin Mohamed Ali and Harun bin Said, the perpetrators of the MacDonald House bombing in March 1965 during Konfrontasi , was rejected. The Singapore Embassy in Jakarta was occupied on the day of the saboteurs' hanging by 300 students. [ 241 ] [ 242 ] However, Bilateral relations between Singapore and Indonesia would improve after 1973, when Lee visited the graves of Harun and Osman in Indonesia ( nyekar ) and scattered flowers on them. [ 243 ] This was followed by Suharto's visit to Singapore in 1974. [ 244 ] From the 1980s, exchanges would sharply increase between the two countries in politics, tourism, defence, business, and student and community-based exchanges. [ 243 ] Lee and Suharto developed a strong relationship, with the growing trust between both leaders developing into friendship. Lee and Suharto regarded each other as trustworthy and reliable. Lee kept up his relationship with Suharto until his death in 2008, even advising him and his children during the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis which led to Suharto's fall from power. [ 245 ] In 1978, Suharto rallied ASEAN to oppose Australia's newly proclaimed integrated civil aviation policy, which cut Kangaroo Route air access to Singapore while providing inducements to Indonesia and other countries in the region. Suharto believed that ASEAN should not give in to such tactics and inducements, and Australia relented. [ 245 ] Singapore remains a crucial stopover for Kangaroo Route flights between the United Kingdom and Australia. [ 245 ] Singapore and Indonesia entered joint projects such as the Batam Industrial Park, Bintan Resorts , the Riau Water Agreement and the Air Combat Manoeuvring Range in Pekan Baru proceeded smoothly. Swift implementation of factory and hotel development proposals by foreign investors demonstrated Singapore's honesty and reliability to Suharto. [ 245 ] United States In his book The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Lee detailed an incident where in 1960, the CIA allegedly attempted to bribe certain members of his party, the PAP, in an attempt to create division and weaken his leadership, however the official had reported the bribery attempt instead of accepting the money. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] According to Lee, this was part of a broader strategy by the United States to influence the political landscape in Southeast Asia during the Cold War. [ 248 ] He mentioned that he confronted the CIA's representative in Singapore and demanded an explanation and compensation for this interference. After having two CIA agents arrested, Lee requested 3.5 million dollars in economic aid in exchange for the covert release of the two agents. The Americans rejected this offer and presented a counter-offer of 3.3 million dollars to be given directly to Lee and the People's Action Party, but the men were later released without any financial exchange. However instead of taking a passive approach, Lee negotiated with the CIA and eventually the US government agreed to pay a sum of 3.3 million dollars in formal economic aid to Singapore, which Lee claimed was to ensure that the U.S. would not interfere in Singapore's internal affairs. Lee revealed this incident in 1965, which led to the Americans to deny it ever occurred; however, Lee later made public a letter of apology from the US Secretary of State Dean Rusk over the incident. [ 249 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] Lee fully supported the US involvement in the Vietnam War . Even as the war began to lose its popularity in the United States, Lee made his first official visit to the United States in October 1967, and declared to President Lyndon B. Johnson that his support for the war in Vietnam was "unequivocal". Lee saw the war as necessary for states in Southeast Asia like Singapore to buy time for stabilising their governments and economies. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] Lee cultivated close relationships with presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan , [ 254 ] as well as former secretaries of state Henry Kissinger [ 255 ] and George Shultz . [ 256 ] In 1967 Nixon, who was running for president in 1968, visited Singapore and met with Lee, who advised that the United States had much to gain by engaging with China, culminating in Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China . [ 257 ] [ 258 ] In the 1980s, closer defence relations between Singapore and the United States enabled Singapore to acquire advanced American weapon platforms and capabilities. The United States provided Singapore with aircraft such as the F-16 and the E-2C airborne early warning (AEW) to strengthen its air defences. [ 259 ] In October 1985, Lee made a state visit to the United States on the invitation of President Reagan and addressed a joint session of the United States Congress . Lee stressed to Congress the importance of free trade and urged it not to turn towards protectionism: It is inherent in America's position as the preeminent economic, political and military power to have to settle and uphold the rules for orderly change and progress... In the interests of peace and security America must uphold the rules of international conduct which rewards peaceful cooperative behaviour and punishes transgressions of the peace. A replay of the depression of the 1930s, which led to World War II, will be ruinous for all. All the major powers of the West share the responsibility of not repeating this mistake. But America's is the primary responsibility, for she is the anchor economy of the free-market economies of the world. [ 254 ] It is inherent in America's position as the preeminent economic, political and military power to have to settle and uphold the rules for orderly change and progress... In the interests of peace and security America must uphold the rules of international conduct which rewards peaceful cooperative behaviour and punishes transgressions of the peace. A replay of the depression of the 1930s, which led to World War II, will be ruinous for all. All the major powers of the West share the responsibility of not repeating this mistake. But America's is the primary responsibility, for she is the anchor economy of the free-market economies of the world. [ 254 ] In May 1988, E. Mason "Hank" Hendrickson was serving as the First Secretary of the United States Embassy when he was expelled by the Singapore government. [ 260 ] [ 261 ] The Singapore government alleged that Hendrickson attempted to interfere in Singapore's internal affairs by cultivating opposition figures in a " Marxist conspiracy ". [ 262 ] Then-First Deputy Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong claimed that Hendrickson's alleged conspiracy could have resulted in the election of 20 or 30 opposition politicians to Parliament, which in his words could lead to "horrendous" effects, possibly even the paralysis and fall of the Singapore government. [ 263 ] In the aftermath of Hendrickson's expulsion, the U.S. State Department praised Hendrickson's performance in Singapore and denied any impropriety in his actions. [ 260 ] The State Department also expelled Robert Chua, a senior-level Singaporean diplomat equal in rank to Hendrickson, from Washington, D.C., in response. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] The State Department's refusal to reprimand Hendrickson, along with its expulsion of the Singaporean diplomat, sparked a rare protest in Singapore by the National Trades Union Congress ; they drove buses around the U.S. embassy, held a rally attended by four thousand workers, and issued a statement deriding the U.S. as "sneaky, arrogant, and untrustworthy". [ 266 ] China Singapore did not establish diplomatic relations with China until the U.S. and Southeast Asia had decided they wanted to do so in order to avoid portraying a pro-China bias. [ 267 ] [ 268 ] His official visits to China starting in 1976 were conducted in English, to assure other countries that he represented Singapore, and not a "Third China" (the first two being the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) and People's Republic of China ). [ 269 ] In November 1978, after China had stabilised following political turmoil in the aftermath of Mao Zedong 's death and the Gang of Four , Deng Xiaoping visited Singapore and met Lee. Deng, who was very impressed with Singapore's economic development, greenery and housing, and later sent tens of thousands of Chinese to Singapore and countries around the world to learn from their experiences and bring back their knowledge as part of the reform and opening up beginning in December 1978. Lee, on the other hand, advised Deng to stop exporting Communist ideologies to Southeast Asia, an advice that Deng later followed. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] This culminated in the exchange of Trade Offices between the two nations in September 1981. [ 272 ] In 1985, commercial air services between mainland China and Singapore commenced [ 273 ] and China appointed Goh Keng Swee , Singapore's finance minister in the post-independence years, as advisor on the development of Special Economic Zones . [ 274 ] On 3 October 1990, Singapore revised diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. United Kingdom Lee developed friendships with Prime Ministers Harold Wilson [ 275 ] and Margaret Thatcher . [ 275 ] Lee regarded Wilson's support and swift recognition of Singapore's independence crucial to Singapore's survival in its early days. Singapore was still heavily dependent on Britain for its defence and economy, and the British military bases were contributing over 20 percent to Singapore's gross national product. About 15 per cent of Singapore's workforce had jobs linked to British military bases on the island. [ 276 ] However, mounting economic problems in Britain led to a weakening faith in the pound sterling, and the Singapore Government began reducing its sterling holdings from about 90 percent to just 50 percent by November 1967, when the Labour government devaluated pound sterling. Chancellor of the Exchequer Roy Jenkins , in a letter to Goh Keng Swee, expressed his “regret that [Singapore] did not take [the UK] into their confidence” when diversifying out of Sterling. To which Goh retorted in reply that Singapore sustained losses of about US$157 million as a result of the pound's devaluation. [ 277 ] No longer able to afford its military commitment in Southeast Asia, Britain announced in January 1968, the total withdrawal of its troops East of Suez, with the pullout from Malaysia and Singapore to be done by 31 March 1971 – four years earlier than planned. The announcement came as a shock to Singapore, because the British had earlier committed to a phased withdrawal. [ 278 ] As the first batch of 900 national servicemen had just started their training on 17 August 1967, Singapore was ill-equipped to take up its own defence. It was projected that about 25,000 base workers in Singapore would be rendered unemployed in 1971 as a result of the military withdrawal. When informed of the decision, Lee's government responded with dismay and anger. Lee threatened to withdraw from the sterling area , give the dockyards to the Japanese, and disrupt British shipping and trade. He also suggested that if the British forces withdrew too quickly, he would have to “hire mercenaries to defend Singapore”. [ 278 ] Lee and Minister for Finance Goh Keng Swee left for London, meeting with British political leaders, rallying for support through television appearances. With intense lobbying by Lee and Goh, the Wilson government went ahead with withdrawal, but agreed to a compromise to extend the withdrawal deadline from March to December 1971. Lee successfully negotiated with the British for a soft loan of £50 million, free transfer of key assets, help with operating air defence systems, and training of military staff. Plans were set up to oversee the conversion and commercialisation of lands and facilities including the naval bases that had belonged to the British, which later proved instrumental in propelling Singapore's shipbuilding industry forward. [ 278 ] Singapore acquired a squadron of British Hawker Hunter planes for its new air force, arriving in Singapore in 1970. To make up for Britain's withdrawal, Singapore's military spending was tripled, and an air force and a navy were added to support the army. When Wilson's Labour government lost the 1970 election to the Conservatives under Edward Heath , the new Conservative government facilitated the Five Power Defence Arrangements , comprising the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia and Singapore, to give a deterrent message that any attack on Singapore or Malaysia would lead to a potential intervention of British, Australian and New Zealand forces. Although most of the British troops had withdrawn from Singapore by October 1971, a small contingent of British, Australian and New Zealand forces stayed on as a token military presence. The last British soldier left Singapore in March 1976. [ 278 ] Lee and Thatcher, who became Britain's prime minister in 1979, admired each other's leadership qualities and had "ideological convergence" in policies like cracking down on trade union power, privatisation, low taxation and trimming the excesses of the welfare state. Lee also advised Thatcher while Britain was negotiating with China on the handover of Hong Kong . [ 279 ] Australia Australia, under Prime Minister Robert Menzies was one of the first countries to recognise Singapore's independence. [ 280 ] However, Lee would later clash with Australian leaders John Gorton and Gough Whitlam who were inclined to pull Australia back from the Five Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA). [ 281 ] Lee clashed fiercely with Whitlam. Whitlam was initially reluctant to take too many of the Vietnamese boat people and tried to make Singapore take the first refugees from the Vietnam War. Lee retorted that Whitlam ‘a very sympathetic Prime Minister who believes the White Australia policy is most deplorable and damnable and here is his chance.’ [ 282 ] Lee criticised Whitlam's pro-Asian rhetoric as political posturing because of his stance on the Vietnam boat refugees, and blocking Asian imports into Australia. In his memoirs, Lee wrote of his verbal jousts with Whitlam at Commonwealth meetings. Lee called Whitlam ‘quick-witted but also quick-tempered’, and was glad to see the end of the ‘acerbic’ Whitlam, calling it ‘a relief when their Governor-General removed Whitlam…’. [ 282 ] Singapore-Australia relations improved with Whitlam's successor, Malcolm Fraser . Lee held him in high regard for his support in confronting communism and defending the FPDA. [ 282 ] However, he urged Fraser to reform the Australian economy, prompting the famous remark from Lee that Australia was in danger of becoming the "poor white trash of Asia" [ 283 ] if it did not open up its economy. The comments were widely circulated in Australian political circles. Bob Hawke , who led the Labor party to a victory over Fraser in 1983, said "I thought [Lee] was right, and his harsh but fair comment helped galvanise my determination to undertake the reforms that would save us from that fate and set us on a better path." [ 283 ] Upon Lee's death, Hawke said "Lee Kuan Yew was a great friend of Australia, if at times an outspoken one". [ 283 ] Singapore was Australia's strongest backer within ASEAN in the effort to create APEC in 1989. [ 282 ] Cambodia Lee opposed the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978. [ 284 ] The Singapore government organised an international campaign to condemn Vietnam and provided aid to the Khmer Rouge which was fighting against Vietnamese occupation during the Cambodian–Vietnamese War from 1978 to 1989. In his memoirs, Lee recounted that in 1982, "Singapore gave the first few hundreds of several batches of AK-47 rifles, hand grenades, ammunition and communication equipment" to the Khmer Rouge resistance forces. [ 285 ] [ 286 ] Senior Minister (1990–2004) After leading the PAP to victory in seven elections, Lee stepped down on 28 November 1990, handing over the prime ministership to Goh Chok Tong . [ 287 ] By that time, he had become the world's longest-serving prime minister. [ 288 ] This was the first leadership transition since independence. Goh was elected as the new prime minister by the younger ministers then in office. When Goh Chok Tong became head of government, Lee remained in the cabinet with a non-executive position of Senior Minister [ 289 ] and played a role he described as advisory. Lee subsequently stepped down as secretary-general of the PAP and was succeeded by Goh Chok Tong on 2 December 1992. [ 290 ] Condominium rebates In April 1996, Lee and his son, Lee Hsien Loong , disclosed that they had purchased apartments located at Nassim Jade and Scotts 28 from Hotel Properties Ltd, a real estate developer listed on the Stock Exchange of Singapore, at substantial discounts ranging from 5 to 12 per cent. [ 291 ] The dispute arose amidst rampant property speculation in Singapore. [ 292 ] Upon learning of the issue, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong swiftly initiated an immediate investigation into the matter. While Singapore law permits the provision of special discounts or rebates to relatives and associates of directors, it is imperative that such transactions receive approval from shareholders. [ 293 ] This disclosure prompted sufficient public disquiet for Lee to appear before Parliament to explain the purchases. [ 294 ] Lee said that as he was a prominent figure, the developer had a "legitimate incentive" to provide discounts for publicity, and that he had previously purchased a car and acquired services from his tailor and cobbler at a discount. [ 295 ] The amount saved was donated to charity. [ 292 ] Minister Mentor (2004–2011) In December 2004, Lee stepped down to become Minister Mentor. Expressing concern about the declining proficiency of Mandarin among younger Chinese Singaporeans , he started a year-long campaign called " 华语 Cool! " (Mandarin is Cool!) to garner interest in using Mandarin. [ 296 ] On 13 September 2008, Lee underwent treatment for abnormal heart rhythm ( atrial flutter ) at Singapore General Hospital . The treatment was successful, and he was well enough to address a philanthropy forum via video link from the hospital. [ 297 ] On 28 September 2010, he was hospitalised for a chest infection, cancelling plans to attend the wake of the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Balaji Sadasivan . [ 298 ] In November 2010, Lee's private conversations with James Steinberg , US Deputy Secretary of State , on 30 May 2009 were among the leaked US Embassy cables . In a US Embassy report classified as "Secret", Lee gave his assessment of a number of Asian leaders and views on political developments in North Asia, including implications for nuclear proliferation. [ 299 ] In January 2011, the Straits Times Press published the book Lee Kuan Yew: Hard Truths To Keep Singapore Going . [ 300 ] Targeted at younger Singaporeans, it was based on 16 interviews with Lee by seven local journalists in 2008–2009. The first print run of 45,000 copies sold out in less than a month after it was launched in January 2011. Another batch of 55,000 copies was made available shortly after. [ 301 ] After the 2011 general elections in which the Workers' Party , a major opposition political party in Singapore, made unprecedented gains by winning a Group Representation Constituency (GRC), Lee announced that he decided to leave the Cabinet for his son, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong , and his team to have a clean slate. [ 302 ] Some analysts, such as Citigroup economist Kit Wei Zheng, believed that the senior Lee had contributed to the PAP's poor performance. [ 303 ] In particular, he stated during campaigning that the voters of Aljunied constituency had "five years to live and repent" if they elected the Workers' Party , which some viewed as having backfired for the PAP as the opposition went on to win Aljunied. [ 304 ] In a column in the Sunday Times on 6 November 2011, Lee's daughter, Lee Wei Ling, revealed that her father had peripheral neuropathy . [ 305 ] In the column, she recounted how she first noticed her father's ailments when she accompanied him to meet the former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Connecticut in October 2009. Wei Ling, a neurologist, "did a few simple neurological tests and decided the nerves to his legs were not working as they should". A day later, when interviewed at a constituency tree-planting event, Lee stated: "I have no doubt at all that this has not affected my mind, my will nor my resolve" and that "people in wheel chairs can make a contribution. I've still got two legs, I will make a contribution". [ 306 ] Illness and death External videos State funeral service for the late Mr Lee Kuan Yew on 29 March 2015 , Prime Minister's Office On 15 February 2013, Lee was admitted to Singapore General Hospital following a prolonged cardiac dysrhythmia , which was followed by a brief stoppage of blood flow to the brain. [ 307 ] [ 308 ] [ 309 ] [ 310 ] For the first time in his career as a Member of Parliament (MP), Lee missed the annual Chinese New Year dinner at his constituency , where he was supposed to be the guest-of-honour. [ 311 ] [ 312 ] He was subsequently discharged, but continued to receive anti-coagulant therapy. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] [ 315 ] The following year, Lee missed his constituency's Chinese New Year dinner for the second consecutive time owing to bodily bacterial invasion. [ 316 ] In April 2014, a photo depicting a thin and frail Lee was released online, drawing strong reactions from netizens. [ 317 ] According to Lee's daughter, Lee Wei Ling, Lee had discussed euthanasia which is not a legal option in Singapore. [ 318 ] [ 319 ] On 5 February 2015, Lee was hospitalised for pneumonia and was put on a ventilator at the intensive care unit of Singapore General Hospital, although his condition was reported initially as "stable". [ 320 ] [ 321 ] A 26 February update stated that he was again being given antibiotics, while being sedated and still under mechanical ventilation. [ 322 ] [ 323 ] From 17 to 22 March, Lee continued weakening as he developed an infection while on life support, and he was described as "critically ill". [ 324 ] [ 325 ] [ 326 ] On 18 March that year, a death hoax website reported false news of Lee's death. The suspect is an unidentified minor who created a false webpage that resembled the PMO official website. [ 327 ] Several international news organisations reported on Lee's death based on this and later retracted their statements. [ 328 ] [ 329 ] On 23 March 2015, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced his father's death at the age of 91. [ 330 ] Lee had died at 03:18 Singapore Standard Time ( UTC+08:00 ). [ 330 ] [ 331 ] A week of national mourning took place, [ 332 ] during which time Lee was lying in state at Parliament House . As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast . During this time, 1.7 million Singaporean residents as well as world leaders paid tribute to him at Parliament house and community tribute sites throughout the country. [ 333 ] [ 334 ] [ 335 ] A state funeral for Lee was held on 29 March and attended by world leaders. [ 336 ] Later that day, Lee was cremated in a private ceremony at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 337 ] Legacy I'm not saying that everything I did was right, but everything I did was for an honourable purpose. I had to do some nasty things, locking fellows up without trial. I'm not saying that everything I did was right, but everything I did was for an honourable purpose. I had to do some nasty things, locking fellows up without trial. As prime minister from 1959 to 1990, Lee presided over many of Singapore's advancements. He oversaw Singapore's transformation from an island nation with a high illiteracy rate and no natural resources into a developed country with a high-income economy within a single generation, commonly termed (from his autobiography) as 'From the third world to the first world'. [ 339 ] [ 340 ] [ 341 ] [ 342 ] Singapore's gross national product per capita (GNP) rose from $1,240 in 1959 to $18,437 in 1990. The unemployment rate in Singapore dropped from 13.5% in 1959 to 1.7% in 1990. External trade increased from $7.3 billion in 1959 to $205 billion in 1990. In other areas, the life expectancy at birth for Singaporeans rose from 65 years in 1960 to 74 years in 1990. The population of Singapore increased from 1.6 million in 1959 to 3 million in 1990. The number of public flats in Singapore rose from 22,975 in 1959 (then under the Singapore Improvement Trust ) to 667,575 in 1990. The Singaporean literacy rate increased from 52% in 1957 to 90% in 1990. Telephone lines per 100 Singaporeans increased from 3 in 1960 to 38 in 1990. Visitor arrivals to Singapore rose from 100,000 in 1960 to 5.3 million in 1990. [ 343 ] These economic accomplishments were achieved in large part due to Lee's stewardship of public administration through relevant and targeted public policy ; Lee introduced measures to jumpstart manufacturing of finished goods for export ( export-oriented industrialisation ) and sought to create a conducive business environment in the trading nation to attract foreign direct investment (through the establishment of the Economic Development Board , EDB). [ 339 ] [ 344 ] Lee also forged a symbiotic and mutually dependent relationship between the PAP and the national trade union, the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC), whereby the PAP receives a degree of grassroots labour input, whilst NTUC is led by prominent PAP politicians who usually have ministerial portfolios within the Government . [ 345 ] The Government's tight control over trade union activities and industrial relations ensured near-total industrial peace, which was assessed to be a prerequisite for rapid economic development . [ 346 ] Lee was a staunch promoter of economic globalisation and a vocal opponent of protectionism . [ 347 ] [ 348 ] Lee said that Singapore's only natural resources are its people and their strong work ethic. [ 349 ] In addition, Lee was focused on social policies such as improving and mandating higher public standards for education, sanitation and hygiene , whilst concurrently improving public health by expanding modern health care and greatly increasing the quantity and quality of high-rise affordable housing (through the establishment of the Housing and Development Board , HDB) for working- and middle-class families. [ 339 ] [ 344 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] Various world leaders have praised Lee's governance and political achievements. British Foreign Secretary George Brown called Lee "the best bloody Englishman east of Suez". [ 352 ] Former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger once wrote of Lee: "One of the asymmetries of history is the lack of correspondence between the abilities of some leaders and the power of their countries." Former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher praised "his way of penetrating the fog of propaganda and expressing with unique clarity the issues of our time and the way to tackle them". [ 353 ] Former president of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev stated in his memoirs that after the independence of Kazakhstan from the Soviet Union in 1991, he met Lee and stated Lee's "observations and advice became for us [Kazakhstan] guidelines in the development of long-term state strategies." [ 354 ] Lee's achievements in Singapore were a major source of inspiration on Communist leadership in China , who made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping , to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship and suppression of dissent . [ 355 ] [ 356 ] From 1996 to 2019, 55,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] He has also had a major influence on thinking in Russia in recent years. [ 359 ] [ 358 ] On the other hand, proponents of liberal democracy especially in the West criticised Lee's rule as authoritarian and as intolerant of dissent, citing his numerous attempts to sue political opponents and newspapers who express unfavourable opinions of Lee. Reporters Without Borders , an international media advocacy group , requested Lee and other senior Singaporean officials to stop taking libel suits against journalists. [ 360 ] Lee was a co-inventor of " Asian values ". [ 361 ] [ 362 ] [ 363 ] [ 364 ] Lee was criticised for curtailing press freedoms , often imposing limits on public protests which prevented further occurrences, restricting labour movements from industrial action or strike action, suppressing wage growth of skilled workers (in order to be competitive with developing countries ) amid widening and high levels of income inequality along with wealth inequality (relative to other developed countries ), had encouraged an elitist mindset as well as filing defamation lawsuits against prominent political opponents . [ 365 ] [ 366 ] [ 367 ] [ 368 ] [ 369 ] [ 370 ] [ 371 ] However, supporters argued in retrospect that his actions were necessary for the country's early development, and various international political analysts note that Lee's governance was generally pragmatic and benevolent . [ better source needed ] [ 372 ] During the three decades in which Lee held office, Singapore grew from a developing country to one of the most developed nations in Asia and the world. [ 373 ] Singapore was described as an illiberal democracy and a nanny state under his rule. [ 374 ] [ 375 ] [ 376 ] [ 377 ] [ 378 ] Legal suits Action against Far Eastern Economic Review In April 1977, just months after a general election which saw the People's Action Party winning all 69 seats, the Internal Security Department , under orders from Lee, detained Ho Kwon Ping , the Singapore correspondent of the Far Eastern Economic Review , as well as his predecessor Arun Senkuttavan, over their reporting. Ho was detained under the Internal Security Act which allows for indefinite trial, held in solitary confinement for two months, and charged with endangering national security. Following a televised confession in which Ho confessed to "pro-communist activities", [ 379 ] he was fined $3,000. Lee Kuan Yew later charged FEER editor, Derek Davies, of participating in "a diabolical international Communist plot" to poison relations between Singapore and neighbouring Malaysia. In 1987 Lee restricted sale of the Review in Singapore after it published an article about the detention of Roman Catholic church workers , reducing circulation of the magazine from 9,000 to 500 copies, [ 380 ] on the grounds that it was "interfering in the domestic politics of Singapore." [ 381 ] On 24 September 2008 the High Court of Singapore , in a summary judgment by Justice Woo Bih Li , ruled that the Far Eastern Economic Review magazine (Hugo Restall, editor), defamed Lee and his son, the prime minister, Lee Hsien Loong . The court found the 2006 article "Singapore's 'Martyr': Chee Soon Juan " suggested that Lee "ha[d] been running and continue[d] to run Singapore in the same corrupt manner as Durai operated [the National Kidney Foundation] and he ha[d] been using libel actions to suppress those who questioned [him] to avoid exposure of his corruption". [ 382 ] The court ordered the Review, owned by Dow Jones & Company (in turn owned by Rupert Murdoch 's News Corp), to pay damages to the complainants. The magazine appealed but lost. [ 382 ] [ 383 ] Action against J.B. Jeyaretnam Lee commenced proceedings for slander against opposition leader J. B. Jeyaretnam for comments he made at a Workers' Party rally in the 1988 general election . Lee alleged that Jeyaretnam's speech at the rally implied he had tried to cover up the corruption of the former Minister for National Development , Teh Cheang Wan , by aiding and abetting his suicide. The action was heard by Justice Lai Kew Chai , who ruled against Jeyaretnam and ordered him to pay damages of S$260,000 plus costs to Lee. Jeyaretnam lost an appeal against the judgment. Action against Devan Nair In 1999, former president of Singapore Devan Nair , who was living in Canada, remarked in an interview with the Toronto -based The Globe and Mail that Lee's technique of suing his opponents into bankruptcy or oblivion was an abrogation of political rights. Nair also described Lee as "an increasingly self-righteous know-all" surrounded by "department store dummies". In response to these remarks, Lee sued Nair in a Canadian court and Nair countersued. Lee then brought a motion to have Nair's counterclaim thrown out of court, argued that it disclosed no reasonable cause of action and constituted an inflammatory attack on the integrity of the Singaporean government . However, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice refused to throw out the counterclaim, holding that Nair had a reasonable cause of action as Lee had abused the process of litigation. [ 384 ] Lee wrote in one of his memoirs that Nair was forced to resign as president due to his alleged alcoholism , a charge which Nair denied. [ 385 ] International Herald Tribune defamation case In 2010 Lee, together with his son Lee Hsien Loong, and Goh Chok Tong, threatened legal action against The New York Times Company , which owns the International Herald Tribune , regarding an op-ed piece titled "All in the Family" of 15 February 2010 by Philip Bowring , a freelance columnist and former editor of the Far Eastern Economic Review . The International Herald Tribune apologised in March that readers of the article may "infer that the younger Lee did not achieve his position through merit". The New York Times Company and Bowring also agreed to pay S$60,000 to Lee Hsien Loong, S$50,000 to Lee and S$50,000 to Goh (totalling about US$114,000 at the time), in addition to legal costs. The case stemmed from a 1994 settlement between the three Singaporean leaders and the paper about an article, also by Bowring, that referred to "dynastic politics" in East Asian countries, including Singapore. In that settlement, Bowring agreed not to say or imply that the younger Lee had attained his position through nepotism by his father Lee Kuan Yew. In response, media-rights watchdog Reporters Without Borders wrote an open letter to urge Lee and other top officials of the Singapore government to stop taking "libel actions" against journalists. [ 386 ] [ 387 ] [ 388 ] Political positions Criticism of Chinese marginalisation On 15 September 2006, at the Raffles Forum hosted by the School of Public Policy , Lee made a remark as to how the "Malaysian and Indonesian governments systematically marginalise its Chinese people", by bringing up topics such as the May 1998 riots of Indonesia and Ketuanan Melayu , which subsequently caused a short diplomatic spat. [ 389 ] He then described the systematic marginalisation of the Chinese in Malaysia, which aroused a strong response from the Malaysian government. Politicians in Malaysia and Indonesia expressed dissatisfaction with this and demanded the Singaporean government explain and apologise for Lee's remarks. [ 390 ] [ 391 ] Former Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad criticised Lee Kuan Yew for his "arrogance and disrespect" for neighbouring countries and countered that Malaysia could also question Singapore's marginalisation of its local Malays and other minorities such as the Eurasians and Indians. Former Indonesian president B. J. Habibie also described the " little red dot " term in reference to Singapore as an incentive for Indonesian youth to learn from Singapore's achievements, and that the original intention was distorted. On 30 September, while Lee Kuan Yew apologised to the Malaysian prime minister at the time Abdullah Badawi for his remarks, [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] he did not fully retract his remarks. [ 395 ] [ 396 ] Eugenics Lee expressed views that have been characterised as pro- eugenics . [ 397 ] He maintained that the educational background and intelligence of parents played a decisive role in shaping the abilities of their children, and he promoted policies designed to encourage highly educated women to have more children. Concerned by the sharp decline in Singapore's total fertility rate (TFR), Lee introduced the "Graduate Mothers' Scheme" in 1983, which offered tax incentives for children born to women with university degrees and gave priority in primary school admissions to the children of graduate mothers with three or more offspring. [ 398 ] In his speech at the 1983 National Day Rally , Lee stated that if women graduates "were not in the breeding pool", society might become more "stupid" and that "there will be less bright people to support dumb people in the next generation." [ 399 ] [ 400 ] In June 1984, Lee's government introduced grants for low-income and low-education women to undergo sterilisation . Women whose husbands and themselves lacked passes at the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level and had fewer than three children could receive a $10,000 grant for sterilisation. Sterilised lower-class parents were also given priority in primary school admission for their existing first and second children. The controversy surrounding the proposal contributed to a 12.9 per cent swing against the PAP in the general election later that year , although the party still secured 64 per cent of the popular vote and the vast majority of seats. By 1985, particularly contentious aspects of the policy, such as granting education and housing advantages to educated women, were either abandoned or modified. A proponent of nature over nurture , Lee asserted that " intelligence is 80% nature and 20% nurture " and attributed the achievements of his children to genetics. [ 401 ] Islam In 1999, in a discussion forum, Lee was asked whether the emotional bonds of various ethnic groups in Singapore could be a hurdle to nation building, Lee replied by alluding that an ethnic Malay and highly religious officer of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) might be hesitant to engage against an hypothetical war with Singapore's direct neighbours such as Malaysia. [ 402 ] In 2011, leaked diplomatic cables attributed to Lee some controversial comments regarding Islam . The cables quoted Lee as having described Islam as a "venomous religion". Lee called the remarks "false" and looked up to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)'s filenote of the meeting and found no record of the claim, stating that he was referring to extremists such as the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). He added that he recognises that Muslims in Singapore are largely rational and that one of the solutions to extremism was to give "moderate Muslims the courage to stand up and speak out against radicals who hijacked Islam to recruit volunteers for their violent ends". [ 403 ] [ 404 ] In his book Lee Kuan Yew: Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Going , Lee stated that Singaporean Muslims faced difficulties in integrating because of their religion and urged them to "be less strict on Islamic observances". His remarks drew fire from Malay–Muslim leaders and MPs in Singapore, prompting a strong reaction from his son Lee Hsien Loong , the Prime Minister at that time, who said his views differs from his father and that he values and respects the Malay–Muslim community "who have done a good deal to strengthen our harmony and social cohesion." Lee Kuan Yew eventually made a further comment that his comment was "out of date" and that he recognises the efforts made by Muslims to integrate with the other communities. [ 405 ] [ 406 ] Homosexuality Section 377A of the Penal Code , which was first introduced in 1938 under British colonial rule that criminalised sex between adult males, remained enforced under Lee's premiership. In his later years, Lee appeared to become more supportive of LGBTQ+ issues and rights, expressing a belief that homosexuality was genetic and questioning the rationale behind its criminalisation. [ 407 ] [ 408 ] In 2007, he believed that homosexuality would eventually be accepted in Singapore, but advocated for a measured and "pragmatic approach" toward the matter "to maintain social cohesion." [ 409 ] Section 377A was eventually repealed in 2022. Corporal punishment One of Lee's abiding beliefs was in the efficacy of corporal punishment in the form of caning . [ 410 ] In his autobiography The Singapore Story , Lee described his time at Raffles Institution in the 1930s, mentioning that he was often caned there for chronic lateness by the then headmaster, D. W. McLeod. He added that he never understood why Western educationists were so much against corporal punishment as "it did my fellow students and me no harm". [ 411 ] Lee's government inherited judicial corporal punishment from British rule, but greatly expanded its scope. Under the British, it had been used as a penalty for offences involving personal violence, amounting to a handful of caning sentences per year. The PAP government under Lee extended its use to an ever-expanding range of crimes. [ 412 ] By 1993, it was mandatory for 42 offences and optional for a further 42. [ 413 ] Those routinely ordered by the courts to be caned now include drug addicts and illegal immigrants. From 602 canings in 1987, the figure rose to 3,244 in 1993 [ 414 ] and to 6,404 in 2007. [ 415 ] In 1994, judicial caning was publicised in the rest of the world when an American teenager, Michael P. Fay , was caned under the vandalism legislation. [ 410 ] School corporal punishment (for male students only) was likewise inherited from the British, and is still in use in schools, permitted under legislation from 1957. [ 416 ] Lee also introduced caning in the Singapore Armed Forces , and Singapore is one of the few countries in the world where corporal punishment is an official penalty in military discipline. [ 417 ] Press In his interview with Charlie Rose in October 2000, when asked whether he believed in the idea of a free press, Lee responded "I believe in truth" and "I don't believe that the press should be crusading and putting a spin on things" and asserted that newspapers should keep news reporting and editorials separate. [ 418 ] Immigration Lee believed that the benefits of immigration had to be carefully balanced against the associated "social load". In a speech he made in 1971, Lee explained that it was necessary to have non-Singapore workers take up jobs that Singaporeans were not willing to do, but observed that it was important that the number of such migrant workers be carefully controlled because "[t]hey dirty the place... they litter... if you take too many... they will bring us down to their values because it's easier to be untidy, scruffy, dirty, anti-social than to be disciplined, well-behaved and a good citizen". [ 419 ] Personal life Lee and his wife, Kwa Geok Choo , were married on 30 September 1950. Both spoke English as their first language . Lee first started learning Chinese in 1955, at the age of 32. [ 420 ] [ 421 ] During World War II , he learned the Japanese language to help him survive, and worked as a Japanese translator during the Japanese occupation of Singapore . [ 422 ] Lee and Kwa have two sons and a daughter. [ 423 ] His elder son, Lee Hsien Loong , was the third prime minister of Singapore. Several members of the Lee family hold prominent positions in the Singapore society. His younger son Lee Hsien Yang was president and CEO of SingTel , and Chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS). [ 424 ] Lee's daughter Lee Wei Ling , a neurologist and epileptologist, was director of the National Neuroscience Institute . Lee's daughter-in-law Ho Ching was executive director and CEO of Temasek Holdings . [ 424 ] [ 425 ] His wife Kwa Geok Choo died on 2 October 2010, at the age of 89. Lee had variously described himself as an agnostic [ 426 ] and a "nominal Buddhist". [ 427 ] He also mentioned that he was brought up in a family which practiced Chinese ancestor worship but stopped after his father died, [ 426 ] and that he "neither [denies] nor [accepts] that there is a God". [ 428 ] [ 429 ] In his later years, Lee practised meditation under the tutelage of Benedictine monk Laurence Freeman , director of the World Community for Christian Meditation . [ 426 ] [ 430 ] Lee was diagnosed with dyslexia in adulthood. [ 431 ] Lee was a founding member of the Fondation Chirac 's honour committee, which was launched by former French president Jacques Chirac to promote world peace. [ 432 ] He was also a member of David Rockefeller 's "International Council", which included Henry Kissinger , Riley P. Bechtel , George Shultz and others. Additionally, he was one of the "Forbes' Brain Trust", along with Paul Johnson and Ernesto Zedillo . Cultural depictions In 1979, oil painter Chua Mia Tee depicted Lee's return from London after the Merdeka Talks . [ 433 ] In the early 1980s, Lee agreed to have a sculpture and oil painting of him done, on the condition that they not be exhibited in his lifetime. The works, respectively by British sculptor Sydney Harpley and American portrait painter Marion Pike , were commissioned by a group of Singaporeans, including first Chief Minister David Marshall . They are now part of the National Heritage Board 's national collection, [ 434 ] but only the bronze bust has gone on public display, briefly at the Istana and Parliament House . [ 435 ] An artist's proof of the sculpture was exhibited in 2025. [ 436 ] In 1991, Chua Mia Tee presented an oil painting of Lee to the Minister himself, depicting him against a backdrop of Singapore's transformation. [ 437 ] The untitled painting was commissioned by fifth president Ong Teng Cheong . [ 438 ] In 1992, artist Lai Kui Fang presented historical oil paintings of Lee's 1959 swearing-in ceremony as prime minister, which are now part of the National Museum of Singapore 's collection. [ 439 ] Also in 1992, watercolourist Ong Kim Seng painted Lee visiting the aftermath of the Bukit Ho Swee fire , based on a 1961 photograph. The painting was reproduced in The Straits Times and sold to an unknown collector. In 2025, Ong recreated the painting, on a larger canvas, for an exhibition. [ 440 ] In 2008, artist Ben Puah unveiled Hero , a solo exhibition of Lee portraits at Forth Gallery. [ 441 ] In 2009, artist Richard Lim Han presented Singapore Guidance Angel , a solo exhibition of Lee portraits at Forth Gallery. [ 442 ] In the same year, freelance designer, Christopher "Treewizard" Pereira, began making caricature figurines of Lee which range from 12 cm to 30 cm. Comics artist and painter Sonny Liew depicted Lee as part of the series Eric Khoo is a Hotel Magnate at Mulan Gallery. [ 443 ] [ 444 ] In addition, Cultural Medallion recipient Tan Swie Hian also began a painting of Lee and his late wife titled A Couple . The painting, which took Tan five years to complete, was partially damaged by a fire in 2013. It depicts Lee and Kwa in their youth, is based on a 1946 black-and-white photograph of the couple in Cambridge University and incorporates in its background Tan's poem in memory of Kwa. A Couple was purchased by art collector Wu Hsioh Kwang. [ 445 ] In 2010, Valentine Willie Fine Art gallery asked 19 local artists to imagine a future without Lee. The resulting exhibition, Beyond LKY , included artist a triptych of Lee as a father figure looming over a tiny kneeling figure with the words, "Papa can you hear me"; an installation of a broken piano with a tape recorder playing a crackling version of Singapore's National Anthem ; white ceramic chains hanging on a wall; and an installation of hammers smashed together. [ 446 ] [ 447 ] That year, Korean artist Kim Dong Yoo depicted Lee in Lee Kuan Yew & Queen Elizabeth II (2010), an oil-on-canvas portrait of Lee using small images of Queen Elizabeth II 's head, a reference to Singapore being a former British colony and current member of the Commonwealth. [ 448 ] Indian-Swiss novelist Meira Chand 's A Different Sky , published by UK's Harvill Secker in 2010, features Lee in his early years as a lawyer and co-founder of the People's Action Party . [ 449 ] In 2011, the iris image of Lee's eye was captured and artistically rendered to resemble a sand art gallery piece. His eye image with his autograph was auctioned off to raise funds for the Singapore Eye Research Institute. [ 450 ] In 2012, urban artist Sam Lo depicted Lee in their controversial Limpeh series, featuring his image in Shepard Fairey -inspired stickers, mirrors and collages. [ 451 ] In 2013, poet Cyril Wong published The Dictator's Eyebrow , a poetry collection revolving around a Lee-like figure and his eyebrow's thirst for recognition and power. [ 452 ] In the same year, a group of Tamil poets from three countries, including Singapore Literature Prize winner Ramanathan Vairavan, produced Lee Kuan Yew 90 , a collection of 90 new poems celebrating Lee's legacy. [ 453 ] Artist Sukeshi Sondhi also staged An Icon & A Legend , a solo exhibition at featuring 20 pop art style paintings of Lee. [ 454 ] Speed painter Brad Blaze was commissioned to craft a portrait of Lee, Trailblazer: Singapore , to raise funds for Reach Community Services Society. [ 455 ] [ 456 ] In August, a bronze bust of Lee, cast by contemporary French artist-sculptor Nacera Kainou, was unveiled at the Singapore University of Technology and Design as an early birthday present to Lee from the Lyon-Singapore Association and the municipality of Lyon. [ 457 ] In 2014, Bruneian painter Huifong Ng landed an exhibition after painting a portrait of Lee. [ 458 ] In May of that year, illustrator Patrick Yee produced the children's picture book A Boy Named Harry: The Childhood of Lee Kuan Yew , published by Epigram Books . The series was later translated into Mandarin. [ 459 ] Chinese artist Ren Zhenyu also created expressionist portraits of Lee in electric hues as part of his Pop and Politics series. Vietnamese artist Mai Huy Dung has crafted a series of oil painting portraits of Lee. [ 460 ] [ 461 ] Ukrainian artist Oleg Lazarenko also depicted Lee as part of his painting Lion of Singapore . [ 462 ] In October 2014, cartoonist Morgan Chua released LKY: Political Cartoons , an anthology of cartoons about Lee published by Epigram Books , featuring a 1971 Singapore Herald cartoon of Lee on a tank threatening to crush a baby representing press freedoms. [ 463 ] The Madame Tussauds Singapore museum also unveiled a wax figure of Lee and his late wife, Madam Kwa Geok Choo seated and smiling together against a backdrop of red flowers formed in the shape of two hearts. The statues were created based on a photograph that was taken by Madam Kwa's niece, Ms Kwa Kim Li, of the pair on Valentine's Day in 2008 at Sentosa . [ 464 ] [ 465 ] In February 2015, weeks before Lee's death, Helmi Yusof of The Business Times reported on how "[i]n the last few years, artworks featuring Lee Kuan Yew have turned into a flourishing cottage industry". [ 466 ] Artworks included Jeffrey Koh's seven LKY Pez candy-dispenser sculptures, paintings of Lee in the manner of Van Gogh , and Korean sculptor Park Seung Mo's three-dimensional image of Lee made using stainless steel wires. [ 467 ] In the same month, illustrator Patrick Yee launched the second title in his picture book series about Lee, called Harry Grows Up: The Early Years of Lee Kuan Yew , at an exhibition at the National Library, Singapore . [ 468 ] In March, Singaporean artist Fan Shaohua and Lebanese-British artist Laudi Abilama exhibited their portraits of Lee. [ 469 ] In the same month, the National Parks Board named a Singapore Botanic Gardens orchid hybrid called the "Aranda Lee Kuan Yew" in honour of Lee's efforts work in conservation and environmentalism. [ 470 ] Also in March, a portrait of Lee by Ong Yi Teck, comprising Lee's name written about 18,000 times, went viral on social media. The portrait was made in tribute to Lee, who was then critically ill. [ 471 ] Days after Lee died in 2015, the Asian edition of Time featured the late Lee Kuan Yew on its cover, [ 472 ] while the 16-year-old blogger Amos Yee released a video, Lee Kuan Yew is Finally Dead! , which criticised Lee and negatively compared him to Jesus Christ . Yee also posted on his blog a stick-figure cartoon depicting Lee having sex with Margaret Thatcher , a personal and political ally of Lee's. [ 473 ] For his actions, Yee was charged with insulting religious feelings and obscenity, and sentenced to four weeks imprisonment despite his youth. [ 474 ] In April 2015, an exhibition of 300 oil paintings on Lee and Singapore opened at Suntec City . Presented by art collector Vincent Chua, The Singapore Story featured 80 portraits of Lee and a life-size statue of Lee shaking hands with Deng Xiaoping when the Chinese statesman visited Singapore in 1978. [ 475 ] [ 476 ] In May, Sonny Liew released his graphic novel The Art of Charlie Chan Hock Chye , in which Lee is central, while Patrick Yee launched the third and final title in his Harry Lee picture book series, Harry Builds a Nation: The Legacy of Lee Kuan Yew , which were later translated to Chinese. [ 477 ] In July 2015, veteran actor Lim Kay Tong portrayed Lee in the historical film 1965 , including a re-enactment of the iconic press conference when Lee announced that Singapore would be separated from Malaysia [ 478 ] That same month, actor Adrian Pang played Lee in The LKY Musical opposite Sharon Au 's Kwa Geok Choo . [ 479 ] In October 2015, sculptor Lim Leong Seng exhibited a 75 cm bronze sculpture he made of Lee, entitled Weathering Storms As One . [ 480 ] In November 2015, the Singaporean Honorary Consulate General in Barcelona unveiled a bust of Lee at Cap Roig Gardens in Costa Brava , [ 481 ] while pop artist Andre Tan showed his series of portraits of Lee, 1965 and Father of the Nation ( 国父 ) at the Affordable Art Fair Singapore. [ 482 ] In 2016, to mark the first death anniversary of Lee, Lee's brother Lee Suan Yew and nephew Shaun Lee completed the art installation by young Singaporeans of Singapore flag erasers put together to form Lee's face, titled Our Father, Our Country, Our Flag . [ 483 ] In 2023, the centenary of Lee's birth, American artist Daniel Arsham was commissioned to create two sculptures of Lee, Eroded Bronze LKY Bust 1:1 and LKY Full Body 1:2 , using bronze, stainless steel, and patina. [ 484 ] They were exhibited, along with AI-generated videos and portraits of Lee, at the immersive exhibition Now Is Not The Time in September. [ 485 ] In the same month, paintings of Lee were exhibited at Tanjong Pagar Community Club in the show LKY100 . [ 486 ] In 2024, Singaporean artist David Chan showed his painting Lee And Raffles – 5 Stars Rising at Art Seasons Gallery's booth at the Art SG fair, where it sold to a collector. [ 487 ] In 2025 , Lee's ten-year death anniversary and "SG60" (Singapore's 60th year of independence), INSTINC gallery's exhibition 10 Years: Remembering LKY showcased artworks reflecting on Lee's legacy, including portraits of Lee by Boo Sze Yang , Chang Hui Fang , and Laudi Abilama ; Justin Lee 's series LKY Quotes ; and Yeo Shih Yun 's screenprint of Lee planting a tree in 1973. [ 488 ] The exhibition was a follow-up to Remembering LKY in 2015. [ 489 ] In July, Cuturi Gallery showcased Singaporean artist Yom Bo Sung's small-scale sculpture of Lee, Elegy , as part of the exhibition Sixty Summers Here . [ 490 ] Also in July, the group exhibition Artist’s Proof: Singapore At 60 showed, alongside an artist's proof of Harpley's bust of Lee, cartoonist Sonny Liew's figurine of Lee, as part of commissioned project "P.A.P. x P.A."; Foo Kwee Horng's painting portrait of Lee, Majulah (2016); a portrait of Lee by Rajesh P Kargutkar; and Jon Chan's oil paintings of the offices of Lee and former political detainee Chia Thye Poh . [ 491 ] [ 492 ] In August, movie director Jack Neo uploaded a music video for his song, "We Are Singapore", including AI-generated images of the late Lee. [ 493 ] Awards Lee received a number of state decorations , including the Order of the Companions of Honour (1970), Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (1972), the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (1974), [ 494 ] the Freedom of the City of London (1982), the Seri Paduka Mahkota Johor (1984), the Nishan-e-Quaid-i-Azam (1988) and the Order of the Rising Sun (1967). [ 495 ] In 1999, Lee was named one of Time 's Most Influential People of the 20th Century. [ 41 ] In 2002, Lee became a fellow of Imperial College London in recognition of his promotion of international trade and industry and development of science and engineering study initiatives with the United Kingdom. [ 496 ] In 2006, Lee was presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . In 2007, Lee was conferred an honorary Doctorate in Law at the Australian National University in Canberra , albeit amid protest from 150 students and staff. [ 497 ] In September 2009, Lee was awarded the Armenian Order of Honor by President Serzh Sargsyan for his activities directed at the establishment and deepening of bilateral cooperation between Armenia and Singapore, during Lee's official visit to Armenia. [ 498 ] In October 2009, the US–Asean Business Council conferred upon Lee its first Lifetime Achievement award, at its 25th anniversary gala dinner in Washington, D.C. His tribute, the former United States Secretary of State and 1973 Nobel Peace Prize winner Henry Kissinger . [ 499 ] A day later he met United States President Barack Obama at the Oval Office in the White House . [ 500 ] [ 501 ] On 15 November 2009, Lee was awarded the Russian Order of Friendship by President Dmitry Medvedev on the sidelines of APEC Singapore 2009 . [ 502 ] On 29 April 2010, Lee was named in the Time 100 list as one of the people who most affect our world. [ 503 ] On 14 January 2011, Lee received the inaugural Gryphon Award from his alma mater, Raffles Institution, given to illustrious Rafflesians who have made exceptional contributions to the nation. [ 504 ] On 19 October 2011, Lee received the Lincoln Medal in Washington DC—an honour reserved for people who have exemplified the legacy and character embodied by Abraham Lincoln . [ 505 ] On 21 February 2012, Lee was conferred the Kazakhstan Order of Friendship by Ambassador Yerlan Baudarbek-Kozhatayev, at The Istana . [ 506 ] On 10 September 2013, Lee was conferred Russia's Order of Honour by Ambassador Leonid Moiseev for his contributions for forging friendship and co-operation with the Russian Federal and scientific and cultural relations development. [ 507 ] On 22 May 2014, the title of Honorary Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was presented by the Russian government to Lee. [ 508 ] In 2016, Lee was conferred the Order of the Paulownia Flowers . The award was backdated to 23 March 2015, the date of his death. [ 509 ] In December 2018, China conferred a posthumous China Reform Friendship Medal on Lee for his "critical role in promoting Singapore's participation in China's reform journey". In former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping's southern tour , he urged Chinese leaders to learn from the Singapore model. Alan Chan Heng Loon, Singapore–China Foundation chairman and Lee's chief private secretary, said that Mr. Lee's administration did a lot to build China-Singapore ties. [ 510 ] See also Government of Singapore Politics of Singapore Political positions of Lee Kuan Yew Zhonghandi Notes ^ Chinese : See § Chinese name ^ Kuan Yew is a transliteration of a dialect word stemming from the Chinese words 光耀 ( guāng yào ); the Hanyu Pinyin used to romanise the latter word did not exist until 1958. ^ The former college is not to be confused with Raffles Institution which Lee also attended as part of his secondary education. ^ In his memoir The Singapore Story , Lee relates that he tried unsuccessfully to drop 'Harry' when being called to the bar at the Middle Temple, but had stopped using the name by then. He succeeded when called to the Singapore bar the following year. [ 40 ] ^ The Liberal Socialist Party was formed from a merger between the pro-British Democratic Party and Progressive Party . [ 106 ] ^ The term 'yellow culture' refers to 'degenerate' behaviours in contemporary Chinese culture during the era. ^ The five were Lim Chin Siong , Fong Swee Suan, Devan Nair , James Puthucheary and S Woodhull . [ 122 ] ^ Unlike the chief ministers of Sabah and Sarawak , Lee's position as the prime minister of Singapore remained unchanged even with the existence of the prime minister of Malaysia for the entire country. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ "Lee Chin Koon | Infopedia" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Archived from the original on 23 May 2023 . Retrieved 22 March 2023 . ^ a b c "Lee Kuan Yew, Singaporean (1923–2015)" (PDF) . The Peranakan . 2015. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2019 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ "Obituary: Lee Kuan Yew" . BBC . 22 March 2015. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Teo, Esther (23 March 2016). "Lee Kuan Yew: The pride of a tiny village in China" . Archived from the original on 26 June 2021 . Retrieved 26 June 2021 . ^ K Datta-Ray, Sunanda (26 March 2015). "The leader who delivered – and made history" . The Business Times . Archived from the original on 26 June 2021 . Retrieved 26 June 2021 . ^ "Singapore's first Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew dies aged 91" . Channel NewsAsia . 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015 . Retrieved 28 March 2015 . ^ "Remembering Lee Kuan Yew: Brother used his wits to help family" . The Straits Times . 24 March 2015. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . ^ a b c Chan, Robin; Tan, Sumiko (24 March 2015). "Remembering Lee Kuan Yew: Devoted husband and caring father" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 22 April 2021 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Abdoolcarim, Zoher; Chowdhury, Neel (22 March 2015). " 'Father of Singapore' Lee Kuan Yew Dies at 91" . Time . Archived from the original on 11 December 2019 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Plate, Tom (2013). Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew – Citizen Singapore: How to Build a Nation . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 40– 42. ISBN 978-981-439-861-9 . ^ "The Honoured Inductees To The Singapore Women's Hall Of Fame: Chua Jim Neo" . Singapore Women's Hall of Fame . Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ En, Siau Ming (24 March 2015). "Mr Lee Kuan Yew placed an emphasis on educating the young 'so they can have a future' " . Today . Archived from the original on 26 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . ^ Koh, Jeremy (16 September 2016). "Lee Kuan Yew's old school marks 90th birthday" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 26 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . ^ a b "Remembering Mr Lee Kuan Yew: Top performer with a playful streak" . Raffles Institution . Asiaone. 24 March 2015. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . ^ a b Lee 1998 , p. 37. ^ "Former Raffles College (now NUS Campus at Bukit Timah)" . National Heritage Board . Archived from the original on 14 June 2020 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 56-58. ^ Chew, Cassandra (29 June 2014). "The Rickshaw puller who saved Lee Kuan Yew" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 June 2022 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 62-63. ^ Twomey, Christina; Koh, Ernest (15 September 2014). The Pacific War – Aftermaths, Remembrance and Culture . Taylor & Francis. p. 162. ISBN 9781317807896 . ^ Compton, Robert (1998). Emerging Democratic Consolidation Patterns in East Asia - Political Elites and the Cultural and Economic Construction of Politics . State University of New York at Binghamton. p. 119. ^ Lee 1998 , p. 63. ^ Bowring, Philip (22 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew obituary" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 17 November 2016 . Retrieved 27 May 2021 . ^ McCarthy, Terry (23 August 1999). "Lee Kuan Yew" . Time Asia . Hong Kong. Archived from the original on 15 August 2004 . Retrieved 14 August 2004 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 68-70. ^ Toh, Elgin (24 March 2015). "First among equals: Mr Lee Kuan Yew led a tiny island nation from Third World to First" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 27 May 2021 . Retrieved 27 May 2021 . ^ Russon, Mary-Ann (26 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew death: 7 unusual facts about Singapore's founding father" . International Business Times . Archived from the original on 24 October 2023 . Retrieved 23 October 2023 . ^ "MR AND MRS LEE KUAN YEW CUTTING THEIR WEDDING CAKE AT A …" . www.nas.gov.sg . Archived from the original on 29 October 2023 . Retrieved 24 October 2023 . ^ Pike 2010 , p. 233. ^ Lee 2014 , p. 10. ^ Branigin, William (22 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew, who led Singapore into prosperity over 30-year rule, dies at 91" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 24 March 2015 . Retrieved 27 March 2015 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 99. ^ Fernandez et al. 2015 , p. 12-13. ^ Lee 1998 , p. 103. ^ a b "Lee Kuan Yew, GCMG, CH" . Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge . 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Finkelstein, Daniel (26 January 2021). "Britain couldn't be Singapore even if we tried" . The Times . Archived from the original on 1 April 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Fernandez et al. 2015 , p. 14. ^ "David Widdicombe" . On The Hill. 15 November 2016. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017 . Retrieved 3 March 2017 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 142. ^ a b McCarthy, Terry (23 August 1999). "Asians of the Century: A Tale of Titans" . Time . New York. Archived from the original on 15 August 2004 . Retrieved 14 August 2004 . ^ "Rivals At College —Now To Marry" . The Straits Times . 12 August 1950. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021 . Retrieved 30 May 2021 . ^ Fernandez et al. 2015 , p. 17. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 351. ^ "The Lees make legal history" . The Straits Times . 8 August 1951. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021 . Retrieved 30 May 2021 . ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 33. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 29. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 31. ^ "The law firm Mr Lee tapped for political talent" . The Straits Times . 17 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021 . Retrieved 8 June 2021 . ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 32-33. ^ Poh, Tan & Koh 2010 , p. 123. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 34. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 35. ^ Poh, Tan & Koh 2010 , p. 141. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 35-37. ^ Turnbull 2009 , p. 252. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 17. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 15. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 13. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 19-20. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 352. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 38-39. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 43-50. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 55-56. ^ Jayakumar 2021 , p. 710. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 57. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 65. ^ " "Why I Chose Tanjong Pagar", Election Speech, March 1955" (PDF) . National Archives of Singapore . Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2021 . Retrieved 8 June 2021 . ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 67. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 71-72. ^ Lee 1998 , p. 184. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 75. ^ "History of leader of Opposition in S'pore, from LKY to Chiam See Tong and Low Thia Khiang" . mothership.sg . 18 February 2018. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 . Retrieved 9 July 2020 . ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 369. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 358. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 79. ^ a b c "Emergency (Amendment No. 2) Regulations, 1955 (Re-Introduction Of Curfew)" . Singapore Parliament . Retrieved 11 June 2021 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 359-360. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 77-78. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 361. ^ Lee 1998 , p. 207. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 81. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 82. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 370. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 91. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 100. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 99. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 109. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 373. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 111. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 128. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 126-127. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 127. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 363. ^ Chan 1984 , p. 183. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 366. ^ Lee 2008 , p. 123-125. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 367. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 93. ^ "Constitutional Talks In London, 1957" . Singapore Parliament . Retrieved 11 June 2021 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "Legislative Assembly By-Election 1957 Tanjong Pagar" . Archived from the original on 15 May 2011 . Retrieved 17 June 2021 . ^ Lee 1998 , p. 283. ^ Lee 2008 , p. 139. ^ Turnbull 2009 , p. 269. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 132. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 133. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 132-133. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 151. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 148. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 149. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 382. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 181. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 182. ^ a b c d Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 160. ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 384. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 385. ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 387. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 383. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 388. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 388-389. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 389. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 392-393. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 393. ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 394. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 188. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 395. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 189. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 189-190. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 190. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 205. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 196. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 210. ^ a b c Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 211. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 87. ^ a b c d e f g Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 396. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 88. ^ Jones 2000 , p. 89. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 397. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 398. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 400. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 399. ^ a b c Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 233. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 412. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 91. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 234-235. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 403. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 231. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 405. ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 406. ^ Jones 2000 , p. 91-92. ^ Jones 2000 , p. 96-97. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 92. ^ Jones 2000 , p. 97. ^ a b c Jones 2000 , p. 100. ^ a b c d e Jones 2000 , p. 101. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 102. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 248. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 249. ^ Jones 2000 , p. 107. ^ "LEE: WE ARE FREE!" . The Straits Times . 1 September 1963. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021 . Retrieved 16 July 2021 . ^ Jones 2000 , p. 103. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 408. ^ a b Jones 2000 , p. 104. ^ "UP GOES THE FLAG" . The Straits Times . 17 September 1963. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021 . Retrieved 16 July 2021 . ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 408-409. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 409. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 414. ^ a b c Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 415. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 270-271. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 272-273. ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 417. ^ a b c d e Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 418. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 416-417. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 285. ^ "Integrating New Sources, Voices, and Perspectives in Singapore's History" . The Diplomat . 13 August 2025. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 288. ^ a b c d Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 420. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 289. ^ a b c "A close but difficult relationship" . Today . 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020 . Retrieved 12 April 2020 . ^ a b c d Pike 2010 , p. 238. ^ Pike 2010 , p. 241. ^ a b c d Pike 2010 , p. 242. ^ a b "The great persuader" . Today . Singapore. 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Tengku Razaleigh: I read Tunku's letter on Kuan Yew" . New Straits Times . 23 May 2024. ^ a b "Commentary: What the release of Goh Keng Swee's Albatross File means for Singaporeans" . The Straits Times . 27 March 2023. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 296-297. ^ Pike 2010 , p. 243. ^ a b c "Separation 1965: The Tunku's "agonised decision" " . S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies . 21 August 2015. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 295. ^ a b Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 299. ^ Abisheganden, Felix (10 August 1965). "Singapore is out" . The Straits Times . p. 1 . Retrieved 25 July 2021 . ^ "Singapore's separation from Malaysia" . National Library Board . ^ a b Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 422. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 301. ^ Yap, Lim & Leong 2010 , p. 300. ^ Frost & Balasingamchow 2009 , p. 423. ^ "Transcript of a Press Conference Given by the Prime Minister of Singapore, Mr. Lee Kuan Yew, at Broadcasting House, Singapore, at 1200 Hours on Monday 9th August, 1965" (PDF) . National Archives of Singapore. pp. 21– 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 August 2014 . Retrieved 20 June 2015 . ^ Chew 2015 , p. 161. ^ "Prime Minister of Singapore Visits UN Headquarters" . United Nations . 21 October 1967 . Retrieved 7 January 2025 . ^ Yao 2007 , p. 2. ^ Hefner, Robert W. (2001). The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia . University of Hawaii Press . p. 4. ISBN 9780824824877 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2023 . Retrieved 5 August 2022 . ^ Lee Hsien Loong (30 September 2017). "Race, multiracialism and Singapore's place in the world" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ Ng, Kelly (8 August 2017). "The policies that shaped a multiracial nation" . Today . Singapore. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ "Public-domain information from the US State Department Country Guide" . exploitz.com . Archived from the original on 19 March 2005. ^ Lee 2000 , p. 14. ^ Lee 2000 , p. 41. ^ Wong, Qiqi (30 November 2016). "Background of Project Starlight" . Unscrambled . Archived from the original on 20 September 2021 . Retrieved 22 August 2021 . ^ Lee 2000 , p. 80-81. ^ Lee 2000 , p. 66-68. ^ Lee 2000 , p. 89-102. ^ Koh Buck Song (1 August 1996) "The Route To Success: Keeping Singapore Green And Efficient" The Straits Times (Singapore) ^ Aza Wee Sile (27 March 2016). "Lee Kuan Yew was actually Singapore's chief gardener" . CNBC . Retrieved 5 July 2025 . ^ Lee 2000 , p. 159-163. ^ Quah, Jon S.T. (2011). Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream?: An Impossible Dream? . Bingley, UK: Emerald Group. p. 461. ISBN 9780857248206 . ^ "Politicians | Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau" . www.cpib.gov.sg . Archived from the original on 3 October 2015 . Retrieved 3 October 2015 . ^ a b c d e Jacobson, Mark (January 2010). "The Singapore Solution" . National Geographic Magazine . Archived from the original on 19 December 2009 . Retrieved 26 December 2009 . ^ Lee 2000 , p. 136. ^ a b Lee 2000 , p. 140. ^ Lee 2000 , p. 138. ^ Wong, Theresa; Yeoh, Brenda S.A. (2003). "Fertility and the Family: An Overview of Pro-natalist Population Policies in Singapore" (PDF) . Asian Metacentre Research Paper Series (12). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011 . Retrieved 19 September 2019 . ^ "Singapore: Population Control Policies" . Library of Congress Country Studies (1989) . Library of Congress . Archived from the original on 11 April 2011 . Retrieved 11 August 2011 . ^ Tortajada, Cecilia; Joshi, Yugal; Biswas, Asit K.(2013). The Singapore Water Story: Sustainable Development in an Urban City State Archived 23 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine , 9 May 2016. Routledge. p. 26. ^ Roman, David; Cheok, Melissa (13 June 2016). "Singapore Achieves Self Reliance in Water, Sees Demand Doubling" . bloomberg.com . Bloomberg News . Archived from the original on 7 March 2022 . Retrieved 7 March 2022 . ^ Nature Contained Environmental Histories of Singapore . NUS Press. 2014. p. 276. ^ Auger, Timothy (2013). Living in a Garden The Greening of Singapore . Editions Didier Millet . p. 26. ^ Clean, Green and Blue Singapore's Journey Towards Environmental and Water Sustainability . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 2009. p. 130. ^ Asia-Pacific Legal Development . UBC Press. p. 448. ^ Clean, Green and Blue Singapore's Journey Towards Environmental and Water Sustainability . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies . 2009. p. 3. ^ de Konick, Rodolphe. Singapore's Permanent Territorial Revolution Fifty Years in Fifty Maps . Singapore University Press. p. 19. ^ Aljunied, Syed Mohammed Ad'ha (2019). Securitising Singapore State Power and Global Threats Management . Taylor & Francis. ^ Milard, Mike (2015). Jihad in Paradise Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia . Taylor & Francis. p. 12. ^ Southeast Asia and Environmental Sustainability in Context . Lexington Books. 2019. p. 38. ^ Imagining Singapore . Eastern Universities Press. 2004. p. 236. ^ 50 Years Of Urban Planning In Singapore . World Scientific Publishing Company. 2016. p. 181. ^ Wei Lim, Tai (2017). Cultural Heritage and Peripheral Spaces in Singapore . Springer. p. 66. ^ Roesler, Sascha (2022). City, Climate, and Architecture: A Theory of Collective Practice . Walter De Gruyter Incorporated. p. 220. ^ Green Asia: Ecocultures, Sustainable Lifestyles, and Ethical Consumption . Taylor & Francis. 2016. p. 2001. ^ Lin, Chang Li (2003). "SINGAPORE'S TROUBLED RELATIONS WITH MALAYSIA: A Singapore Perspective" . Southeast Asian Affairs : 259– 274. ISSN 0377-5437 . JSTOR 27913238 . Retrieved 29 April 2025 . ^ National Library Board, Singapore. "Singapore-Malaysia water agreements" . Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 . Retrieved 8 March 2021 . ^ "Kuan Yew and I" . chedet.cc . Archived from the original on 2 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 June 2018 . ^ "Indonesians Wreck Singapore Embassy" . The Glasgow Hearld (published 18 October 1968). 17 October 1968. p. 15 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 – via Google Books . ^ "Jakarta Angry at Hangings" . ^ a b Sebastian, Leonard C. (2024) [3 May 2024]. "10" . In Koh, Gillian (ed.). Commentary On Singapore . Vol. 1: Foreign Policy, Governance And Leadership. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company . Overview. ISBN 9789811264566 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 – via Google Books . ^ Konfrontasi: Why It Still Matters to Singapore , Daniel Wei Boon Chua, RSIS Commentary , No. 054 – 16 March 2015, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies , Nanyang Technological University ^ a b c d "Lee Kuan Yew and Suharto: Friends till the end" . The Straits Times . 8 April 2015. ^ "LEE SAID TO REGARD C.I.A. ISSUE AS ENDED" . The New York Times . 6 September 1965. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 29 August 2024 . ^ "CIA's failed attempt to bribe Lee Kuan Yew among newly released documents" . mothership.sg . Retrieved 29 August 2024 . ^ Yew, Lee Kuan (15 September 2012). The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4561-76-1 . ^ Jeffries-Jones, Rhodri (2003). The CIA and American Democracy . Yale University Press . p. 150. ^ Paget, Karen M. (2015). Patriotic Betrayal The Inside Story of the CIA's Secret Campaign to Enroll American Students in the Crusade Against Communism . Yale University Press . p. 346. ^ Beyond Liberal Order States, Societies and Markets in the Global Indian Ocean . Oxford University Press . 2022. ^ Ngoei, Wen-Qing (28 March 2017). "Lee Kuan Yew's Singapore Bloomed in the Shadow of the Cold War" . The Diplomat . Washington DC. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Singapore Prime Minister Asserts U.S. Must Continue Vietnam War" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. 21 October 1967. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ a b Koh, Tommy (30 July 2016). "Dinner at the White House" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ Tan Weizhen (28 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew meant a lot to me: Kissinger" . Today . Singapore. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Ex-US Secretary of State George Shultz: Mr Lee Kuan Yew 'one of the most intelligent people I have ever known' " . The Straits Times . Singapore. 24 March 2015. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ Chng, Henedick (29 October 2017). "LKY told Richard Nixon in 1967 that U.S. should engage China despite ongoing Cold War" . mothership.sg . Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Lee's advice to Nixon in 1967" . www.ussc.edu.au . ^ Yaacob, Abdul Rahman (4 February 2023). "How relations with the West underpin Singapore's defence" . East Asia Forum . Archived from the original on 6 February 2023 . Retrieved 7 February 2023 . ^ a b Crossette, Barbara (8 May 1988). "Singapore Asks Removal of U.S. Envoy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 8 August 2014 . Retrieved 3 March 2010 . ^ American Ambassador to Azerbaijan Anne E. Derse , USAID, 6 July 2007, archived from the original on 17 May 2009 , retrieved 3 March 2010 ^ Bellows 1989 ^ "Hendrickson affair angers local leaders" . New Sunday Times . Kuala Lumpur. 10 May 1988. Archived from the original on 5 June 2020 . Retrieved 11 March 2010 . ^ Conboy 1989 ^ "What Lee said in 1964" . The Economist . London. 14 May 1988. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 17 March 2011 . ^ "Thousands Protest Expulsion" . The Register-Guard . Eugene, Oregon. 12 May 1988. Archived from the original on 5 June 2020 . Retrieved 3 March 2010 . ^ "Transcript of an interview with Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew by David Cox of London Weekend Television, recorded in Kingston, Jamaica, in May 1975" (PDF) . National Archives of Singapore. 1975. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2017 . Retrieved 17 July 2017 . ^ Koh, Tommy (15 March 2016). "Taking stock of Singapore-China ties – past, present and future" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 24 August 2017 . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . ^ Nahui, Chen; Li, Xue (5 December 2016). "Lee Kuan Yew's Legacy for China-Singapore Relations" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 12 August 2017 . Retrieved 22 March 2023 . ^ "MFA, Singapore Press Release" . App.mfa.gov.sg. 29 December 2005. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012 . Retrieved 27 November 2011 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story, 1965–2000, Volume 2 ( HarperCollins : 2000), pp. 595–603 ^ Zheng, Yongnian; Lye, Liang Fook (6 November 2015). Singapore-China Relations: 50 Years . World Scientific. p. 11. ISBN 978-981-4713-56-6 . Archived from the original on 19 September 2020 . Retrieved 26 April 2020 . ^ "Brief Introduction to Relations between China and Singapore" . Xinhua News Agency. 17 May 2002. Archived from the original on 7 March 2010 . Retrieved 4 January 2011 . ^ Yeo, George (13 November 2018). "Deng Xiaoping visited S'pore in 1978. Here's the impact it left on Sino-S'pore relations 40 years on" . mothership.sg. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ a b " 'All I can say is, I did my best' " . Today . ^ "Chapter 3: Donning a Straitjacket" . madeofbold.sg . ^ "Investing Singapore's Foreign Reserves" . GIC . ^ a b c d "British withdrawal from Singapore" . National Library Board . ^ "For Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Europe's prospects were dim" . Today . ^ "Fifty Years of Singapore-Australian Relations: An Enduring Strategic Partnership" . S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew was Australia's sharp-tongued friend in Asia" . Australian Financial Review . ^ a b c d "Lee Kuan Yew and Oz" . Australian Strategic Policy Institute . 24 March 2015. ^ a b c "The poor white trash of Asia: a phrase that changed an economy" . Australian Financial Review . ^ Régnier, Philippe (1991). Singapore: A City-state in South-East Asia . University of Hawaii Press. ^ "LKY's account shows Singapore supported Khmer Rouge initially before dumping them" . The Online Citizen. 11 June 2019. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ Richardson, Michael (29 September 2000). "Singaporean Tells of Khmer Rouge Aid" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ Lee 2000 , p. 672. ^ Erlanger, Steven (29 November 1990). "New Leader takes Singapore's Helm" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 21 April 2017 . Retrieved 17 February 2017 . ^ Mauzy, Diane K.; Milne, Robert Stephen (2002). Singapore Politics Under the People's Action Party . Psychology Press. pp. 114– 116. ISBN 9780415246538 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 1 May 2021 . ^ Peck Ming, Chuang (4 December 1992). "PM replaces Lee as PAP secretary-general". Business Times . ^ "ASIANOW – Asiaweek" . CNN . Archived from the original on 24 June 2022 . Retrieved 24 June 2022 . ^ a b McDermott, Darren (22 May 1996). "Singapore's Lee Defends Purchase of Condo Units" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 20 September 2022 . Retrieved 20 September 2022 . ^ "Salaries Cut, Singapore Leaders Are Still Well-Paid" . The Wall Street Journal . 18 January 2012. Archived from the original on 31 August 2017 . Retrieved 10 August 2017 . ^ "Purchase Of Properties By Senior Minister And Deputy Prime Minister BG Lee Hsien Loong" . Parliament of Singapore . Retrieved 20 September 2022 . [ permanent dead link ] ^ "Singapore leaders defend condo buys" . UPI . Archived from the original on 2 August 2023 . Retrieved 24 June 2022 . ^ 华语 Cool! . Zaobao (in Chinese (Singapore)). 7 December 2004. Archived from the original on 12 December 2009. ^ "Singapore's Lee Kwan Yew hospitalized". International Herald Tribune . Paris. 13 September 2008. ^ "MM treated for chest infection". The Straits Times . Singapore. 29 September 2010. ^ "Former Singapore PM on 'psychopathic' North Koreans" . The Guardian . London. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original on 29 March 2017 . Retrieved 12 December 2016 . ^ "Insight: Grilling the Minister Mentor" . The Straits Times . Singapore. 14 January 2011. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 19 January 2011 . ^ "Sold-out Hard Truths back on the shelves" . Archived from the original on 23 February 2011 . Retrieved 14 August 2011 . ^ "SM Goh, MM Lee to leave Cabinet" . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. 14 May 2011. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011 . Retrieved 14 May 2011 . ^ " 'Father of Singapore' Lee Kuan Yew Dies at 91" . Time . Archived from the original on 11 December 2019 . Retrieved 10 April 2020 . ^ "Reasons behind Aljunied swing" . asiaone.com . Archived from the original on 29 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew admits nerve illness" . BBC News . 7 November 2011. Archived from the original on 31 October 2018 . Retrieved 21 July 2018 . ^ "I've still got two legs, I will make a contribution" . AsiaOne . 7 November 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. ^ Au Yong, Jeremy (16 February 2013). "Lee Kuan Yew in hospital because of suspected Transient Ischaemic Attack" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013 . Retrieved 16 February 2013 . ^ "Former MM Lee Kuan Yew hospitalised" . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. 16 February 2013. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013 . Retrieved 16 February 2013 . ^ Chua, Linus (16 February 2013). "Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew Ill After Stroke-Like Event" . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . New York. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore's first prime minister, hospitalised following brain-related blockage" . The Washington Post . 16 February 2013. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ "Singapore's first PM Lee Kuan Yew not well" . Zee News . 16 February 2013. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013 . Retrieved 16 February 2013 . ^ Ramesh, S. (15 February 2013). "Former MM Lee Kuan Yew misses Lunar New Year dinner" . Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew discharged from SGH" . AsiaOne . 17 February 2013. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ Shan, Hoe Pei (17 February 2013). "Lee Kuan Yew discharged from SGH and resting at home" . The Sunday Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore's first PM, discharged from hospital following brain-related blockage" . The Washington Post . 17 February 2013. Archived from the original on 27 February 2019 . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . ^ "Singapore's founding PM Lee Kuan Yew in hospital" . Yahoo! News. 4 February 2014. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014 . Retrieved 2 June 2014 . ^ Tan, Jeanette (24 April 2014). "Photo of a very thin Lee Kuan Yew sparks concern" . Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014 . Retrieved 2 June 2014 . ^ Lee, Wei Ling (2015). A Hakka Woman's Singapore (1st ed.). Straits Times Press . p. 314. ISBN 978-981-4642-47-7 . ^ Westcott, Ben (10 August 2015). "Singapore's first prime minister Lee Kuan Yew considered euthanasia in his final years, daughter reveals" . South China Morning Post . Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2023 . ^ Jaipragas, Bhavan (21 February 2015). "Singapore founding PM Lee Kuan Yew in ICU but 'stable' " . Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 14 January 2017 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew in hospital with severe pneumonia, condition 'stabilised' " . Channel NewsAsia. 21 February 2015. Archived from the original on 24 February 2015. ^ "Doctors restart antibiotics for former PM Lee Kuan Yew" . Yahoo! News. 26 February 2015. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . ^ "Singapore's founder sedated, on life support" . Yahoo News . 26 February 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 . Retrieved 14 January 2017 . ^ Abbugao, Martin (18 March 2015). "Singapore's founding leader Lee 'critically ill' " . Yahoo! News. Agence France-Presse . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . ^ "Mr Lee Kuan Yew's condition remains critical: PMO" . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. 20 March 2015. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . ^ "Mr Lee Kuan Yew has weakened further: PMO" . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. 22 March 2015. Archived from the original on 23 March 2015 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 . ^ Wong, Chun Han; Venkata, Perungulam Ramamurthy (20 March 2015). "Singapore Police Identify Suspect in False Web Post About Lee Kuan Yew" . The Wall Street Journal . New York. Archived from the original on 6 April 2015 . Retrieved 6 April 2015 . ^ Hanna, Jason (18 March 2015). "Singapore dismisses Lee Kuan Yew death report as hoax" . CNN. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015 . Retrieved 6 April 2015 . ^ Chan, Fiona; Sim, Walter (19 March 2015). "Police looking into hoax website that falsely announced death of Mr Lee Kuan Yew" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015 . Retrieved 6 April 2015 . ^ a b "Passing of Mr Lee Kuan Yew, founding Prime Minister of Singapore" (Press release). Prime Minister's Office Singapore. 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. ^ "Singapore's founding father Lee Kuan Yew dies at 91" . BBC News . London. 22 March 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018 . Retrieved 21 July 2018 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew: A very Singaporean send-off" . BBC News . 29 March 2015. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . ^ Hussain, Zakir (4 April 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew: Grief, gratitude and how a nation grew closer together" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 March 2016 . ^ "Condolence Messages from Our Partners" . Archived from the original on 20 April 2016 . Retrieved 23 March 2016 . ^ Allison, Graham (28 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew: Lessons for leaders from Asia's 'Grand Master' " . CNN . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew: Singapore holds funeral procession" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 29 March 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . ^ "Family bids final farewell to Lee Kuan Yew in private ceremony at Mandai" . AsiaOne . Singapore. 29 March 2015. Archived from the original on 31 March 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . ^ "Transcript of Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew's interview with Seth Mydans of New York Times & IHT on 1 September 2010" (PDF) . National Archives of Singapore . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . ^ a b c Kohlmann, Thomas (22 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew: Singapore's founding father" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 15 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Paleit, Andreas; Hughes, Jennifer (23 March 2015). " 'From third world to first': Lee Kuan Yew's legacy in charts" . Financial Times . London. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Hussain, Zarina (24 March 2015). "How Lee Kuan Yew engineered Singapore's economic miracle" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 16 December 2019 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ "Obituary: Lee Kuan Yew" . BBC News . 22 March 2015. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Chan, Fiona; Ching, Choon Hiong (29 March 2015). "The Singapore that LKY built" (PDF) . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2015. ^ a b Alam, Nafis (23 March 2015). "How Lee Kuan Yew transformed Singapore from small town into global financial hub" . The Conversation . Archived from the original on 19 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ "NTUC IN TANDEM WITH PAP" . www.nas.gov.sg . Archived from the original on 15 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Yoon, Youngmo (2009). A comparative study on industrial relations and collective bargaining in East Asian countries . International Labour Office. Industrial and Employment Relations Department. Geneva: ILO. ISBN 978-92-2-122917-9 . OCLC 489637882 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew: Singapore must take advantage of globalization" . China Daily . Beijing. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Auerbach, Stuart (10 October 1985). "Singapore Leader Hits Protectionism" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 15 October 2021 . ^ Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent, Vol. 1: A Biographical Dictionary . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 525. ISBN 978-981-4414-14-2 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 28 July 2015 . ^ McDonald, Tim (29 October 2018). "The cost of keeping Singapore squeaky clean" . BBC. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Chia, Joshua Yeong Jia (5 December 2008). "Keep Singapore Clean campaign" . Infopedia . Archived from the original on 19 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Faulder, Dominic (26 March 2015). "How a "very good" autocrat influenced ASEAN" . Nikkei Asia . Retrieved 8 December 2025 . ^ Blackwill, Robert Dean; Allison, Graham (13 February 2013). "Seek the wisdom of Lee Kuan Yew" . POLITICO . Archived from the original on 22 February 2015 . Retrieved 22 March 2023 . ^ Kay, Vee (5 February 2018). "Kazakhstan President lauds Lee Kuan Yew's contribution in new book" . Inside Recent . Retrieved 12 June 2024 . ^ Yang, Kai; Ortmann, Stephan (2018). "From Sweden to Singapore: The Relevance of Foreign Models for China's Rise" . The China Quarterly . 236 : 946– 967. doi : 10.1017/S0305741018000486 . ISSN 0305-7410 . ^ Ortmann, Stephan; Thompson, Mark R. (27 May 2014). "China's obsession with Singapore: learning authoritarian modernity" . The Pacific Review . 27 (3): 433– 455. doi : 10.1080/09512748.2014.909522 . ISSN 0951-2748 . ^ "Opening Address by Mr Teo Chee Hean at the 7th Singapore‑China Forum on Leadership" . www.psd.gov.sg . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ a b Buckley, Chris (23 March 2015). "In Lee Kuan Yew, China Saw a Leader to Emulate" . Sinosphere Blog . Archived from the original on 24 March 2015 . Retrieved 22 March 2023 . ^ Judah, Ben (23 March 2015). "The Curse of Lee Kuan Yew" . POLITICO Magazine . Archived from the original on 28 March 2015 . Retrieved 22 March 2023 . ^ "Stop suing journalists: RSF tells Singapore leaders" . Bangkok Post . Agence France-Presse. 26 March 2010. Archived from the original on 11 April 2011 . Retrieved 26 March 2010 . ^ Sleeper, Jim (2 April 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew's hard truths" . openDemocracy . Archived from the original on 15 November 2020 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ Lingle, Christopher (1 July 1996). "Singapore's Authoritarian Capitalism: Asian Values, Free Market Illusions, and Political Dependency" . Foreign Affairs . ISSN 0015-7120 . Archived from the original on 28 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Bailey, Tom (16 July 2015). "How Singapore married dictatorship with a market economy" . World Finance . Archived from the original on 29 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Sim, Soek-Fang (1 January 2001). "Asian Values, Authoritarianism and Capitalism in Singapore" . Javnost – the Public . 8 (2): 45– 66. doi : 10.1080/13183222.2001.11008771 . ISSN 1318-3222 . S2CID 145584895 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Mydans, Seth (22 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew, Founding Father and First Premier of Singapore, Dies at 91" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 29 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ "When the gloves came off" . Today . Singapore. 23 March 2015. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ Winn, Patrick (30 July 2016). "Lee Kuan Yew is dead. Here are 7 of his most provocative quotes" . The World from PRX . Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew (1923–2015)" . Australian Institute of International Affairs . Archived from the original on 29 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ "Speech by Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew, at At The Dialogue Session with NTUC Leaders, 23 July 2003, 4.00pm, 23 July 2003, 4.00 pm" . www.nas.gov.sg . Archived from the original on 29 October 2021 . Retrieved 14 October 2021 . ^ Sleeper, Jim (2 April 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew's hard truths" . openDemocracy . Archived from the original on 15 November 2020 . Retrieved 8 April 2021 . ^ Hyman, Gerald (30 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew's Enigma: Authoritarian Yet a Kind of Democrat" . Washington DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024 . Retrieved 3 April 2024 . ^ Tan, Carlton (23 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew leaves a legacy of authoritarian pragmatism" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 27 February 2018 . Retrieved 16 September 2021 . ^ Hussain, Zarina (24 March 2015). "Singapore's economic transformation" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 16 December 2019 . Retrieved 16 March 2020 . ^ Mutalib, Hussin. "Illiberal Democracy and the Future of Opposition in Singapore." Third World Quarterly 21, no. 2 (2000): 313–42. ^ Christie, Kenneth. "Illiberal Democracy, Modernisation and Southeast Asia." Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory , no. 91 (1998): 102–18. ^ Case, William (August 2005). "Southeast Asia's Hybrid Regimes: When Do Voters Change Them?" . Journal of East Asian Studies . 5 (2): 215– 237. doi : 10.1017/S1598240800005750 . ISSN 1598-2408 . S2CID 150731305 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ Ho, Terence (21 February 2023). "Does Budget 2023 suggest that Singapore remains a 'nanny state'?" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 24 February 2024 . Retrieved 24 February 2024 . ^ Piper, Hal (12 August 1995). "Guided Democracy" . Baltimore Sun . Archived from the original on 6 December 2022 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ "Singapore Government press release" (PDF) . National Archives of Singapore . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 January 2022 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ The New Communications Landscape: Demystifying Media Globalization Archived 7 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine , Anura Goonasekera, Jan Servaes, Georgette Wang, Routledge, 2003, page 273 ^ Circulation Of Foreign Newspapers In Singapore Archived 26 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Ministry of Communications and Information , 3 August 2006 ^ a b "Editor 'defamed' Singapore leader Archived 8 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine . BBC News. 24 September 2008. ^ "Singapore backs Lee in media case" Archived 11 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine . BBC News. 8 October 2009. ^ Lee v. Globe and Mail (2001), 6 C.P.C. (5th) 354 (Ont.S.C.J.). ^ "Singapore President Quits, Admits He's an Alcoholic" . Los Angeles Times . 28 March 1985. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020 . Retrieved 18 September 2020 . ^ Perez-Pena, Richard (25 March 2010). "Times Co. Settles Claim in Singapore" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 13 November 2013 . Retrieved 25 March 2010 . ^ "New York Times to pay damages to Singapore leaders" . Agence France-Presse. 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014 . Retrieved 25 March 2010 . ^ "Stop suing journalists: RSF tells Singapore leaders" . Bangkok Post . 26 March 2010. Archived from the original on 11 April 2011 . Retrieved 26 March 2010 . ^ "李光耀称马来西亚和印尼华人被边缘化引来批评_新闻中心_新浪网" . news.sina.com.cn . Archived from the original on 7 February 2021 . Retrieved 29 January 2021 . ^ "指"大马华人被边缘化" 首相要李光耀解释" . archive.kwongwah.com.my . Archived from the original on 7 February 2021 . Retrieved 8 January 2021 . ^ "批李光耀深陷旧种族主义框框安华：全民公正取代边缘论" . Malaysiakini (in Chinese). 2 October 2006. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 29 January 2021 . ^ " "华人被边缘化"言论掀波李光耀已覆函阿都拉" . Malaysiakini (in Chinese). 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 8 January 2021 . ^ "阿都拉不满意李光耀解释巫统抨击把马哈迪拖下水" . Malaysiakini (in Chinese). 3 October 2006. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 29 January 2021 . ^ "Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew replies to Malaysian PM The Star" . www.thestar.com.my . 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021 . Retrieved 29 January 2021 . ^ "华人边缘化:李光耀道歉但不收回" . 3 October 2006. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 8 January 2021 . ^ 实习记者黄思颍 (3 October 2006). "分析家：李光耀根本没道歉！" . Malaysiakini (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 29 January 2021 . ^ Barr, Michael D. (January 1999). "Lee Kuan Yew: Race, culture and genes" . Journal of Contemporary Asia . 29 (2): 145– 166. doi : 10.1080/00472339980000291 . PMID 21980641 . Retrieved 20 August 2025 . ^ Chua, Mui Hoong; Chang, Rachel (23 March 2015). "Did Mr Lee Kuan Yew create a Singapore in his own image?" . The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 22 May 2018 . Retrieved 21 May 2018 . ^ CoconutsSingapore (23 March 2015). "That's What He Said: A collection of Lee Kuan Yew's most incredible quotes | Coconuts Singapore" . Coconuts . Archived from the original on 29 July 2021 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ Hugo, Justin (22 October 2018). "SINGAPORE: Millionaire Ministers and Systemic Inequality" . The News Lens International Edition . Archived from the original on 12 September 2020 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (16 August 1984). "Between You and Your Genes" . The New York Review of Books . Archived from the original on 19 August 2018 . Retrieved 19 August 2018 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew's remarks on Malays" . Archived from the original on 4 February 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . ^ Allison, Graham (2013). Lee Kuan Yew – The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and the World . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 76. ^ Current Affairs, Mr Lee Kuan Yew's response to wikileaks' claim Archived 11 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Online Citizen, 5 September 2011. ^ "Singapore's Lee backtracks on Muslim comments'" Archived 9 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine Channel NewsAsia, 28 January 2011. ^ Current Affairs, Politics, MM Lee speaks again on Malay-Muslim integration Archived 11 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Online Citizen, 4 October 2011. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine : "Lee Kuan Yew answers Loretta Chen's question on homosexuality - YouTube" . www.youtube.com . 27 June 2011 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine : "Straits Times asks Lee Kuan Yew about homosexuality - YouTube" . www.youtube.com . 28 June 2011 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ "Excerpts from an interview with Lee Kuan Yew" . The New York Times . 29 August 2007. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021 . Retrieved 6 December 2020 . ^ a b Lee 2000 , p. 213-214. ^ Yew, Lee Kuan (21 September 1998). "The Singapore Story" Archived 29 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Time Asia (Hong Kong). ^ "Judicial caning in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei" . Archived 15 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine . World Corporal Punishment Research. ^ Singapore: Table of offences for which caning is available Archived 23 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine at World Corporal Punishment Research. ^ Singapore Human Rights Practices 1994 . Archived 11 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine . United States State Department. ^ Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2007 Archived 5 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine . United States State Department. Retrieved 11 March 2008. ^ "Regulation No 88 under the Schools Regulation Act 1957" . Archived 8 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine (extract). ^ "Armed Forces Act, 1972" . Archived 29 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Lee Kuan Yew – Charlie Rose Interview (18th October 2000) , 27 December 2020, archived from the original on 13 July 2023 , retrieved 14 July 2023 ^ Han, Fook Kwang (9 September 2012). "The real fear: Being pushed out of home". The Straits Times . ^ "Speech by Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Minister Mentor, at Speak Mandarin Campaign's 30th anniversary launch" (PDF) . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. 17 March 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2012 . Retrieved 7 April 2012 . ^ Lee Wei Ling (21 March 2010). "No need for a 'uneqqee' name". The Sunday Times . Singapore. ^ Tan, Sumiko; Fook Kwang Han; Fernadez, Warren (1998). Lee Kuan Yew: The Man and His Ideas . Singapore: Times Editions. ISBN 978-981-204-049-7 . ^ "The Cabinet – Mr Lee Kuan Yew" . Government of Singapore. 21 June 2006. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007 . Retrieved 7 April 2012 . ^ a b Lee Kuan Yew (2011). Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Going . Singapore: Straits Times Press. ^ "Board of Directors" . Temasek Holdings. 2012. Archived from the original on 1 August 2012 . Retrieved 7 April 2012 . ^ a b c "Transcript of Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew's interview with Seth Mydans of New York Times & IHT" (Press release). Prime Minister's Office of Singapore. 1 September 2010. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014 . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . ^ Lee 2013b , p. 302. ^ Varghese, Johnlee (23 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew: 6 Interesting Facts about Singapore's Founding Father; Memorable Quotes" . International Business Times, India Edition . Archived from the original on 25 August 2017 . Retrieved 25 August 2017 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew on death: I want mine quickly, painlessly" . The Star . Kuala Lumpur. 6 August 2013. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine : "Lee Kuan Yew in conversation with Laurence Freeman OSB" . Youtube . World Community for Christian Meditation. 14 April 2015 . Retrieved 5 December 2020 . ^ "Lee admits dyslexia" . Australian Financial Review . 19 January 1996. Archived from the original on 30 October 2022 . Retrieved 30 October 2022 . ^ "Honor Committee" . Fondation Chirac . Archived from the original on 21 April 2012 . Retrieved 24 February 2012 . ^ Marsita, Omar. "Chua Mia Tee" . Infopedia . National Library Board. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ Vijayan, K.C. (8 April 2015). "2 artworks Mr Lee Kuan Yew agreed to in 1980s" . The Straits Times . Singapore Press Holdings . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (19 June 2025). "Singapore at 60: Lee Kuan Yew's hidden sculpture and other artworks to know" . The Business Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "Artist's Proof: Singapore at 60 (AP60) - The Culture Story" . theculturestory.co . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Lim Seng Tiong (2 May 1991). "A Tribute to Mr Lee". The Straits Times . Singapore. ^ Yusof, Helmi (25 June 2025). "The man who painted Lee Kuan Yew – and the wife whom history forgot" . The Business Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "History Paintings" . Dr. Lai's Museum . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (31 July 2025). "Lost Lee Kuan Yew painting, forgotten artworks and other rediscovered gems" . The Business Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "OTHER: Exhibition @ Forth Gallery "Hero" by Ben Puah" . Adpost.com . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ "Singapore Guidance Angel by Richard Lim Han" . Forth Gallery . 13 July 2009. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ "Lucky Plazas 2" . Sonny Liew's Secreter Robot Spy Factory . 5 September 2009. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Teoh, Hannah (24 March 2015). "Quirky artist takes pride in making Lee Kuan Yew figurines his life's work" . Yahoo Singapore . Yahoo News Network. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ Ang, Benson (27 October 2014). "Damaged portraits of Mr and Mrs Lee completed" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 4 November 2014 . Retrieved 27 October 2014 . ^ Shetty, Deepika (21 February 2014). "Artist Boo Sze Yang sees Lee Kuan Yew as The Father" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Chia, Adeline (5 August 2010). "Portraits of a nation" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Kolesnikov-Jessop, Sonia (8 September 2013). "8 Iconic Artworks Featuring Lee Kuan Yew" . BlouinArtInfo. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Jaggi, Maya (2 October 2010). "A Different Sky by Meira Chand" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . ^ "Mr Lee Kuan Yew's Eye Image, Eyes That Tell Stories" . East Coast Life blog . 24 July 2011. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Lo, Samantha. "The Limpeh Series" . SKL0 . Archived from the original on 2 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ "The Dictator's Eyebrow" . Ethos Books . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Chang, Rachel (25 September 2013). "Tamil poets honour Mr Lee with poetry book" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (18 August 2013). "Kuan Yew gets the Warhol treatment" . The Business Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ "Trailblazer: Singapore" . Brad Blaze . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (13 February 2015). "Pop Art iconography a hit with collectors" . The Business Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 25 February 2015 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew bust unveiled at SUTD" . The Straits Times . Singapore. 7 August 2013. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016 . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . ^ Bandial, Quratul-Ain (27 August 2014). "Bruneian painter lands first solo exhibition in S'pore" . Brunei Times . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Yee, Patrick (2014). A Boy Named Harry: The Childhood of Lee Kuan Yew . Epigram Books. ISBN 978-981-4615-29-7 . ^ "Pop and Politics" . Ode to Art . Archived from the original on 29 October 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ "The Paintings of Mai Huy Dung" . UnArt . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Chong, Andrea. "Insight charity gala dinner" . Dreachong . Archived from the original on 15 September 2014 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ Chua, Morgan (2013). LKY: Political Cartoons . Epigram Books. ISBN 978-981-4615-29-7 . ^ Singh, Bryna (23 October 2014). "Wax figures of Lee Kuan Yew and his late wife unveiled at Madame Tussauds Singapore" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 25 October 2014 . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . ^ "Kuan Yew & late wife immortalised in romantic tribute at Madame Tussauds" . Malaysia Chronicle . 23 October 2014. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020 . Retrieved 24 October 2014 . ^ Helmi, Yusof (13 February 2015). "LKY Mania" . The Business Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 25 February 2015 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (13 February 2015). " 'Papa' Pez dispenses sagely advice" . The Business Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 25 February 2015 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 . ^ "Meet The Authors: Patrick Yee and Lawrence Koh" . National Library Board. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 . ^ Nanda, Akshita (28 March 2015). "In their own way, they're all drawn to pay tribute" . The Straits Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "News" Aranda Lee Kuan Yew (李光耀蜻蜓万代兰) . Archived from the original on 14 September 2018 . Retrieved 15 October 2018 . ^ Lee Min Kok (21 March 2015). "Aspiring artist writes Mr Lee Kuan Yew's name 18,000 times to create this amazing portrait" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 22 March 2015 . Retrieved 21 March 2015 . ^ "Mr Lee Kuan Yew featured on Time Magazine cover" . The Straits Times . 27 March 2015. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 . Retrieved 15 October 2018 . ^ Wong, Tessa (12 May 2015). "Amos Yee: The boy who criticised Lee Kuan Yew" . BBC News . London. Archived from the original on 15 May 2015 . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . ^ "4 weeks jail for Amos Yee" . The Online Citizen . Singapore. 6 July 2015. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016 . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . ^ Lim Yan Liang (15 April 2015). "Oil paintings of Mr Lee Kuan Yew go on display at exhibition at Suntec City" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 16 April 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ Grosse, Sara (15 April 2015). "About 300 oil paintings on Lee Kuan Yew and Singapore on show at Suntec" . Singapore: Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ "Series" . Epigram . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Yip Wai Yee (29 July 2015). "Challenge playing Lee Kuan Yew" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 . Retrieved 14 December 2015 . ^ Tan, Corrie (25 July 2015). "Theatre review: Adrian Pang turns in a stirring performance in The LKY Musical" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015 . Retrieved 14 December 2015 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (22 October 2015). "Sculpture inspired by Lee Kuan Yew" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015 . Retrieved 19 December 2015 . ^ Lee Min Kok (16 November 2015). "Monument of the late Mr Lee Kuan Yew unveiled in Spain" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . ^ "Andre Tan Art works 2015" . ANDRE TAN . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Lee, Pearl (21 March 2016). "Youth pay tribute to Lee Kuan Yew with art" . The Straits Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Seet, Mingli. "Mandala Club now has two bronze sculptures of Mr. Lee Kuan Yew by New York-based artist Daniel Arsham" . Time Out Singapore . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "Art What!: Now Is Not The Time – A Timeless Tribute to Lee Kuan Yew and Singapore, by X3D in collaboration with Daniel Arsham" . Bakchormeeboy . 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Seet, Mingli. "LKY100 at Art Porters Gallery" . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Hoo, Shawn (24 January 2024). "Art SG: Five artworks that drew crowds, including an LKY and Raffles double portrait" . The Straits Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ "(Now Showing) 10 Years: Remembering LKY 2025" . INSTINC . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ "REMEMBERING Lee Kuan Yew 2015" . INSTINC . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Ong, Sor Fern (17 July 2025). "Arts Picks: Andreas Scholl concert, Cuturi's SG60 show and Singapore Ballet Festival" . The Straits Times . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Yeoh, Grace. "Cartoonist Sonny Liew reimagines Singapore founding fathers as vintage-style toy figurines" . CNA Lifestyle . Retrieved 4 August 2025 . ^ Yusof, Helmi (19 June 2025). "Singapore at 60: Lee Kuan Yew's hidden sculpture and other artworks to know" . The Business Times . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ Yeo, Shu Hui (19 August 2025). "Jack Neo uses AI to create SG60 song and music video that includes Lee Kuan Yew" . AsiaOne . Retrieved 20 August 2025 . ^ Chia, Poteik (16 January 1974). "LEE: THE ASEAN PROMISE" . The Straits Times . p. 1. ISSN 0585-3923 . OCLC 8572659 . Retrieved 20 November 2025 – via NewspaperSG . ^ "Bio of Lee Kuan Yew" . Government of Singapore. Archived from the original on 26 September 2008 . Retrieved 10 September 2008 . ^ "Commemoration Daypride" . Reporter . Imperial College London. 13 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 September 2009 . ^ Skehan, Craig (28 March 2007). "Hostile welcome for Lee Kuan Yew" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on 22 December 2017 . Retrieved 21 February 2020 . ^ "By the invitation of President Serzh Sargsyan, Lee Kuan Yew, Minister Mentor of Singapore, has arrived to Armenia on official visit" . The President of the Republic of Armenia . 18 September 2009. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021 . Retrieved 10 August 2024 . ^ "Warm tributes from old friends" . whitehouse.gov (Press release). Washington, DC. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017 – via National Archives . ^ "Obama welcomes 'legendary' Lee Kuan Yew" . Agence France-Presse. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010 . Retrieved 11 November 2016 . ^ "Remarks by President Obama and Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore before Meeting" . whitehouse.gov (Press release). Washington, DC. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017 – via National Archives . ^ Hoe Yeen Nie (16 November 2009). "Russia, S'pore move towards closer ties with new governmental body" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011 . Retrieved 22 March 2011 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew – The 2010 TIME 100" . Time . New York. 29 April 2010. Archived from the original on 2 May 2010 . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . ^ "S'pore must preserve meritocracy in govt schools, says MM Lee" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011 . Retrieved 13 January 2011 . ^ Marks, Simon (19 October 2011). "Former MM Lee Kuan Yew receives Lincoln Medal" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. Archived from the original on 20 October 2011 . Retrieved 20 October 2011 . ^ Chan, Joanne (21 February 2012). "Lee Kuan Yew conferred Order of Friendship by Kazakhstan" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012 . Retrieved 21 February 2012 . ^ Kumar, Chitra (6 January 2014). "Former MM Lee Kuan Yew conferred Russia's Order of Honour" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 . Retrieved 6 January 2014 . ^ "Moscow honours Lee Kuan Yew with doctorate" . The Straits Times . Singapore. 24 May 2014. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014 . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew to be conferred one of Japan's highest awards" . Channel NewsAsia . Singapore. 3 February 2016. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016 . Retrieved 8 February 2016 . ^ "Lee Kuan Yew lauded for critical role in China's reform and opening-up" . The Straits Times . Singapore. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . Works cited Sandhu, Kernial Singh; Wheatley, Paul (1989). Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789813035423 . Josey, Alex (1980). Lee Kuan Yew Vol. 2 . Times Books International. ISBN 9789971650438 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 October 2020 . Chan, Heng Chee (1984). A Sensation of Independence: A Political Biography of David Marshall . Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195826074 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 31 August 2021 . Conboy, Kenneth J. (January 1989), "Opportunities for Bush to Bolster the U.S.-Singapore Relationship" (PDF) , Asian Studies Backgrounder , 86 , archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021 , retrieved 3 March 2010 Régnier, Philippe (1991). Singapore: A City-state in South-East Asia . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 9789814713573 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Jones, Matthew (2000). "Creating Malaysia: Singapore security, the Borneo territories, and the contours of British policy, 1961–63" . The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History . 28 (2): 85– 109. doi : 10.1080/03086530008583091 . S2CID 159579207 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 9 June 2021 . Hefner, Robert W. (2001). The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia . University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824824877 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 . Mauzy, Diane K.; Milne, Robert Stephen (2002). Singapore Politics Under the People's Action Party . Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415246538 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 1 May 2021 . Yao, Souchou (2007). Singapore: The State and the Culture of Excess . Routledge. ISBN 9780415417112 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Weatherbee, Donald E. (2008). Historical Dictionary of United States-Southeast Asia Relations . Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810864054 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Lee, Edwin (2008). Singapore: The Unexpected Nation . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789812307965 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 31 August 2021 . Turnbull, C. M. (2009). A History of Modern Singapore: 1819–2005 . NUS Press. ISBN 9789971694302 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Frost, Mark R.; Balasingamchow, Yu-Mei (2009). Singapore: A Biography . Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 9789814385169 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . Yap, Sonny; Lim, Richard; Leong, Weng K. (2010). Men in White: The Untold Story of Singapore's Ruling Political Party . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814266512 . Pike, Francis (2010). Empires at War A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II . London: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857730299 . Poh, Soo K; Tan, Jing Quee; Koh, Kay Yew (2010). The Fajar Generation: The University Socialist Club and the Politics of Postwar Malaya and Singapore . SIRD. ISBN 9789833782864 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Quah, Jon S.T. (2011). Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream? . Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 9780857248190 . Leo, Suryadinata (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary, Volume I & II . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789814345217 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 12 August 2015 . Josey, Alex (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years . Marshall Cavendish International Asia. ISBN 9789814435499 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 . Tortajada, Cecilia; Joshi, Yugal; Biswas, Asit K. (2013). The Singapore Water Story: Sustainable Development in an Urban City-state . Routledge. ISBN 9780415657822 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Plate, Tom (2013). Giants of Asia: Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew . Marshall Cavendish Intl. ISBN 9789814398619 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Kah Seng, Loh (2013). Squatters into Citizens: The 1961 Bukit Ho Swee Fire and the Making of Modern Singapore . NUS Press. ISBN 9788776941222 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 31 August 2021 . Soo, Kai Poh; Hong, Lysa; Chen, Guofang (2013). The 1963 Operation Coldstore in Singapore, Commemorating 50 years . Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. ISBN 9789670630106 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Cotterell, Arthur (2014). A History of South-East Asia . Marshall Cavendish International Asia. ISBN 9789814634700 . Barr, Michael D. (2014). The Ruling Elite of Singapore: Networks of Power and Influence . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9780857723680 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . Oei, Anthony (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: Blazing The Freedom Trail . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814677875 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 28 July 2021 . Yeow, Stephanie (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: A Pictorial Memoir . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814642088 . Chew, Melanie (2015). Leaders Of Singapore . World Scientific. ISBN 9789810073336 . Zheng, Yongnian; Liang, Fook Lye (2015). Singapore-China Relations: 50 Years . World Scientific. ISBN 9789814713573 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 26 May 2021 . Kwa, Chong Guan; Heng, Derek; Borschberg, Peter; Tan, Tai Yong (2019). Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814868334 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 30 July 2021 . Jayakumar, Shashi (2021). A History of the People's Action Party, 1985–2021 . NUS Press. ISBN 9789813251281 . Further reading Primary sources Lee, Kuan Yew (1998). The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew . Times Editions. ISBN 9789812049834 . —— (2000). From Third World to First: 1965–2000: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew . HarperCollins . ISBN 9780060197766 . —— (2005). Keeping My Mandarin Alive: Lee Kuan Yew's Language Learning Experience . World Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN 9789812563828 . —— (2011). Hard Truths To Keep Singapore Going . Straits Times Press. ISBN 978-9814266727 . —— (2012). My Lifelong Challenge: Singapore's Bilingual Journey . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814342032 . —— (2013a). The Wit and Wisdom of Lee Kuan Yew . Didier Millet. ISBN 9789814385282 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . —— (2013b). One Man's View of the World . Straits Times Press. ISBN 9789814342568 . —— (2014). The Battle for Merger . National Archives of Singapore. ISBN 9789814342773 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2024 . Retrieved 16 June 2021 . Other sources Kassim, Yang Razali; Ali, Mushahid, eds. (2016). Reflections: The Legacy of Lee Kuan Yew . Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. doi : 10.1142/9811 . ISBN 978-9814723886 . Allison, Graham T.; Blackwill, Robert D.; Ali, Wyne (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States and the World . The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262019125 . Archived from the original on 31 January 2017 . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . Koh, Buck Song (2011). Brand Singapore: How Nation Branding Built Asia's Leading Global City . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-9814328159 . Plate, Tom (2010). Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew: Citizen Singapore: How to Build a Nation . Giants of Asia Series. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-9812616760 . Barr, Michael D. (2000). Lee Kuan Yew: The Beliefs Behind the Man . Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-0878408160 . Datta-Ray, Sunanda K. (2009). Looking East to Look West: Lee Kuan Yew's Mission India . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9814279048 . Gordon, Uri (2000). "Machiavelli's Tiger: Lee Kwan Yew and Singapore's Authoritarian regime" . King, Rodney (2008). The Singapore Miracle, Myth and Reality (2 ed.). Insight Press. ISBN 978-0977556700 . Fernandez, Warren; Tan, Sumiko; Lam, Sally; Tay, Hwee Peng (2015). Lee Kuan Yew: The Man and His Ideas . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-9814677684 . Lama, Murat (2016). Lee Kuan Yew: Singapour et le renouveau de la Chine (in French). Paris: Manitoba/Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 978-2-251-89020-3 . Minchin, James (1986). No Man is an Island: A Study of Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew . Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0868619064 . Bellows, Thomas J. (1989), "Singapore in 1988: The Transition Moves Forward", Asian Survey , 29 (2): 145– 153, doi : 10.2307/2644574 , JSTOR 2644574 External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Lee Kuan Yew at Wikimedia Commons Appearances on C-SPAN Portraits of Lee Kuan Yew at the National Portrait Gallery, London Quotations related to Lee Kuan Yew at Wikiquote Political offices New office Prime Minister of Singapore 1959–1990 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Minister for Finance Acting 1983 Succeeded by Tony Tan Vacant Title last held by S. Rajaratnam 1988 Senior Minister 1990–2004 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong New office Minister Mentor 2004–2011 Position abolished Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar SMC 1959–1991 Constituency abolished Member of Parliament for Tanjong Pagar GRC 1991–2015 Succeeded by Joan Pereira (Tanjong Pagar ward) Party political offices New office Secretary-General of the People's Action Party 1954–1992 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Prime ministers of Singapore v t e Lee Kuan Yew (1959–1990) Goh Chok Tong (1990–2004) Lee Hsien Loong (2004–2024) Lawrence Wong (2024–present) Lee Kuan Yew (1959–1990) Goh Chok Tong (1990–2004) Lee Hsien Loong (2004–2024) Lawrence Wong (2024–present) v t e Legal profession in Singapore v t e Executive officers Former Ministers for Law K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam Minister for Law Edwin Tong Former Attorneys-General Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Attorney-General Lucien Wong Former Ministers for Law K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam K. M. Byrne E. W. Barker S. Jayakumar K. Shanmugam Minister for Law Edwin Tong Edwin Tong Former Attorneys-General Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Ahmad Mohamed Ibrahim Tan Boon Teik Chan Sek Keong Chao Hick Tin Walter Woon Koh Juat Jong (acting) Sundaresh Menon Steven Chong V. K. Rajah Attorney-General Lucien Wong Lucien Wong Judicial officers Former Chief Justices Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon Judges of Appeal Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Judges of the Supreme Court Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Judicial Commissioners Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Notable former judges Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Former Chief Justices Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Wee Chong Jin Yong Pung How Chan Sek Keong Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon Sundaresh Menon Judges of Appeal Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Belinda Ang Steven Chong Tay Yong Kwang Judges of the Supreme Court Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Aedit Abdullah Chan Seng Onn Mavis Chionh Choo Han Teck Chua Lee Meng Vinodh Coomaraswamy Dedar Singh Gill Goh Yihan Hoo Sheau Peng Vincent Hoong Philip Jeyaretnam Kwek Mean Luck Lee Seiu Kin Audrey Lim Andre Maniam S. Mohan Hri Kumar Nair Debbie Ong Pang Khang Chau Andrew Phang Judith Prakash Kannan Ramesh See Kee Oon Tan Siong Thye Teh Hwee Hwee Valerie Thean Woo Bih Li Judicial Commissioners Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Christopher Tan Kristy Tan Alex Wong Notable former judges Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Abdul Wahab Ghows J. W. D. Ambrose Andrew Ang Ang Cheng Hock Murray Buttrose F. A. Chua Punch Coomaraswamy D. C. D'Cotta Goh Joon Seng Joseph Grimberg Kan Ting Chiu M. Karthigesu Warren Khoo Clifford Knight T. Kulasekaram Lai Kew Chai Lai Siu Chiu Quentin Loh Philip Pillai A. P. Rajah S. Rajendran Bala Reddy M. P. H. Rubin G. P. Selvam Choor Singh T. S. Sinnathuray Tan Ah Tah Tan Lee Meng Tan Puay Boon Tan Teow Yeow L. P. Thean George Wei Cuthbert Whitton A. V. Winslow Notable lawyers Ahmad Nizam Abbas Subhas Anandan Lawrence Ang Anil Balchandani Cavinder Bull Harry Elias N. Ganesan Hugh Hickling Michael Hwang Jane Ittogi Glenn Knight Koh Eng Tian Kwa Geok Choo John Laycock Lim Suet Fern Peter Low William Napier Noor Mohamed Marican Quek Mong Hua K. S. Rajah M Ravi Francis Seow Edmund Sim Davinder Singh Harpreet Singh Nehal Song Ong Siang Rajesh Sreenivasan Adrian Tan Tan Choo Leng Josephus Tan Roger Tan Tang Fong Har Teo Soon Kim Thio Shen Yi Eugene Thuraisingam Robert Carr Woods Lionel Yee Stephanie Yuen-Thio Ahmad Nizam Abbas Subhas Anandan Lawrence Ang Anil Balchandani Cavinder Bull Harry Elias N. Ganesan Hugh Hickling Michael Hwang Jane Ittogi Glenn Knight Koh Eng Tian Kwa Geok Choo John Laycock Lim Suet Fern Peter Low William Napier Noor Mohamed Marican Quek Mong Hua K. S. Rajah M Ravi Francis Seow Edmund Sim Davinder Singh Harpreet Singh Nehal Song Ong Siang Rajesh Sreenivasan Adrian Tan Tan Choo Leng Josephus Tan Roger Tan Tang Fong Har Teo Soon Kim Thio Shen Yi Eugene Thuraisingam Robert Carr Woods Lionel Yee Stephanie Yuen-Thio Notable academics Simon Chesterman Leslie Chew Leslie C. Green Harry E. Groves Tommy Koh Lionel A. Sheridan M. Sornarajah Tan Cheng Han David Tan Eugene Tan Tan Yock Lin Simon Tay Thio Li-ann Thio Su Mien Eleanor Wong Simon Chesterman Leslie Chew Leslie C. Green Harry E. Groves Tommy Koh Lionel A. Sheridan M. Sornarajah Tan Cheng Han David Tan Eugene Tan Tan Yock Lin Simon Tay Thio Li-ann Thio Su Mien Eleanor Wong Politicians with legal backgrounds Amrin Amin Chen Show Mao Chia Yong Yong Chiam See Tong Chin Tet Yung Jeannette Chong-Aruldoss Christopher de Souza He Ting Ru Ho Peng Kee J. B. Jeyaretnam Desmond Lee Ellen Lee Lee Kuan Yew Lim Biow Chuan Sylvia Lim Lim Tean Ling How Doong David Marshall Nadia Ahmad Samdin Vikram Nair Ong Kian Min Michael Palmer P. Selvadurai Murali Pillai Indranee Rajah Sin Boon Ann Pritam Singh Hany Soh Tan Chye Cheng Dennis Tan Tang Liang Hong Patrick Tay Edwin Tong Sandrasegaran Woodhull Alvin Yeo Charles Yeo Zhulkarnain Abdul Rahim Amrin Amin Chen Show Mao Chia Yong Yong Chiam See Tong Chin Tet Yung Jeannette Chong-Aruldoss Christopher de Souza He Ting Ru Ho Peng Kee J. B. Jeyaretnam Desmond Lee Ellen Lee Lee Kuan Yew Lim Biow Chuan Sylvia Lim Lim Tean Ling How Doong David Marshall Nadia Ahmad Samdin Vikram Nair Ong Kian Min Michael Palmer P. Selvadurai Murali Pillai Indranee Rajah Sin Boon Ann Pritam Singh Hany Soh Tan Chye Cheng Dennis Tan Tang Liang Hong Patrick Tay Edwin Tong Sandrasegaran Woodhull Alvin Yeo Charles Yeo Zhulkarnain Abdul Rahim Major law firms Allen & Gledhill A&O Shearman Ashurst Clifford Chance Clyde & Co CNPLaw Donaldson & Burkinshaw Drew & Napier Harry Elias Hill Dickinson Lee & Lee Morgan Lewis Stamford Rajah & Tann Rodyk & Davidson Shook Lin & Bok Spruson & Ferguson TSMP Law Corporation Withers KhattarWong WongPartnership Allen & Gledhill A&O Shearman Ashurst Clifford Chance Clyde & Co CNPLaw Donaldson & Burkinshaw Drew & Napier Harry Elias Hill Dickinson Lee & Lee Morgan Lewis Stamford Rajah & Tann Rodyk & Davidson Shook Lin & Bok Spruson & Ferguson TSMP Law Corporation Withers KhattarWong WongPartnership Law schools NUS Faculty of Law SUSS School of Law Yong Pung How School of Law NUS Faculty of Law SUSS School of Law Yong Pung How School of Law Legal organisations Law Society of Singapore Singapore Academy of Law Law Society of Singapore Singapore Academy of Law Member of multiple Parliaments of Singapore .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} v t e Members of the 12th Parliament of Singapore (2011–2015) Speaker: Halimah Yacob Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SPP : Singapore People's Party ; WP : The Workers' Party For NCMPs, Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong are from the WP, while Lina Loh is from the SPP. NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 11th Parliament of Singapore (2006–2011) Speaker: Abdullah Tarmugi Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SDA : Singapore Democratic Alliance ; WP : The Workers' Party NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 12th Parliament of Singapore (2011–2015) v t e Speaker: Halimah Yacob Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied WP Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Chen, S M Lim, S L Low, T K Faisal Singh Ang Mo Kio PAP Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Ang, H K Singh Intan Lee, H L Seng, H T Yeo, G K Bishan-Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy Gan, K Y Low, Y L Yam, Z M Yeo, K H Zaqy East Coast PAP Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Lee Y S Lim S K Lim, S S Maliki Tan, S N Holland-Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian de Souza Liang, E H Sim, Ann Vivian Jurong PAP Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Ang, W N Halimah Lee, T S Ong, K H Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Fatimah Goh, C T Seah, K P Tan, C J Tin, P L Moulmein-Kallang PAP Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Lui, T Y Phua, L P Tong, C F Yaacob Nee Soon PAP Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Lee, B W Lim, W K Faishal Shanmugam Tay, T G Pasir Ris-Punggol PAP Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Gan, T P Puthucheary Low, Penny Teo, C H Teo, S L Zainal Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Hawazi Khaw, B W Lee, G H Ong, T K Nair Tampines PAP Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Baey, Y K Heng, S K Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Tanjong Pagar PAP Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y Chan, C S Chia, S L Indranee Neo, Lily Lee, K Y West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Fong, Jen Foo, M H Iswaran Lim, H K Wong, S T Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Teo, H P Hong Kah North PAP Khor, L S Khor, L S Hougang WP Yaw, S L → Png, E H Yaw, S L → Png, E H Joo Chiat PAP Chong, Y F Chong, Y F Mountbatten PAP Lim, B C Lim, B C Pioneer PAP Foo, C K Foo, C K Potong Pasir PAP Sitoh, Y P Sitoh, Y P Punggol East PAP→WP Palmer → Lee, L L Palmer → Lee, L L Radin Mas PAP Tan, C S Tan, C S Sengkang West PAP Lam, P M Lam, P M Whampoa PAP Heng, C H Heng, C H Yuhua PAP Fu, H Y Fu, H Y Non-elected members Non-elected members NCMP Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J Giam, Y S Loh, W L Yee, J J NMPs Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y Dhinakaran Faizah Fang, K W Koh, Y M Lien, T C Liew, K E Tan, K B Tan, S S Teo, S S Chia, Y Y Chua, K S Karthikeyan Kuik, S Y Ismail Soh, S L Tan, C L Tan, G K Tan, T Y The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SPP : Singapore People's Party ; WP : The Workers' Party For NCMPs, Gerald Giam and Yee Jenn Jong are from the WP, while Lina Loh is from the SPP. NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 v t e Members of the 11th Parliament of Singapore (2006–2011) v t e Speaker: Abdullah Tarmugi Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) Aljunied PAP Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Lim, H H Phua, S G Yeo, G K Yeo, Y B Zainul Ang Mo Kio PAP Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Balaji Lam, P M Lee, B W Lee, H L Singh Wee, S K Bishan–Toa Payoh PAP Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin Nair Ng, E H Teo, L M Wong, K S Zainudin East Coast PAP Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Abdullah Jayakumar Lee Y S Lim S K Tan, S N Holland–Bukit Timah PAP de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S de Souza Liang, E H Lim, S S Vivian Yu-Foo, Y S Hong Kah PAP Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Ang, M S Khor, L S Yeo, C T Yeo, K H Zaqy Jalan Besar PAP Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Heng, C H Lee, B Y Neo, Lily Phua, L P Yaacob Jurong PAP Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Fu, H Y Halimah Lim, B H Ong, C C Tharman Marine Parade PAP Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Fatimah Faishal Goh, C T Lim, B C Ong, S H Seah, K P Pasir Ris–Punggol PAP Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Ahmad Chong, Y F Low, Penny Palmer Teo, C H Teo, S L Sembawang PAP Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Hawazi Khaw, B W Shanmugam Lee, G H Lim, W K Maliki Tampines PAP Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Mah, B T Masagos Ng, P H Ong, K M Sin, B A Tanjong Pagar PAP Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S Baey, Y K Indranee Koo, T K Lee, K Y Lui, T Y Tan, C S West Coast PAP Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Fong, Jen Foo, C K Ho, G C Iswaran Lim, H K Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Single Member Constituencies (SMCs) Bukit Panjang PAP Teo, H P Teo, H P Chua Chu Kang PAP Gan, K Y Gan, K Y Hougang WP Low, T K Low, T K Joo Chiat PAP Chan, S S Chan, S S MacPherson PAP Yao, Matthias Yao, Matthias Nee Soon Central PAP Ong, A H Ong, A H Nee Soon East PAP Ho, P K Ho, P K Potong Pasir SDA Chiam, S T Chiam, S T Yio Chu Kang PAP Seng, H T Seng, H T Non-elected members Non-elected members NCMP WP Lim, S L Lim, S L NMPs Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L Banarjee, G Cham, H F Khew, T F Loo, C Y Mehta, K K Olsen, E E Phua, W C Siew, K H Thio, L A Cheng, E L Lee, K H Viswa Tan, B M Straughan, Paulin Teo, S S Wee, Y T Wong, W Y Yeo, W L The party affiliation of each member is indicated right after the constituency he or she represents. PAP : People's Action Party ; SDA : Singapore Democratic Alliance ; WP : The Workers' Party NMPs do not belong to any party. There were two terms of NMPs in this parliament, with nine NMPs in each term. Other Current/Former MPs Nav Boxes 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 Biography Politics Singapore Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Israel Catalonia Academics CiNii CiNii People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Yale LUX IdRef Open Library NARA SNAC Yale LUX 1923 births 2015 deaths Alumni of the University of London Alumni of the London School of Economics Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge Conservatism in Singapore Deaths from pneumonia in Singapore Fellows of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge Singaporean politicians of Chinese descent Singaporean politicians of Hakka descent Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Honorary members of the Order of the Companions of Honour Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor Members of the Cabinet of Singapore Members of the Parliament of Singapore Members of the Dewan Rakyat Members of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore People's Action Party politicians Lee family (Singapore) Prime ministers of Singapore Raffles Institution alumni Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun Recipients of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers Singaporean agnostics Singaporean anti-communists Singaporean Confucianists Singaporean people of Hakka descent Hakka writers Singaporean people with disabilities Singaporean independence activists 20th-century Singaporean lawyers Lee Kuan Yew Politicians with dyslexia Lawyers with disabilities Peranakan people in Singapore Writers with dyslexia Radicals Critics of Islamism Ig Nobel laureates Singaporean Buddhists Recipients of the Order of Sikatuna All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2023 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links CS1: long volume value CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese (Singapore)-language sources (zh-sg) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2026 Use British English from July 2023 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Pages using Template:Post-nominals with customized linking Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles with empty listen template All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from October 2025 CS1 French-language sources (fr) Commons category link from Wikidata People appearing on C-SPAN National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 10:27 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew#cite_note-Natalism-228
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Events Toggle Events subsection 1.1 January 1.1 January 2 Scheduled events 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 2026 in science Беларуская Français 日本語 Română Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item List of years in science ( table ) … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … … 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 … Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... Art Archaeology Architecture Literature Music Philosophy Science +... .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following scientific events occurred, or are scheduled to occur in 2026 . Events January 1 January – Researchers operating China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) report the first experimental verification of a theorised density-free plasma operating regime, achieving stable electron densities approximately 1.3–1.65 times the Greenwald limit . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] 2 January – Researchers at the Vienna University of Technology and the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology demonstrate self-sustained superradiant microwave emission, produced by interacting spins in diamond , offering potential applications in quantum communication and sensing. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 4–8 January – 247th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society [ 5 ] 5 January – NASA announces that it has awarded contracts to seven companies to study technologies for the Habitable Worlds Observatory , a next-generation telescope that could launch in the 2040s. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] 7 January – Astronomers using data from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory report that 2025 MN 45 has the fastest spin of any known asteroid larger than 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in diameter, completing one rotation every 1.88 minutes. [ 8 ] 13 January – The European Copernicus Climate Change Service reports that 2025 was the world's third hottest year on record (2024 was the hottest and 2023 the second hottest). In Antarctica, the average annual temperature was the warmest since measurements began and in the Arctic, it was the second highest. [ 9 ] 14 January Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Researchers led by the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences report the first direct experimental observation of the Migdal effect, a quantum process in which a recoiling atomic nucleus ejects an electron, confirming a prediction made in 1939 and enabling new approaches to searches for light dark matter . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Researchers from the University of Copenhagen publish a Nature paper explaining little red dots as young and relatively small supermassive black holes enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The Ice Memory Foundation opens its ice core archive at Concordia Station in Antarctica, storing the first samples from glaciers on Grand Combin , Switzerland and Mont Blanc , France. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The samples travelled from Trieste for more than 50 days aboard the Italian icebreaker Laura Bassi . [ 18 ] Scheduled events NASA's first crewed lunar‑orbit mission in decades is slated for early 2026. [ 19 ] See also 2026 in spaceflight 2026 in Antarctica 2026 in climate change References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Liu, Jiaxing; Zhu, Ping; Escande, Dominique Franck; Liu, Wenbin; Xue, Shiwei; Lin, Xin; Tang, Panjun; Wang, Liang; Yan, Ning; Yang, Jinju; Duan, Yanmin; Jia, Kai; Wu, Zhenwei; Cheng, Yunxin; Zhang, Ling (2 January 2026). "Accessing the density-free regime with ECRH-assisted ohmic start-up on EAST" . Science Advances . 12 (1). doi : 10.1126/sciadv.adz3040 . ISSN 2375-2548 . PMC 12757026 . PMID 41477826 . ^ Mishra, Prabhat Ranjan (1 January 2026). "China's EAST Tokamak achieves stable operation at densities beyond limits" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Kersten, Wenzel; de Zordo, Nikolaus; Diekmann, Oliver; Redchenko, Elena S.; Kanagin, Andrew N.; Angerer, Andreas; Munro, William J.; Nemoto, Kae; Mazets, Igor E.; Rotter, Stefan; Pohl, Thomas; Schmiedmayer, Jörg (2 January 2026). "Self-induced superradiant masing" . Nature Physics . doi : 10.1038/s41567-025-03123-0 . ISSN 1745-2473 . ^ Paleja, Ameya (2 January 2026). "First self-powered quantum microwave signal achieved in experiment" . Interesting Engineering . Retrieved 4 January 2026 . ^ "Calendar" . Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ "NASA Selects Tech Proposals to Advance Search-for-Life Mission" . NASA . 5 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NASA seeks to accelerate development of Habitable Worlds Observatory" . Space News . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 7 January 2026 . ^ "NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Spots Record-Breaking Asteroid in Pre-Survey Observations" . Vera C. Rubin Observatory . 7 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2026 . ^ "Global Climate Highlights 2025" . copernicus.eu. 14 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Yi, Difan; Liu, Qian; Chen, Shi; Dong, Chunlai; Feng, Huanbo; Gao, Chaosong; Huang, Wenqian; Jing, Xinmei; Kong, Lingquan; Li, Jin; Li, Peirong; Liang, Enwei; Ma, Ruiting; Su, Chenguang; Su, Liangliang (15 January 2026). "Direct observation of the Migdal effect induced by neutron bombardment" . Nature . 649 (8097): 580– 583. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09918-8 . ISSN 0028-0836 . ^ Nuo, Xu (16 January 2026). "New finding to help probe dark matter" . global.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 16 January 2026 . ^ Communication, N. B. I. (15 January 2026). "Copenhagen researchers make the front page of Nature: Solving the mystery of the universe's 'little red dots' " . nbi.ku.dk . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Rusakov, V.; Watson, D.; Nikopoulos, G. P.; Brammer, G.; Gottumukkala, R.; Harvey, T.; Heintz, K. E.; Damgaard, R.; Sim, S. A.; Sneppen, A.; Vijayan, A. P.; Adams, N.; Austin, D.; Conselice, C. J.; Goolsby, C. M. (2026). "Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons" . Nature . 649 (8097): 574– 579. doi : 10.1038/s41586-025-09900-4 . ISSN 1476-4687 . ^ "Ice from Swiss glacier is safely stored in Antarctica" . blue News . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antarctica ice sanctuary launched to preserve the cores of dying glaciers" . Yahoo News . 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Schneehöhle als Klima-Archiv der Erde: Erste Eisbohrkerne in Antarktis-Lagerstätte" . stern.de (in German). 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ Stocker, Thomas (14 January 2026). "La première bibliothèque de carottes glaciaires en Antarctique pour protéger la mémoire climatique de l'humanité" . The Conversation . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Antartide: nasce archivio mondiale ghiaccio con primi campioni da Alpi - Borsa Italiana" . www.borsaitaliana.it . Retrieved 14 January 2026 . ^ "Artemis II 2026: NASA prepares first crewed mission to circle around the moon in 50 years, scheduled for February" . The Times of India . 25 September 2025. ISSN 0971-8257 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to 2026 in science at Wikimedia Commons v t e 2020s articles v t e History Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Decade overview Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Africa Asia Europe Electoral data Military Economic Environmental Science and technology Social Politics Timeline of the 21st century List of nations United States Lists: List of current heads of state and government List of protests in the 21st century List of ongoing armed conflicts Events COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine COVID-19 Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession Pandemic Portal Economic impact Recession 2020 stock market crash 2016 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Treaty descheduling of cannabis 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Govt UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size UN UN Security Council NATO EU African Union Arab League OAS BRICS List of all groups Major groups, by size Years Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Politics: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Science: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Arts: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Sports: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Categories General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling General: Lists Timelines By year Historical: 2020s By country Economics Politics Women's history Trends Topical: Technology Transport Computing Transport Computing Science Health Arts and culture Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Art Paintings Sculptures Literature Music Fashion Sports Wrestling Wrestling Portal:Current events v t e Overviews of the 2020s v t e History World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history United Kingdom World Africa Asia Europe North America Sovereign states: United States Political history Political history United Kingdom Culture Film Music Latin Fashion Video games Film Music Latin Latin Fashion Video games Societal Society Economy Society Economy Science Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Science and technology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Computing Sustainable energy Anti-aging Biotechnology Quantum IT Transportation technology Cosmology Psychology Environment Spaceflight Related Year in topic List of timelines Year in topic List of timelines Science Technology Astronomy Outer space Current events 2026 in science 21st century in science 2020s in technology 2026-related lists Science timelines by year CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from December 2025 Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 02:35 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_in_science#January
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-520-37922-0 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 71, figure 9. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 72. ^ Byzantine Chronicle. "Imperial first times/last times" . Retrieved 4 December 2024 . ^ "Barba – NumisWiki, The Collaborative Numismatics Project" . Forum Ancient Coins . Retrieved 7 November 2012 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91. ^ Jane E. Everson (2001). The Italian Romance Epic in the Age of Humanism: The Matter of Italy and the World of Rome . Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-816015-1 . ^ Stewart James Mottram (2008). Empire and Nation in Early English Renaissance Literature . Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-84384-182-1 . ^ Richard L. Kagan (2009). Clio and the Crown: The Politics of History in Medieval and Early Modern Spain . JHU Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4214-0165-2 . ^ Mulligan, pp. 262–264. ^ Fourlas 2020. ^ Seidel, 237–239. ^ Bettegazzi, Nicolò; Lamers, Han; Reitz-Joosse, Bettina (December 2019). "Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . Bibliography Ancient sources Athanasius of Alexandria. Apologia contra Arianos ( Defence against the Arians ) c. 349 . Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia Contra Arianos . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Apologia Contra Arianos . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Athanasius of Alexandria Epistola de Decretis Nicaenae Synodi ( Letter on the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea ) c. 352 . Newman, John Henry, trans. De Decretis . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Newman, John Henry, trans. De Decretis . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Athanasius of Alexandria Historia Arianorum ( History of the Arians ) c. 357 . Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Historia Arianorum From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. Historia Arianorum From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sextus Aurelius Victor , Liber de Caesaribus ( Book on the Caesars ) c. 361 . Codex Theodosianus ( Theodosian Code ) 439. Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes 2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R. W. B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble . Retrieved 25 August 2009. Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at AncientRome.ru . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes 2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R. W. B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble . Retrieved 25 August 2009. Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at AncientRome.ru . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Codex Justinianeus ( Justinianic Code or Code of Justinian ). Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian , in The Civil Law . 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Krueger, Paul, ed. (1954). Codex Justinianus (in Latin). Berlin: Apud Weidmannos. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012 . Retrieved 28 September 2009 – via the Internet Archive. Scott, Samuel P., trans. The Code of Justinian , in The Civil Law . 17 vols. 1932. Online at the Constitution Society . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Krueger, Paul, ed. (1954). Codex Justinianus (in Latin). Berlin: Apud Weidmannos. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012 . Retrieved 28 September 2009 – via the Internet Archive. Constantine the Great, Speech to the Assembly of the Saints . Girardet, Klaus Martin (2013). Konstantin, Rede an die Versammlung der Heiligen – Oratio ad sanctorum coetum. Einleitung, griechischer Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar. Fontes Christiani vol. 55. Freiburg: Herder, ISBN 978-3-451-30957-1 . Girardet, Klaus Martin (2013). Konstantin, Rede an die Versammlung der Heiligen – Oratio ad sanctorum coetum. Einleitung, griechischer Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar. Fontes Christiani vol. 55. Freiburg: Herder, ISBN 978-3-451-30957-1 . Constantine the Great, Letters Maraval, Pierre (2010). Constantin, Lettres et discours. La roue à livres, volume 57. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, ISBN 978-2-251-33958-0 . Maraval, Pierre (2010). Constantin, Lettres et discours. La roue à livres, volume 57. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, ISBN 978-2-251-33958-0 . Epitome de Caesaribus ( Epitome on the Caesars ) c. 395 . Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores . Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores . Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. De Rebus Bellicis ( On Military Matters ) fourth/fifth century. Eunapius , History from Dexippus first edition c. 390 , second edition c. 415 . [Fragmentary] Eusebius of Caesarea . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul IV 315 with Licinius Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus Vettius Rufinus Preceded by Licinius Crispus Roman consul V–VI 319–320 with Licinius II Constantine II Succeeded by Crispus Constantine II Preceded by Sex. Anicius Paulinus Julius Julianus Roman consul VII 326 with Constantius II Succeeded by Flavius Constantius Valerius Maximus Preceded by Januarinus Vettius Iustus Roman consul VIII 329 with Constantine II Succeeded by Gallicanus Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus Legendary titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus King of Britain Succeeded by Octavius v t e History of the Catholic Church v t e General History of the Catholic Church By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven Catholic Bible Biblical canon Vulgate Crusading movement History of the Roman Curia Religious institutes Christian monasticism Catholic culture Art Role in civilization Vatican City Papal States Latin Church Eastern Catholic Churches History of Catholic theology History of the Catholic Church By country or region By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven First seven Catholic Bible Biblical canon Vulgate Biblical canon Vulgate Crusading movement History of the Roman Curia Religious institutes Christian monasticism Catholic culture Art Role in civilization Art Role in civilization Vatican City Papal States Latin Church Eastern Catholic Churches History of Catholic theology Early Church (30–325/476) Origins and Apostolic Age (30–100) Jesus Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Holy Spirit Mary John the Baptist Apostles in the New Testament Commissioning Peter John Paul Stephen Council of Jerusalem Split with Judaism New Testament Background Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Ante-Nicene period (100–325) Persecution Church Fathers Apostolic Fathers Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Justin Martyr Canon Tertullian Origen Late antiquity (313–476) Great Church (180–451) Roman state church (380–451) Constantine the Great Christianity Arian controversy Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Old St. Peter's Basilica First Council of Nicaea Pope Sylvester I First Council of Constantinople Biblical canon Jerome Vulgate Council of Ephesus Council of Chalcedon Origins and Apostolic Age (30–100) Jesus Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Holy Spirit Mary John the Baptist Apostles in the New Testament Commissioning Peter John Paul Stephen Council of Jerusalem Split with Judaism New Testament Background Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Jesus Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Holy Spirit Mary John the Baptist Apostles in the New Testament Commissioning Peter John Paul Commissioning Peter John Paul Stephen Council of Jerusalem Split with Judaism New Testament Background Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Background Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Ante-Nicene period (100–325) Persecution Church Fathers Apostolic Fathers Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Justin Martyr Canon Tertullian Origen Persecution Church Fathers Apostolic Fathers Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Apostolic Fathers Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Pope Clement I Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Justin Martyr Canon Tertullian Origen Late antiquity (313–476) Great Church (180–451) Roman state church (380–451) Constantine the Great Christianity Arian controversy Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Old St. Peter's Basilica First Council of Nicaea Pope Sylvester I First Council of Constantinople Biblical canon Jerome Vulgate Council of Ephesus Council of Chalcedon Great Church (180–451) Roman state church (380–451) Constantine the Great Christianity Arian controversy Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Old St. Peter's Basilica First Council of Nicaea Pope Sylvester I First Council of Constantinople Biblical canon Jerome Vulgate Council of Ephesus Council of Chalcedon Constantine the Great Christianity Christianity Arian controversy Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran Old St. Peter's Basilica First Council of Nicaea Pope Sylvester I First Council of Constantinople Biblical canon Jerome Vulgate Council of Ephesus Council of Chalcedon Early Middle Ages Benedict of Nursia Monasticism Second Council of Constantinople Pope Gregory I Gregorian chant Third Council of Constantinople Saint Boniface Byzantine Iconoclasm Second Council of Nicaea Charlemagne Pope Leo III Fourth Council of Constantinople East–West Schism Benedict of Nursia Monasticism Second Council of Constantinople Pope Gregory I Gregorian chant Third Council of Constantinople Saint Boniface Byzantine Iconoclasm Second Council of Nicaea Charlemagne Pope Leo III Fourth Council of Constantinople East–West Schism High Middle Ages Pope Urban II Investiture Controversy Clash against the empire Crusades Universities Scholasticism First Council of the Lateran Second Council of the Lateran Third Council of the Lateran Pope Innocent III Latin Empire Francis of Assisi Fourth Council of the Lateran Inquisition First Council of Lyon Second Council of Lyon Bernard of Clairvaux Pope Urban II Investiture Controversy Clash against the empire Crusades Universities Scholasticism First Council of the Lateran Second Council of the Lateran Third Council of the Lateran Pope Innocent III Latin Empire Francis of Assisi Fourth Council of the Lateran Inquisition First Council of Lyon Second Council of Lyon Bernard of Clairvaux Late Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas Pope Boniface VIII Western Schism Avignon Papacy Pope Clement V Council of Vienne Knights Templar Catherine of Siena Pope Alexander VI Age of Discovery Thomas Aquinas Pope Boniface VIII Western Schism Avignon Papacy Avignon Papacy Pope Clement V Council of Vienne Knights Templar Catherine of Siena Pope Alexander VI Age of Discovery Protestant Reformation Counter-Reformation Protestant Reformation Catholic Counter-Reformation Exsurge Domine Dissolution of the monasteries Council of Trent Thomas More Pope Leo X Society of Jesus Ignatius of Loyola Francis Xavier Pope Pius V Tridentine Mass Teresa of Ávila John of the Cross Peter Canisius Philip Neri Robert Bellarmine European wars of religion Thirty Years' War Protestant Reformation Catholic Counter-Reformation Exsurge Domine Dissolution of the monasteries Council of Trent Thomas More Pope Leo X Society of Jesus Ignatius of Loyola Francis Xavier Pope Pius V Tridentine Mass Teresa of Ávila John of the Cross Peter Canisius Philip Neri Robert Bellarmine European wars of religion Thirty Years' War Baroque period to the French Revolution Pope Innocent XI Pope Benedict XIV Suppression of the Society of Jesus Age of Enlightenment Anti-clericalism Pope Pius VI Shimabara Rebellion Edict of Nantes Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution Pope Innocent XI Pope Benedict XIV Suppression of the Society of Jesus Age of Enlightenment Anti-clericalism Pope Pius VI Shimabara Rebellion Edict of Nantes Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution 19th century Pope Pius VII Pope Pius IX United States Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary Our Lady of La Salette Our Lady of Lourdes First Vatican Council Papal infallibility Pope Leo XIII Mary of the Divine Heart Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart Rerum novarum Pope Pius VII Pope Pius IX United States Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary Our Lady of La Salette Our Lady of Lourdes First Vatican Council Papal infallibility Pope Leo XIII Mary of the Divine Heart Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart Rerum novarum 20th century Pope Pius X Our Lady of Fátima Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII Pope Pius XII Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary Lateran Treaty Nazi Germany Mit brennender Sorge Pope John XXIII Pacem in terris Second Vatican Council Ecumenism Judaism Pope Paul VI ( coronation ) Pope John Paul I Mother Teresa USSR Pope John Paul II HIV/AIDS World Youth Day 1995 Pope Pius X Our Lady of Fátima Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII Pope Pius XII Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary Lateran Treaty Nazi Germany Mit brennender Sorge Pope John XXIII Pacem in terris Second Vatican Council Ecumenism Judaism Pope Paul VI ( coronation ) Pope John Paul I Mother Teresa USSR Pope John Paul II HIV/AIDS World Youth Day 1995 1995 21st century Sexual abuse scandal Islam World Youth Day 2000 2002 2005 2008 2011 2013 2016 2019 2023 Pope Benedict XVI Pope Francis Laudato si' Patriarch Kirill COVID-19 pandemic Pope Leo XIV Sexual abuse scandal Islam World Youth Day 2000 2002 2005 2008 2011 2013 2016 2019 2023 2000 2002 2005 2008 2011 2013 2016 2019 2023 Pope Benedict XVI Pope Francis Laudato si' Patriarch Kirill COVID-19 pandemic Pope Leo XIV Vatican City portal Catholicism portal Vatican City portal Catholicism portal v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and empresses regnant v t e Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#cite_ref-163
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Background 2 Battle 3 Aftermath 4 Poetic tributes 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Battle of Abu Klea العربية Azərbaycanca Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano 日本語 Polski Português Русский Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article includes a list of general references , but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. ( January 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Battle of Abu Klea Part of the Mahdist War The Battle of Abu Klea by William Barnes Wollen Date 17 January 1885 Location Khartoum .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 16°59′00″N 33°18′00″E / 16.9833333°N 33.3°E / 16.9833333; 33.3 Result British victory Date 17 January 1885 Location Khartoum .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 16°59′00″N 33°18′00″E / 16.9833333°N 33.3°E / 16.9833333; 33.3 Result British victory Belligerents United Kingdom India United Kingdom India Mahdist State Commanders and leaders Herbert Stewart ( DOW ) Muhammad Ahmad Strength 1,400 [ 1 ] 14,000 (3,000 engaged in the battle) [ 1 ] Casualties and losses 74 killed 94 wounded 1,100 killed, unknown wounded .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Mahdist War v t e Mahdist uprising (1881–1885) Aba Shaykan El Teb Tamai Khartoum Abu Klea Abu Kru Kirbekan Tofrek Ginnis British-Egyptian expeditions (1885–1889) Emin Pasha Expedition Dufile Suakin Toski Ethiopian campaigns (1885–1889) Kufit Guté Dili Madana Gallabat Italian campaigns (1890–1894) 1st Agordat Serobeti 2nd Agordat Kassala British-Egyptian reconquest (1896–1899) Ferkeh Rejaf Abu Hamed Atbara Omdurman Umm Diwaykarat Aba Shaykan El Teb Tamai Khartoum Abu Klea Abu Kru Kirbekan Tofrek Ginnis British-Egyptian expeditions (1885–1889) Emin Pasha Expedition Dufile Suakin Toski Ethiopian campaigns (1885–1889) Kufit Guté Dili Madana Gallabat Italian campaigns (1890–1894) 1st Agordat Serobeti 2nd Agordat Kassala British-Egyptian reconquest (1896–1899) Ferkeh Rejaf Abu Hamed Atbara Omdurman Umm Diwaykarat The Battle of Abu Klea , also known as the Battle of Abu Tulayh , took place between 16 and 18 January 1885, at Abu Klea, Sudan , between the British Desert Column and Mahdist forces encamped near Abu Klea. The Desert Column, a force of approximately 1,400 soldiers, started from Korti , Sudan on 30 December 1884; the Desert Column's mission, in a joint effort titled the " Gordon Relief Expedition ", was to march across the Bayuda Desert to the aid of General Charles George Gordon at Khartoum , Sudan, who was besieged there by Mahdist forces. The place is generally known in British military records as Abu Klea, which arose as a contemporary British spelling of its Arabic name, ' Abu Tͅuleiħ (أَبُو طُلَيْح). The British commander Sir Herbert Stewart was mortally wounded during the battle. Background The British forces consisted of 1,400 British of the Desert Column under Sir Herbert Stewart , against a Sudanese force of approximately 14,000 fighters. [ 1 ] While the main British force (the River Column), led by General Sir Garnet Wolseley travelled by river from Korti to Khartoum, Stewart's column was to cut across country by column directly for Khartoum, since time was running short according to what little information was available from the garrison. The force was composed of four regiments of camel-mounted troops (Guards, Heavy, Light and Mounted Infantry), detachments of the various infantry regiments in Egypt and of the River Column, and a detachment of the 19th Hussars , mounted on horses. Four light field pieces and a small Naval Brigade manning a Gardner machine gun completed the force. [ 2 ] Units involved included: [ 3 ] [ 4 ] 19th Hussars (1 Squadron) Heavy Camel Regiment Guards Camel Regiment Mounted Infantry Camel Regiment 1st Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment (4 companies) Royal Marines Light Infantry Royal Navy Brigade (detachment) Battle The Desert Column arrived on the salient overlooking the wadi of Abu Klea not long before sunset, and Stewart decided not to attack that night. The British built a defensive position (or zariba ), but were sniped at from the high ground around them by Mahdist rifle units – mainly soldiers from southern Sudan – all night. They took several casualties. At first light Stewart ordered them to form a square , which they achieved with perfect discipline, though still under fire from enemy snipers. The square moved slowly towards the wells along the side of the wadi, over very difficult, undulating, rocky ground. Suddenly the square was ambushed by a huge Mahdist force that had been concealing itself in the wadi. As victory was believed to be divinely ordained, the Mahdi ordered his men not to carry shields into battle. [ 4 ] The British guns were on the leading face of the square, and the Naval Brigade, with their Gardner machine gun, at the rear left-hand corner, nearest the wadi. Several officers and men of HMS Alexandra were killed at the battle. As the British halted to repel the Mahdist force, a gap opened up towards the rear left corner of the square. This was caused when Captain Lord Charles Beresford RN, commanding the Naval Brigade, ordered the Gardner gun to be run out on the left flank of the infantry square to provide covering fire. Colonel Frederick Gustavus Burnaby then gave an impromptu order for the Heavy Camel Regiment to wheel out of the square in support of the Gardner gun. The gun had been tested and found very reliable in Britain, but had not been tested in a desert with loose sand getting into its mechanism. It fired seventy rounds and then jammed, and as the crew tried to clear it they were cut down in a rush by the dervishes . Out of the forty men in the Naval contingent, Lieutenants Alfred Piggott and Rudolph de Lisle were killed along with Chief Boatswain's Mate Bill (Billy) Rhodes and five other seamen and seven more were wounded. Beresford was 'scratched' on the left hand by a spear as he managed to duck under the gun. The weight of the rush pushed the sailors back into the face of the square. Several dervishes got inside the square, but found the interior full of camels and could not proceed. The troops in the rear ranks faced about and opened fire into the press of men and camels behind them, and were able to drive the dervishes out of the square and compel them to retreat from the field. The battle was short, lasting barely fifteen minutes from start to finish. Casualties for the British were nine officers and 65 other ranks killed and over a hundred wounded. The Mahdists lost 1,100 dead and many hundreds wounded during the fifteen minutes of fighting, made all the worse by only 3,000–5,000 of the dervish force being engaged. [ 1 ] [ 5 ] Among the dervish dead was Musa wad Helu, one of the Mahdist chiefs. British national hero Colonel F. G. Burnaby of the Royal Horse Guards was killed by a spear to the throat. The Times reported that he "fell while reforming a broken British square" (this being one of only two recorded cases of a British square 'breaking' in the 19th century). [ 6 ] Frank Rhodes (brother of Cecil ) distinguished himself when several horses were shot under him during the engagement, earning him a Distinguished Service Order . Gunner Alfred Smith fought bravely to save his officer, Lieutenant Guthrie, and was awarded a Victoria Cross . Aftermath The Desert Column set out from Abu Klea in the late afternoon of 18 January and marched through the night towards Metemmeh. It fought a battle on the afternoon of 19 January near Abu Kru, in the vicinity of Metemmeh, in which it repulsed another charge by the Mahdists. The column's leader, Major General Herbert Stewart , was wounded by Remington rifle fire that night and transferred command to an inexperienced leader, Brigadier General Charles Wilson , his intelligence officer (Stewart would die of his wound a month later). Wilson was slow to organize his forces, and in tarrying another day, it was he who was the cause of that advance detachment's delay. On 20 January a flotilla of four steamers with a motley force of Sudanese and Egyptian troops sent downriver by Gordon reached the British camp. After some reconnaissance up and down the river, Wilson set off towards Khartoum with two of the steamers and a small force on 24 January. His orders from Wolseley were to make contact and confer with Gordon. [ 7 ] They arrived after 11 o’clock on 28 January and were met with enemy fire from the riverbanks. Khartoum had fallen to the Mahdi on 26 January and Gordon had been killed. The British then withdrew from the Sudan, leaving the Mahdi to rule Sudan for the next 13 years. The official public blame for this failure was left with Prime Minister Gladstone for delaying several months to authorise a rescue, to the considerable anger expressed in public of Queen Victoria . Poetic tributes The battle was celebrated by the doggerel poet William McGonagall : Ye sons of Mars , come join with me, And sing in praise of Sir Herbert Stewart’s little army, That made ten thousand Arabs flee At the charge of the bayonet at Abou Klea Ye sons of Mars , come join with me, And sing in praise of Sir Herbert Stewart’s little army, That made ten thousand Arabs flee At the charge of the bayonet at Abou Klea and so on for 19 stanzas. [ 8 ] The battle and one of its notable participants is mentioned in the song "Colonel Burnaby", which has as its chorus: Weep not my boys, for those who fell, They did not flinch nor fear. They stood their ground like Englishmen, and died at Abu Klea Weep not my boys, for those who fell, They did not flinch nor fear. They stood their ground like Englishmen, and died at Abu Klea The rhymes in these poems show varying attempts at pronouncing "Klea" from the English spelling, and the rhyme with "fear" shows British English arhotic pronunciation. More celebrated and of higher literary quality [ according to whom? ] , but taking substantial liberties for the exact events, is the mention of the battle in verse two of Sir Henry Newbolt 's poem Vitai Lampada : …The sand of the desert is sodden red, Red with the wreck of a square that broke; The Gatling 's jammed and the colonel dead, And the regiment blind with dust and smoke. The river of death has brimmed his banks, And England’s far, and Honour a name, But the voice of the schoolboy rallies the ranks, "Play up! play up! and play the game!” …The sand of the desert is sodden red, Red with the wreck of a square that broke; The Gatling 's jammed and the colonel dead, And the regiment blind with dust and smoke. The river of death has brimmed his banks, And England’s far, and Honour a name, But the voice of the schoolboy rallies the ranks, "Play up! play up! and play the game!” "The wreck of a square" is a severe exaggeration, and Newbolt conflated Abu Klea with other events such as the Battle of Tamai ; most of the dead were Mahdists. Newbolt's reference to the Gatling is wrong, as the British force at Abu Klea had the American Gardner machine gun. The Royal Artillery unit which took part in the battle still exists today, re-numbered as 176 Battery , and has the honour title "Abu Klea", awarded in 1955 in recognition of the Victoria Cross won by Gunner Smith. The battle, together with that of Tamai, was also referenced in Rudyard Kiplings poem " Fuzzy-Wuzzy ", voiced as a common soldiers begrudged tribute to the fighting prowess of the Beja people . The last lines read: [ 9 ] So 'ere's ~to~ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, at your 'ome in the Soudan; You're a pore benighted 'eathen but a first-class fightin' man; An' 'ere's ~to~ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, with your 'ayrick 'ead of 'air — You big black boundin' beggar — for you broke a British square! So 'ere's ~to~ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, at your 'ome in the Soudan; You're a pore benighted 'eathen but a first-class fightin' man; An' 'ere's ~to~ you, Fuzzy-Wuzzy, with your 'ayrick 'ead of 'air — You big black boundin' beggar — for you broke a British square! See also The Triumph of the Sun (2005 novel) by Wilbur Smith Khartoum (film) The Four Feathers , a film from 2002, where the battle is portrayed very different from reality and as a disastrous defeat instead of a victory. References ^ a b c d .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Battle of Abu Klea" . BritishBattles.com . Retrieved 19 February 2023 . ^ Johnson, Doug. "The Desert Column, 1884–5" . Savage and Soldier . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . ^ "Sudan Wars, 1884–1889" . 20 October 2007. Archived from the original on 20 October 2007 . Retrieved 21 August 2020 . ^ a b Snook, Mike (2008). Into the Jaws of Death: British Military Blunders 1879 - 1900 . Havertown: Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-84415-706-8 . ^ Dictionary of battles from the earliest date to the present time by Thomas Benfield Harbottle, 1904 ^ White-Spunner, pp. 400–408 ^ Snook, Mike (2013). Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to Save Gordon and Khartoum' . Frontline. pp. 166– 168. ^ McGonagall, William (1885). "The Battle of Abu Klea" . McGonagall Online . ^ Ayers, R. (25 March 2021). "Fuzzy-Wuzzy" . The Kipling Society . Retrieved 15 June 2023 . Asher, Michael , "Khartoum - The Ultimate Imperial Adventure" Penguin, 2004. Includes a vivid description of the battle from the perspective of both British and Mahdist forces. Craig, Simon, "Breaking the Square: Dervishes vs. Brits at the 1885 Battle of Abu Klea", Military Heritage , volume 3, No. 3 (December 2001), 78–84. (Describes the failed British attempt to rescue major general Charles Gordon and friendly forces at Khartoum from the Dervishes led by the Mahdi.) Churchill, Winston Spencer. The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan , Middlesex: The Echo Library, 2007. 43–48. White-Spunner [ full citation needed ] Snook, Col Mike, "Beyond the Reach of Empire: Wolseley's Failed Campaign to Save Gordon and Khartoum." (London, 2013). ISBN 978-1-84832-601-9 . External links The Battle of Abu Klea Full text of the poem, from McGonagall Online. Abu Clea Painting by Karl Kopinski 1885 in Sudan Conflicts in 1885 Battles of the Mahdist War January 1885 Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2011 All articles lacking in-text citations Use dmy dates from October 2020 Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2024 All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from January 2024 Pages using the Kartographer extension This page was last edited on 14 December 2025, at 08:08 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abu_Klea
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Luganda Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى ဘာသာမန် مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ Mfantse Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Naijá Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oromoo Oshiwambo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ पालि Pälzisch Pangasinan پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois Перем коми ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Tok Pisin Plattdüütsch Polski Ποντιακά Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Reo tahiti Ripoarisch Română Romani čhib Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् Sängö ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Sesotho Sesotho sa Leboa Setswana Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي SiSwati Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Sranantongo Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça တႆး తెలుగు Tetun ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ ትግርኛ Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Tshivenda ತುಳು Türkçe Türkmençe Twi Tyap Тыва дыл Удмурт Basa Ugi Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon Wayuunaiki 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 Xitsonga ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Obolo Batak Toba Betawi Kadazandusun Ghanaian Pidgin Jaku Iban Igala Kumoring Yerwa Kanuri IsiNdebele seSewula Nupe ရခိုင် ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ Tolışi Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikidata item The logo of Wikipedia , a globe made out of puzzle pieces featuring glyphs from various writing systems .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). "7 reasons you should donate to Wikipedia" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 27, 2023 . ^ a b "Wikipedia is 20, and its reputation has never been higher" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 7, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ Anderson, Chris (May 8, 2006). "Jimmy Wales – The 2006 Time 100" . Time . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved November 11, 2017 . ^ "wikipedia.org" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on June 5, 2020 . Retrieved January 9, 2026 . ^ Treisman, Rachel (April 1, 2022). "Russia threatens to fine Wikipedia if it doesn't remove some details about the war" . NPR . Archived from the original on December 2, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ a b Skipper, Ben (December 7, 2015). "China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again" . International Business Times UK . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Noor, Poppy (July 29, 2018). "Wikipedia biases" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on November 9, 2020 . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ Hern, Alex (September 15, 2015). "Wikipedia's view of the world is written by the west" . The Guardian . Retrieved May 31, 2024 . ^ "Happy Birthday, Wikipedia" . The Economist . January 9, 2021. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Cooke, Richard (February 17, 2020). "Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 17, 2022 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . ^ Kelly, Samantha Murphy (May 20, 2022). "Meet the Wikipedia editor who published the Buffalo shooting entry minutes after it started" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 12, 2022 . Retrieved May 24, 2022 . ^ McNamee, Kai (September 15, 2022). "Fastest 'was' in the West: Inside Wikipedia's race to cover the queen's death" . NPR . Archived from the original on January 15, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Garber, Megan (October 12, 2011). "The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed?" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Kock, Ned ; Jung, Yusun; Syn, Thant (2016). "Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges" (PDF) . International Journal of e-Collaboration . 12 (2). IGI Global: 1– 8. doi : 10.4018/IJeC.2016040101 . ISSN 1548-3681 . Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2016. ^ Sidener, Jonathan (December 6, 2004). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on October 11, 2007 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ Meyers, Peter (September 20, 2001). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" . The New York Times . Retrieved November 22, 2007 . 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. ^ a b c Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Tech Rewind: How Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia came to be" . Mid-day . January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 7. ^ Larry Sanger (January 11, 2001). "Re: [Advisory-l] The wiki..." Nupedia mailing list. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. ^ Miliard, Mike (March 1, 2008). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" . Salt Lake City Weekly . Archived from the original on April 2, 2009 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . ^ Sidener, Jonathan (October 9, 2006). "Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego" . The San Diego Union-Tribune . Archived from the original on November 11, 2016 . Retrieved May 5, 2009 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 29. ^ Finkelstein, Seth (September 25, 2008). "Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 18 (15th ed.). 2007. pp. 257– 286. ^ Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations . The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader. p. 273 . ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H. ; Pirolli, Peter (October 25, 2009). "The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . WikiSym '09. ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . Archived from the original on September 26, 2024 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Johnson, Bobbie (August 12, 2009). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ Morozov, Evgeny (November–December 2009). "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" . Boston Review . Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. ^ Cohen, Noam (March 28, 2009). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. ^ Gibbons, Austin; Vetrano, David; Biancani, Susan (2012). "Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow" (PDF) . Stanford Network Analysis Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2014. ^ Kleeman, Jenny (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018 . Retrieved December 13, 2016 . ^ Ortega Soto, José Felipe (2009). Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (PhD thesis). Rey Juan Carlos University. hdl : 10115/11239 . Archived from the original on March 14, 2023 . Retrieved March 14, 2023 . ^ Fowler, Geoffrey A.; Angwin, Julia (November 27, 2009). "Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on December 4, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Barnett, Emma (November 26, 2009). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved March 31, 2010 . ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (August 8, 2011). "Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors" . The Independent . Archived from the original on April 21, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2012 . ^ a b c d e Simonite, Tom (October 22, 2013). "The Decline of Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on July 31, 2022 . Retrieved November 30, 2013 . ^ a b Meyer, Robinson (July 16, 2012). "3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Ward, Katherine (November 25, 2013). New York Magazine. p. 18. ^ F., G. (May 5, 2013). "Who really runs Wikipedia?" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ Mandiberg, Michael (February 23, 2020). "Mapping Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on November 15, 2021 . Retrieved November 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Varma, Subodh (January 20, 2014). "Google eating into Wikipedia page views?" . The Economic Times . Archived from the original on December 11, 2022 . Retrieved February 10, 2014 . ^ a b c "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites" . Alexa Internet . Archived from the original on February 3, 2021 . Retrieved December 28, 2016 . ^ "Citations of Wikipedia as an Online Resource" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ "Citations of Cloud Computing" . exaly. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022 . Retrieved November 4, 2022 . ^ Woods, Dan; Theony, Peter (2007). "3: The Thousand Problem-Solving Faces of Wikis". Wikis for dummies (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons . p. 58. ISBN 978-1-118-05066-8 . OCLC 1300481129 . OL 5741003W . ^ "NET News: Calling All Taxonomists" . Science . 307 (5712): 1021. February 18, 2005. doi : 10.1126/science.307.5712.1021a . S2CID 220095354 . ^ Luyt, Brendan (January 1, 2020). "A new kind of travel guide or more of the same? Wikivoyage and Cambodia". Online Information Review . 45 (2): 356– 371. doi : 10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0104 . ^ a b "New Year's Resolutions Reflected in January U.S. Web Traffic" (PDF) . Comscore . February 15, 2007. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 19, 2021 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Perez, Juan Carlos (February 17, 2007). "Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites" . PCWorld . Archived from the original on March 19, 2012 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ a b c Cohen, Noam (February 9, 2014). "Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Similarweb. "Top Websites Ranking – Most Visited Websites In The World" . Similarweb . Archived from the original on February 10, 2022 . Retrieved March 4, 2023 . ^ Loveland, Jeff; Reagle, Joseph (January 15, 2013). "Wikipedia and encyclopedic production". New Media & Society . 15 (8): 1294. doi : 10.1177/1461444812470428 . ISSN 1461-4448 . S2CID 27886998 . ^ Rosen, Rebecca J. (January 30, 2013). "What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion?" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 9, 2013 . ^ Netburn, Deborah (January 19, 2012). "Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 6, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves" . BBC News . January 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ Workman, Robert (January 5, 2013). "Asteroid Re-Named 'Wikipedia' " . Space.com . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Katz, Leslie (October 27, 2014). "A Wikipedia monument? It's true (we're pretty sure)" . CNET . Archived from the original on January 24, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Sawers, Paul (June 18, 2015). "You can soon buy a 7,471-volume printed version of Wikipedia for $500,000" . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on October 17, 2022 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (August 5, 2019). "A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon" . Wired . Archived from the original on December 24, 2022 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Resnick, Brian (August 6, 2019). "Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun" . Vox . Archived from the original on November 29, 2019 . Retrieved August 6, 2019 . ^ Shankland, Stephen (June 29, 2019). "Startup packs all 16 GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech – Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes" . CNET . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2023 . ^ a b Pearl, Mike (January 18, 2023). "Yes, Wikipedia looks weird. Don't freak out" . Mashable . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Tech Desk (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia gets a facelift after 10 years: A look at new interface and features" . The Indian Express . Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Rauwerda, Annie (January 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Redesign Is Barely Noticeable. That's the Point" . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ GZERO World. Ian Bremmer. "Why we still trust Wikipedia, with cofounder Jimmy Wales". Dec. 13, 2025. [1] ^ "Wikipedia's co-founder on anonymous editors, why the site is biased against conservatives and how to fix it: Larry Sanger criticizes 'reliable sources' system and anonymous administrators." By Ashley Rindsberg and Nora Moriarty, Fox News, October 9, 2025. [2] ^ "The Seven Rules of Trust" . Penguin Random House . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Weaver, Tanya (April 4, 2025). "AI scraper bots putting costly strain on Wikimedia infrastructure" . eandt.theiet.org . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Ha, Anthony (October 18, 2025). "Wikipedia says traffic is falling due to AI search summaries and social video" . TechCrunch . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Miller, Marshall (October 17, 2025). "New User Trends on Wikipedia" . Diff . Retrieved October 22, 2025 . ^ Hafner, Katie (June 17, 2006). "Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 12, 2022 . Retrieved December 5, 2016 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 12–13. ^ Harrison, Stephen; Benjakob, Omer (January 14, 2021). "Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better" . Columbia Journalism Review . Archived from the original on January 17, 2023 . Retrieved January 15, 2021 . ^ a b Ren, Yuqing; Zhang, Haifeng; Kraut, Robert E. (February 29, 2024). "How Did They Build the Free Encyclopedia? A Literature Review of Collaboration and Coordination among Wikipedia Editors" . ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction . 31 (1): 1– 48. doi : 10.1145/3617369 . ISSN 1073-0516 . Archived from the original on September 12, 2024 . Retrieved September 12, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 36. ^ Henderson, William (December 10, 2012). "Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Frewin, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). "Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing" . BBC News . Archived from the original on November 27, 2022 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ Ajmani, Leah; Vincent, Nicholas; Chancellor, Stevie (September 28, 2023). "Peer Produced Friction: How Page Protection on Wikipedia Affects Editor Engagement and Concentration" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 7 (CSCW2): 1– 33. doi : 10.1145/3610198 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (October 26, 2023). "Wikipedia Is Covering the War in Israel and Gaza Better Than X" . Slate . ISSN 1091-2339 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023 . Retrieved December 20, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (October 4, 2020). "The Second Intifada Still Rages on Wikipedia" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024 . Retrieved March 6, 2024 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (February 5, 2025). "Project 2025's Creators Want to Dox Wikipedia Editors. The Tool They're Using Is Horrifying" . Slate . Archived from the original on July 19, 2025 . Retrieved February 5, 2025 . ^ Elia-Shalev, Asaf (January 24, 2025). "Edit wars over Israel spur rare ban of 8 Wikipedia editors — from both sides" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Archived from the original on June 10, 2025 . Retrieved May 27, 2025 . ^ a b Kleinz, Torsten (February 2005). "World of Knowledge" (PDF) . Linux Magazine . Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007 . Retrieved July 13, 2007 . The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. ^ Ciffolilli, Andrea (December 2003). "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia" . First Monday . 8 (12). doi : 10.5210/fm.v8i12.1108 . ^ West, Andrew G.; Chang, Jian; Venkatasubramanian, Krishna; Sokolsky, Oleg; Lee, Insup (2011). "Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit" . Proceedings of the 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic messaging, Anti-Abuse and Spam Conference on – CEAS '11 . 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference. pp. 152– 161. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.7963 . doi : 10.1145/2030376.2030394 . ISBN 978-1-4503-0788-8 . Archived from the original on April 14, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B.; Wattenberg, Martin; Dave, Kushal (2004). "The palm zire 71 camera interface". CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF) . pp. 575– 582. doi : 10.1145/985921.985953 . ISBN 978-1-58113-702-6 . S2CID 10351688 . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2006 . Retrieved January 24, 2007 . ^ Priedhorsky, Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (November 4, 2007). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Association for Computing Machinery Group '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007 . Retrieved October 13, 2007 . ^ a b c d Seigenthaler, John (November 29, 2005). "A False Wikipedia 'biography' " . USA Today . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2007). The World is Flat . Farrar, Straus & Giroux . p. 124. ISBN 978-0-374-29278-2 . ^ Buchanan, Brian (November 17, 2006). "Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace" . First Amendment Center . Archived from the original on December 21, 2012 . Retrieved November 17, 2012 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 13, 2005). "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" " . BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on July 8, 2012 . Retrieved July 26, 2012 . ^ Coldewey, Devin (June 21, 2012). "Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study" . Technology. NBC News . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014. ^ Kalyanasundaram, Arun; Wei, Wei; Carley, Kathleen M.; Herbsleb, James D. (December 2015). "An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached". 2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) . Huntington Beach, CA: IEEE. pp. 276– 287. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.715.2758 . doi : 10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 . ISBN 978-1-4673-9743-8 . S2CID 9353425 . ^ Suh, Bongwon; Convertino, Gregorio; Chi, Ed H.; Pirolli, Peter (2009). "The singularity is not near". Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration . Orlando, FL: ACM Press. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/1641309.1641322 . ISBN 978-1-60558-730-1 . ^ Torres, Nicole (June 2, 2016). "Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia?" . Harvard Business Review . ISSN 0017-8012 . Archived from the original on June 17, 2020 . Retrieved August 20, 2019 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (March 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia". Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6): 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . ^ Khazraie, Marzieh; Talebzadeh, Hossein (February 7, 2020). " "Wikipedia does NOT tolerate your babbling!": Impoliteness-induced conflict (resolution) in a polylogal collaborative online community of practice" . Journal of Pragmatics . 163 : 46– 65. doi : 10.1016/j.pragma.2020.03.009 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Smirnov, Ivan; Oprea, Camelia; Strohmaier, Markus (December 1, 2023). Ognyanova, Katherine (ed.). "Toxic comments are associated with reduced activity of volunteer editors on Wikipedia" . PNAS Nexus . 2 (12) pgad385. doi : 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385 . ISSN 2752-6542 . PMC 10697426 . PMID 38059265 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Lerner, Jürgen; Lomi, Alessandro (December 21, 2020). "The free encyclopedia that anyone can dispute: An analysis of the micro-structural dynamics of positive and negative relations in the production of contentious Wikipedia articles" . Social Networks . 60 : 11– 25. doi : 10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.003 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A.; Strotmann, Andreas; Zhao, Dangzhi (April 4, 2023). "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps" . Journal of Documentation . 79 (3): 784– 810. doi : 10.1108/JD-04-2022-0090 . ISSN 0022-0418 . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 14, 2023 . ^ Ziembowicz, Karolina; Roszczyńska-Kurasińska, Magdalena; Rychwalska, Agnieszka; Nowak, Andrzej (October 3, 2022). "Predicting conflict-prone disputes using the structure of turn-taking: the case of Wikipedia" . Information, Communication & Society . 25 (13): 1987– 2005. doi : 10.1080/1369118X.2021.1924224 . ISSN 1369-118X . Archived from the original on October 7, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ Chhabra, Anamika; Kaur, Rishemjit; Iyengar, S. R.S. (August 25, 2020). "Dynamics of Edit War Sequences in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Open Collaboration . ACM. pp. 1– 10. doi : 10.1145/3412569.3412585 . ISBN 978-1-4503-8779-8 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ a b Ruprechter, Thorsten; Santos, Tiago; Helic, Denis (September 9, 2020). "Relating Wikipedia article quality to edit behavior and link structure" . Applied Network Science . 5 (1) 61. doi : 10.1007/s41109-020-00305-y . ISSN 2364-8228 . ^ "Edit Wars Reveal The 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia" . MIT Technology Review . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology . July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ a b c Yasseri, Taha ; Spoerri, Anselm; Graham, Mark; Kertész, János (2014). Fichman, P.; Hara, N. (eds.). The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis . Scarecrow Press. arXiv : 1305.5566 . doi : 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 . S2CID 12133330 . SSRN 2269392 . ^ Mayfield, Elijah; Black, Alan W. (November 7, 2019). "Analyzing Wikipedia Deletion Debates with a Group Decision-Making Forecast Model" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 3 (CSCW): 1– 26. doi : 10.1145/3359308 . ISSN 2573-0142 . Archived from the original on September 15, 2024 . Retrieved September 15, 2024 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 3. ^ "Who's behind Wikipedia?" . PC World . February 6, 2008. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008 . Retrieved February 7, 2008 . ^ a b McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 53–54. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 32. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 5–7. ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 33. ^ Cohen, Noam (August 9, 2011). "For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far". International Herald Tribune . p. 18. ^ Sanger, Larry (April 18, 2005). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" . Slashdot . Archived from the original on May 25, 2009 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ Kostakis, Vasilis (March 2010). "Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists" . First Monday . 15 (3). Archived from the original on March 10, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ Mehegan, David (February 13, 2006). "Many contributors, common cause" . Boston Globe . Retrieved March 25, 2007 . ^ Harrison, Stephen (June 16, 2022). "Inside Wikipedia's Historic, Fiercely Contested "Election" " . Slate . Archived from the original on August 24, 2022 . Retrieved July 22, 2022 . ^ Bandler, Aaron (June 21, 2024), "Wikipedia Editors Label ADL Only Reliable for Antisemitism When 'Israel and Zionism Are Not Concerned' " , Jewish Journal , archived from the original on June 22, 2024 , retrieved May 3, 2025 ^ Harrison, Stephen (July 1, 2021), "Wikipedia's War on the Daily Mail" , Slate , ISSN 1091-2339 , archived from the original on July 1, 2021 , retrieved May 13, 2025 ^ a b c d Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . doi : 10.2307/j.ctvqsdrf9 . ISBN 978-0-8047-9120-5 . JSTOR j.ctvqsdrf9 . ^ a b c d Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (March 5, 2009). "Wikitruth Through Wikiorder" . Emory Law Journal . 59 (1). SSRN 1354424 . Archived from the original on June 13, 2021 . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Hoffman, David A.; Mehra, Salil K. (2009). "Wikitruth through Wikiorder". Emory Law Journal . 59 (1): 181. SSRN 1354424 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. ; Wattenberg, Martin M. ; Kriss, Jesse; van Ham, Frank (January 3, 2007). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ Arthur, Charles (December 15, 2005). "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Lu Stout, Kristie (August 4, 2003). "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site" . CNN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Goodwin, Jean (2009). "The Authority of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2009 . Retrieved January 31, 2011 . Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers ^ Kittur, Aniket (2007). "Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie". CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems . Viktoria Institute. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.212.8218 . ^ a b c Blodget, Henry (January 3, 2009). "Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway?" . Business Insider . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 61–62. ^ a b Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" . Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . Archived from the original on January 26, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 – via Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. ^ a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education". Journal of Legal Education . 57 (1). Association of American Law Schools : 3– 9. JSTOR 42894005 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 10–11. ^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money" . Scientific American . October 19, 2007. Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wilson, Chris (February 22, 2008). "The Wisdom of the Chaperones" . Slate . Archived from the original on September 5, 2011 . Retrieved August 13, 2014 . ^ Swartz, Aaron (September 4, 2006). "Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia?" . Archived from the original on August 3, 2014 . Retrieved February 23, 2008 . ^ Amichai-Hamburger, Yair; Lamdan, Naama; Madiel, Rinat; Hayat, Tsahi (2008). "Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members". CyberPsychology & Behavior . 11 (6). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.: 679– 681. doi : 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 . PMID 18954273 . ^ McGreal, Scott A. (March 11, 2013). "The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members" . Psychology Today . Archived from the original on July 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ Giles, Jim (August 4, 2009). "After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust?" . New Scientist . Archived from the original on April 21, 2015 . Retrieved September 18, 2017 . ^ Cohen, Noam (January 31, 2011). "Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 6, 2013 . Retrieved October 28, 2013 . ^ a b "OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall" . CBC News . August 27, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b Kessenides, Dimitra; Chafkin, Max (December 22, 2016). "Is Wikipedia Woke?" . Bloomberg Businessweek . Archived from the original on April 15, 2022 . Retrieved September 21, 2022 . ^ Walker, Andy (June 21, 2018). "The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps" . memeburn . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2023 . ^ "List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Viégas, Fernanda B. (January 3, 2007). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia" (PDF) . Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research . Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2006 . Retrieved October 30, 2007 . ^ Fians, Guilherme (September 16, 2025). "Wikipedia: Editing the narrative" . Chartered Institute of Linguists . Archived from the original on September 24, 2025 . Retrieved September 27, 2025 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (February 16, 2021). "Israeli 'rule,' not 'occupation': In a sign of the times, Hebrew Wikipedia renames a key article" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on November 19, 2023 . Retrieved March 16, 2024 . ^ a b Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (January 17, 2012). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS One . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . ^ Massa, Paolo; Scrinzi, Federico (January 4, 2013). "Manypedia: Comparing language points of view of Wikipedia communities" . First Monday . 18 (1). doi : 10.5210/fm.v18i1.3939 . ^ a b c "The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks?" . The Economist . March 1, 2014. Archived from the original on October 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 11, 2014 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz (June 22, 2014). "The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia" . Slate . Archived from the original on August 13, 2014 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ a b Black, Edwin (April 19, 2010). "Wikipedia – The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge" . History News Network . Columbian College of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on September 9, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2014 . ^ Messer-Krusse, Timothy (February 12, 2012). "The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia" . The Chronicle of Higher Education . Archived from the original on December 18, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Colón Aguirre, Mónica; Fleming-May, Rachel A. (November 2012). " "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia" (PDF) . The Journal of Academic Librarianship . 38 (6). Elsevier : 391– 399. doi : 10.1016/j.acalib.2012.09.013 . Archived (PDF) from the original on April 19, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia experience sparks national debate" . BGSU News . Bowling Green State University . February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016 . Retrieved March 27, 2014 . ^ Kamm, Oliver (August 16, 2007). "Wisdom? More like dumbness of the crowds" . The Times . Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. ^ Petrilli, Michael J. (Spring 2008). "Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?" . What Next. Education Next . 8 (2). Hoover Institution . Archived from the original on November 21, 2016 . Retrieved October 22, 2014 . ^ Benjakob, Omer; Harrison, Stephen (October 13, 2020). "From Anarchy to Wikiality, Glaring Bias to Good Cop: Press Coverage of Wikipedia's First Two Decades" . Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.003.0005 . ISBN 978-0-262-36059-3 . Archived from the original on September 11, 2021 . Retrieved September 11, 2021 . ^ Lott, Maxim (February 18, 2021). "Inside Wikipedia's leftist bias: socialism pages whitewashed, communist atrocities buried" . Fox News . Archived from the original on February 18, 2021 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schwartz, Zach (November 11, 2015). "Wikipedia's Co-Founder Is Wikipedia's Most Outspoken Critic" . Vice . Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. ^ Brown, Lee (July 16, 2021). "Wikipedia co-founder says site is now 'propaganda' for left-leaning 'establishment' " . New York Post . Archived from the original on July 16, 2021 . Retrieved May 31, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Bias" . StosselTV . April 27, 2022. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hube, Christoph (2017). "Bias in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . New York, New York, US: ACM Press. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Samoilenko, Anna (June 2021) Cultural Neighbourhoods, or approaches to quantifying cultural contextualisation in multilingual knowledge repository Wikipedia Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine . ^ a b Bjork-James, Carwil (July 3, 2021). "New maps for an inclusive Wikipedia: decolonial scholarship and strategies to counter systemic bias". New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia . 27 (3): 207– 228. Bibcode : 2021NRvHM..27..207B . doi : 10.1080/13614568.2020.1865463 . S2CID 234286415 . ^ Morris-O'Connor, Danielle A., Andreas Strotmann, and Dangzhi Zhao. "The colonization of Wikipedia: evidence from characteristic editing behaviors of warring camps." Journal of Documentation 79.3 (2023): 784–810. ^ "Wikipedia Co-Founder Unveils Plan To Fix Website's Biased 'Engine of Defamation' " . The New York Sun . October 4, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Nine Theses on Wikipedia" . LarrySanger.org . December 11, 2025 . Retrieved January 8, 2026 . ^ "Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up" . Wired . Associated Press. December 15, 2005. Archived from the original on December 14, 2014 . Retrieved August 8, 2015 . ^ Giles, Jim (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" . Nature . 438 (7070): 900– 901. Bibcode : 2005Natur.438..900G . doi : 10.1038/438900a . PMID 16355180 . (subscription required) Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. "Wikipedia survives research test" . BBC News . December 15, 2005. ^ Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (December 16, 2005). "Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 25, 2019 . ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (March 2006). Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2016. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response" (PDF) . March 23, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2006 . Retrieved July 13, 2010 . ^ " Nature ' s responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica " . Nature . March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on May 15, 2017 . Retrieved February 25, 2018 . ^ Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Rung, András; Kornai, András; Kertész, János (June 20, 2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia" . PLOS ONE . 7 (6) e38869. arXiv : 1202.3643 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...738869Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0038869 . PMC 3380063 . PMID 22745683 . ^ Raphael, JR (August 26, 2009). "The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders" . PC World . Archived from the original on December 1, 2022 . Retrieved September 2, 2009 . ^ Cohen, Morris; Olson, Kent (2010). Legal Research in a Nutshell (10th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters. pp. 32–34 . ISBN 978-0-314-26408-4 – via Internet Archive . ^ Cowen, Tyler (March 14, 2008). "Cooked Books" . The New Republic . Archived from the original on March 18, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Stuart, S.C. (June 3, 2021). "Wikipedia: The Most Reliable Source on the Internet?" . PCMag . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ Mannix, Liam (September 13, 2022). "Evidence suggests Wikipedia is accurate and reliable. When are we going to start taking it seriously?" . The Sydney Morning Herald . Archived from the original on March 6, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Schiff, Stacy (July 23, 2006). "Know It All" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on November 22, 2008 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Boyd, Danah (January 4, 2005). "Academia and Wikipedia" . Many 2 Many: A Group We blog on Social Software . Corante. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006 . Retrieved December 18, 2008 . [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School .] ^ McHenry, Robert (November 15, 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia" . Tech Central Station . Archived from the original on January 7, 2006. ^ Shapiro, Ari (April 27, 2018). "Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era" . NPR . Archived from the original on June 25, 2018 . Retrieved May 1, 2018 . ^ "Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry" . Deutsche Welle . June 30, 2014. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014 . Retrieved July 2, 2014 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (June 16, 2014). "Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on November 24, 2020 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Ahrens, Frank (July 9, 2006). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 1, 2006 . ^ Kane, Margaret (January 30, 2006). "Politicians notice Wikipedia" . CNET . Archived from the original on July 30, 2009 . Retrieved January 28, 2007 . ^ Bergstein, Brian (January 23, 2007). "Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit" . NBC News . Archived from the original on August 19, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Hafner, Katie (August 19, 2007). "Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . p. 1 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ a b Colbert, Stephen (July 30, 2006). "Wikiality" . Archived from the original on September 11, 2015 . Retrieved October 8, 2015 . ^ "Wide World of Wikipedia" . The Emory Wheel . April 21, 2006. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007 . Retrieved October 17, 2007 . ^ Waters, Neil L. (September 2007). "Why You Can't Cite Wikipedia in My Class" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM . 50 (9): 15– 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.4996 . doi : 10.1145/1284621.1284635 . S2CID 11757060 . Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Jaschik, Scott (January 26, 2007). "A Stand Against Wikipedia" . Inside Higher Ed . Archived from the original on July 8, 2007 . Retrieved January 27, 2007 . ^ Helm, Burt (December 14, 2005). "Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' " . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . Archived from the original on April 21, 2012 . Retrieved January 29, 2007 . ^ Buis, Kyle (February 25, 2007). "Wikipedia sucks students in with reliable information" . The Orion . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ Child, Maxwell L. (February 26, 2007). "Professors Split on Wiki Debate" . The Harvard Crimson . Cambridge, MA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. ^ Chloe Stothart. "Web threatens learning ethos" Archived December 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Times Higher Education Supplement , 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2. ^ Zou, Di; Xie, Haoran; Wang, Fu Lee; Kwan, Reggie (April 10, 2020). "Flipped learning with Wikipedia in higher education" . Studies in Higher Education . 45 (5). Routledge : 1026– 1045. doi : 10.1080/03075079.2020.1750195 . S2CID 216534736 . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (March 5, 2014). "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on October 24, 2022 . Retrieved January 29, 2023 . ^ a b Beck, Julie (May 7, 2014). "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ "The battle for Wikipedia's soul" . The Economist . March 6, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on December 14, 2022 . Retrieved March 7, 2008 . ^ Douglas, Ian (November 10, 2007). "Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2010 . ^ Cohen, Noam (February 5, 2008). "Wikipedia Islam Entry Is Criticized" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Taylor, Sophie (April 5, 2008). "China allows access to English Wikipedia" . Reuters . Archived from the original on December 29, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2008 . ^ Bruilliard, Karin (May 21, 2010). "Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 27, 2020 . Retrieved October 24, 2011 . ^ Moon, Mariella (March 12, 2022). "Prominent editor of Russian Wikipedia pages detained in Belarus" . Yahoo! . Archived from the original on March 13, 2022 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Mokhtar, Hassna'a (July 19, 2006). "What Is Wrong With Wikipedia?" . Arab News . Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. ^ Arthur, Charles (December 8, 2008). "Wikipedia row escalates as internet watchdog considers censoring Amazon US over Scorpions image" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved January 30, 2023 . ^ Petrusich, Amanda (October 20, 2011). "Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 11, 2020 . Retrieved October 28, 2011 . ^ Lam, Shyong (Tony) K.; Uduwage, Anuradha; Dong, Zhenhua; Sen, Shilad; Musicant, David R.; Terveen, Loren; Riedl, John (October 3–5, 2011). WP:Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance (PDF) . WikiSym'2011. Mountain View, California: ACM. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . ^ "The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth" . The Guardian . August 7, 2018. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , pp. 37, 38, 47. ^ Livingstone, Randall M. (November 23, 2010). "Let's Leave the Bias to the Mainstream Media: A Wikipedia Community Fighting for Information Neutrality" . M/C Journal . 13 (6). doi : 10.5204/mcj.315 . ISSN 1441-2616 . Archived from the original on November 21, 2022 . Retrieved November 23, 2022 . ^ a b Hube, Christoph (April 3, 2017). "Bias in Wikipedia" . Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion . Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 717– 721. doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053375 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . S2CID 10472970 . ^ a b Ackerly, Brooke A.; Michelitch, Kristin (2022). "Wikipedia and Political Science: Addressing Systematic Biases with Student Initiatives" . PS: Political Science & Politics . 55 (2): 429– 433. doi : 10.1017/S1049096521001463 . S2CID 247795102 . ^ Beytía, Pablo (April 20, 2020). "The Positioning Matters" . Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2020 . WWW '20. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 806– 810. doi : 10.1145/3366424.3383569 . ISBN 978-1-4503-7024-0 . S2CID 218523099 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved May 8, 2023 . ^ Graham, Mark (November 12, 2009). "Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content" . Zerogeography . Archived from the original on October 2, 2016. ^ Strohmaier, Markus (March 6, 2017). "KAT50 Society, Culture". Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia . GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences . doi : 10.7802/1411 . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved January 31, 2023 . Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). ^ Maxton, Richard (September 9, 2008). "Wikipedia attacked over porn pages" . Macquarie Network . Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. ^ Metz, Cade (December 7, 2008). "Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover" . The Register . Archived from the original on May 13, 2020 . Retrieved May 10, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017 . Retrieved May 14, 2017 . ^ Farrell, Nick (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI" . The Inquirer . Archived from the original on May 1, 2010 . Retrieved October 9, 2010 . ^ a b Metz, Cade (April 9, 2010). "Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' " . The Register . Retrieved April 19, 2010 . ^ "Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website" . The Economic Times . India. April 29, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved April 29, 2010 . ^ a b Agence France-Presse (April 29, 2010). "Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ "Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights" . BBC News . May 10, 2010. Archived from the original on May 13, 2010 . Retrieved May 19, 2010 . ^ Gray, Lila (September 17, 2013). "Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break" . XBIZ.com . Archived from the original on October 21, 2013 . Retrieved November 10, 2013 . ^ McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol . Digital Formation. Vol. 86. Peter Lang . doi : 10.3726/978-1-4539-1336-9 . ISBN 978-1-4541-9163-6 . ^ Kleinz, Torsten (September 2, 2006). "Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab [Update]" [Court rejects preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Germany [Update]]. Heise Online (in German). Heinz Heise . Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia will not perform Online Safety Bill age checks" . BBC . April 28, 2023. Archived from the original on May 1, 2023 . Retrieved May 1, 2023 . ^ Paling, Emma (October 21, 2015). "Wikipedia's Hostility to Women" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on December 31, 2022 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Auerbach, David (December 11, 2014). "Encyclopedia Frown" . Slate . Archived from the original on October 23, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2015 . ^ Murphy, Dan (August 1, 2013). "In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on December 1, 2021 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Kueppers, Courtney (March 23, 2020). "High Museum to host virtual Wikipedia edit-a-thon to boost entries about women" . The Atlanta Journal-Constitution . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved October 24, 2020 . ^ a b c Schlanger, Zoë; Purtill, Corinne (October 2, 2018). "Wikipedia rejected an entry on a Nobel Prize winner because she wasn't famous enough" . Quartz . Archived from the original on October 25, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" . The Nobel Prize . October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Purtill, Corinne (October 3, 2018). "Sexism at Wikipedia feeds off the sexism in the media" . Quartz . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Bear, Julia B.; Collier, Benjamin (January 4, 2016). "Where are the Women in Wikipedia ? – Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia" . Sex Roles . 74 ( 5– 6). Springer Science : 254– 265. doi : 10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y . S2CID 146452625 . Archived from the original on October 27, 2021 . Retrieved June 27, 2021 . ^ McGregor, Jena (March 17, 2020). "Wikimedia's approach to coronavirus: Staffers can work 20 hours a week, get paid for full time" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 21, 2021 . Retrieved February 25, 2021 . ^ a b Elder, Jeff (May 1, 2014). "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on February 1, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (May 1, 2014). "Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Salmon, Felix (February 4, 2021). "Exclusive: End of the Maher era at Wikipedia" . Axios . Archived from the original on February 4, 2021 . Retrieved April 16, 2021 . ^ Lima, Cristiano (September 14, 2021). "Wikimedia taps leader of South African nonprofit as its next CEO" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Archived from the original on September 14, 2021 . Retrieved September 14, 2021 . ^ Protalinski, Emil (July 2, 2013). "Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English" . TNW . Archived from the original on July 5, 2013 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Curtis, Sophie (July 23, 2013). "Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on January 10, 2022 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ L. M. (December 13, 2011). "Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things" . The Economist . Archived from the original on June 9, 2013 . Retrieved July 28, 2013 . ^ a b Orlowski, Andrew (August 1, 2013). "Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor" . The Register . Archived from the original on August 4, 2013 . Retrieved August 18, 2013 . ^ a b Nasaw, Daniel (July 24, 2012). "Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia" . BBC News . Archived from the original on July 28, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Halliday, Josh; Arthur, Charles (July 26, 2012). "Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on February 20, 2022 . Retrieved September 5, 2012 . ^ Jervell, Ellen Emmerentze (July 13, 2014). "For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved August 18, 2014 . ^ "MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address" . Al Jazeera . July 21, 2014. Archived from the original on November 16, 2016 . Retrieved July 22, 2014 . ^ Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution . Hachette Books . pp. 99– 106. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . OCLC 232977686 . ^ Friedman, Vitaly (January 12, 2021). "Front-End Performance Checklist 2021 (PDF, Apple Pages, MS Word)" . Smashing Magazine . Archived from the original on April 1, 2022 . Retrieved April 26, 2022 . ^ Verge, Jason (January 14, 2013). "It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home" . Data Center Knowledge. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Data centers - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Bergsma, Mark (May 5, 2014). "Wikimedia Foundation selects CyrusOne in Dallas as new data center" . Diff . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ "Switch Datacenter - Wikitech" . wikitech.wikimedia.org . Retrieved October 4, 2025 . ^ Scherer, Frederic M. (2009) [1970]. Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance . Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical Research Reference in Entrepreneurship, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . SSRN 1496716 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ a b c Trajtenberg, Manuel; Jaffe, Adam B. (2002). Patents, Citations, and Innovations: A Window on the Knowledge Economy . MIT Press . pp. 89– 153. doi : 10.7551/mitpress/5263.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-27623-8 . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ McCarthy, Caroline (July 18, 2008). "Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees" . CNET . Archived from the original on March 1, 2016 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 5, 2007). "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 18, 2008 . ^ McDowell & Vetter 2022 , p. 64. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (January 2018). "The Wikipedia Library: the biggest encyclopedia needs a digital library and we are building it" . JLIS.it . 9 (3). doi : 10.4403/jlis.it-12505 . Archived from the original on April 28, 2024 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 – via ResearchGate . ^ The British Newspaper Archive (July 18, 2014). "Working with Wikipedia to bring history facts to light" . British Newspaper Archive . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Hall, Sam (June 24, 2020). "ICE Publishing partners with The Wikipedia Library" . ICE Virtual Library . Archived from the original on November 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 26, 2021 . ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses" . GNU Operating System . Free Software Foundation . Archived from the original on March 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Cohen, Noam (July 19, 2009). "Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 26, 2022 . Retrieved March 9, 2013 . ^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case" . Reuters . November 2, 2007. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021 . Retrieved November 2, 2007 . ^ Anderson, Nate (May 2, 2008). "Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" " . Ars Technica . Archived from the original on August 6, 2011 . Retrieved May 4, 2008 . ^ "Reference.com Expands Content by Adding Wikipedia Encyclopedia to Search Capabilities" . Lexico Publishing Group, LLC . Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. ^ "Definition of Answers.com" . PCMag . Archived from the original on February 3, 2023 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Researching With Bing Reference" . Bing Community . Archived from the original on October 23, 2010 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ "Wikipedia turned into book" . The Daily Telegraph . London. June 16, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2009 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Thiel, Thomas (September 27, 2010). "Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten" . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on November 26, 2010 . Retrieved December 6, 2010 . ^ Bizer, Christian; Lehmann, Jens; Kobilarov, Georgi; Auer, Sören; Becker, Christian; Cyganiak, Richard; Hellmann, Sebastian (September 2009). "DBpedia – A crystallization point for the Web of Data". Journal of Web Semantics . 7 (3): 154– 165. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.4898 . doi : 10.1016/j.websem.2009.07.002 . S2CID 16081721 . ^ Cohen, Noam (March 16, 2021). "Wikipedia Is Finally Asking Big Tech to Pay Up" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Shachaf, Pnina (October 16, 2009). "The paradox of expertise: is the Wikipedia Reference Desk as good as your library?" (PDF) . Journal of Documentation . 65 (6): 977– 996. doi : 10.1108/00220410910998951 . ^ "Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia" . AndroGeoid . May 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011 . Retrieved May 15, 2011 . ^ Hollington, Jesse David (November 30, 2008). "iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps" . iLounge . Archived from the original on January 12, 2009 . Retrieved July 22, 2008 . ^ Ellis, Justin (January 17, 2013). "Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding" . Nieman Lab . Archived from the original on November 30, 2022 . Retrieved April 22, 2013 . ^ a b c Lih, Andrew (June 20, 2015). "Can Wikipedia Survive?" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on February 17, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Brown, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Fox-Brewster, Thomas (May 22, 2015). "Wikipedia Disturbed Over Fresh China Censorship" . Forbes . Archived from the original on May 3, 2018 . Retrieved May 2, 2018 . ^ Henochowicz, Anne (May 20, 2015). "Chinese Wikipedia Blocked by Great Firewall" . China Digital Times . Archived from the original on May 4, 2017 . Retrieved May 4, 2017 . ^ Perez, Sarah (June 12, 2015). "The Wikimedia Foundation Turns On HTTPS By Default Across All Sites, Including Wikipedia" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on August 24, 2020 . Retrieved June 3, 2020 . ^ Hughes, Taylor; Smith, Jeff; Leavitt, Alex (April 3, 2018). "Helping People Better Assess the Stories They See in News Feed with the Context Button" . Meta . Archived from the original on January 11, 2023 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (April 7, 2018). "Conspiracy videos? Fake news? Enter Wikipedia, the 'good cop' of the Internet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. ^ Constine, Josh (April 3, 2018). "Facebook fights fake news with author info, rolls out publisher context" . TechCrunch . Retrieved July 15, 2021 . ^ "694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks" . comScore. May 4, 2006. Archived from the original on July 30, 2008 . Retrieved December 16, 2007 . Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US ^ Rainie, Lee; Tancer, Bill (December 15, 2007). "Wikipedia users" (PDF) . Pew Internet & American Life Project . Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 15, 2007 . 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. ^ SAI (October 7, 2011). "The World's Most Valuable Startups" . Business Insider . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Sachdev, Shaan (February 26, 2021). "Wikipedia's Sprawling, Awe-Inspiring Coverage of the Pandemic" . The New Republic . ISSN 0028-6583 . Archived from the original on February 28, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ a b Cohen, Noam (March 15, 2020). "How Wikipedia Prevents the Spread of Coronavirus Misinformation" . Wired . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on May 1, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Benjakob, Omer (September 2, 2020). "On Wikipedia, a fight is raging over coronavirus disinformation-GB" . Wired UK . ISSN 1357-0978 . Archived from the original on April 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Dodds, Laurence (April 3, 2020). "Why Wikipedia is winning against the coronavirus 'infodemic'-GB" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on April 11, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (October 22, 2020). "Wikipedia and W.H.O. Join to Combat Covid-19 Misinformation" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on December 27, 2020 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Kenton, Amanda; Humborg, Christian (November 29, 2021). "Digital regulation must empower people to make the internet better" . TechCrunch . Archived from the original on May 30, 2022 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (August 26, 2021). "Learning to trust the internet again" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on August 27, 2021 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Sharma, Raghav (February 19, 2009). "Wikipedian Justice". Social Science Research Network . doi : 10.2139/ssrn.1346311 . S2CID 233749371 . SSRN 1346311 . ^ "An Act respecting certain aspects of legal capacity for marriage for civil purposes" . LEGISinfo . Parliament of Canada . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Arias, Martha L. (January 29, 2007). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source" . Internet Business Law Services . Archived from the original on May 20, 2012 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . (The name " World Intellectual Property Office " should however read " World Intellectual Property Organization " in this source.) ^ Cohen, Noam (January 29, 2007). "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively" . The New York Times . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Aftergood, Steven (March 21, 2007). "The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence" . Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013 . Retrieved April 14, 2007 . ^ Butler, Declan (December 16, 2008). "Publish in Wikipedia or perish". Nature News . doi : 10.1038/news.2008.1312 . ^ Shaw, Donna (February–March 2008). "Wikipedia in the Newsroom" . American Journalism Review . Archived from the original on August 5, 2012 . Retrieved February 11, 2008 . ^ Lexington (September 24, 2011). "Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth" . The Economist . Retrieved September 27, 2011 . Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". ^ "Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article" . Japan News Review . July 5, 2007. Archived from the original on March 12, 2014. ^ Richter, Bob (January 9, 2007). "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered" . San Antonio Express-News . Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. ^ Bridgewater, Frank. "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal" . Honolulu Star-Bulletin . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Coscarelli, Joe (July 29, 2014). "Plagiarizing Wikipedia Is Still Plagiarism, at BuzzFeed or the New York Times" . Intelligencer . New York . Archived from the original on August 18, 2022 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Grossman, Lev (December 13, 2006). "Time's Person of the Year: You" . Time . Archived from the original on March 4, 2017 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vargas, Jose Antonio (September 17, 2007). "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Ablan, Jennifer (October 22, 2007). "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol" . Reuters . Retrieved October 24, 2007 . ^ Grillini, Franco (March 30, 2009). "Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright" [Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law] (in Italian). Archived from the original on March 30, 2009 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Artificial Intelligence and Life in 2030" . One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) . Stanford University . September 2016. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022 . Retrieved September 3, 2016 . ^ a b Gertner, Jon (July 18, 2023). "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth – Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process? + comment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on July 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 19, 2023 . ^ Derakhshan, Hossein (October 19, 2017). "How Social Media Endangers Knowledge" . Business. Wired . Condé Nast. eISSN 1078-3148 . ISSN 1059-1028 . Archived from the original on October 22, 2018 . Retrieved October 22, 2018 . ^ "Webby Awards 2004" . The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences. 2004. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. ^ "Die Quadriga – Award 2008" . Archived from the original on September 15, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum" . Praemium Erasmianum Foundation . Archived from the original on January 15, 2015 . Retrieved January 15, 2015 . ^ "Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015" [Princess of Asturias Award of International Cooperation 2015]. Fundación Princesa de Asturias (in Spanish) . Retrieved June 17, 2015 . ^ "Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano" [The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version]. La Nueva España (in Spanish). October 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" . The Onion . July 26, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010 . Retrieved October 15, 2006 . ^ " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today" . The Onion . November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ " The Negotiation ". The Office . Season 3. Episode 19. April 5, 2007. NBC . ^ Jesdanun, Anick (April 12, 2007). " 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia" . USA Today . Archived from the original on January 28, 2023 . Retrieved December 12, 2014 . ^ Bakken, Janae (December 6, 2007). " My Number One Doctor ". Scrubs . Season 7. Episode 145. NBC . ^ "Professor Wikipedia". CollegeHumor Originals . September 24, 2008. CollegeHumor . ^ Adams, Scott ( w , a ). Topper . May 8, 2009, United Media . ^ Wolf, Ian (June 4, 2010). "Bigipedia given second series" . British Comedy Guide . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" . British Comedy Guide . Archived from the original on July 31, 2009 . Retrieved July 31, 2009 . ^ Flake, Emily (August 23, 2013). "Manning/Wikipedia cartoon" . Conde Nast Collection . Archived from the original on October 12, 2014 . Retrieved August 26, 2013 . ^ " 'I am Chelsea': Read Manning's full statement" . Today . August 22, 2013 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Burnett, Emma (June 12, 2024). "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday[2] [3]" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-024-01723-z . ISSN 0028-0836 . PMID 38867010 . ^ Bosman, Julie (March 13, 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on January 3, 2023 . Retrieved January 26, 2015 . ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia [Infographic]" . GizmoCrazed . March 20, 2012. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Caldwell, Christopher (June 14, 2013). "A chapter in the Enlightenment closes" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on December 25, 2022 . Retrieved June 15, 2013 . Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia. ^ Carr, Nicholas (October 3, 2005). "The amorality of Web 2.0" . Rough Type . Archived from the original on August 4, 2022 . Retrieved July 15, 2006 . ^ "Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds" . Nature . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ a b Flood, Alison (February 7, 2013). "Alison Flood: Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast? " . The Guardian . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Mayo, Matthew (November 23, 2017). "Building a Wikipedia Text Corpus for Natural Language Processing" . KDnuggets . Archived from the original on May 28, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Lindemann, Luke (February 19, 2021). "Wikipedia Corpus" . lukelindemann.com . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rada, Mihalcea ; Csomai, Andras (November 2007). "Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge" (PDF) . CIKM '07: Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Lisbon; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 233– 242. doi : 10.1145/1321440.1321475 . ISBN 978-1-59593-803-9 . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 18, 2016. ^ Milne, David; Witten, Ian H. (October 2008). "Proceeding of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge mining – CIKM '08". CIKM '08: Proceedings of the seventeenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management . ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. Napa Valley, CA; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 509– 518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.148.3617 . doi : 10.1145/1458082.1458150 . ISBN 978-1-59593-991-3 . ^ Adafre, Sisay Fissaha; de Rijke, Maarten (August 2005). "Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery – LinkKDD '05" (PDF) . LinkKDD '05: Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on Link discovery . ACM LinkKDD. Chicago; New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 90– 97. doi : 10.1145/1134271.1134284 . ISBN 978-1-59593-135-1 . Archived (PDF) from the original on July 17, 2012. ^ "Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries" . MIT Technology Review . December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016 . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Marmow Shaw, Jessica (December 10, 2015). "Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list" . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ a b Bothwell, Ellie (December 15, 2015). "Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances" . Times Higher Education . Retrieved December 27, 2015 . ^ Lages, J.; Patt, A.; Shepelyansky, D. (2016). "Wikipedia ranking of world universities". Eur. Phys. J. B . 89 (69): 69. arXiv : 1511.09021 . Bibcode : 2016EPJB...89...69L . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2016-60922-0 . S2CID 1965378 . ^ Coquidé, C.; Lages, J.; Shepelyansky, D.L. (2019). "World influence and interactions of universities from Wikipedia networks". Eur. Phys. J. B . 92 (3): 3. arXiv : 1809.00332 . Bibcode : 2019EPJB...92....3C . doi : 10.1140/epjb/e2018-90532-7 . S2CID 52154548 . ^ "All hail Wikipedia" . The Times . December 13, 2015 . Retrieved October 1, 2024 . ^ Thompson, Neil; Hanley, Douglas (February 13, 2018). "Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence From a Randomized Control Trial". MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 5238-17 . Rochester, NY. doi : 10.2139/ssrn.3039505 . S2CID 30918097 . SSRN 3039505 – via SSRN . ^ Sarabadani, Amir; Halfaker, Aaron ; Taraborelli, Dario (April 2017). "Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion – WWW '17 Companion". WWW '17 Companion: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion . International Conference on World Wide Web Companion. Perth; New York: Association for Computing Machinery . pp. 1647– 1654. arXiv : 1703.03861 . doi : 10.1145/3041021.3053366 . ISBN 978-1-4503-4914-7 . ^ Potthast, Martin; Stein, Benno; Gerling, Robert (2008). "Advances in Information Retrieval". In Macdonald, Craig; Ounis, Iadh; Plachouras, Vassilis; Ruthven, Ian; White, Ryen W. (eds.). Advances in Information Retrieval . 30th ECIR . Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4956. Glasgow: Springer. pp. 663– 668. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.188.1093 . doi : 10.1007/978-3-540-78646-7_75 . ISBN 978-3-540-78645-0 . ^ Asthana, Sumit; Halfaker, Aaron (November 2018). Lampe, Cliff (ed.). "With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep" . Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction . 2 (CSCW). New York City: Association for Computing Machinery . 21. doi : 10.1145/3274290 . ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Scholarpedia: the free peer-reviewed encyclopedia" . Society of Applied Neuroscience . Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (September 18, 2006). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" . The Register . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. ^ Lyman, Jay (September 20, 2006). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" . LinuxInsider. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007 . Retrieved June 27, 2007 . Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources ^ a b "Wikistats – Statistics For Wikimedia Projects" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 11, 2020 . Retrieved August 8, 2023 . ^ Stallman, Richard M. (June 20, 2007). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . Free Software Foundation . Retrieved January 4, 2008 . ^ Sanger, Larry (January 10, 2001). "Let's Make a Wiki" . Internet Archive . Archived from the original on April 14, 2003 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ "Wikipedia: HomePage" . Archived from the original on March 31, 2001 . Retrieved March 31, 2001 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 16, 2001). "Alternative language wikipedias" . Wikipedia-L (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved January 16, 2022 . ^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics/2004 ^ "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" . Osdir . Archived from the original on October 6, 2008 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Vibber, Brion (August 16, 2002). "Brion VIBBER at pobox.com" . Wikimedia . Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved December 8, 2020 . ^ "Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 23, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (December 12, 2002). "Wiktionary project launched" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on June 20, 2014 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Talk:Science Hypertextbook project" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on March 19, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (March 19, 2004). "Proposal: commons.wikimedia.org" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Eloquence. "User:Eloquence/History" . Wikinews . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 15, 2012 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikiversity:History of Wikiversity" . Wikiversity . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 24, 2015 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Roth, Matthew (March 30, 2012). "The Wikipedia data revolution" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report – Wikipedia Page Views Per Country" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011 . Retrieved March 8, 2015 . ^ "SOPA/Blackoutpage" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018 . Retrieved January 19, 2012 . ^ "Wikipedia Gets a Fresh New Look: First Desktop Update in a Decade Puts Usability at the Forefront" . Wikimedia Foundation . January 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023 . Retrieved January 22, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Why create an account ^ Wikipedia:Protection policy#Full protection ^ a b Birken, P. (December 14, 2008). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" . Wikide-l (Mailing list) (in German). Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ Help:Recent changes ^ Wikipedia:New pages patrol ^ Vandalism . Wikipedia . Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians ^ List of Wikipedias – Meta ^ a b "Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 16, 2026 . ^ Special:Statistics ^ A455bcd9 (February 8, 2021). Wikipedia page views by language over time (PNG) . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on May 12, 2022 . Retrieved June 25, 2021 . ^ "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Spelling" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved November 6, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias" . Wikipedia . Archived from the original on January 4, 2021 . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ "Non-free content" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on January 16, 2023 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wales, Jimmy (March 8, 2003). "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia" . Wikipedia-l (Mailing list). Archived from the original on July 10, 2017 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ "Meta-Wiki" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on July 14, 2013 . Retrieved March 24, 2009 . ^ "Meta-Wiki Statistics" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ a b "List of articles every Wikipedia should have" . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008 . Retrieved March 24, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:Notability ^ "Manual:Interwiki" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on December 3, 2010 . Retrieved January 27, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:General disclaimer ^ Sanger, Larry . "Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version)" . Citizendium . Archived from the original on November 3, 2006 . Retrieved October 10, 2006 . ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a paper encyclopedia ^ Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content/FAQ ^ Wikipedia:Sexual content ^ "Privacy policy" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Volunteer Response Team" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "OTRS – A flexible Help Desk and IT-Service Management Software" . Open Technology Real Services . OTRS.com. Archived from the original on October 30, 2013 . Retrieved June 9, 2012 . ^ "Draft:Donna Strickland" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Projects" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . May 30, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. – Consolidated Financial Statements – June 30, 2022 and 2021" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. October 12, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "Wikimedia Foundation 2020 Form 990" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . May 17, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 24, 2022 . Retrieved October 14, 2014 . ^ "Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov" . Wikimedia Foundation . May 1, 2014. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014 . Retrieved June 14, 2014 . ^ Neotarf (August 13, 2014). "Media Viewer controversy spreads to German Wikipedia" . The Signpost . Archived from the original on January 25, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ Lorente, Patricio (March 16, 2016). "Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees welcomes Katherine Maher as interim Executive Director" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia chapters" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on November 12, 2005 . Retrieved February 1, 2023 . ^ a b Bergsma, Mark. "Wikimedia Architecture" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2009 . Retrieved June 27, 2008 . ^ "MediaWiki Features" . WikiMatrix . Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Project:Copyrights" . MediaWiki . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on October 22, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "UseMod: UseModWiki" . UseModWiki . Archived from the original on October 17, 2000. ^ Special:Version ^ Snow, Michael (April 18, 2005). "Internal search function returns to service" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 31, 2012 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Vibber, Brion. "[Wikitech-l] Lucene search" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on March 30, 2013 . Retrieved February 26, 2009 . ^ "Extension:CirrusSearch" . MediaWiki . Archived from the original on April 13, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Forrester, James (April 25, 2013). "The alpha version of the VisualEditor is now in 15 languages" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bots ^ Aude (March 23, 2009). "Abuse Filter is enabled" . The Signpost . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Bot policy ^ a b "Varnish" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 20, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Debian" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on April 18, 2021 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ Palmier, Guillaume (January 19, 2013). "Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on July 15, 2018 . Retrieved June 5, 2016 . ^ "⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on May 12, 2019 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ "⚓ T282787 Configure dns and puppet repositories for new drmrs datacenter" . Wikimedia Phabricator . Archived from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "The journey to open our first data center in South America" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . July 26, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved November 29, 2024 . ^ "Wikimedia servers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . April 22, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2021 . Retrieved January 24, 2023 . ^ "Data centers" . Wikitech . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 29, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Peters, David; Walsh, Jay (2013). "Wikimedia Foundation 2012–13 Annual Report" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived (PDF) from the original on February 10, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "2019 to 2020 Annual Report – Statement of Activities – Audited (July 1, 2019 – June 30, 2020)" . Wikimedia Foundation . 2020. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/About" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on June 10, 2021 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Copyrights ^ Vermeir, Walter (December 1, 2007). "Resolution:License update" . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved December 4, 2007 . ^ Wikipedia:Licensing update ^ Wikimedia ^ "Licensing update/Questions and Answers" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on July 16, 2020 . Retrieved February 15, 2009 . ^ "Licensing_update/Timeline" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on August 17, 2022 . Retrieved April 5, 2009 . ^ Walsh, Jay (May 21, 2009). "Wikimedia community approves license migration" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 13, 2021 . Retrieved May 21, 2009 . ^ "Wikipedia:Non-free content" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on January 27, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Commons:Fair use" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Commons . Archived from the original on January 31, 2023 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks ^ a b Seifi, Joe (August 27, 2007). "Wapedia review" . appSafari . Archived from the original on April 23, 2022 . Retrieved February 2, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia 0.5 available on a CD-ROM" . Wikipedia On DVD . Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. ^ "Polish Wikipedia on DVD" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Archived from the original on December 29, 2022 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . ^ Wikipedia:DVD ^ "¿Qué es la CDPedia?" . Py Ar (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. ^ "2008–09 Wikipedia for Schools goes online" . WikiNews . Wikimedia Foundation . October 22, 2008 . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Selection for Schools" . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Wikimedia Foundation . Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 . Retrieved July 14, 2012 . ^ "Wikidata:Introduction" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikidata:Statistics" . Wikidata . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ Moeller, Erik (October 13, 2009). "OpenMoko Launches WikiReader" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved January 19, 2023 . ^ Wikipedia policies on data download ^ "Data dumps/What's available for download" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched" . Wikimedia Technical Blog . Wikimedia Foundation . June 30, 2009. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010 . Retrieved July 22, 2009 . ^ Finc, Tomasz (January 26, 2012). "Announcing the Official Wikipedia Android App" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia" . Google Play . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Bomis Nupedia Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Content use DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education DBpedia Depths of Wikipedia Google and Wikipedia Health information Kiwix Science information Wikipedia-based education Related AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis AI on Wikipedia The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changelogs LGBTQ and Wikipedia Magna Carta (An Embroidery) People imprisoned for editing Wikipedia Print Wikipedia The Seven Rules of Trust Wiki rabbit hole Wikimedia Foundation Wikimedia movement Wikipedia for World Heritage Wikipedia in India Wikiracing List of online encyclopedias List of wikis List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh 10,000+ Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu Alemannic Aragonese Assamese Balinese Belarusian (Taraškievica) Bosnian Breton Chuvash Crimean Tatar Irish Javanese Kannada Kurdish (Kurmanji) Kurdish (Sorani) Maithili Malayalam Nepali Occitan Odia Ossetian Punjabi Samogitian Sanskrit Santali Scots Scottish Gaelic Silesian Sindhi Tagalog Volapük Western Punjabi Yiddish Zulu 1,000+ Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof Atikamekw Bhojpuri Classical Syriac Dutch Low Saxon Extremaduran Goan Konkani Guarani Kashmiri Northern Sami Ripuarian Tulu Wolof 500+ Bambara Wayuu Bambara Wayuu List of Wikimedia wikis v t e Wikimedia Foundation v t e People Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Wikipedia community (Wikipedians) Current Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource Wikispecies Wikinews Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikifunctions Abstract Wikipedia Abstract Wikipedia Other Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Wikimedia movement List of Wikimedia chapters Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Bangladesh Deutschland Israel New York City Polska UK Ukraine Wikimania Wiki Indaba WikiConference India WikiConference North America MediaWiki Litigation Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Monkey selfie copyright dispute Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel guides from Wikivoyage Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Norway Croatia Argentina Sweden Israel Catalonia Other IdRef MusicBrainz label IdRef MusicBrainz label Wikipedia 2001 establishments in the United States Creative Commons-licensed websites Free-content websites Internet properties established in 2001 Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Multilingual websites Wikis Online encyclopedias Social information processing Wikimedia projects Pages using the Phonos extension Pages including recorded pronunciations Webarchive template wayback links Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: unfit URL CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages Use American English from September 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from October 2025 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2024 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from January 2026 Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2024 Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021 Articles containing Latin-language text Webarchive template other archives Guardian topic template using Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Articles containing video clips This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:25 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#cite_note-telegraph_Wales_WP_not_losing_editors_1-48
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} From top to bottom, left to right: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64. ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30 ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-3945-8530-7 ^ Ben-Horin 1943 , p. 169; Taylor 1979 , p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies , p. 191. For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way . Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 978-0-7641-1973-6 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same " European Civil War " or " Second Thirty Years' War ": Canfora 2006 , p. 155; Prins 2002 , p. 11. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10. ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' " . Fresh Air . NPR. 10 March 2017. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War" . The International History Review . 9 (3): 368– 409. doi : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 . JSTOR 40105814 . Archived from the original on 1 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4. ^ "Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany" . usa.usembassy.de. 12 September 1990. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . ^ "Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty" . Asia Times . Reuters. 15 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. ^ "Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol" . The New York Times . 20 October 1956. p. 2. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". "The state of war between the USSR and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...] ^ Mintz, Steven. "Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I" . The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Gerwarth, Robert (21 January 2019). "Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 . Retrieved 29 October 2021 . ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76–78 . ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149. ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35. ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4. ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62. ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96; Record 2005 , p. 50. ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124. ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 298–299. ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104. ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458. ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28. ^ Coogan 1993 : "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies." ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10. ^ Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 April 2014 . ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131–132. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 289. ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231. ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 25. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271. ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146. ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547–551. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195–200. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-8510-9672-5 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" ^ Dorn, Frank (1974). The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 . Macmillan. ^ a b Wakabayashi, Bob (2007). The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture . Berghahn Books. p. 384. ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History . 1999, pp. 223–224 ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide . 2008, 298–299. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221–230. ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566. ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150–152. ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651–687. ^ Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Paine, Sarah. The Wars for Asia . Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342. ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939" . The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 29 June 2015 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Neeno, Timothy. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War" . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005 . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121–122. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157. ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.). ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 461–462. ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 471. ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies . 52 (4): 695– 722. doi : 10.1080/713663077 . JSTOR 153322 . S2CID 144385167 . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608. ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)" . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis" . ww2db.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ "Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"!" . PolskieRadio.pl (in Polish) . Retrieved 18 March 2025 . ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1–2. ^ Zabecki, David T. (2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia . Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-1358-1242-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 17 June 2019 . The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35. Cienciala 2010 , p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248–249; Roskill 1954 , p. 64. ^ "Battle of the Atlantic" . Sky HISTORY TV channel . Archived from the original on 20 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 July 2022 . ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80, 83. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law . 52 (1): 69– 84. doi : 10.2307/2195670 . JSTOR 2195670 . S2CID 146904066 . ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24. ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88–89. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible." ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39–40. ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.). ^ Deighton, Len (1979). Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk . Jonathan Cape. pp. 186– 187. ISBN 978-0-2240-1648-3 . Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place." ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24. ^ a b Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55–56. ^ Spring 1986 , pp. 207–226. ^ van Dyke, Carl (1997). The Soviet Invasion of Finland . Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7146-4753-1 . ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745, 975. ^ Haynes, Rebecca (2000). Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 . Palgrave Macmillan . p. 205. ISBN 978-0-3122-3260-3 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 February 2022 . ^ Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327 ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367, 376, 379, 417. ^ Snyder 2010 , pp. 118ff. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSnyder2010 ( help ) ^ Koch 1983 , pp. 912–914, 917–920. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57–63. ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9. ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122–123. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59–60. ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152. ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48. ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66–67. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207. ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311. ^ Brown 2004 , p. 198. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ a b Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108–109. ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328–330. ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52. ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390. ^ a b "Major international events of 1940, with explanation" . Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain" . US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations . Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745–746. ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986 , pp. 4–6 ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9–10. ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106. ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7–8. ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263–276. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 174–175. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 184–187. ^ Gilbert 1989 , pp. 208, 575, 604. ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80. ^ Morrisey, Will (2019). "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War". Winston Churchill . Routledge. pp. 119– 126. doi : 10.4324/9780429027642-6 . ISBN 978-0-4290-2764-2 . S2CID 189257503 . ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195. ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Förster 1998 , p. 26. ^ Förster 1998 , pp. 38–42. ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 810–812. ^ a b Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 267–312 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Sella 1978 , p. 555. ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66–69. ^ Steinberg 1995 . ^ Hauner 1978 . ^ Roberts 1995 . ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. pp. 176– 180. ^ Wilt 1981 . ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114–137. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9. ^ Farrell 1993 . ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220. ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425. ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions." ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227. ^ Milward 1964 . ^ Rotundo 1986 . ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26. ^ Deighton, Len (1993). Blood, Tears and Folly . London: Pimlico. p. 479 . ISBN 978-0-7126-6226-0 . ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41–42; Evans 2008 , pp. 213–214, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse." ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941" . U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87– 97. 1983. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Maechling, Charles. Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War . History Today. December 2000 ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14. ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289. ^ Frank 2020 , p. 161. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFrank2020 ( help ) ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224. ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33. ^ "Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 45– 66. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201. ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456. ^ Coox, Alvin (1985). Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 1046– 1049. ISBN 978-0-8047-1835-6 . ^ a b "The decision for War" . US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years . pp. 113– 127. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ a b "The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63– 96. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2013 . ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 399–414. ^ Kitano, Ryuichi (6 December 2021). "Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack" . The Asahi Shimbun . Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 8 June 2022 . ^ Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō . p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 417–420. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 418. ^ Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan . University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 29, 35. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5 . Archived from the original on 15 March 2024 . Retrieved 15 January 2024 . ^ Bix 2000 , p. 424. ^ The United States Replies Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack. ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure." ^ Wood 2007 , p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic." ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11–12. ^ a b Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341–343. ^ Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War . New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-0-3995-0434-1 ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157. According to May 1955 , p. 155, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front." ^ Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource. ^ Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944). Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History . 78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541. Director: Humphrey, Richard A. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. p. 310 ( 1941 ). Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 9 May 2013 . ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313–314. ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 904. ^ "The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97– 119. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266– 292. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18– 42. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ "The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943" . US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126– 145. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 16 May 2013 . ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247–267, 345. ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 (Table 11). ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71–74. ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158. ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145. ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111–112. ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186. ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28. ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19. ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368. ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot. p. 259 . ISBN 978-1-5922-8027-8 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2019 . Retrieved 26 June 2019 . ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197. ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 174. ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111. ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9. ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31. ^ Read 2004 , p. 764. ^ Bellamy, Chris (2008). Absolute War . ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 (2008 ed.). ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239–265. ^ Black 2003 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383–391. ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142. ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224–228. ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91. ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380–381. ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178. ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129. ^ Neillands 2005 , p. 60. ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277. ^ Smith 2002 . ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8. ^ a b c d Ross 1997 , p. 38. ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24. ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11. ^ "The Civilians" Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119–120. ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164. ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610. ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228. ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149–159. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32. ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595. ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35. ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90. ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50–55. ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362. ^ Hart, Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151. ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52. ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129. ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335–336. ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211, 235, 267–268. ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154. ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286. ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268–274. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161. ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660–661. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327–366. ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367–414. ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122. ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169–184; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568–573. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500–502). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ), Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10–11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224. ^ a b Zeiler 2004 , p. 60. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555–560. ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163. ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85. ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406–407: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war." ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695. ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562. ^ Forrest, Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II." ^ Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands . Basic Books. ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944" . Museum of the Slovak National Uprising . Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 . Retrieved 27 April 2020 . ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" . US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653. ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65–66. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 . Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 978-9-0411-0584-4 . ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 1085. ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8. ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54. ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305. ^ Parker 2004 , pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330 ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85. ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709–722. ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21. ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 793–829. ^ Shepardson 1998 ^ Glass, Andrew (12 April 2016). "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945" . Politico . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244. ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737. ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24. ^ Selby, Scott A. (28 July 2021). The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It . Scott Andrew Selby. p. 8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7102-0718-0 . ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy" . Wired . Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57. ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6. ^ Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" . U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . ^ Zuberi, Matin (August 2001). "Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki". Strategic Analysis . 25 (5): 623– 662. doi : 10.1080/09700160108458986 . S2CID 154800868 . ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90. ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201. ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203–204. ^ Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". International Security , Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179. ^ Glantz 2005 . ^ Pape 1993 "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.". ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 525–526. ^ Bix 2000 , pp. 526–528. ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776. ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96–100. ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41–66. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality" . Geographia Polonica . 88 (1): 77– 105. doi : 10.7163/GPol.0007 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 (PDF) . Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 978-1-5361-1035-7 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2015. ^ a b Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) (PDF) . Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8-3615-9046-0 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background" . Geographia Polonica . 85 (1): 5– 21. doi : 10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 . Archived from the original on 3 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 May 2018 . ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43. ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55. ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794. ^ Kennedy-Pipe 1995 . ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20–21. ^ Senn 2007 , p. ?. ^ "Italy since 1945" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 October 2023 . ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39. ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 15 December 2021 . Retrieved 17 January 2022 . ^ "History of the UN" . United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here [1] Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ The UN Security Council . Archived from the original on 20 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2012 . ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6. ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33. ^ Applebaum 2012 . ^ Naimark 2010 . ^ Swain 1992 . ^ "Greek Civil War" . Encyclopedia Britannica . 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2023 . ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318. ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911. ^ Stueck 2010 , p. 71. ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12–13. ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589. ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441–443, 464–68. ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34–55. ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207. ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263. ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208–209. ^ "The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944" . United States Department of State. 7 January 2008. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022 . Retrieved 18 April 2022 . ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190–191 ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212. ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29–30, 32 ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20–21 ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23. ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117. ^ Schain 2001 . ^ Emadi-Coffin 2002 , p. 64. ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32. ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in Larresm, Klaus, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945 . Wiley. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-1188-9024-0 . ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-9631-8643-0 . ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 1. ^ Hastings 2011 , pp. 669–670. ^ Aubin, Bernard & Guillerat 2019 , p. 147. ^ Hanson 2017 , p. 470. ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 468. ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204. ^ Herf 2003 . ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology (2005). "Victims" . A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Archived from the original on 16 May 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ a b Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45–52. ^ Snyder, Timothy (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality" . The New York Review of Books . 56 (12). Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Polish Victims" . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . ^ "Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others" . BBC . April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . ^ Hastings 2011 , p. 465. ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158–160, 234–236. ^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 18 August 2021 . ^ Geiger, Vladimir (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators" . Review of Croatian History . VIII (1). Croatian Institute of History: 117. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 October 2015 . ^ Massacre, Volhynia. "The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres" . Volhynia Massacre . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947" . dzieje.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 24 June 2018 . Retrieved 10 March 2018 . ^ Paine, Sarah (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 . Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . W.W. Norton & CO. p. 296. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2013). Forgotten Ally . p. 381. ^ Hastings, Max (2012). Inferno . Vintage. p. 670. ^ Frank, Richard (2020). Tower of Skulls . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 576. ^ Dower, John (1999). Embracing Defeat . W.W. Norton and Company. ^ Mitter 2013 , pp. 5, 381. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMitter2013 ( help ) ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 163. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 367. ^ Hastings, Max (2007). Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–1945 . London. p. 13. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Hanson 2017 , pp. 472. ^ Hanson, Victor (2017). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won . Basic Books. p. 498. ^ Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy . p. 296. ^ Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide . Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-3678-6706-5 . ^ Gold, Hal (1996). Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle. pp. 75– 77. ISBN 978-0-8048-3565-7 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320. ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74. ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69. ^ "Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence" . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011. ^ Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf, ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6 p. 391 ^ Women and War . ABC-CLIO. 2006. pp. 480–. ISBN 978-1-8510-9770-8 . Archived from the original on 4 May 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2023 . ^ Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs . 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914– 916. ^ Naimark, Norman (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 . Cambridge: Belknap. p. 70. ^ Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Kiel. 1999. ^ Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025 ^ Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-8454-5844-7 . ^ Dower, John (2007). "Lessons from Iwo Jima" . Perspectives . 45 (6): 54– 56. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011 . Retrieved 17 April 2022 . ^ The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3 . ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568–569. ^ a b Marek, Michael (27 October 2005). "Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers" . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . ^ Pearson, Alexander (19 March 2018). "Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord" . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2023 . Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. ^ J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–1049 ^ Applebaum 2003 , pp. 389–396. ^ Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" . American Experience: the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online. Archived from the original on 27 July 2003 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2–3. ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War" . Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" . Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on 30 October 2004 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138. ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148. ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232. ^ Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 "Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000" . ^ Cooke, Philip; Shepherd, Ben H. (31 January 2020). European Resistance in the Second World War . Pen and Sword. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4738-3162-9 . From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5. ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107. ^ a b Rahn 2001 , p. 266. ^ Leith, C. K. (July 1939). "The Struggle for Mineral Resources" . The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 204, Democracy and the Americas: 42– 48. JSTOR 1021443 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. ^ a b Harrison 1998 , p. 3. ^ Compare: Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II . American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 December 2019 . By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...]. ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2. ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . Diane Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-5856-6069-8 . ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26. ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration . United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 978-9-2110-9147-2 . ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76. ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227. ^ Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247–251. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-8450-9079-1 . ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4027-3099-3 . ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25. ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14. ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15. ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16. ^ Burns, R. W. (September 1994). "Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943" . IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology . 141 (5): 343– 355. doi : 10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane's Information Group . p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7106-0123-0 . ^ "The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War" . Imperial War Museums . Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Castaldi, Carolina; Fontana, Roberto; Nuvolari, Alessandro (1 August 2009). " 'Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945" . Journal of Evolutionary Economics . 19 (4): 545– 566. doi : 10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 . hdl : 10419/89322 . ISSN 1432-1386 . S2CID 36789517 . ^ a b Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734. ^ a b Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF) . controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War I" . History Department at the University of San Diego. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times . London. p. 27. Gale IF0504159516 . ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ "The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II" . New Orleans: The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "World War – II" . Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation . Archived from the original on 11 July 2022 . Retrieved 17 September 2022 . ^ Gaynes, Robert (May 2017). "The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use" . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 23 (5): 849– 853. Bibcode : 2017EIDis..23..849G . doi : 10.3201/eid2305.161556 . PMC 5403050 . Sources Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (1992). The Making of the Second World War . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-90716-3 . Anderson, Irvine H. Jr. (1975). "The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review . 44 (2): 201– 231. doi : 10.2307/3638003 . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9322-6 . ——— (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9868-9 . Aubin, Nicolas; Bernard, Vincent; Guillerat, Nicolas (2019). Lopez, Jean (ed.). World War II Infographics . London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02292-4 . Bacon, Edwin (1992). " Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II". Soviet Studies . 44 (6): 1069– 1086. doi : 10.1080/09668139208412066 . JSTOR 152330 . Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-0-85045-921-0 . Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press . Barber, John; Harrison, Mark (2006). "Patriotic War, 1941–1945". In Ronald Grigor Suny (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia – The Twentieth Century . Vol. III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 217– 242. ISBN 978-0-521-81144-6 . Barker, A. J. (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York: Ballantine Books . ISBN 978-0-345-02462-6 . Beevor, Antony (1998). Stalingrad . New York: Viking . ISBN 978-0-670-87095-0 . ——— (2012). The Second World War . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978-0-297-84497-6 . Belco, Victoria (2010). War, Massacre, and Recovery in Central Italy: 1943–1948 . Toronto: University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978-0-8020-9314-1 . Bellamy, Chris T. (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York: Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4 . Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History . New York: W. W. Norton. Berend, Ivan T. (1996). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-55066-6 . Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2 . Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . ISBN 978-0-7656-1821-4 . Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood . ISBN 978-0-275-96363-7 . Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York: HarperCollins . ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0 . Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-30534-1 . Blinkhorn, Martin (2006) [1984]. Mussolini and Fascist Italy (3rd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26206-4 . Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0870-7 . Borstelmann, Thomas (2005). "The United States, the Cold War, and the colour line". In Melvyn P. Leffler; David S. Painter (eds.). Origins of the Cold War: An International History (2nd ed.). Abingdon & New York: Routledge . pp. 317– 332. ISBN 978-0-415-34109-7 . Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313– 314. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Brayley, Martin J. (2002). The British Army 1939–45, Volume 3: The Far East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-238-8 . British Bombing Survey Unit (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945 . London & Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7146-4722-7 . Brody, J. Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936 . New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978-0-7658-0622-2 . Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5461-4 . Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's Troubled Peace, 1945–2000 . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-0-631-22162-3 . Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce ; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-02546-1 . Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James L. (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress . Polity . ISBN 978-0-7456-1298-0 . Bullock, Alan (1990) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0 . Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). "Concepts in Submarine Design" . Journal of Applied Mechanics . 62 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press : 268. Bibcode : 1995JAM....62R.268B . doi : 10.1115/1.2895927 . ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3 . Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97733-7 . Canfora, Luciano (2006) [2004]. Democracy in Europe: A History . Oxford & Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 978-1-4051-1131-7 . Cantril, Hadley (1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". Public Opinion Quarterly . 4 (3): 387– 407. doi : 10.1086/265420 . JSTOR 2745078 . Chang, Iris (1997). The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . New York: Basic Books . ISBN 978-0-465-06835-7 . Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation . New York: Fordham University Press . ISBN 978-0-8232-2562-0 . Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras . London & New York: Continuum . ISBN 978-0-8264-1350-5 . Ch'i, Hsi-Sheng (1992). "The Military Dimension, 1942–1945". In James C. Hsiung; Steven I. Levine (eds.). China's Bitter Victory: War with Japan, 1937–45 . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 157– 184. ISBN 978-1-56324-246-5 . Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review . 55 (1): 123– 143. doi : 10.2307/25779864 . JSTOR 25779864 . S2CID 159445902 . Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-80872-9 . Coble, Parks M. (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press . ISBN 978-0-520-23268-6 . Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-539-6 . Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45 . Oxford: Heinemann . ISBN 978-0-435-32721-7 . Commager, Henry Steele (2004). The Story of the Second World War . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-741-9 . Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" . History Today . 43 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History . London: UCL Press . ISBN 978-1-85728-532-1 . Cowley, Robert ; Parker, Geoffrey , eds. (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company . ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9 . Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-101022-9 . Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory . London: Macmillan . ix+544 pages . ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1 . OCLC 70401618 . Dear, I. C. B. ; Foot, M. R. D. , eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4 . DeLong, J. Bradford ; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 189– 230. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Dower, John W. (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War . New York: Pantheon Books . ISBN 978-0-394-50030-0 . Drea, Edward J. (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978-0-8032-6638-4 . de Grazia, Victoria; Paggi, Leonardo (Autumn 1991). "Story of an Ordinary Massacre: Civitella della Chiana, 29 June, 1944". Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature . 3 (2): 153– 169. doi : 10.1525/lal.1991.3.2.02a00030 . JSTOR 743479 . Dunn, Dennis J. (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow . Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2023-2 . Eastman, Lloyd E. (1986). "Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945". In John K. Fairbank; Denis Twitchett (eds.). The Cambridge History of China – Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2 . Vol. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-24338-4 . Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 54 (7): 1151– 1172. doi : 10.1080/0966813022000017177 . JSTOR 826310 . S2CID 43510161 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Copy ———; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF) . Europe-Asia Studies . 46 (4): 671– 680. doi : 10.1080/09668139408412190 . JSTOR 152934 . PMID 12288331 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9 . Erickson, John (2001). "Moskalenko". In Shukman, Harold (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 137– 154. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . ——— (2003). The Road to Stalingrad . London: Cassell Military . ISBN 978-0-304-36541-8 . Evans, David C.; Peattie, Mark R. (2012) [1997]. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978-1-59114-244-7 . Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9742-2 . Fairbank, John King ; Goldman, Merle (2006) [1994]. China: A New History (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-01828-0 . Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". Journal of Military History . 57 (4): 599– 625. doi : 10.2307/2944096 . JSTOR 2944096 . Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6 . Forrest, Glen; Evans, Anthony; Gibbons, David (2012). The Illustrated Timeline of Military History . New York: Rosen. ISBN 978-1-4488-4794-5 . Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Hitler's Decision in Favour of War". In Horst Boog; Jürgen Förster; Joachim Hoffmann; Ernst Klink; Rolf-Dieter Muller; Gerd R. Ueberschar (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Attack on the Soviet Union . Vol. IV. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 13– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-822886-8 . Förster, Stig; Gessler, Myriam (2005). "The Ultimate Horror: Reflections on Total War and Genocide" . In Roger Chickering; Stig Förster; Bernd Greiner (eds.). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 53– 68. ISBN 978-0-521-83432-2 . Frank, Richard B. (2020). Tower of Skulls: A History of The Asia-Pacific War July 1937-May 1942 . W. W. Norton & Company. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-324-00210-9 . Frei, Norbert (2002). Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11882-8 . Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K., eds. (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945 . London: Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978-0-85177-953-9 . Garver, John W. (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-505432-3 . Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9 . Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" . Combined Arms Research Library . CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256 . Archived from the original on 6 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ——— (1989). Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War . Abingdon & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3 . ——— (1998). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-0899-7 . ——— (2001). "The Soviet-German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2011. ——— (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978-0-7006-1208-6 . ——— (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" . Combined Arms Research Library . Leavenworth Papers. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 78918907 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Goldstein, Margaret J. (2004). World War II: Europe . Minneapolis: Lerner Publications . ISBN 978-0-8225-0139-8 . Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched" . In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . pp. 127–144 . ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6 . Gordon, Robert S. C. (2012). The Holocaust in Italian Culture, 1944–2010 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-6346-2 . Grove, Eric J. (1995). "A Service Vindicated, 1939–1946". In J. R. Hill (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy . Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 348– 380. ISBN 978-0-19-211675-8 . Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-3756-2 . Hanhimäki, Jussi M. (1997). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press . ISBN 978-0-87338-558-9 . Harris, Sheldon H. (2002). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-93214-1 . Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World War II: an overview". In Mark Harrison (ed.). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 1– 42. ISBN 978-0-521-62046-8 . Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-1-86227-073-2 . Hastings, Max (2011). All Hell Let Loose: the World at War 1939-1945 . London: Harper Press. ISBN 9780-00-733809-2 . Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (1): 15– 32. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300102 . JSTOR 260090 . S2CID 154865385 . Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The Tide Turns in the East . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0 . Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4 . Hempel, Andrew (2005). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History . New York: Hippocrene Books . ISBN 978-0-7818-1004-3 . Herbert, Ulrich (1994). "Labor as spoils of conquest, 1933–1945". In David F. Crew (ed.). Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 219–273 . ISBN 978-0-415-08239-6 . Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History . 4 (4): 913– 930. doi : 10.1353/kri.2003.0059 . S2CID 159958616 . Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944 . London & New York: Frank Cass . ISBN 978-0-7146-5711-0 . Holland, James (2008). Italy's Sorrow: A Year of War 1944–45 . London: HarperPress . ISBN 978-0-00-717645-8 . Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union . Cambridge: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5 . Howard, Joshua H. (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953 . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-4896-4 . Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210 . OCLC 12828898 . Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman ; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought . New York: Columbia University Press . pp. 76–78 . ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4 . Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-69580-1 . Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War . London & New York: Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 978-1-85285-417-1 . Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978-0-8131-2339-4 . Jowett, Philip S. (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45, Volume 2: Africa 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-865-5 . ———; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-353-8 . Jukes, Geoffrey (2001). "Kuznetzov". In Harold Shukman (ed.). Stalin's Generals . London: Phoenix Press . pp. 109– 116. ISBN 978-1-84212-513-7 . Kantowicz, Edward R. (1999). The Rage of Nations . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4455-2 . ——— (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together . Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans . ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9 . Keeble, Curtis (1990). "The historical perspective". In Alex Pravda; Peter J. Duncan (eds.). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-37494-1 . Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-7348-8 . Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1 . Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 . Manchester: Manchester University Press . ISBN 978-0-7190-4201-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04994-7 . ——— (2007). Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-0-7139-9712-5 . Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-913417-5 . Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues . 9 (1): 13– 361. JSTOR 40604127 . Kleinfeld, Gerald R. (1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs . 47 (3): 122– 128. doi : 10.2307/1988082 . JSTOR 1988082 . Koch, H. W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa' ". The Historical Journal . 26 (4): 891– 920. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00012747 . JSTOR 2639289 . S2CID 159671713 . Kolko, Gabriel (1990) [1968]. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945 . New York: Random House . ISBN 978-0-679-72757-6 . Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6 . Lee, En-han (2002). "The Nanking Massacre Reassessed: A Study of the Sino-Japanese Controversy over the Factual Number of Massacred Victims". In Robert Sabella; Fei Fei Li; David Liu (eds.). Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing . Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe . pp. 47– 74. ISBN 978-0-7656-0816-1 . Leffler, Melvyn P. ; Westad, Odd Arne , eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-83938-9 , in 3 volumes. Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6 . Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses" . In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines . Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office . LCCN 53-63678 . Archived from the original on 8 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 October 2009 . Liberman, Peter (1996). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-02986-3 . Liddell Hart, Basil (1977). History of the Second World War (4th ed.). London: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23770-3 . Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-22404-8 . Lindberg, Michael; Todd, Daniel (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-96486-3 . Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-26681-9 . Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3 . Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-0437-3 . Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2241-4 . Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . Cambridge University Press . p. 96 . ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6 . Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-882-3 . Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese Relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987 . Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications . ISBN 978-0-87727-122-2 . May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review . 24 (2): 153– 174. doi : 10.2307/3634575 . JSTOR 3634575 . Mazower, Mark (2008). Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe . London: Allen Lane . ISBN 978-1-59420-188-2 . Milner, Marc (1990). "The Battle of the Atlantic". In Gooch, John (ed.). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War . Abingdon: Frank Cass . pp. 45– 66. ISBN 978-0-7146-3369-5 . Milward, A. S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review . 16 (3): 499– 518. JSTOR 2592851 . ——— (1992) [1977]. War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 . Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03942-1 . Minford, Patrick (1993). "Reconstruction and the UK Postwar Welfare State: False Start and New Beginning". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press . pp. 115– 138. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-4346-4 . Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8 . Mitcham, Samuel W. (2007) [1982]. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps . Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books . ISBN 978-0-8117-3413-4 . Mitter, Rana (2014). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945 . Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-544-33450-2 . Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84603-006-2 . Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933–1945 . Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama: Air University Press . ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ———; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-00680-5 . Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-10222-1 . Naimark, Norman (2010). "The Sovietization of Eastern Europe, 1944–1953". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 175– 197. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Neary, Ian (1992). "Japan". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 49– 70. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press . ISBN 978-0-253-34781-7 . Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe – Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939–1945 . Ramsbury, Marlborough, United Kingdom: The Crowood Press. ISBN 978-1-86126-799-3 . Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust . New York: Columbia University Press . ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0 . Overy, Richard (1994). War and Economy in the Third Reich . New York: Clarendon Press . ISBN 978-0-19-820290-5 . ——— (1995). Why the Allies Won . London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7453-9 . ——— (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4 . ———; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7 . O'Reilly, Charles T. (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945 . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books . ISBN 978-0-7391-0195-7 . Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" . The Journal of American History . 99 (1): 24– 39. doi : 10.1093/jahist/jas073 . Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea: Submarine Conflict During World War II . New York: John Wiley . ISBN 978-0-471-24945-0 . Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security . 18 (2): 154– 201. doi : 10.2307/2539100 . JSTOR 2539100 . S2CID 153741180 . Parker, Danny S. (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945 (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press . ISBN 978-0-306-81391-7 . Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4 . Perez, Louis G. (1998). The History of Japan . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978-0-313-30296-1 . Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and Conquest: Allied Occupation Currencies in World War II . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-0530-1 . Polley, Martin (2000). An A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4 . Portelli, Alessandro (2003). The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome . Basingstoke & New York: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-1-4039-8008-3 . Preston, P. W. (1998). Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction . Oxford & Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers . ISBN 978-0-631-20238-7 . Prins, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century . London & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-36960-2 . Radtke, K. W. (1997). " 'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933–7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context . London & New York: Routledge . pp. 100– 120. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6 . Rahn, Werner (2001). "The War in the Pacific". In Horst Boog; Werner Rahn; Reinhard Stumpf; Bernd Wegner (eds.). Germany and the Second World War – The Global War . Vol. VI. Oxford: Clarendon Press . pp. 191– 298. ISBN 978-0-19-822888-2 . Ratcliff, R. A. (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra, and the End of Secure Ciphers . New York: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85522-8 . Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04800-1 . Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (2002) [1992]. The Fall Of Berlin . London: Pimlico . ISBN 978-0-7126-0695-0 . Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF) . Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Rees, Laurence (2008). World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . London: BBC Books . ISBN 978-0-563-49335-8 . Regan, Geoffrey (2004). The Brassey's Book of Military Blunders . Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-252-0 . Reinhardt, Klaus (1992). Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 . Oxford: Berg . ISBN 978-0-85496-695-0 . Reynolds, David (2006). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5 . Rich, Norman (1992) [1973]. Hitler's War Aims, Volume I: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00802-9 . Ritchie, Ella (1992). "France". In Martin Harrop (ed.). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 23– 48. ISBN 978-0-521-34579-8 . Roberts, Cynthia A. (1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies . 47 (8): 1293– 1326. doi : 10.1080/09668139508412322 . JSTOR 153299 . Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press . ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7 . Roberts, J. M. (1997). The Penguin History of Europe . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3 . Ropp, Theodore (2000). War in the Modern World (Revised ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978-0-8018-6445-2 . Roskill, S. W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive . History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO . Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Ross, Steven T. (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-7146-4634-3 . Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0 . Rotundo, Louis (1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs . 50 (1): 21– 28. doi : 10.2307/1988530 . JSTOR 1988530 . Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific . Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-049-5 . Schain, Martin A., ed. (2001). The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . London: Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978-0-333-92983-4 . Schmitz, David F. (2000). Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-8420-2632-1 . Schoppa, R. Keith (2011). In a Sea of Bitterness, Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-05988-7 . Sella, Amnon (1978). " "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History . 13 (3): 555– 583. doi : 10.1177/002200947801300308 . JSTOR 260209 . S2CID 220880174 . ——— (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History . 18 (4): 651– 687. JSTOR 260307 . Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above . Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi . ISBN 978-9-0420-2225-6 . Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II: Day by Day . Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-0939-1 . Shepardson, Donald E. (1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". Journal of Military History . 62 (1): 135– 154. doi : 10.2307/120398 . JSTOR 120398 . Shirer, William L. (1990) [1960]. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978-0-671-72868-7 . Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy . New York: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-518261-3 . Slim, William (1956). Defeat into Victory . London: Cassell. Smith, Alan (1993). Russia and the World Economy: Problems of Integration . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-08924-1 . Smith, J. W. (1994). The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment . Institute for Economic Democracy. ISBN 978-0-9624423-2-2 . Smith, Peter C. (2002) [1970]. Pedestal: The Convoy That Saved Malta (5th ed.). Manchester: Goodall. ISBN 978-0-907579-19-9 . Smith, David J.; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldis; Lane, Thomas (2002). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-28580-3 . Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3 . Last Gasp. ISBN 978-0-86719-616-0 . Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . London: The Bodley Head . ISBN 978-0-224-08141-2 . Spring, D. W. (1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Soviet Studies . 38 (2): 207– 226. doi : 10.1080/09668138608411636 . JSTOR 151203 . S2CID 154270850 . Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The English Historical Review . 110 (437): 620– 651. doi : 10.1093/ehr/cx.437.620 . JSTOR 578338 . Steury, Donald P. (1987). "Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Campaign and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Study in the Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval Warfare". Journal of Contemporary History . 22 (2): 209– 233. doi : 10.1177/002200948702200202 . JSTOR 260931 . S2CID 159943895 . Stueck, William (2010). "The Korean War". In Melvyn P. Leffler; Odd Arne Westad (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Cold War – Origins . Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 266– 287. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4 . Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-195-4 . Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45 . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978-1-86508-352-0 . Swain, Geoffrey (1992). "The Cominform: Tito's International?". The Historical Journal . 35 (3): 641– 663. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00026017 . S2CID 163152235 . Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4 . Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War . London: Hamish Hamilton . ——— (1979). How Wars Begin . London: Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978-0-241-10017-2 . Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press . ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2 . Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom History European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 European Bronze Age Classical antiquity Late antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages early high late early high late Renaissance Modern period Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Early modern period Age of Discovery Reformation Age of Enlightenment Scientific Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Canon Media Internet Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary contemporary Philosophy Science Values Science Values Physical culture Sport Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Relativism Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Roman philosophy Christian ethics Judeo-Christian ethics Christian philosophy Scholasticism Rationalism Empiricism Existentialism Christian existentialism Christian existentialism Humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Christian humanism Secular humanism Liberalism Conservatism Capitalism Progressivism Continental philosophy Analytic philosophy Post-structuralism Tolerance Paradox Paradox Relativism Peritrope Peritrope Atlanticism Sovereigntism Individualism Values European European Religion Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Abrahamic Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Christianity Culture Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Culture Western / Eastern Western / Eastern Catholicism Latin Church Latin Church Eastern Orthodoxy Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism Paganism Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Baltic Celtic Finnish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Anglo-Saxon Frankish Gothic Old Norse Hellenistic Roman Slavic Neo Agnosticism Atheism Law Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Natural law Rule of law Equality before the law Equality before the law Constitutionalism Human rights Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Life Thought Speech Press Religion Property Democracy Liberal international order Contemporary integration ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Druze Islam Culture Sunni Shia Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Culture Eastern Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine Yale LUX World War II World wars Conflicts in 1939 Conflicts in 1940 Conflicts in 1941 Conflicts in 1942 Conflicts in 1943 Conflicts in 1944 Conflicts in 1945 Late modern Europe Nuclear warfare Wars involving Albania Wars involving Australia Wars involving Austria Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Bolivia Wars involving Brazil Wars involving British India Wars involving Bulgaria Wars involving Myanmar Wars involving Cambodia Wars involving Canada Wars involving Chile Wars involving Colombia Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Cuba Wars involving Czechoslovakia Wars involving Denmark Wars involving the Dominican Republic Wars involving Ecuador Wars involving Egypt Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Estonia Wars involving Ethiopia Wars involving Finland Wars involving France Wars involving Germany Wars involving Greece Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Haiti Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Hungary Wars involving Iceland Wars involving Indonesia Wars involving Italy Wars involving Iran Wars involving Iraq Wars involving Japan Wars involving Kazakhstan Wars involving Laos Wars involving Latvia Wars involving Lebanon Wars involving Liberia Wars involving Lithuania Wars involving Luxembourg Wars involving Mexico Wars involving Mongolia Wars involving Montenegro Wars involving Nepal Wars involving Norway Wars involving Nicaragua Wars involving Panama Wars involving Paraguay Wars involving Peru Wars involving Poland Wars involving Rhodesia Wars involving Romania Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving Serbia Wars involving Slovakia Wars involving Slovenia Wars involving South Africa Wars involving Sri Lanka Wars involving Syria Wars involving Thailand Wars involving the Netherlands Wars involving the Philippines Wars involving the Republic of China Wars involving the Soviet Union Wars involving the United Kingdom Wars involving the United States Wars involving Uruguay Wars involving Venezuela Wars involving Vietnam Wars involving Yugoslavia Wars involving India Wars involving New Zealand CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1: long volume value CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia references cleanup from January 2026 All articles needing references cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from January 2026 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify All articles with duplicate citations Use British English from December 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from October 2025 Articles containing Italian-language text Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata Pages using Sister project links with default search This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 11:13 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#CITEREFRegan2004
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Education and career 2 Views Toggle Views subsection 2.1 Institutions vs collaboration 2.2 Evolution of asymmetric media 2.3 Shirky principle 2.4 Communal value vs civic value 2.5 Response to Evgeny Morozov on consulting for the Libyan government 2.6 Reaction to SOPA 2.7 Distributed version control and democracy 2.1 Institutions vs collaboration 2.2 Evolution of asymmetric media 2.3 Shirky principle 2.4 Communal value vs civic value 2.5 Response to Evgeny Morozov on consulting for the Libyan government 2.6 Reaction to SOPA 2.7 Distributed version control and democracy 3 Bibliography 4 See also 5 Footnotes 6 References 7 External links Clay Shirky العربية Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית مصرى Nederlands Português Simple English Svenska Türkçe 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Clay Shirky Shirky on the Folksonomy panel at the 2005 O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference Vice Provost for AI and Technology in Education at New York University Incumbent Assumed office 2017 Chief Information Officer of NYU Shanghai In office 2014–2017 Personal details Born Clay Shirky 1964 (age 61–62) Columbia, Missouri , U.S. Education Yale University ( BA ) Occupation Writer, consultant, lecturer Clay Shirky (born 1964 [ 1 ] ) is an American pundit, writer, and consultant on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies and journalism. In 2017 he was appointed Vice Provost for AI and Technology in Education at New York University (NYU), after serving as Chief Information Officer at NYU Shanghai from 2014 to 2017. [ 2 ] He also is an associate professor at the Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute and Associate Arts Professor at the Tisch School of the Arts' Interactive Telecommunications Program . [ 3 ] His courses address, among other things, the interrelated effects of the topology of social networks and technological networks, how our networks shape culture and vice versa. [ 4 ] He has written and been interviewed about the Internet since 1996. His columns and writings have appeared in Business 2.0 , The New York Times , The Wall Street Journal , the Harvard Business Review and Wired . Shirky divides his time between consulting, teaching, and writing on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies. His consulting practice is focused on the rise of decentralized technologies such as peer-to-peer , web services , and wireless networks that provide alternatives to the wired client–server infrastructure that characterizes the World Wide Web . He is a member of the Wikimedia Foundation 's advisory board. [ 5 ] In The Long Tail , Chris Anderson calls Shirky "a prominent thinker on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies." [ 6 ] Education and career After graduating from Yale University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in fine art in 1986, he moved to New York. [ 7 ] In the 1990s he founded the Hard Place Theater, a theatre company that produced non-fiction theater using only found materials such as government documents, transcripts and cultural records [ 7 ] and also worked as a lighting designer for other theater and dance companies, including the Wooster Group , Elevator Repair Service and Dana Reitz. [ 8 ] During this time, Shirky was vice-president of the New York chapter of the Electronic Frontier Foundation , and wrote technology guides for Ziff Davis . He appeared as an expert witness on cyberculture in Shea v. Reno , a case cited in the U. S. Supreme Court 's decision to strike down the Communications Decency Act in 1996. [ citation needed ] Shirky was the first Professor of New Media in the Media Studies department at Hunter College , where he developed the MFA in Integrated Media Arts program [ citation needed ] . In the Fall of 2010, Shirky was a visiting Morrow Lecturer at Harvard University 's John F. Kennedy School of Government [ 9 ] instructing a course titled: "New Media and Public Action". [ 10 ] Views In his book Here Comes Everybody , Shirky explains how he has long spoken in favor of crowdsourcing and collaborative efforts online. He uses the phrase "the Internet runs on love" to describe the nature of such collaborations. [ 11 ] In the book, he discusses the ways in which the action of a group adds up to something more than just aggregated individual action borrowing the phrase "more is different" from physicist Philip Warren Anderson . Shirky asserts that collaborative crowdsourced work results from "a successful fusion of a plausible promise, an effective tool, and an acceptable bargain with the users." He states that the promise of what the user will get out of participating in a project leads to a person's desire to get involved. Collaborators will then choose the best social networking tool to do the job. One that "must be designed to fit the job being done, and it must help people do something they actually want to do." The bargain, Shirky states, defines what collaborators expect from each other's participation in the project. [ 12 ] Shirky's 'Promise, Tool, Bargain' premise restates aspects of the Uses and Gratifications Theory of mass media research. He points to four key steps. The first is sharing, a sort of "me-first collaboration" in which the social effects are aggregated after the fact; people share links, URLs , tags, and eventually come together around a type. This type of sharing is a reverse of the so-called old order of sharing, where participants congregate first and then share (examples include Flickr , and Delicious ). The second is conversation, that is, the synchronization of people with each other and the coming together to learn more about something and to get better at it. The third is collaboration, in which a group forms under the purpose of some common effort. It requires a division of labor, and teamwork. It can often be characterized by people wanting to fix a market failure, and is motivated by increasing accessibility. The fourth and final step is collective action , which Shirky says is "mainly still in the future." The key point about collective action is that the fate of the group as a whole becomes important. Shirky also introduces his theory of mass amateurization : Our social tools remove older obstacles to public expression, and thus remove the bottlenecks that characterized mass media. The result is the mass amateurization of efforts previously reserved for media professionals. Our social tools remove older obstacles to public expression, and thus remove the bottlenecks that characterized mass media. The result is the mass amateurization of efforts previously reserved for media professionals. Combined with the lowering of transaction costs associated with creating content, mass amateurization of publishing changes the question from "Why publish this?" to "Why not?" [ 12 ] Tied to mass amateurization is the idea of publish-then-filter which is now required due to the mere size and amount of material being created on a daily basis. Shirky calls this mass amateurization of filtering a forced move. He uses the Portland Pattern Repository , which introduced the wiki concept that inspired Wikipedia, as an example of this new marriage of mass content creation and mass filtering. External videos Presentation by Shirky on Cognitive Surplus at Google Headquarters, Mountain View, CA, June 25, 2010 , C-SPAN In 2010 Shirky published Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age which expands on themes introduced in Here Comes Everybody . The book follows concepts he introduced in a Web 2. 0 conference presentation April 23, 2008 called "Gin, Television, and Social Surplus", [ 13 ] Herein he popularizes the concept of cognitive surplus , the time freed from watching television which can be enormously productive when applied to other social endeavors. Technology has turned many past consumers into producers. This new production capacity, combined with humanity's willingness to share, can change society if applied to civic endeavors. Shirky introduces Cognitive Surplus as a continuation of his work in Here Comes Everybody . "This book picks up where that one left off, starting with the observation that the wiring of humanity lets us treat free time as a shared global resource, and lets us design new kinds of participation and sharing that take advantage of that resource." [ 14 ] Shirky has also written about "algorithmic authority," which describes the process through which unverified information is vetted for its trustworthiness through multiple sources. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Institutions vs collaboration In July 2005, Shirky gave a talk titled "Institutions vs collaboration" as a part of TEDGlobal 2005. [ 17 ] This presentation reveals many of the ideas and concepts that would ultimately be presented in Here Comes Everybody and in future TED talks. Shirky compares the coordination costs between groups formed under traditional institutions and those formed by groups which "build cooperation into the infrastructure." [ 17 ] Classic institutions have to create economic, management, legal and physical structures and inherently, by creating these rigid structures, must exclude large numbers of people. Companies like Flickr , however, having built "cooperation into the infrastructure" of their company, do not have to build massive infrastructure nor exclude large groups of potential contributors. Shirky states that since many social systems follow the Pareto principle wherein 20% of contributors account for 80% of contributions, traditional institutions lose out of the long tail of contributors by turning only the few that dominate the distribution into employees. The cooperative infrastructure model escapes having to lose this resource. Shirky presents an institution as enabler and institution as obstacle concept. The relatively small number of high-volume contributors can be assimilated, as employees, into the old-style corporate model and thus can live in an "institution-as-enabler world". The long tail of contributors, however, who make few and infrequent contributions, see institutions as an obstacle as they would never have been hired, therefore, disenfranchised. Shirky argues that an idea or contribution may be infrequent and significant. Furthermore, all of the long tail contributors, taken in aggregate, can be substantial. One pitfall of the "mass amateurs" creating their own groups is that not all niches that are filled will be positive ones; Shirky presents pro-ana groups as an example. Shirky closes by stating that the migration from institutions to self-organizing, collaborative groups will be incomplete and will not end in a utopian society. Rather, chaos will follow as was created by the advent of the printing press before it, and that this period of transition will last roughly fifty years. Shirky claims that our actions and behavior are generated by convenience. Writer and analyst Megan Garber writes: "The more people we have participating in media, and the more people we have consuming it—and the more people we have, in particular, creating it—the better. Not because bigger is implicitly better than the alternative compact, but because abundance changes the value proposition of media as a resource." [ 18 ] According to Jay Baer by making collaboration more convenient for the user, it will eventually become a more commonplace. Further, enhancing the outcome of collaboration will instill motivation within the users. [ 19 ] According to Audrey Tang , Shirky has coined the phrase "cognitive surplus", to describe the way that time spent on the internet can have an increasing social value. [ 20 ] Evolution of asymmetric media In June 2009, Shirky participated in a TED@State talk titled "How cellphones, Twitter and Facebook can make history" aka "How social media can make history." [ 21 ] In the talk, he explains that this is the first time in history that communication is possible from many to many. In the past, communication to a large group excluded the possibility of having a conversation, and having a conversation meant not interacting with a group and instead was necessarily a one-to-one structure. Shirky labels this incongruous exchange as asymmetric. In Shirky's view, this feature is one of the main reasons that the internet revolution is different from communication revolutions that preceded it. [ 21 ] The second difference between the twentieth and twenty-first century communication revolution, Shirky states, is now all media is digitized. This means that the Internet now encapsulates all forms of media from the past and the medium itself has become the site of exchange, not just a means of exchange. Finally, the Internet allows people to create content, thus the line between producers and consumers has become blurred. As Shirky puts it, "Every time a new consumer joins this media landscape, a new producer joins as well." [ 21 ] Even countries like China, as Shirky gives as an example, go to great lengths to control information exchange on the Internet but are having trouble as the "amateurization" of media creation has effectively turned every owner of a cellphone and Twitter account into a journalist. The populace as a whole, Shirky claims, is a force much harder to control than a handful of professional news sources. He compares the "Great Firewall of China" to the Maginot Line as both were built to protect from external threats but that is not where the majority of content is being created in this new media landscape. As an example of the potential of this two-way, collaborative environment Shirky believes we are now living in, he presents as a case study MyBarackObama.com. Over the issue of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act , members of the website were upset over Obama's announcement that he was changing his stance and that now he was going to sign the bill "that granted immunity for possibly warrantless spying on American persons." [ 21 ] Despite the disagreement between the President and the posters opposed to his altered view, Shirky cites the mere fact that the President posted a reply to their concerns, instead of persecuting/ignoring the group, as hope for the future of this new form of mass media. Shirky principle In April 2010, Kevin Kelly cited the phrase "Institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution", and called it the "Shirky Principle", as the phrasing reminded him of the clarity of the Peter Principle . [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Communal value vs civic value In June 2010, Shirky participated in TED@Cannes wherein he spoke about cognitive surplus and its role furthering communal and civic value . [ 25 ] The talk was titled, "How cognitive surplus will change the world," and the possibility for change, which Shirky presents, runs the spectrum at one end with communal value being increased and at the other end with civic value being furthered. Digital technology has allowed human generosity and "the world's free time and talents," which Shirky calls cognitive surplus , to combine and create a new form of creative expression. This creative expression can take the form of lolcats or endeavors such as Ushahidi ; the former Shirky says increases communal value , "it is created by the participants for each other" for simple amusement, whereas the latter he cites furthers civic value meaning the group action is taken to benefit society as a whole. Shirky then presents the view that society lives under social constraint and that these social constraints can create a culture that is "more generous than" the environment created by contractual constraints alone. [ 25 ] Understanding where the economic or contractual motivation of a situation ends and where the social part begins, Shirky claims is key when designing to maximize generosity. This being the case, to have society use its "trillion hours a year of participatory value" to advance civic value , society itself simply needs to prize, and collectively praise, endeavors like Ushahidi . Clay Shirky wrote an essay about the aspects of online community building through broadcast media. As members of a broad social community and users of media outlets, Shirky suggests ways in which we can build up this type of society. Shirky suggests five different things to think about when dealing with broadcast media outlets: Audiences are built. Communities grow. Communities face a tradeoff between size and focus. Participation matters more than quality. You may own the software, but the community owns itself. The community will want to build. Help it, or at least let it. [ 26 ] Response to Evgeny Morozov on consulting for the Libyan government In March 2011, Shirky responded to questions raised by Evgeny Morozov about consulting he had done for the Libyan government. Morozov tweeted "With Clay Shirky consulting the Libyan govt, it's now clear why dictators are so smart about the Web". [ 27 ] Shirky explained he had been invited in 2007 to speak in Boston to Libya's IT Minister. [ 28 ] Shirky stated the talk was "about using social software to improve citizen engagement in coastal towns. The idea was that those cities would be more economically successful if local policies related to the tourist trade were designed by the locals themselves." Shirky added that nothing came of the project beyond his initial talk. He defended his underlying desire to expand representative government in Libya and concluded that "the best reason to believe that social media can aid citizens in their struggle to make government more responsive is that both citizens and governments believe that." Reaction to SOPA In January 2012, at TED Salon NY, Shirky gave a talk titled "Why SOPA is a bad idea." [ 29 ] He cites SOPA as a way for traditional, mass media producers to "raise the cost of copyright compliance to the point where people simply get out of the business of offering it as a capability to amateurs." [ 29 ] After an offending internet site is identified, with the identification process itself not specified in the bill, the targeted site will be removed from the Domain Name System (DNS). Shirky claims since you can still use the static IP address of the site in question, removal from DNS is futile. He identifies the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 as a law that was able to delineate between sharing with your friends as being legal and selling for commercial gain as illegal. Unsatisfied, media companies, Shirky claims, continued to push government to create more sweeping legislation which would hinder any form of sharing. This pressure, in 1998, created the Digital Millennium Copyright Act . It was now legal for media companies to sell uncopyable material although uncopyable digital material does not exist. To remedy this fact, Shirky states that media companies now tried to break consumer's computer hardware to create the illusion that the media they purchased was indeed uncopyable. The DMCA marks the moment when the media industries gave up on the legal system of distinguishing between legal and illegal copying and simply tried to prevent copying through technical means. The DMCA marks the moment when the media industries gave up on the legal system of distinguishing between legal and illegal copying and simply tried to prevent copying through technical means. Whereas DMCA was "surgical," SOPA is "nuclear" since the law stipulates any sites pointing to "illegal" content may be censored. Ultimately, Shirky points out the public-at-large is by far the largest producers of content and they are the ones which will be censured. They will be presumed guilty until they can prove the content they published is not illegal. This turns the American legal system on its head. He closes by encouraging Americans to contact their senators and congressmen and reminding them they prefer "not to be treated like a thief." [ 29 ] Distributed version control and democracy On June 29, 2012, Shirky participated in Session 12: Public Sphere of TEDGlobal 2012. [ 30 ] Shirky made the observation that many of the technological advancements in communication throughout history, from the printing press to the television , were heralded as harbingers of world peace yet ended up creating greater dissent. "The more ideas there are in circulation, the more ideas there are for any individual to disagree with." [ 30 ] However, Shirky claims, with this increased "arguing," comes an increased "speed" of information exchange. [ 30 ] Shirky cites " The Invisible College " as an example of a group that was able to utilize this effect created by the printing press , via the scientific journal , to help launch the Scientific Revolution . He then states we are in a similar period today with open-source programmers and their use of distributed version control or DVCS. DVCS, he argues, allows for "more arguments" to be made into "better arguments". DVCS also allows for "cooperation without coordination" which Shirky states is "the big change". [ 30 ] He then suggests that DVCS fits naturally with law as it, and software development, are "dependency-related." Shirky presents another application for DVCS – drafting legislation. He cites Open Legislation, [ 31 ] a listing of legislative information from the New York State Senate and Assembly, as an early step in that direction. The talk culminates with Shirky posing the open question of whether or not government will transition from striving towards one-way transparency to mutual collaboration and suggests if it does, there is already a "new form of arguing" centered around DVCS to aid the transition. [ 30 ] Bibliography The Internet by E-Mail (1994) – .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 1-56276-240-0 Voices from the Net (1995) – ISBN 1-56276-303-2 P2P Networking Overview (2001) – ISBN 0-596-00185-1 Shirky, Clay (2003). "Power Laws, Weblogs, and Inequality" . Writings About the Internet . Archived from the original on 8 February 2006 . Retrieved 16 February 2006 . Planning for Web Services: Obstacles and Opportunities (2003) – ISBN 0-596-00364-1 Selected Articles in The Best Software Writing I , Joel Spolsky ed. (2005) – ISBN 1-59059-500-9 "A Group is its Own Worst Enemy" by Clay Shirky "Group as User: Flaming and the Design of Social Software" by Clay Shirky "A Group is its Own Worst Enemy" by Clay Shirky "Group as User: Flaming and the Design of Social Software" by Clay Shirky Here Comes Everybody : The Power of Organizing Without Organizations (2008) – ISBN 978-1-59420-153-0 Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age (2010) – ISBN 978-1-59420-253-7 Little Rice: Smartphones, Xiaomi, and the Chinese Dream (2015) – ISBN 978-0-9909763-2-5 See also Networked advocacy Footnotes ^ "Clay Shirky – New York, NY" . PeekYou. 27 April 2008 . Retrieved 3 June 2011 . ^ "Clay Shirky NYU Bio" . ^ "New Media Expert Clay Shirky to Become Professor at NYU's Carter Journalism Institute, Tisch School of the Arts and Sciences" . Nyu.edu . Retrieved 3 June 2011 . ^ Clay Shirky. "Shirky: Bio" . shirky.com . Archived from the original on 2 January 2011. ^ "Advisory Board" . Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki . Retrieved 6 January 2019 . ^ Anderson, Chris (2008). The Long Tail . Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0966-4 . ^ a b "Clay Shirky's Resume" . Internet Archive Wayback Machine . Archived from the original on 21 April 1999 . Retrieved 21 August 2010 . ^ "Clay Shirky, Creative Advisor + Technology Consultant" . Location One . Retrieved 21 August 2010 . ^ "Harvard Kennedy School – Clay Shirky" . Hks.harvard.edu . Retrieved 3 June 2011 . ^ "Harvard Kennedy School – New Media and Public Action" . Hks.harvard.edu . Retrieved 3 June 2011 . ^ The Internet Runs on Love: Here Comes Everybody Archived 2008-03-13 at the Wayback Machine , SuperNova Talk ^ a b Shirky, Clay (2008). Here Comes Everybody . US: Penguin Books. pp. 260–277 . ISBN 9780143114949 . ^ "Gin, Television, and Social Surplus" . Archived from the original on 16 October 2010 . Retrieved 20 January 2011 . ^ Shirky, Clay (2010). Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers into Collaborators . US: Penguin. p. 27. ISBN 9780143119586 . ^ "Viewsflow and PeerIndex blog » Blog Archive » Respect your authority" . 17 July 2011. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. ^ Shirky, Clay. "A Speculative Post on the Idea of Algorithmic Authority" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 18 March 2012 . ^ a b "Institutions vs Collaboration" . TED. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016 . Retrieved 10 February 2013 . ^ "Clay Shirky's "Cognitive Surplus": Is creating and sharing always a more moral choice than consuming?" . Retrieved 8 June 2014 . ^ "Cognitive Surplus – Use Social Connectivity to Change the World" . 29 June 2010 . Retrieved 8 June 2014 . ^ "Open Source Enlightenment 2015 (Part 1)" . www.linkedin.com . ^ a b c d "How social media can change history" . TED. Archived from the original on 13 February 2014 . Retrieved 10 February 2013 . ^ Kevin Kelly (2 April 2010). "The Shirky Principle" . The Technium . Retrieved 9 April 2010 . ^ Mike Masnick (9 April 2010). "Institutions Will Seek To Preserve The Problem For Which They Are The Solution" . Techdirt . Retrieved 9 April 2010 . ^ James Grimmelmann (9 April 2010). "The Shirky Principle" . PrawfsBlawg . Retrieved 9 April 2010 . ^ a b "How Cognitive Surplus Will Change The World" . TED. Archived from the original on 26 February 2014 . Retrieved 10 February 2013 . ^ "Broadcast Institutions, Community Values" . Retrieved 9 June 2014 . ^ "Evgeny Morozov on Twitter" . Twitter . ^ Clay Shirky (1 March 2011). "Consulting with Libya in 2007" . Clay Shirky . Retrieved 25 March 2011 . ^ a b c "Why SOPA is a bad idea" . TED . Retrieved 9 February 2013 . ^ a b c d e "How The Internet Will Change Government" . TED . Retrieved 9 February 2013 . ^ " nysenate/OpenLegislation ". GitHub . Accessed 10 October 2017 References MacLeod, Hugh (2006). "Shirky's Law: "Equality. Fairness. Opportunity. Pick Two." " . gapingvoid . Archived from the original on 18 February 2006 . Retrieved 16 February 2006 . Gillette, Felix (8 June 2010). "Feats of Clay" . The New York Observer . Archived from the original on 12 June 2010 . Retrieved 9 June 2010 . External links Clay Shirky's Bio at NYU Clay Shirky's Bio Clay Shirky on Twitter Clay Shirky's writings on the O'Reilly Network Clay Shirky at TED Appearances on C-SPAN Socially Intelligent Computing A Dialogue with Daniel Goleman " It's Not Information Overload. It's Filter Failure. " Video, Clay Shirky at Web 2.0 Expo NY, Sept. 16–19, 2008. Video (and audio) of interview/discussion with Clay Shirky by Will Wilkinson on Bloggingheads.tv Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom A talk about journalism and pay walls. Roberts, Russ (20 October 2008). "Shirky on Coase, Collaboration and Here Comes Everybody" . EconTalk . Library of Economics and Liberty . Futures of the Internet (Flash, MP4, RealVideo, 3gp, MP3). Internet Society – NY Chapter. 16 April 2008 . Retrieved 27 April 2008 . – Colloquium @ NYU. Ontology is Overrated : Links, Tags, and Post-hoc Metadata – a presentation ( MP3 ) from the O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference held in San Diego, California, March 14–17, 2005. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Korea Poland Israel Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Portugal Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Korea Poland Israel Catalonia Belgium Academics CiNii Association for Computing Machinery DBLP CiNii Association for Computing Machinery DBLP People Deutsche Biographie Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1964 births American technology writers Internet culture Living people New York University faculty Writers from Columbia, Missouri Technology evangelists Wikimedia Foundation Advisory Board members Yale University alumni Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2025 Pages where birth or death is being automatically determined All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022 Commons category link from Wikidata People appearing on C-SPAN This page was last edited on 30 October 2025, at 04:48 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_Shirky
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Global properties 2 Layers Toggle Layers subsection 2.1 Crust and lithosphere 2.2 Mantle 2.3 Core 2.1 Crust and lithosphere 2.2 Mantle 2.3 Core 3 Seismology 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Internal structure of Earth Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Latina Lëtzebuergesch Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو Patois Plattdüütsch Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Tolışi Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Part of a series of Geophysics Computational Exploration History Outline Computational Exploration History Outline Electricity Ionosphere Polar wind Thunderstorms Lightning Ionosphere Polar wind Thunderstorms Lightning Fluid dynamics Atmospheric science Magnetohydrodynamics Oceanography Turbulence Atmospheric science Magnetohydrodynamics Oceanography Turbulence Geodynamics Climate Earth's mantle Exoplanetology Geochemistry Glaciology Planetary science Plate tectonics Tectonics Volcanism Climate Earth's mantle Exoplanetology Geochemistry Glaciology Planetary science Plate tectonics Tectonics Volcanism Gravity Geodesy Geoid Physical geodesy Geodesy Geoid Physical geodesy Magnetism Earth's magnetic field Geomagnetic reversal Magnetosphere Paleomagnetism Solar wind Earth's magnetic field Geomagnetic reversal Magnetosphere Paleomagnetism Solar wind Waves Seismology Spectroscopy Vibration Seismology Spectroscopy Vibration Geophysicists Aki Alfven Anderson Benioff Bowie Dziewonski Forbes Eotvos Gilbert Gutenberg Heiskanen Hotine von Humboldt Jeffreys Kanamori Love Matthews McKenzie Mercalli Molodenskii Munk Press Richter Turcotte Van Allen Vanicek Vening Meinesz Wegener Wilson Aki Alfven Anderson Benioff Bowie Dziewonski Forbes Eotvos Gilbert Gutenberg Heiskanen Hotine von Humboldt Jeffreys Kanamori Love Matthews McKenzie Mercalli Molodenskii Munk Press Richter Turcotte Van Allen Vanicek Vening Meinesz Wegener Wilson .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The internal structure of Earth is the spatial variation of chemical and physical properties in the solid earth . The primary structure is a series of layers: an outer silicate crust , a mechanically weak asthenosphere , a solid mantle , a liquid outer core whose flow generates the Earth's magnetic field , and a solid inner core . Scientific understanding of the internal structure of Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry , observations of rock in outcrop , samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior. Global properties This section needs expansion . You can help by expanding it . ( August 2022 ) Chemical element/oxide Chondrite model (1) (%) Chondrite model (2) (%) MgO 26.3 38.1 Al 2 O 3 2.7 3.9 SiO 2 29.8 43.2 CaO 2.6 3.9 FeO 6.4 9.3 Other oxides N/A 5.5 Fe 25.8 N/A Ni 1.7 N/A Si 3.5 N/A Note: In chondrite model (1), the light element in the core is assumed to be Si. Chondrite model (2) is a model of chemical composition of the mantle corresponding to the model of core shown in chondrite model (1). [ 1 ] Measurements of the force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass . Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites . Earth's average density can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums . The mass of Earth is about 6 × 10 24 kg . [ 4 ] The average density of Earth is 5.515 g/cm 3 . [ 5 ] Layers .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} continental crust oceanic crust upper mantle lower mantle outer core inner core Mohorovičić discontinuity core–mantle boundary outer core–inner core boundary The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology , or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere , asthenosphere , mesospheric mantle , outer core , and the inner core . Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. [ 6 ] The geologic component layers of Earth are at increasing depths below the surface. [ 6 ] : 146 Crust and lithosphere Pacific Plate African Plate North American Plate Eurasian Plate Antarctic Plate Indo-Australian Plate South American Plate Earth's crust ranges from 5 to 70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) [ 7 ] in depth and is the outermost layer. [ 8 ] The thin parts are the oceanic crust , which underlies the ocean basins (5–10 km) and is mafic -rich [ 9 ] (dense iron-magnesium silicate mineral or igneous rock ). [ 10 ] The thicker crust is the continental crust , which is less dense [ 11 ] and is felsic -rich (igneous rocks rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz ). [ 12 ] The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial (aluminium silicate) and sima (magnesium silicate). [ 13 ] It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity , [ 14 ] though the discontinuity is not distinct and can be absent in some continental regions. [ 15 ] Earth's lithosphere consists of the crust and the uppermost mantle . [ 16 ] The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different phenomena. The Mohorovičić discontinuity is a distinct change of seismic wave velocity. This is caused by a change in the rock's density [ 17 ] – immediately above the Moho, the velocities of primary seismic waves ( P wave ) are consistent with those through basalt (6.7–7.2 km/s), and below they are similar to those through peridotite or dunite (7.6–8.6 km/s). [ 18 ] Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites , which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences . [ clarification needed ] Many rocks making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4 billion years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years. [ 19 ] Mantle [ 20 ] Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km (1,800 mi), making it the planet's thickest layer. [ 21 ] [This is 45% of the 6,371 km (3,959 mi) radius, and 83.7% of the volume - 0.6% of the volume is the crust]. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle [ 22 ] separated by a transition zone . [ 23 ] The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (D-double-prime) layer. [ 24 ] The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 G Pa (1.4 M atm ). [ 25 ] The mantle is composed of silicate rocks richer in iron and magnesium than the overlying crust. [ 26 ] Although solid, the mantle's extremely hot silicate material can flow over very long timescales. [ 27 ] Convection of the mantle propels the motion of the tectonic plates in the crust. The source of heat that drives this motion is the decay of radioactive isotopes in Earth's crust and mantle combined with the initial heat from the planet's formation [ 28 ] (from the potential energy released by collapsing a large amount of matter into a gravity well , and the kinetic energy of accreted matter). Due to increasing pressure deeper in the mantle, the lower part flows less easily, though chemical changes within the mantle may also be important. The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 21 and 10 24 pascal-second , increasing with depth. [ 29 ] In comparison, the viscosity of water at 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F) is 0.89 millipascal-second [ 30 ] and pitch is (2.3 ± 0.5) × 10 8 pascal-second. [ 31 ] Core Source: [ 32 ] Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,260 km (1,400 mi) in height (i.e. distance from the highest point to the lowest point at the edge of the inner core) [36% of the Earth's radius, 15.6% of the volume] and composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle . [ 33 ] Its outer boundary lies 2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately 5,150 km (3,200 mi) beneath Earth's surface. Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the planet Earth . It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 km (760 mi), which is about 19% of Earth's radius [0.7% of volume] or 70% of the Moon 's radius. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is composed primarily of iron and some nickel. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been inconsistent with current crystal models of the core. [ 36 ] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] The laser studies create plasma, [ 39 ] and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research. In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe ), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust . The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium , either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials ). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal . [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the core-like pressure by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips ( diamond anvil cell ), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south. [ 42 ] [ 43 ] The composition of Earth bears strong similarities to that of certain chondrite meteorites, and even to some elements in the outer portion of the Sun. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch , built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth. This ignores the less abundant enstatite chondrites, which formed under extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth. [ citation needed ] Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect , gives rise to Earth's magnetic field . The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature ) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field in Earth's outer core is estimated to measure 2.5 milliteslas (25 gauss), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface. [ 46 ] The magnetic field generated by core flow is essential to protect life from interplanetary radiation and prevent the atmosphere from dissipating in the solar wind . The rate of cooling by conduction and convection is uncertain, [ 47 ] but one estimate is that the core would not be expected to freeze up for approximately 91 billion years, which is well after the Sun is expected to expand, sterilize the surface of the planet, and then burn out. [ 48 ] [ better source needed ] Seismology The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel ( seismic velocity ) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law , like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror. See also Hollow Earth Geological history of Earth Large low-shear-velocity provinces Lehmann discontinuity Rain-out model Seismic tomography – technique for imaging the subsurface of Earth using seismic waves Travel to the Earth's center Solid earth References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Structure of Earth and Its Constituents (PDF) . Princeton University Press. p. 4. ^ Petsko, Gregory A. (28 April 2011). "The blue marble" . Genome Biology . 12 (4): 112. doi : 10.1186/gb-2011-12-4-112 . PMC 3218853 . PMID 21554751 . ^ "Apollo Imagery – AS17-148-22727" . NASA. 1 November 2012. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019 . Retrieved 22 October 2020 . ^ M E = 5·9722×10 24 kg ± 6×10 20 kg. " 2016 Selected Astronomical Constants Archived 2016-02-15 at the Wayback Machine " in The Astronomical Almanac Online (PDF) , USNO – UKHO , archived from the original on 2016-12-24 , retrieved 2016-02-18 ^ "Planetary Fact Sheet" . Lunar and Planetary Science . NASA. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016 . Retrieved 2 January 2009 . ^ a b Montagner, Jean-Paul (2011). "Earth's structure, global". In Gupta, Harsh (ed.). Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics . Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789048187010 . ^ Andrei, Mihai (21 August 2018). "What are the layers of the Earth?" . ZME Science . Archived from the original on 12 May 2020 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Chinn, Lisa (25 April 2017). "Earth's Structure From the Crust to the Inner Core" . Sciencing . Leaf Group Media. Archived from the original on 30 July 2020 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Rogers, N., ed. (2008). An Introduction to Our Dynamic Planet . Cambridge University Press and The Open University . p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-49424-3 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-02 . Retrieved 2022-08-08 . ^ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "mafic". Glossary of Geology (4th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349 . ^ "Continental crust" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 5 September 2023 . Retrieved 6 October 2024 . ^ Schmidt, Victor A.; Harbert, William (1998). "The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics". Planet Earth and the New Geosciences (3rd ed.). Kendall/Hunt. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-7872-4296-1 . Archived from the original on 2010-01-24 . Retrieved 2008-01-28 . Schmidt, Victor A.; Harbert, William. "Unit 3: The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics" . Planet Earth and the New Geosciences . Poznańb: Adam Mickiewicz University. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. ^ Hess, H. (1955-01-01). "The oceanic crust" . Journal of Marine Research . 14 (4): 424. It has been common practice to subdivide the crust into sial and sima. These terms refer to generalized compositions, sial being those rocks rich in Si and Al and sima those rich in Si and Mg. ^ Kearey, P.; Klepeis, K. A.; Vine, F. J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3 ed.). John Wiley & Sons . pp. 19– 21. ISBN 9781405107778 . Retrieved 30 June 2012 . ^ Lowrie, W. (1997). Fundamentals of Geophysics . Cambridge University Press . p. 149. ISBN 9780521467285 . Retrieved 30 June 2012 . ^ Himiyama, Yukio; Satake, Kenji; Oki, Taikan, eds. (2020). Human Geoscience . Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media . p. 27. ISBN 978-981-329-224-6 . OCLC 1121043185 . ^ Rudnick, R. L.; Gao, S. (2003-01-01), Holland, Heinrich D.; Turekian, Karl K. (eds.), "3.01 – Composition of the Continental Crust" , Treatise on Geochemistry , 3 , Pergamon: 659, Bibcode : 2003TrGeo...3....1R , doi : 10.1016/b0-08-043751-6/03016-4 , ISBN 978-0-08-043751-4 , retrieved 2019-11-21 ^ Cathcart, R. B. & Ćirković, M. M. (2006). Badescu, Viorel; Cathcart, Richard Brook & Schuiling, Roelof D. (eds.). Macro-engineering: a challenge for the future . Springer. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-4020-3739-9 . ^ "Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet" . Spaceflight Now . National Science Foundation. 2001-01-14. Archived from the original on 2009-06-28 . Retrieved 2012-01-27 . ^ "MANTO" , Silvae , Harvard University Press, pp. 2– 29, 2004-07-30 , retrieved 2025-10-09 ^ Nace, Trevor (16 January 2016). "Layers Of The Earth: What Lies Beneath Earth's Crust" . Forbes . Archived from the original on 5 March 2020 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Evers, Jeannie (11 August 2015). "Mantle" . National Geographic . National Geographic Society . Archived from the original on 12 May 2016 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Yu, Chunquan; Day, Elizabeth A.; de Hoop, Maarten V.; Campillo, Michel; Goes, Saskia; Blythe, Rachel A.; van der Hilst, Robert D. (28 March 2018). "Compositional heterogeneity near the base of the mantle transition zone beneath Hawaii" . Nat Commun . 9 (9): 1266. Bibcode : 2018NatCo...9.1266Y . doi : 10.1038/s41467-018-03654-6 . PMC 5872023 . PMID 29593266 . ^ Krieger, Kim (24 March 2004). " D Layer Demystified" . Science News . American Association for the Advancement of Science . Archived from the original on 10 July 2022 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . ^ Dolbier, Rachel. "Coring the Earth" (PDF) . W. M. Keck Earth Science and Mineral Engineering Museum . University of Nevada, Reno : 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2015 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Cain, Fraser (26 March 2016). "What is the Earth's Mantle Made Of?" . Universe Today . Archived from the original on 6 November 2010 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Shaw, Ethan (22 October 2018). "The Different Properties of the Asthenosphere & the Lithosphere" . Sciencing . Leaf Group Media. Archived from the original on 30 July 2020 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Preuss, Paul (July 17, 2011). "What Keeps the Earth Cooking?" . Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . University of California, Berkeley . Archived from the original on 21 January 2022 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Walzer, Uwe; Hendel, Roland; Baumgardner, John . "Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings" . Los Alamos National Laboratory . Universität Heidelberg . Archived from the original on 26 August 2006 . Retrieved 28 June 2019 . ^ Haynes, William M.; David R., Lide; Bruno, Thomas J., eds. (2017). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press . Section 6 page 247. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3 . OCLC 957751024 . ^ Edgeworth, R.; Dalton, B.J.; Parnell, T. "The Pitch Drop Experiment" . The University of Queensland Australia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2013 . Retrieved 15 October 2007 . ^ "MANTO" , Silvae , Harvard University Press, pp. 2– 29, 2004-07-30 , retrieved 2025-10-09 ^ "Earth's Interior" . Science & Innovation . National Geographic. 18 January 2017. Archived from the original on 18 January 2019 . Retrieved 14 November 2018 . ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (21 May 2010). "Lopsided growth of Earth's inner core". Science . 328 (5981): 1014– 1017. Bibcode : 2010Sci...328.1014M . doi : 10.1126/science.1186212 . PMID 20395477 . S2CID 10557604 . ^ Engdahl, E.R.; Flinn, E.A.; Massé, R.P. (1974). "Differential PKiKP travel times and the radius of the inner core" . Geophysical Journal International . 39 (3): 457– 463. Bibcode : 1974GeoJ...39..457E . doi : 10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb05467.x . ^ Stixrude, Lars; Cohen, R.E. (January 15, 1995). "Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure" . Geophysical Research Letters . 22 (2): 125– 28. Bibcode : 1995GeoRL..22..125S . doi : 10.1029/94GL02742 . Archived from the original on August 8, 2022 . Retrieved January 2, 2019 . ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Ravasio, A.; Vinci, T. (2006). "Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states". Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion . 48 (12B): B347. Bibcode : 2006PPCF...48B.347B . doi : 10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32 . S2CID 121164044 . ^ Remington, Bruce A.; Drake, R. Paul; Ryutov, Dmitri D. (2006). "Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches" . Reviews of Modern Physics . 78 (3): 755. Bibcode : 2006RvMP...78..755R . doi : 10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755 . Archived from the original on 2020-05-23 . Retrieved 2019-06-26 . ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Husar, G.; Faral, B. (June 2002). "Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks". Physics of Plasmas . 9 (6): 2466. Bibcode : 2002PhPl....9.2466B . doi : 10.1063/1.1478557 . ^ Schneider, Michael (1996). "Crystal at the Center of the Earth" . Projects in Scientific Computing, 1996 . Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center. Archived from the original on 5 February 2007 . Retrieved 8 March 2019 . ^ Stixrude, L.; Cohen, R.E. (1995). "High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core". Science . 267 (5206): 1972– 75. Bibcode : 1995Sci...267.1972S . doi : 10.1126/science.267.5206.1972 . PMID 17770110 . S2CID 39711239 . ^ BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth? Archived 2020-05-23 at the Wayback Machine . BBC.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27. ^ Ozawa, H.; al., et (2011). "Phase Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core". Science . 334 (6057): 792– 94. Bibcode : 2011Sci...334..792O . doi : 10.1126/science.1208265 . PMID 22076374 . S2CID 1785237 . ^ Herndon, J.M. (1980). "The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth". Proc. R. Soc. Lond . A372 (1748): 149– 54. Bibcode : 1980RSPSA.372..149H . doi : 10.1098/rspa.1980.0106 . JSTOR 2398362 . S2CID 97600604 . ^ Herndon, J.M. (2005). "Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition" (PDF) . Current Science . 88 (7): 1034– 37. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-30 . Retrieved 2012-01-27 . ^ Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field". Nature . 468 (7326): 952– 94. Bibcode : 2010Natur.468..952B . doi : 10.1038/nature09643 . PMID 21164483 . S2CID 4431270 . ^ David K. Li (19 January 2022). "Earth's core cooling faster than previously thought, researchers say" . NBC News . ^ "Core" . National Geographic . Retrieved 15 July 2024 . Further reading Drollette, Daniel (October 1996). "A Spinning Crystal Ball". Scientific American . 275 (4): 28– 33. Bibcode : 1996SciAm.275d..28D . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican1096-28 . Kruglinski, Susan (June 2007). "Journey to the Center of the Earth" . Discover . Archived from the original on 26 May 2016 . Retrieved 9 July 2016 . Lehmann, I (1936). "Inner Earth". Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int . 14 : 3– 31. Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans . New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-61708-4 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Structure of the Earth at Wikimedia Commons v t e Earth v t e Outline History Outline History Atmosphere Atmosphere of Earth Prebiotic atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Weather Atmosphere of Earth Prebiotic atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Weather Climate Climate system Energy balance Climate change Climate variability and change Climatology Paleoclimatology Climate system Energy balance Climate change Climate variability and change Climatology Paleoclimatology Continents Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Culture and society List of sovereign states dependent territories In culture Earth Day Flag Symbol World economy Etymology World history Time zones World List of sovereign states dependent territories dependent territories In culture Earth Day Flag Symbol World economy Etymology World history Time zones World Environment Biome Biosphere Biogeochemical cycles Ecology Ecosystem Human impact on the environment Evolutionary history of life Nature Biome Biosphere Biogeochemical cycles Ecology Ecosystem Human impact on the environment Evolutionary history of life Nature Geodesy Cartography Computer cartography Earth's orbit Geodetic astronomy Geomatics Gravity Navigation Remote Sensing Geopositioning Virtual globe Cartography Computer cartography Computer cartography Earth's orbit Geodetic astronomy Geomatics Gravity Navigation Remote Sensing Geopositioning Virtual globe Geophysics Earth structure Fluid dynamics Geomagnetism Magnetosphere Mineral physics Seismology Plate tectonics Signal processing Tomography Earth structure Fluid dynamics Geomagnetism Magnetosphere Mineral physics Seismology Plate tectonics Signal processing Tomography Geology Age of Earth Earth science Extremes on Earth Future Geological history Geologic time scale Geologic record History of Earth Age of Earth Earth science Extremes on Earth Future Geological history Geologic time scale Geologic time scale Geologic record History of Earth Oceans Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanography Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanography Planetary science The Moon Evolution of the Solar System Geology of solar terrestrial planets Location in the Universe Solar System The Moon Evolution of the Solar System Geology of solar terrestrial planets Location in the Universe Solar System Category Category v t e Structure of Earth v t e Shells Crust Mantle Upper mantle Lithospheric mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle (aka Mesosphere ) Core Outer core Inner core Crust Mantle Upper mantle Lithospheric mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle (aka Mesosphere ) Upper mantle Lithospheric mantle Asthenosphere Lithospheric mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle (aka Mesosphere ) Core Outer core Inner core Outer core Inner core Global discontinuities Mohorovičić (crust–mantle) 410 discontinuity (upper mantle) 660 discontinuity (upper mantle) D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle) Core–mantle boundary LLSVPs Inner-core boundary Mohorovičić (crust–mantle) 410 discontinuity (upper mantle) 660 discontinuity (upper mantle) D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle) Core–mantle boundary LLSVPs LLSVPs Inner-core boundary Regional discontinuities Conrad continental crust Gutenberg (upper mantle) Lehmann (upper mantle) Conrad continental crust continental crust Gutenberg (upper mantle) Lehmann (upper mantle) Category Category v t e Elements of nature v t e Universe Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles Change Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles chemical elements particles Change Earth Earth science History geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Earth science History geological geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Weather Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone tornado tropical cyclone Natural environment Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Life Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista fauna animals animals flora plants plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria archaea bacteria Viruses See also Nature-based solutions Nature-based solutions Category Category Earth Geology Earth sciences Geophysics Authority control databases National United States Latvia Israel United States Latvia Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Structure of the Earth Geology Geophysics Vertical distributions Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles to be expanded from August 2022 All articles to be expanded Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2022 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from July 2024 Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 20 December 2025, at 07:12 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Plot 2 Cast and characters 3 Design 4 Production 5 Reception 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Čeština Português 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Wonder Woman Genre Superhero Based on Wonder Woman by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} William Moulton Marston H. G. Peter William Moulton Marston H. G. Peter Written by David E. Kelley Directed by Jeffrey Reiner Starring Adrianne Palicki Elizabeth Hurley Cary Elwes Pedro Pascal Edward Herrmann Tracie Thoms Justin Bruening Adrianne Palicki Elizabeth Hurley Cary Elwes Pedro Pascal Edward Herrmann Tracie Thoms Justin Bruening Theme music composer Chris Bacon Opening theme "I Only Know How to Love" by Christina Aguilera Country of origin United States Original language English Production Executive producers Bill D'Elia David E. Kelley Producer Tommy Burns Cinematography Colin Watkinson Camera setup Single-camera setup Running time 43 minutes Production companies Warner Bros. Television DC Entertainment Warner Bros. Television DC Entertainment Wonder Woman is an unaired superhero television pilot produced by Warner Bros. Television and DC Entertainment for NBC , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . David E. Kelley wrote the pilot, which was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . Adrianne Palicki starred as the main character and Elizabeth Hurley as the main villain. The Wonder Woman pilot was expected to debut in 2011, but NBC opted not to buy the series. Pedro Pascal , who played Ed Indelicato in the pilot, was later cast in another Wonder Woman project, the 2020 film Wonder Woman 1984 . [ 1 ] Plot In an inner city home, a teenager tells his family that he has been accepted into college, moments before he begins convulsing and bleeding from the eyes and ears. Meanwhile, Wonder Woman is on a foot chase with a super-strength criminal on Hollywood Blvd and, after knocking him out, takes a sample of his blood and leaves him to the police. Wonder Woman returns to the headquarters of Themyscira Industries, a large corporation which she runs as the CEO in her alter-ego of Diana Themyscira. Themyscira Industries owns and operates the concept of Wonder Woman as both a privately run crime fighting operation and for marketing the image of Wonder Woman as a role model to the outside world. Diana has trouble balancing her life as both the CEO of the corporation and as Wonder Woman. Diana's frustration with having to maintain a perfect image to the outside world in both these capacities leads her to create a third identity for herself, "Diana Prince", so that she can have an element of normalcy in her life and sit at home with her cat watching romantic comedies and surfing the internet. At Themyscira Industries Diana grows suspicious of evil businesswoman Veronica Cale for distributing an illegal performance-enhancing drug that gives users super-human strength and endurance, but can cause death through repeated use. The blood sample she draws from the Hollywood Blvd fight and the story of the college-bound teen confirm Diana's suspicions. Without enough hard evidence to bring Cale to justice as Wonder Woman, Diana holds a press conference and airs her beliefs about Cale to the world. Cale in turn confronts Diana in person to intimidate her and threaten legal action. In a flashback, Diana ends up breaking it off with her boyfriend Steve Trevor because of her busy life. Back in present day, the college-bound teenager dies from his drug sickness and Diana is galvanized to confront Cale as Wonder Woman. She arrives at Cale's facilities, defeats all of her super-powered henchmen and confronts Cale face-to-face. Cale threatens legal action and to release security footage of Wonder Woman killing the henchmen, but Wonder Woman responds by pulling Cale down with her lasso and throwing her against the wall. Later Cale is put in jail and a Justice Department representative comes to meet Diana. This turns out to be Steve Trevor, who says that he will be working with Diana in her capacity as Wonder Woman but also reveals that he has married another woman. Cast and characters Adrianne Palicki as Diana Prince / Diana Themyscira / Princess Diana of Themyscira / Wonder Woman , the title role. [ 2 ] Elizabeth Hurley as Veronica Cale , the villain. [ 3 ] Tracie Thoms as Etta Candy , Diana's personal assistant. [ 3 ] Pedro Pascal as Ed Indelicato , Wonder Woman's liaison to the police department. [ 4 ] Cary Elwes as Henry Detmer, who runs the day-to-day operations of Diana's company. [ 5 ] Justin Bruening as Steve Trevor , Diana's former boyfriend who works for the Justice Department . [ 2 ] Nancy Grace and Phil McGraw make cameo appearances as themselves. Design In the pilot's first two acts, Wonder Woman wears a new version of her classic comic book uniform: the familiar red top with gold "W" insignia chestplate (formerly an eagle symbol chestplate) is still used, as are her golden belt and Lasso of Truth , but these are now worn with blue slacks that have gold stars running along the sides, rather than with shorts. Her boots are blue with gold trim (whereas the traditional boots were red and had white, vertical trim). Her bulletproof bracelets/gauntlets are more stylized, and her tiara is much thinner. During the final act of the pilot, when Wonder Woman flies to Cale's hidden laboratory for the final showdown with the villain, her clothing switches from the blue pants to the more recognizable shorts. Though Wonder Woman's Magic Golden Lasso is referred to as the "Lasso of Truth" by a reporter in the episode, she never uses it to magically compel anyone to tell the truth. For instance, in the first act, she uses the Lasso to end a pursuit of a man down city streets at night. In a later scene, she breaks the arm of one of Cale's henchmen to "make him talk" instead of using the Lasso's magic. In this interpretation of Wonder Woman, the Lasso is only employed as an entangling weapon; Wonder Woman snaps it round a target (usually the neck) then jerks it roughly, throwing the target off-balance. Her bracelets can still stop bullets (as in the Lynda Carter -starring, 1975-79 TV series). For example, she uses them to protect herself from a security guard's gunfire during the episode's climax (and retaliates by hurling a steel pipe at the hapless guard, impaling him through the neck and killing him instantly). One of this interpretation's greatest departures from Wonder Woman canon might be its version of her invisible plane /"the Invisible Jet". Here, she gets around Los Angeles in a very small, one-seater aircraft that is reminiscent of a shuttlecraft in a sci-fi space TV show. While highly sophisticated, the plane is also highly visible (painted an opaque white). Production Reports surfaced in October 2010 that Warner Bros. Television was teaming with writer-producer David E. Kelley to pitch a new Wonder Woman television series to networks. [ 6 ] The major networks all turned down the series, [ 7 ] but NBC , the final network to initially pass on the project, ordered a pilot in January 2011. Jeffrey Reiner was hired to direct the pilot the following month. [ 8 ] The same month, Adrianne Palicki was selected to play the title role. [ 9 ] Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly commented that compared to Lynda Carter's costume, Palicki's costume de-emphasized patriotism and played up the character's Greek mythological origin. [ 10 ] Lynda Carter herself said Palicki looked gorgeous. [ 11 ] Kyle Buchanan of New York said that the costume "looked less like a superhero outfit and more like a Project Runway challenge gone awry, the kind of thing Nina Garcia would dismiss by sniffing, 'Shiny, cheap, and tacky'". [ 12 ] Borys Kit of The Hollywood Reporter pointed out that the costume was causing a divide, with many exclaiming it was "too trashy and too bad porn-y". [ 13 ] After the first official images of Palicki in costume were revealed, Fox News republished a story criticizing the loss of Wonder Woman's American symbolism. [ 14 ] Warner Bros. later changed the costume, replacing the blue boots and rubbery pants, due to fan criticism, [ 15 ] but in the episode "Gorilla My Dreams" of Kelley's show Harry's Law , Erica Durance (best known as Lois Lane from the television series Smallville ) as Annie Bilson, wears the original costume now with red boots. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Elizabeth Hurley and Tracie Thoms were cast as villain Veronica Cale and Diana's personal assistant Etta Candy , respectively in March 2011. [ 3 ] Pedro Pascal was cast as Ed Indelicato, Wonder Woman's liaison to the police department and Cary Elwes as Henry Detmer, who runs the day-to-day operations of Diana's company. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Actor Justin Bruening was cast to play Steve Trevor . [ 2 ] A few weeks later, while the pilot was still in production, a photograph of Palicki as Wonder Woman was featured on the cover of the April 11–17 edition of TV Guide as part of its "Fall Sneak Peek" feature. [ 18 ] The plot is described as "a reinvention of the iconic DC Comic in which Wonder Woman – aka Diana Prince – is a vigilante crime fighter in L.A., but also a successful corporate executive and a modern woman, trying to balance all of the elements of her extraordinary life". [ 19 ] No clear reference is made to Diana or her superhero persona of Wonder Woman being a true Amazon or coming from the legendary island of Themyscira, except one vague line of dialog during a board room scene. Within the pilot's own self-contained narrative, Wonder Woman's origins appear to be without any of the mystical elements from her comic book origins. NBC later decided not to pick up the project for a series in May the same year. [ 20 ] Though the pilot never officially aired, it was leaked on YouTube but later removed. [ 21 ] It can now be found on the Internet Archive . [ 22 ] Reception After watching the pilot, television critic Alan Sepinwall described it as "embarrassing ... [I]t was all I had feared, and more". [ 23 ] Writing about the show for Flickering Myth in 2017, Neil Calloway said "it has its moments ... but it was probably dated in 2011 ... We didn't really lose anything by it not being commissioned into a series". [ 24 ] In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , creator David E. Kelley admitted his mistakes, but says he would do it again if he could: We made mistakes with ours. My only regret is we were never given a chance to correct them. We had a lot that was right about it and a great cast. In time, we could have fixed what we had done wrong, we just didn't get that chance. [ 25 ] We made mistakes with ours. My only regret is we were never given a chance to correct them. We had a lot that was right about it and a great cast. In time, we could have fixed what we had done wrong, we just didn't get that chance. [ 25 ] In 2020, Adrianne Palicki said: "It was devastating when it didn't go. It was so big. I feel like maybe if it had been made one or two more years later, it would've been a shoo-in". [ 26 ] One year later, Pedro Pascal said he was "devastated" that the show was not picked up: "I love Adrianne Palicki. I love David E. Kelley and I thought it was a very, very risky and interesting take in terms of what they were trying to do". [ 27 ] See also Speculative fiction portal Television portal United States portal Wonder Woman - 1974 television film by Vincent McEveety Wonder Woman - television series Wonder Woman - superhero film by Patty Jenkins References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Wonder Woman 2 Has Added A Game Of Thrones Star" . Cinema Blend . March 29, 2018. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020 . Retrieved January 16, 2020 . ^ a b c Porter, Rick (March 25, 2011). " 'Wonder Woman' adds 'Knight Rider' star as Steve Trevor" . Zap2it . Archived from the original on December 13, 2013 . Retrieved March 25, 2011 . ^ a b c Andreeva, Nellie (March 3, 2011). "Elizabeth Hurley & Tracie Thoms Join NBC's 'Wonder Woman' " . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on March 4, 2011 . Retrieved March 3, 2011 . ^ a b Andreeva, Nellie (March 3, 2011). " 'The River' & 'Awakening' Find Their Leads, Two Board 'Tagged' & 'Wonder Woman' " . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on March 4, 2011 . Retrieved March 4, 2011 . ^ a b Andreeva, Nellie (March 4, 2011). "Cary Elwes Joins NBC's 'Wonder Woman' " . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on March 5, 2011 . Retrieved March 4, 2011 . ^ " Wonder Woman Might Be Back... As A TV Series!" . KSite TV . October 1, 2010. Archived from the original on October 4, 2010 . Retrieved October 1, 2010 . ^ Ausiello, Michael (January 7, 2011). " Wonder Woman Reboot Shelved" . TV Line . Archived from the original on January 9, 2011 . Retrieved January 8, 2011 . ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 9, 2011). "Jeffrey Reiner Closes In On 'Wonder Woman' Pilot Directing Gig" . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on December 23, 2012 . Retrieved December 16, 2012 . ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 16, 2011). "Adrianne Palicki Is NBC's Wonder Woman" . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on February 18, 2011 . Retrieved February 16, 2011 . ^ Rice, Lynette (March 18, 2011). " 'Wonder Woman': First look at Adrianne Palicki in costume -- EXCLUSIVE PHOTO" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on March 19, 2011 . Retrieved March 18, 2011 . ^ Bruce, Leslie; Fernandez, Sofia M. (March 10, 2011). "Lynda Carter Reveals Opinion on New 'Wonder Woman' Costume" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 29, 2012 . Retrieved April 17, 2012 . ^ Buchanan, Kyle (March 30, 2011). "See Adrianne Palicki's Revised Wonder Woman Costume" . New York . Archived from the original on December 7, 2013 . Retrieved April 17, 2012 . ^ Lindsay, Flans (March 18, 2011). "Adrianne Palicki as Wonder Woman Revealed! (Pic)" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on September 3, 2011 . Retrieved April 17, 2012 . ^ Kit, Borys (March 18, 2011). "Fox News: New 'Wonder Woman' Outfit Lacks Patriotism" . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on December 29, 2011 . Retrieved April 17, 2012 . ^ Saad, Nardine (April 1, 2011). "Adrianne Palicki in (new) new Wonder Woman costume" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on October 18, 2018 . Retrieved April 17, 2012 . ^ "Erica Durance Channels Wonder Woman for Harry's Law Guest Spot" . TV Guide. January 11, 2012. Archived from the original on May 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . ^ "Erica Durance As Wonder Woman - Behind the Scenes Harry's Law" . YouTube . January 8, 2012 . Retrieved May 16, 2018 . ^ "TV Guide April 11-17, 2001" . TV Guide Cover Archive . Archived from the original on December 9, 2019 . Retrieved December 9, 2019 . ^ Rice, Lynnette (January 21, 2011). " 'Wonder Woman' project finds a home at NBC" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 22, 2014 . Retrieved December 16, 2012 . ^ Rise, Lynette (May 12, 2011). "NBC rejects 'Wonder Woman' " . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 21, 2012 . Retrieved September 6, 2012 . ^ "Full rejected Wonder Woman pilot now leaked on YouTube" . Hypable . July 25, 2011 . Retrieved April 3, 2022 . ^ "Wonder Woman Unaired Pilot (2011)" . March 20, 2020 . Retrieved June 24, 2023 . ^ Sepinwall, Alan (February 4, 2013). "Review: TNT's 'Monday Mornings's offers a refreshingly restrained David E. Kelley" . HitFix . Archived from the original on June 6, 2016 . Retrieved February 5, 2013 . See the comments for Sepinwall's description ^ Calloway, Neil (June 2, 2020). "The Wonder Woman They Didn't Want You To See" . Flickering Myth . Archived from the original on November 25, 2023. ^ "David e. Kelley: 'Wonder Woman' Reboot Still 'Viable' for TV" . The Hollywood Reporter . January 5, 2013. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023 . Retrieved April 7, 2023 . ^ "Adrianne Palicki reflects on living her 'dream' in NBC's 'Wonder Woman' pilot" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on April 7, 2023 . Retrieved April 7, 2023 . ^ "Pedro Pascal briefly forgot he was in NBC's 'very risky' 'Wonder Woman' pilot" . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on April 7, 2023 . Retrieved April 7, 2023 . External links Wonder Woman at IMDb .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Live-action TV series based on DC Comics publications v t e TV series Former Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Upcoming Lanterns (2026) Unsold pilots The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped Former Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Adventures of Superman (1952–1958) Batman (1966–1968) Shazam! (1974–1977) The Secrets of Isis (1975–1977) Wonder Woman (1975–1979) Superboy (1988–1992) Swamp Thing (1990–1993) The Flash (1990–1991) Human Target (1992) Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (1993–1997) Smallville (2001–2011) Birds of Prey (2002–2003) Human Target (2010–2011) Arrow (2012–2020) Gotham (2014–2019) The Flash (2014–2023) Constantine (2014–2015) iZombie (2015–2019) Supergirl (2015–2021) Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) Lucifer (2016–2021) Powerless (2017) Black Lightning (2018–2021) Krypton (2018–2019) DC Daily (2018–2020) Titans (2018–2023) Doom Patrol (2019–2023) Swamp Thing (2019) Pennyworth (2019–2022) Batwoman (2019–2022) Watchmen (2019) Stargirl (2020–2022) Superman & Lois (2021–2024) Sweet Tooth (2021–2024) Naomi (2022) Peacemaker (2022–2025) DMZ (2022) The Sandman (2022–2025) Gotham Knights (2023) Bodies (2023) Dead Boy Detectives (2024) The Penguin (2024) Upcoming Lanterns (2026) Lanterns (2026) Unsold pilots The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped The Adventures of Superpup The Adventures of Superboy Aquaman Wonder Woman Scalped TV films and specials Wonder Woman Legends of the Superheroes Justice League of America Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Wonder Woman Legends of the Superheroes Justice League of America Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt See also DC Extended Universe DC Studios Warner Bros. Television Arrowverse List of unproduced projects films DC Extended Universe DC Studios Warner Bros. Television Arrowverse List of unproduced projects films films v t e Television series created by David E. Kelley v t e Series Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989–93) Picket Fences (1992–96) Chicago Hope (1994–2000) The Practice (1997–2004) Ally McBeal (1997–2002) Snoops (1999) Ally (1999) Boston Public (2000–04) Girls Club (2002) The Brotherhood of Poland, New Hampshire (2003) Boston Legal (2004–08) The Law Firm (2005) The Wedding Bells (2007) Harry's Law (2011–12) Monday Mornings (2013) The Crazy Ones (2013–14) Goliath (2016–21) Big Little Lies (2017–19) Mr. Mercedes (2017–19) The Undoing (2020) Big Sky (2020–23) Big Shot (2021–22) Nine Perfect Strangers (2021–present) Anatomy of a Scandal (2022) The Lincoln Lawyer (2022–present) The Calling (2022) Love & Death (2023) A Man in Full (2024) Presumed Innocent (2024–present) Margo's Got Money Troubles (upcoming, 2026) Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989–93) Picket Fences (1992–96) Chicago Hope (1994–2000) The Practice (1997–2004) Ally McBeal (1997–2002) Snoops (1999) Ally (1999) Boston Public (2000–04) Girls Club (2002) The Brotherhood of Poland, New Hampshire (2003) Boston Legal (2004–08) The Law Firm (2005) The Wedding Bells (2007) Harry's Law (2011–12) Monday Mornings (2013) The Crazy Ones (2013–14) Goliath (2016–21) Big Little Lies (2017–19) Mr. Mercedes (2017–19) The Undoing (2020) Big Sky (2020–23) Big Shot (2021–22) Nine Perfect Strangers (2021–present) Anatomy of a Scandal (2022) The Lincoln Lawyer (2022–present) The Calling (2022) Love & Death (2023) A Man in Full (2024) Presumed Innocent (2024–present) Margo's Got Money Troubles (upcoming, 2026) Pilots Wonder Woman (2011) Wonder Woman (2011) 2011 American television episodes 2010s American superhero television series American fantasy drama television series Television episodes set in Los Angeles Television pilots not picked up as a series Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios Television shows scored by Chris Bacon Unaired television pilots Wonder Woman in other media Use American English from January 2025 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from January 2025 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox television with missing dates Television articles with incorrect naming style This page was last edited on 24 August 2025, at 23:49 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_Woman_(2011_TV_pilot)
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Taxonomy Toggle Taxonomy subsection 1.1 Evolution 1.2 Subspecies 1.1 Evolution 1.2 Subspecies 2 Description 3 Distribution 4 Behavior Toggle Behavior subsection 4.1 Dam-building 4.2 Canals 4.3 Social behavior 4.4 Diet 4.5 Predators 4.1 Dam-building 4.2 Canals 4.3 Social behavior 4.4 Diet 4.5 Predators 5 Reproduction 6 Differences from European beaver 7 Ecology 8 Relationship with humans Toggle Relationship with humans subsection 8.1 As introduced non-native species 8.2 As food 8.3 Symbolism 8.1 As introduced non-native species 8.2 As food 8.3 Symbolism 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links North American beaver العربية Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Iñupiatun Italiano עברית Қазақша Kotava Кырык мары Лакку Latviešu Lietuvių Lingála Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Олык марий Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tsetsêhestâhese Türkçe Удмурт Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikispecies Wikidata item North American (Canadian) beaver A male North American beaver Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [ 1 ] Secure ( NatureServe ) [ 2 ] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Family: Castoridae Genus: Castor Species: C. canadensis Binomial name Castor canadensis Kuhl , 1820 [ 3 ] Subspecies [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] List C. c. acadicus Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. baileyi Nelson, 1927 [ 5 ] C. c. belugae Taylor, 1916 [ 6 ] : 429 –433 Cook Inlet beaver C. c. caecator Bangs (1913:513) [ 7 ] Newfoundland beaver C. c. canadensis Kuhl 1820 [ 3 ] Canadian beaver C. c. carolinensis Rhoads 1898 [ 8 ] : 420–421 Carolina beaver C. c. concisor Warren and Hall, 1939 [ 9 ] C. c. duchesnei Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. frondator Mearns, 1897 [ 11 ] Sonora beaver C. c. idoneus Jewett and Hall, 1940 [ 12 ] C. c. labradorensis Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. leucodonta Gray, 1869 [ 13 ] Pacific beaver C. c. mexicanus Bailey, 1913 [ 14 ] Rio Grande beaver C. c. michiganensis Bailey 1913 [ 14 ] Woods beaver C. c. missouriensis Bailey 1919 [ 15 ] Missouri River beaver C. c. pacificus Rhoads 1892 [ 8 ] : 422–423 Washington beaver C. c. pallidus Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. phaeus Heller, 1909 [ 16 ] Admiralty beaver C. c. repentinus Goldman, 1932 [ 17 ] C. c. rostralis Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. sagittatus Benson, 1933 [ 18 ] C. c. shastensis (Taylor, 1916) [ 6 ] : 433 –436 Shasta beaver C. c. subauratus (Taylor, 1912) [ 19 ] [ 20 ] California golden beaver C. c. taylori Davis, 1939 [ 21 ] C. c. texensis Bailey, 1905 [ 22 ] Texas beaver C. c. acadicus Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. baileyi Nelson, 1927 [ 5 ] C. c. belugae Taylor, 1916 [ 6 ] : 429 –433 Cook Inlet beaver C. c. caecator Bangs (1913:513) [ 7 ] Newfoundland beaver C. c. canadensis Kuhl 1820 [ 3 ] Canadian beaver C. c. carolinensis Rhoads 1898 [ 8 ] : 420–421 Carolina beaver C. c. concisor Warren and Hall, 1939 [ 9 ] C. c. duchesnei Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. frondator Mearns, 1897 [ 11 ] Sonora beaver C. c. idoneus Jewett and Hall, 1940 [ 12 ] C. c. labradorensis Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. leucodonta Gray, 1869 [ 13 ] Pacific beaver C. c. mexicanus Bailey, 1913 [ 14 ] Rio Grande beaver C. c. michiganensis Bailey 1913 [ 14 ] Woods beaver C. c. missouriensis Bailey 1919 [ 15 ] Missouri River beaver C. c. pacificus Rhoads 1892 [ 8 ] : 422–423 Washington beaver C. c. pallidus Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. phaeus Heller, 1909 [ 16 ] Admiralty beaver C. c. repentinus Goldman, 1932 [ 17 ] C. c. rostralis Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. sagittatus Benson, 1933 [ 18 ] C. c. shastensis (Taylor, 1916) [ 6 ] : 433 –436 Shasta beaver C. c. subauratus (Taylor, 1912) [ 19 ] [ 20 ] California golden beaver C. c. taylori Davis, 1939 [ 21 ] C. c. texensis Bailey, 1905 [ 22 ] Texas beaver C. c. acadicus Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. baileyi Nelson, 1927 [ 5 ] C. c. belugae Taylor, 1916 [ 6 ] : 429 –433 Cook Inlet beaver C. c. caecator Bangs (1913:513) [ 7 ] Newfoundland beaver C. c. canadensis Kuhl 1820 [ 3 ] Canadian beaver C. c. carolinensis Rhoads 1898 [ 8 ] : 420–421 Carolina beaver C. c. concisor Warren and Hall, 1939 [ 9 ] C. c. duchesnei Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. frondator Mearns, 1897 [ 11 ] Sonora beaver C. c. idoneus Jewett and Hall, 1940 [ 12 ] C. c. labradorensis Bailey and Doutt, 1942 [ 4 ] C. c. leucodonta Gray, 1869 [ 13 ] Pacific beaver C. c. mexicanus Bailey, 1913 [ 14 ] Rio Grande beaver C. c. michiganensis Bailey 1913 [ 14 ] Woods beaver C. c. missouriensis Bailey 1919 [ 15 ] Missouri River beaver C. c. pacificus Rhoads 1892 [ 8 ] : 422–423 Washington beaver C. c. pallidus Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. phaeus Heller, 1909 [ 16 ] Admiralty beaver C. c. repentinus Goldman, 1932 [ 17 ] C. c. rostralis Durrant and Crane, 1948 [ 10 ] C. c. sagittatus Benson, 1933 [ 18 ] C. c. shastensis (Taylor, 1916) [ 6 ] : 433 –436 Shasta beaver C. c. subauratus (Taylor, 1912) [ 19 ] [ 20 ] California golden beaver C. c. taylori Davis, 1939 [ 21 ] C. c. texensis Bailey, 1905 [ 22 ] Texas beaver Distribution of the North American beaver (dark green – native, light green – introduced) Synonyms Castor fiber canadensis Castor fiber canadensis The North American beaver ( Castor canadensis ) is one of two extant beaver species , along with the Eurasian beaver ( Castor fiber ). [ 23 ] It is native to North America and has been introduced in South America ( Patagonia ) and Europe (primarily Finland and Karelia ). The North American beaver is one of the national symbols of Canada and the official state mammal of Oregon and New York . [ 28 ] North American (Canadian) beavers are widespread across the continental United States , Canada , southern Alaska , and some parts of northern Mexico . In Canada and the United States, the North American beaver is often referred to simply as "beaver", although this can cause some confusion because another distantly related rodent, Aplodontia rufa , is often called the " mountain beaver ". Other vernacular names, including American beaver [ 23 ] and Canadian beaver , [ 29 ] distinguish this species from the other extant beaver species, Castor fiber , which is native to Eurasia . Taxonomy Evolution The first fossil records of beavers are 10 to 12 million years old in Germany, and they are thought to have migrated to North America across the Bering land bridge . During the mid to late Pleistocene epoch, giant beavers weighing up to 200 pounds thrived in central North America. [ 30 ] These large early beavers were not yet known to fell trees and build dams. The oldest fossil record ( Castor californicus ) of beavers in North America are of two beaver teeth near Dayville, Oregon , and are 7 million years old. Early beavers had diverse ways of life, taking on terrestrial and semi aquatic forms. Dam building originated over 10 million years ago by a semi-aquatic variation of beavers. [ 31 ] Subspecies At one time, 25 subspecies of beavers were identified in North America, with distinctions based primarily on slight morphological differences and geographical isolation at the time of discovery. However, modern techniques generally use genetics rather than morphology to distinguish between subspecies, and currently the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (which provides authoritative [ 32 ] taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world) does not recognize any subspecies of C. canadensis, though a definitive genetic analysis has not been performed. Such an analysis would be complicated by the fact that substantial genetic mixing of populations has occurred because of the numerous reintroduction efforts intended to help the species recover following extirpation from many regions. The most widespread (formerly recognized) subspecies, which perhaps are now best thought of as populations with some distinct physical characteristics, are C. c. acadicus (New England beaver), C. c. canadensis (Canadian beaver), C. c. carolinensis (Carolina beaver), and C. c. missouriensis (Missouri River beaver). [ 33 ] The Canadian beaver originally inhabited almost all of the forested area of Canada, [ 34 ] and because of its more valued fur, was often selected for reintroductions elsewhere. The Carolina beaver is found in the southeastern United States; the Missouri River beaver, as its name suggests, is found in the Missouri River and its tributaries; and C. c. acadicus is found throughout the New England area in the northeastern United States. Description The beaver is the largest rodent in North America and competes with its Eurasian counterpart, the European beaver , for being the third-largest in the world, both following the South American capybara and lesser capybara . The European species is slightly larger on average but the American has a larger known maximum size. Adults usually weigh from 11 to 32 kg (24 to 71 lb), with 20 kg (44 lb) being typical. In New York, the average weight of adult male beavers was 18.9 kg (42 lb), while non-native females in Finland averaged 18.1 kg (40 lb). However, adults of both sexes averaged 16.8 kg (37 lb) in Ohio . [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] The species seems to conform to Bergmann's rule , as northern animals appear to be larger. In the Northwest Territory , adults weighed a median of 20.5 kg (45 lb). [ 38 ] The American beaver is slightly smaller in average body mass than the Eurasian species. [ 36 ] The head-and-body length of adult North American beavers is 74–90 cm (29–35 in), with the tail adding a further 20–35 cm (7.9–13.8 in). Very old individuals can exceptionally exceed normal sizes, weighing more than 40 kg (88 lb) or even as much as 50 kg (110 lb) (higher than the maximum known for the Eurasian beaver). [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Like the capybara, the beaver is semiaquatic . The beaver has many traits suited to this lifestyle. It has a large, flat, paddle-shaped tail and large, webbed hind feet. The unwebbed front paws are smaller, with claws. The forepaws are highly dextrous, and are used both for digging, and to fold individual leaves into their mouth and to rotate small, pencil-sized stems as they gnaw off bark. [ 43 ] The eyes are covered by a nictitating membrane which allows the beaver to see under water. The nostrils and ears are sealed while submerged. Their lips can be closed behind their front teeth so that they can continue to gnaw underwater. [ 44 ] A thick layer of fat under its skin insulates the beaver from its coldwater environment. The beaver's fur consists of long, coarse outer hairs and short, fine inner hairs (see Double coat ). The fur has a range of colors, but usually is dark brown. Scent glands near the genitals secrete an oily substance known as castoreum , which the beaver uses to waterproof its fur. There is also another set of oil glands producing unique chemical identifiers in the form of waxy esters and fatty acids. [ 43 ] The lush, workable fur was made into a number of products, most notably hats . Demand for furs for hats drove beavers nearly to the point of extinction, and the North American species was saved principally by a sudden change in style. [ citation needed ] The beaver possesses continuously (or constantly) growing incisors , and is a hindgut fermenter whose cecum , populated by symbiotic bacteria, helps to digest plant-based material. These traits are not unique to beavers, and are in fact present among all rodents. [ 45 ] Nonetheless, the beaver is remarkably specialized for the efficient digestion of its lignocellulose -heavy diet. [ 46 ] Brain anatomy of the beaver is not particularly specialized for its semiaquatic life history. The brain masses of a beaver weighing 11.7 and 17 kg are 41 and 45 g respectively. C. canadensis has an encephalization quotient of 0.9 compared to other rodents; this is intermediate between similar terrestrial rodents and arboreal squirrels, and higher than similar aquatic terrestrial rodents, the muskrats and nutria . The cerebrum is well developed, and the neocortex comparatively large. Larger areas of the beaver's somatosensory cortex are dedicated to the processing of stimuli from the lips and the hands, more so than the tail and whiskers, which play a relatively minor role. The visual area of the brain is smaller than that of the gray squirrel . [ 44 ] Distribution Beavers were practically ubiquitous and lived from south of the arctic tundra to the deserts of northern Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, but were trapped across the continent for economic gain and political competition, leading to regional extirpation in many regions like the Great Plains. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Certain areas saw near-extirpations and declining numbers, but not near-extirpation, partially due to various conservation measures were taken, with mixed results, by the Hudson's Bay Company . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] By the 1900s and 1910s, beavers existed largely in isolated pockets, but where those pockets existed is not well documented. [ 53 ] However, despite these difficulties reintroduction and natural spread has restored the species back into most of it natural range, with innovations in management allowing sustainable harvest yields now exceeding previous record harvests. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] They are widely distributed in boreal and temperate ecoregions, where populations are rebounding from historic over-exploitation. Recently, beaver have been observed colonizing arctic tundra, likely as a result of climate-induced increases in riparian shrubs. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Physician naturalist Edgar Alexander Mearns ' 1907 report of beaver on the Sonora River may be the earliest report on the southernmost range of this North American aquatic mammal. [ 60 ] However, beavers have also been reported both historically and contemporarily in Mexico on the Colorado River , Bavispe River , and San Bernardino River in the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua . [ 61 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] Behavior Beavers are active mainly at night. They are excellent swimmers and may remain submerged up to 15 minutes. More vulnerable on land, they tend to remain in the water as much as possible. [ 64 ] They use their flat, scaly tail both to signal danger by slapping the surface of the water and as a location for fat storage. They construct their homes, or "lodges", out of sticks, twigs, rocks, and mud in lakes, streams, and tidal river deltas . [ 65 ] These lodges may be surrounded by water, or touching land, including burrows dug into river banks. Beavers are well known for building dams across streams and constructing their lodges in the artificial ponds which form. When building in a pond, the beavers first make a pile of sticks and then eat out one or more underwater entrances and two platforms above the water surface inside the pile. The first is used for drying off. Towards winter, the lodge is often plastered with mud which, when it freezes, has the consistency of concrete. A small air hole is left in the top of the lodge. Dam-building The purpose of the dam is to create a deepwater refuge enabling the beaver to escape from predators. When deep water is already present in lakes, rivers, or larger streams, the beaver may dwell in a bank burrow and bank lodge with an underwater entrance. The beaver dam is constructed using branches from trees the beavers cut down, as well as rocks, grass, and mud. Where naturally occurring woody material is limiting, beavers may build their dams largely of rocks. [ 66 ] The inner bark, twigs, shoots, and leaves of such trees are also an important part of the beaver's diet. [ 67 ] The trees are cut down using their strong incisor teeth. Their front paws are used for digging and carrying and placing materials. The sound of running water dictates when and where a beaver builds its dam. Besides providing a safe home for the beaver, beaver ponds also provide habitat for waterfowl , fish, and other aquatic animals. Their dams help reduce soil erosion and can help reduce flooding. However, beaver dams are not permanent and depend on the beavers' continued presence for their maintenance. Beavers generally concentrate on building and repairing dams in the fall in preparation for the coming winter. In northern areas, they often do not repair breaches in the dam made by otters, and sometimes breach the dam themselves and lower the water level in the pond to create more breathing space under the ice or get easier access to trees below the dam. In a 1988 study in Alberta, Canada, no beavers repaired "sites of water loss" during the winter. Of 178 sites of water loss, beavers repaired 78 when water was opened, and did not repair 68. The rest were partially repaired. [ 68 ] Beavers are best known for their dam-building. They maintain their pond-habitat by reacting quickly to the sound of running water, and damming it up with tree branches and mud. Early ecologists believed that this dam-building was an amazing feat of architectural planning, indicative of the beaver's high intellect. This theory was tested when a recording of running water was played in a field near a beaver pond. Although it was on dry land, the beaver covered the tape player with branches and mud. [ 69 ] The largest beaver dam is 2,790 ft (850 m) in length—more than half a mile long—and was discovered via satellite imagery in 2007. [ 70 ] It is located on the southern edge of Wood Buffalo National Park in northern Alberta and is more than twice the width of the Hoover Dam which spans 1,244 ft (379 m). [ 71 ] [ 72 ] Normally, the purpose of the dam is to provide water around their lodges that is deep enough that it does not freeze solid in winter. The dams also flood areas of surrounding forest, giving the beaver safe access to an important food supply, which is the leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees. In colder climates where their pond freezes over, beavers also build a food cache from this food resource. [ 43 ] To form the cache, beavers collect food in late fall in the form of tree branches, storing them under water (usually by sticking the sharp chewed base of the branches into the mud on the pond bottom), where they can be accessed through the winter. Often, the pile of food branches projects above the pond and collects snow. This insulates the water below it and keeps the pond open at that location. [ 73 ] The frozen combination of branches and ice is known as a cap, sealing the food cache. Beavers often maintain an underwater entrance to their dam, and they can access their food cache from their lodge by swimming under the ice. In warmer climes, a winter food store is less common. [ 43 ] Muskrats have been thought to steal food from beaver lodges, but seemingly cooperative relationships exist, with beavers allowing muskrats to reside in their lodge if they gather fresh reeds. [ 74 ] Canals Another component to the beaver's habitat is the canal. Canals are used to float logs to a pond, and dams may also be used to maintain the water levels in these canals. Several land trails can extend from the canals. [ 75 ] Despite being widespread in some beaver-inhabited areas, beaver canals and their environmental effects are much less studied than beaver dams. Beaver primarily develop canals to increase accessibility of river resources, facilitate transport of acquired resources, and to decrease the risk of predation. Beaver canals can be over 0.5 km in length. [ 76 ] Beavers build canals by pushing through soil and vegetation using their forelimbs. It has been hypothesized that beavers' canals are not only transportation routes to extend foraging, but also an extension of their " central place " around the lodge and/or food cache. A 2012 study of beavers' mark on the landscape found that cut stumps were negatively related to distance from beaver canals, but not to the central body of water. This finding suggested that beavers may consider the canals to be part of their "central place" as far as foraging activity is concerned. [ 77 ] Social behavior Communication is highly developed in beaver, including scent marking , vocalization, and tail slapping. Beaver deposit castoreum on piles of debris and mud called scent mounds, which are usually placed on or near lodges, dams, and trails less than a meter from water. Over 100 of such mounds can be constructed within one territory. [ 43 ] Beaver colonies with close neighbors constructed more "scent mounds" than did isolated colonies, and the number of scent mounds at each active lodge is correlated with the distance to the nearest occupied lodge. [ 78 ] Although seven vocal sounds have been described for beaver, most zoologists recognize only three: a whine, hiss, and growl. Vocalizations and tail slapping may be used to beg for food, signal to family members to warn of predators, or to drive away or elicit a response from predators. Beavers usually mate for life , forming familial colonies. Beaver "kits" are born precocious and with a developed coat. The young beaver "kits" typically remain with their parents up to two years. Kits express some adult behaviors, but require a long period in the family to develop their dam construction skills, and other abilities required for independent life. [ 43 ] Diet Beavers are herbivorous generalists with sophisticated foraging preferences. Beavers consume a mix of herbaceous and woody plants , which varies considerably in both composition and species diversity by region and season. [ 43 ] They prefer aspen and other poplars , but also take birch , maple , willow , alder , black cherry , red oak , beech , ash , hornbeam , and occasionally pine and spruce . [ 73 ] They also eat cattails , water lilies , and other aquatic vegetation, especially in the early spring. Contrary to widespread belief, they do not eat fish. [ 79 ] Beavers select food based on taste, coarse physical shape, and odor. Beavers feed on bark, cambium, [ 80 ] branches, twigs, roots, buds, [ 80 ] leaves, stems, sprouts, and in some cases, the sap and storax of pine and sweetgum . [ 43 ] When herbaceous plants are actively growing, they make up much of the beaver's diet. In the winter, beavers switch to woody plants and the food they have stored over the winter. The protein to calorie ratio of a beaver's diet is 40 mg/calorie in summer and 8 mg/calorie for the rest of the year. In northern latitudes, the water lilies Nymphaea and Nuphar are the most important herbaceous component. The rhizomes are stored in the food cache and remain actively growing. [ 43 ] Willow is an important protein source and is likely to be available for the longest period of time in a beaver's habitat especially in the far north. When available, aspen and poplar are preferred over willow. Conifers are also cut or gnawed by beavers, and used for food and/or building material. Beavers do not necessarily use the same trees as construction material and as food. Inedible material is more likely to be used as the cap of a beaver family's food cache, the upper part which is frozen in the ice, while the cache itself is composed of edible, high quality branches, which remain unfrozen and accessible. [ 43 ] Beavers do not prefer red maple , which can be the only tree left standing at the edges of some beaver ponds. [ 43 ] [ 81 ] The beaver's gut microbiome is complex and specialized for a wood-heavy diet, sharing a number of similarities with other mammalian herbivores. However the microbial community in the beaver shows less taxonomic diversity than the "typical" mammalian gut. The major operational taxonomic units (OTU) are Bacteroidota and Bacillota . [ 46 ] Predators Common natural predators include coyotes , wolves , and mountain lions . [ 82 ] American black bears may also prey on beavers if the opportunity arises, often by smashing their paws into the beavers' lodges. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Perhaps due to differing habitat preferences, grizzly bears were not known to hunt beavers in Denali National Park , Alaska . [ 86 ] Less significant predators include wolverines , which may attack a rare beaver of up to adult size, and Canada lynx , bobcats , and foxes (predators of kits or very sick or injured animals, rather than full-grown beavers due to their increasingly smaller size). American alligators , which only minimally co-exist in the wild with beavers, also seldom threaten them. Both golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) and bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) may on occasion prey on a beaver, most likely only small kits. [ 87 ] Despite repeated claims, no evidence shows that North American river otters are typically predators of beavers but anecdotally may take a rare beaver kit. [ 88 ] Reproduction North American beavers have one litter per year, coming into estrus for only 12 to 24 hours, between late December and May but peaking in January. Beaver reproduction occurs earlier in warmer southern climates, however in their northern range beavers may wait until late spring to reproduce. [ 89 ] Depending on when beavers reproduce, their litters are typically born between April and June each year. Unlike most other rodents, beaver pairs are monogamous, staying together for multiple breeding seasons. Gestation averages 128 days and they have a range of three to six kits per litter (usually 4–5). Most beavers do not reproduce until they are three years of age, but about 20% of two-year-old females reproduce. Female beavers will prepare for birth by making a soft bed inside the lodge for her litter. After birth, young beavers will stay sheltered in their lodges for up to a month before they begin to swim and eat solid foods. Juvenile beavers will stay with their parents for up to 2 years, prior to leaving to create their own homes. Differences from European beaver Although North American beavers are superficially similar to the European beaver ( Castor fiber ), several important differences exist between the two species. North American beavers tend to be slightly smaller, with smaller, more rounded heads; shorter, wider muzzles; thicker, longer, and darker underfur; wider, more oval-shaped tails; and longer shin bones, allowing them a greater range of bipedal locomotion than the European species. North American beavers have shorter nasal bones than their European relatives, with the widest point being at the middle of the snout for the former, and in the tip for the latter. The nasal opening for the North American species is square, unlike that of the European species, which is triangular. The foramen magnum is triangular in the North American beaver, and rounded in the European. The anal glands of the North American beaver are smaller and thick-walled with a small internal volume compared to that of the European species. Finally, the guard hairs of the North American beaver have a shorter hollow medulla at their tips. Fur color is also different. Overall, 50% of North American beavers have pale brown fur, 25% are reddish brown, 20% are brown, and 6% are blackish, while in European beavers, 66% have pale brown or beige fur, 20% are reddish brown, nearly 8% are brown, and only 4% have blackish coats. [ 90 ] The two species are not genetically compatible. North American beavers have 40 chromosomes , while European beavers have 48. Also, more than 27 attempts were made in Russia to hybridize the two species, with one breeding between a male North American beaver and a female European resulting in one stillborn kit. These factors make interspecific breeding unlikely in areas where the two species' ranges overlap. [ 90 ] Ecology The beaver was trapped out and almost extirpated in North America because its fur and castoreum were highly sought after. [ 48 ] The beaver furs were used to make clothing and beaver hats . In the United States, extensive trapping began in the early 17th century, with more than 10,000 beaver per year taken for the fur trade in Connecticut and Massachusetts between 1620 and 1630. [ 91 ] From 1630 to 1640, around 80,000 beavers were taken annually from the Hudson River and western New York. [ 92 ] From 1670 onwards, the Hudson's Bay Company sent two or three trading ships into the bay every year to take furs to England from Canada. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that beaver ponds created "moth-hole like" habitats in the deciduous forest that dominated eastern North America. This nonforest habitat attracted both Native American and early colonial hunters to the abundant fish, waterfowl, and large game attracted to the riparian clearings created by these aquatic mammals. The first colonial farmers were also attracted to the fertile, flat bottomlands created by the accumulated silt and organic matter in beaver ponds. [ 93 ] As eastern beaver populations were depleted, English, French, and American trappers pushed west. Much of the westward expansion and exploration of North America was driven by the quest for this animal's fur. Before the 1849 California Gold Rush , an earlier, 19th-century California Fur Rush drove the earliest American settlement in that state. During the roughly 30 years (1806–1838) of the era of the mountain man , the West from Missouri to California and from Canada to Mexico was thoroughly explored and the beaver was brought to the brink of extinction. With protection in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the current beaver population has rebounded to an estimated 10 to 15 million; this is a fraction of the originally estimated 100 to 200 million North American beavers before the days of the fur trade . [ 94 ] [ 95 ] These animals are considered pests in parts of their range because their dams can cause flooding, or because their habit of felling trees can pose danger to people, as in Charlotte, North Carolina 's Park Road Park . [ 97 ] Because they are persistent in repairing damage to the dam, they were historically relocated or exterminated. Nonlethal methods of containing beaver-related flooding have been developed. [ 98 ] One such flow device has been used by both the Canadian and U.S. governments, called "beaver deceivers" or levelers, invented and pioneered by wildlife biologist Skip Lisle. [ 99 ] The beaver is a keystone species , increasing biodiversity in its territory through creation of ponds and wetlands. [ 100 ] As wetlands are formed and riparian habitats enlarged, aquatic plants colonize newly available watery habitat. Insect, invertebrate, fish, mammal, and bird diversities are also expanded. [ 101 ] Effects of beaver recolonization on native and non-native species in streams where they have been historically absent, particularly dryland streams, is not well-researched. [ 102 ] Relationship with humans As introduced non-native species In the 1940s, beavers were brought to Tierra del Fuego in southern Chile and Argentina for commercial fur production and introduced near Fagnano Lake . Although the fur enterprise failed, 25 mating pairs of beavers were released into the wild. Having no natural predators in their new environment, they quickly spread throughout the main island, and to other islands in the archipelago, reaching a number of 100,000 individuals within just 50 years. Although they have been considered an invasive species , it has been more recently shown that the beaver have some beneficial ecological effects on native fish and should not be considered wholly detrimental. [ 103 ] Although the dominant Lenga beech ( Nothofagus pumilio ) forest can regenerate from stumps, most of the newly created beaver wetlands are being colonized by the rarer native Antarctic beech ( Nothofagus antarctica ). It is not known whether the shrubbier Antarctic beech will be succeeded by the originally dominant and larger Lengo beech, however, and the beaver wetlands are readily colonized by non-native plant species. [ 103 ] In contrast, areas with introduced beaver were associated with increased populations of the native catadromous puye fish ( Galaxias maculatus ). [ 104 ] [ 105 ] Furthermore, the beavers did not seem to have a highly beneficial impact on the exotic brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) and rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) which have negative impacts on native stream fishes in the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve , Chile. [ 105 ] They have also been found to cross saltwater to islands northward; and reached the Chilean mainland in the 1990s. [ 106 ] On balance, because of their landscape-wide modifications to the Fuegian environment and because biologists want to preserve the unique biota of the region, most favor their removal. [ 107 ] North American beavers were released in Finland in 1937; following this, 7 beavers expanded to a population of 12,000 within 64 years. [ 108 ] Eurasian beavers had earlier been extirpated from the region, so the release was intended as a reintroduction project. [ 109 ] By 1999, it was estimated that 90% of beavers in Finland were the American species. However, the species is not always considered invasive, as in Europe it has a similar keystone effect to European beavers, which have not recolonized the area. The beaver population has been controlled by issuing hunting licenses. [ 110 ] A report in 2010 concluded that while the current population of American beavers was not problematic, as the species has larger litters than European beavers and builds somewhat larger dams, it could become a problem if its range continues expanding into Russia, but this does not seem to be taking place. [ 111 ] In Europe, significant invasive populations of Canadian beaver are only present in Finland and Karelia , as the boundary between species has somewhat stabilized, but smaller occurrences have been detected elsewhere. [ 109 ] Ephemeral populations of C. canadensis in Germany and Poland were found from the 1950s to 1970s. Zoo escapes in 2006 created a small population of invasive C. canadensis in Luxembourg , Rhineland-Palatinate , and Belgium . [ 108 ] American beavers have not been detected in Sweden, Norway, or Denmark. [ 111 ] As food Beaver meat is similar tasting to lean beef or venison, but special care must be taken to prevent contamination from the animal's strong castor ( musk ) gland. Beavers, similar to most other wild game may also carry diseases. These include Giardiasis, Tularemia, and Rabies. Taking precaution when preparing beaver, as well as other wild game is imperative. It is usually slow-cooked in a broth, and was a valuable food source to Native Americans . [ citation needed ] Beavers also store large amounts of fat on their bodies. Fat can be rendered down to create lard used as cooking oil. The tail muscle is also a favorite part of beavers to eat. Similar to an oxtail it can be cut into sections, the meat is rich and dense. [ 112 ] Early French Canadian Catholics considered beaver to be "four-legged fish" that could be eaten at Lent. Early settlers were not only very intrigued by the fur on beavers, but also their delicious taste. "Beaver stew" became a common meal among settlers in North America. [ 113 ] Symbolism As one of the national symbols of Canada, [ 114 ] the North American beaver is depicted on the Canadian nickel . [ 114 ] This beaver was also featured on the first Canadian postage stamp, the Three Penny Beaver, which is considered the first postage stamp to show an animal instead of a head of state. [ 115 ] It is also the state animal of Oregon and New York of the United States, and a common school emblem for engineering schools, including the California Institute of Technology , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , and the University of Alberta as well as the mascot for Oregon State University , Babson College , and the City College of New York . A beaver is featured prominently on the stamp and seal issued to Professional Engineers and Geoscientists by APEGA . It also appears on the back on the state flag of Oregon . The beaver also appears in the coats of arms of the Hudson's Bay Company , [ 116 ] University of Toronto , Wilfrid Laurier University , and the London School of Economics . The beaver is also the symbol of the Royal Canadian Engineers both combat and civil, and is featured on the emblem of the Canadian Pacific Railway . Busy beaver is a term in theoretical computer science which refers to a terminating program of a given size that produces the most output possible. Much of the early economy of New Netherland was based on the beaver fur trade . As such, the seal of New Netherland featured the beaver; likewise, the coats of arms of Albany, New York and New York City included the beaver. See also Beaver in the Sierra Nevada References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Cassola, F. (2016). " Castor canadensis " . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016 e.T4003A22187946. doi : 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T4003A22187946.en . Retrieved November 20, 2021 . ^ "Castor canadensis" . NatureServe Explorer . Retrieved April 17, 2024 . ^ a b Kuhl, Heinrich (1820). "Castor Canadensis" . Beiträge zur Zoologie und vergleichenden Anatomie . Frankfurt: Verlag der Hermannschen Buchhandlung. pp. 64– 65. Archived from the original on August 12, 2018 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ a b Bailey, Vernon; Doutt, J. Kenneth (1942). "Two New Beavers from Labrador and New Brunswick". Journal of Mammalogy . 23 (1): 86– 88. doi : 10.2307/1374859 . JSTOR 1374859 . ^ Nelson, E. W. (1927). "Description of a New Subspecies of Beaver" . Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington . 40 : 125– 126. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ a b Taylor, Walter P. (1916). "The Status of the Beavers of Western North America, with a Consideration of the Factors in their Speciation" . University of California Publications in Zoology . 12 (15): 413– 495. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Allen, Glover M. (1942). "Newfoundland Beaver" . Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Western Hemisphere, with the Marine Species of All the Oceans . American Committee for International Wild Life Protection. pp. 62– 63. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ a b Rhoads, Samuel N. (1898). "Contributions to a Revision of the North American Beavers, Otters and Fishers" . Transactions of the American Philosophical Society . New Ser. 19 (3): 417– 439. doi : 10.2307/1005498 . hdl : 2027/hvd.32044107349482 . JSTOR 1005498 . Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Warren, Edward R.; Hall, E. Raymond (1939). "A New Subspecies of Beaver from Colorado". Journal of Mammalogy . 20 (3): 358– 362. doi : 10.2307/1374265 . JSTOR 1374265 . ^ a b c Durrant, Stephen D.; Crane, Harold (1948). "Three New Beavers from Utah" . University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History . 1 (20): 407– 417. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Mearns, Edgar A. (1898). "Preliminary Diagnoses of New Mammals of the Genera Sciurus, Castor, Neotoma, and Sigmodon, from the Mexican Border of the United States" . Proceedings of the United States National Museum . 20 (1132): 502– 503. doi : 10.5479/si.00963801.1132.501 . Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Jewett, S. G.; Hall, E. R. (1940). "A New Race of Beaver from Oregon". Journal of Mammalogy . 21 (1): 87– 89. doi : 10.2307/1374665 . JSTOR 1374665 . ^ Gray, J. E. (1869). "On the White-toothed American Beaver" . The Annals and Magazine of Natural History . 4th Ser. 4 (22): 293. doi : 10.1080/00222936908696055 . Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ a b Bailey, Vernon (1913). "Two New Subspecies of North American Beavers" . Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington . 26 : 191– 194. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Bailey, V. (1919). "A New Subspecies of Beaver from North Dakota" (PDF) . Journal of Mammalogy . 1 (1): 31– 32. doi : 10.1093/jmammal/1.1.31 . JSTOR 1373717 . ^ Heller, Edmund (1909). "The Mammals" . University of California Publications in Zoology . 5 (2, Birds and Mammals of the 1907 Alexander Expedition to Southeastern Alaska): 250– 255. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Goldman, E. A. (1932). "A New Beaver from Arizona". Journal of Mammalogy . 13 (3): 266– 267. doi : 10.2307/1374004 . JSTOR 1374004 . ^ Benson, Seth B. (1933). "A New Race of Beaver from British Columbia". Journal of Mammalogy . 14 (4): 320– 325. doi : 10.2307/1373950 . JSTOR 1373950 . ^ Taylor, Walter P. (1912). "The Beaver of West Central California" . University of California Publications in Zoology . 10 (7): 167– 169. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ Grinnell, Joseph (1933). "Review of the Recent Mammal Fauna of California" . University of California Publications in Zoology . 40 (2): 166. Archived from the original on February 20, 2021 . Retrieved July 28, 2017 . ^ Davis, William B. (1939). The Recent Mammals of Idaho . Caldwell, ID: Caxton. p. 273. ^ Bailey, Vernon (1905). " Castor canadensis texensis subsp. nov. Texas Beaver" . Biological Survey of Texas . North American Fauna. Vol. 25. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 122– 125. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017 . Retrieved February 21, 2018 . ^ a b c Helgen, K.M. (2005). "Family Castoridae" . In Wilson, D.E. ; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 842. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0 . OCLC 62265494 . ^ Warner, Richard E. and Hendrix, Kathleen M. (eds.) (1984). California Riparian Systems: Ecology, Conservation, and Productive Management Archived November 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine University of California Press, p. 952. Retrieved August 4, 2007. ^ Browse Genus equals Castor by Scientific Name for All Museums Archived June 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine . Berkeley Natural History Museums. Retrieved August 4, 2007. ^ Tesky, Julie L. (1993) Wildlife Species: Castor canadensis Archived August 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Fire Effects Information System (Online), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station , Fire Sciences Laboratory. Retrieved August 4, 2007. ^ Jenkins, Stephen H.; Busher, Peter E. (1979). "Castor canadensis". Mammalian Species (120): 1– 8. doi : 10.2307/3503787 . JSTOR 3503787 . ^ Official symbols of Canada Archived June 24, 2016, at the Wayback Machine . Government of Canada ^ Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2006). " Castor canadensis (mammal)" . Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) . IUCN Species Survival Commission. Archived from the original on October 16, 2008 . Retrieved July 16, 2009 : "Common names: American beaver (English), beaver (English), Canadian beaver, castor (French), castor americano (Spanish), North American beaver (English)" {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: postscript ( link ) ^ "North America's Earliest Beaver Discovered - John Day Fossil Beds National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)" . www.nps.gov . Retrieved November 17, 2025 . ^ "Castor canadensis (American beaver) | INFORMATION | Animal Diversity Web" . animaldiversity.org . Retrieved November 17, 2025 . ^ "Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) – ScienceBase-Catalog" . www.sciencebase.gov . Archived from the original on July 2, 2017 . Retrieved December 2, 2020 . ^ Baker, B. W. and Hill, E. P. (2003). "Beaver ( Castor canadensis )" Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine . G. A. Feldhamer, B. C. Thompson, and J. A. Chapman, editors. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation Archived May 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine . Second Edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, pp. 288–310. ^ Kieffer, Michael Meadows in Mist Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Bull Run Mountains Conservancy, Inc. Retrieved August 4, 2007. ^ Müller-Schwarze, D., & Schulte, B. A. (1999). Behavioral and ecological characteristics of a "climax" population of beaver (Castor canadensis) . In Beaver protection, management, and use in Europe and North America (pp. 161–177). Springer US. ^ a b Lahti, S., & Helminen, M. (1974). The beaver Castor fiber (L.) and Castor canadensis (Kuhl) in Finland . Acta Theriologica, 19(13), 177–189. ^ Svendsen G. E. (1989). "Pair formation, duration of pair-bonds, and mate replacement in a population of beavers (Castor canadensis)". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 67 (2): 336– 340. Bibcode : 1989CaJZ...67..336S . doi : 10.1139/z89-049 . ^ Aleksiuk M., Cowan I. M. (1969). "Aspects of seasonal energy expenditure in the beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) at the northern limit of its distribution". Canadian Journal of Zoology . 47 (4): 471– 481. Bibcode : 1969CaJZ...47..471A . doi : 10.1139/z69-086 . ^ "Home Page, Alaska Department of Fish and Game" . Adfg.state.ak.us. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010 . Retrieved March 16, 2013 . ^ The Beaver – Life Tracks Archived July 28, 2013, at the Wayback Machine . Timberwolfinformation.org ^ Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife . DK Adult (2005), ISBN 0789477645 ^ Boyle, Steve and Owens, Stephanie (February 6, 2007) North American Beaver ( Castor canadensis ): A Technical Conservation Assessment Archived May 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Baker, B.W.; Hill, E.P. (2003). Feldhammer; Thompson; Chapman (eds.). "Beaver (Castor canadensis)" (PDF) . Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation (Second ed.). Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press: 288– 310. Bibcode : 2003wmna.book..288B . Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2020 . Retrieved December 8, 2019 – via USDA APHIS. ^ a b Müller-Schwarze, Dietland; Sun, Lixing (2003). The beaver: natural history of a wetlands engineer . Cornell University Press. pp. 10– 11. ISBN 0-8014-4098-X . OCLC 977989893 . ^ "Dental Anatomy of Rodents" . www.vivo.colostate.edu . Archived from the original on July 16, 2019 . Retrieved February 21, 2020 . ^ a b Gruninger, Robert J.; McAllister, Tim A.; Forster, Robert J. (May 26, 2016). "Bacterial and Archaeal Diversity in the Gastrointestinal Tract of the North American Beaver (Castor canadensis)" . PLOS ONE . 11 (5) e0156457. Bibcode : 2016PLoSO..1156457G . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0156457 . ISSN 1932-6203 . PMC 4881982 . PMID 27227334 . ^ Morgan, Lewis H. (1868). The American Beaver and his Works . J. B. Lippincott & Co. p. 32 . ^ a b Naiman, Robert J.; Johnston, Carol A. & Kelley, James C. (December 1988). "Alteration of North American Streams by Beaver" (PDF) . BioScience . 38 (11): 753– 762. doi : 10.2307/1310784 . JSTOR 1310784 . Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2012 . Retrieved February 28, 2010 . ^ Christopher W. Lanman; Kate Lundquist; Heidi Perryman; J. Eli Asarian; Brock Dolman; Richard B. Lanman ; Michael M. Pollock (2013). "The historical range of beaver (Castor canadensis) in coastal California: an updated review of the evidence" . California Fish and Game . 99 (4): 193– 221. Archived from the original on October 2, 2016 . Retrieved September 27, 2016 . ^ Wishart, David J. (1979). The fur trade of the American West, 1807-1840 : a geographical synthesis . Internet Archive. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press. pp. 30– 34. ISBN 978-0-8032-4705-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ Wishart, David J. (1979). The fur trade of the American West, 1807-1840 : a geographical synthesis . Internet Archive. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-4705-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ Johnson, Donald R.; Chance, David H. (December 1974). "Presettlement overharvest of upper Columbia River beaver populations" . Canadian Journal of Zoology . 52 (12): 1519– 1521. Bibcode : 1974CaJZ...52.1519J . doi : 10.1139/z74-195 . ISSN 0008-4301 . ^ Wild mammals of North America : biology, management, and economics . Internet Archive. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982. pp. 256– 281. ISBN 978-0-8018-2353-4 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: others ( link ) CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ "Population and distribution of beavers Castor fiber and Castor canadensis in Eurasia" . Beaver Trust . Retrieved November 18, 2025 . ^ Obbard, Martyn & Jones, James & Newman, R.A. & Booth, A. & Satterthwaite, A.J. & Linscombe, G.. (1987). Furbearer Harvests in North America, 1600–1984. Page 1014. ^ Wild mammals of North America : biology, management, and economics . Internet Archive. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982. pp. 273– 275. ISBN 978-0-8018-2353-4 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: others ( link ) CS1 maint: publisher location ( link ) ^ Jung, Thomas S.; Frandsen, Jay; Gordon, Danny C.; Mossop, David H. (2016). "Colonization of the Beaufort Coastal Plain by beaver ( Castor canadensis ): a response to shrubification of the tundra?" . Canadian Field-Naturalist . 130 (4): 332– 335. doi : 10.22621/cfn.v130i4.1927 . ISSN 0008-3550 . Retrieved October 18, 2020 . ^ Tape, Ken D.; Jones, Benjamin M.; Arp, Christopher D.; Nitze, Ingmar; Grosse, Guido (2018). "Tundra be dammed: Beaver colonization of the Arctic" (PDF) . Global Change Biology . 24 (10): 4478– 4488. Bibcode : 2018GCBio..24.4478T . doi : 10.1111/gcb.14332 . ISSN 1365-2486 . PMID 29845698 . ^ Jones, Benjamin M; Tape, Ken D; Clark, Jason A; Nitze, Ingmar; Grosse, Guido; Disbrow, Jeff (2020). "Increase in beaver dams controls surface water and thermokarst dynamics in an Arctic tundra region, Baldwin Peninsula, northwestern Alaska" (PDF) . Environmental Research Letters . 15 (7): 075005. Bibcode : 2020ERL....15g5005J . doi : 10.1088/1748-9326/ab80f1 . ISSN 1748-9326 . ^ Mearns, Edgar Alexander (1907). Mammals of the Mexican boundary of the United States: A descriptive catalogue of the species of mammals occurring in that region; with a general summary of the natural history, and a list of trees . Government Printing Office. p. 359 . ^ Gallo-Reynoso, Juan-Pablo; Suarez-Gracida, Gabriela; Cabrera-Santiago, Horacia; Coria-Galindo, Else; Egido-Villarreal, Janitzio & Ortiz, Leo C. (2002). "Status of Beavers ( Castor canadensis frontador ) in Rio Bavispe, Sonora, Mexico" . The Southwestern Naturalist . 47 (3): 501. Bibcode : 2002SWNat..47..501G . doi : 10.2307/3672516 . JSTOR 3672516 . Archived from the original on November 22, 2021 . Retrieved November 25, 2011 . ^ Karla Pelz Serrano; Eduardo Ponce Guevara; Carlos A. López González. "Habitat and Conservation Status of the Beaver in the Sierra San Luis Sonora, México" (PDF) . USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-36 . Archived (PDF) from the original on May 5, 2017 . Retrieved December 5, 2017 . ^ El Heraldo de Chihuahua (December 5, 2017). "Nice surprise: camera discovers that there are otters in Chihuahua" . El Sol de Mexico . Archived from the original on August 4, 2020 . Retrieved December 5, 2017 . ^ "World Book" . www.worldbookonline.com . Archived from the original on June 21, 2019 . Retrieved June 16, 2019 . ^ Mapes, Lynda V. (May 18, 2009). "Scientist discovers beavers building prime salmon habitat in Skagit Delta" . The Seattle Times . Archived from the original on July 7, 2012 . Retrieved June 22, 2010 . ^ Jung, Thomas S.; Staniforth, Jennifer A. (2010). "Unusual beaver, Castor canadensis , dams in central Yukon" . Canadian Field-Naturalist . 124 (3): 274– 275. doi : 10.22621/cfn.v124i3.1090 . ISSN 0008-3550 . S2CID 83677008 . ^ Gallant, D.; Bérubé, C.H.; Tremblay, E. & Vasseur, L. (2004). "An extensive study of the foraging ecology of beavers ( Castor canadensis ) in relation to habitat quality" (PDF) . Canadian Journal of Zoology . 82 (6): 922– 933. Bibcode : 2004CaJZ...82..922G . doi : 10.1139/z04-067 . Archived (PDF) from the original on August 26, 2016 . Retrieved May 4, 2010 . ^ Donald G. Reid, Stephen M. Herrero and Thomas E. Code, "River Otters as Agents of Water Loss from Beaver Ponds," Journal of Mammalogy, February 1988. ^ Richard P.B. (1983). "Mechanisms and adaptation in the constructive behaviour of the beaver (C. fiber L.)". Acta Zoologica Fennica . 174 : 105– 108. ^ Thie, Jean. "National Geographic photos" . Geostrategis.com. Archived from the original on September 16, 2013 . Retrieved March 16, 2013 . ^ "Longest beaver dam" . Guinness World Records . Archived from the original on November 12, 2020 . Retrieved December 2, 2020 . ^ "World's Largest Beaver Dam" . Atlas Obscura . Archived from the original on December 3, 2020 . Retrieved December 2, 2020 . ^ a b Müller-Schwarze, Dietland & Sun, Lixing (2003). The Beaver: Natural History of a Wetlands Engineer . Cornell University Press. pp. 67– 75. ISBN 978-0-8014-4098-4 . Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved March 27, 2016 . ^ Beaver Lodge Construction Squad | Attenborough | BBC Earth , May 18, 2009, archived from the original on December 8, 2019 , retrieved December 8, 2019 ^ "Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections: North American beaver (Castor canadensis)" . neurosciencelibrary.org . Archived from the original on October 5, 2016 . Retrieved March 8, 2020 . ^ Grudzinski, Bartosz P.; Cummins, Hays; Vang, Teng Keng (September 15, 2019). "Beaver canals and their environmental effects". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment . 44 (2): 189– 211. doi : 10.1177/0309133319873116 . ISSN 0309-1333 . S2CID 204257682 . ^ Abbott, Matthew; Fultz, Brandon; Wilson, Jon; Nicholson, Jody; Black, Matt; Thomas, Adam; Kot, Amanda; Burrows, Mallory; Schaffer, Benton; Benson, David (January 1, 2012). "Beaver-Dredged Canals and their Spacial Relationship to Beaver-Cut Stumps" . Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science . 121 (2). Archived from the original on May 30, 2020 . Retrieved March 8, 2020 . ^ Müller-Schwarze, D.; Heckman, Susan (January 1, 1980). "The social role of scent marking in beaver (Castor Canadensis)". Journal of Chemical Ecology . 6 (1): 81– 95. Bibcode : 1980JCEco...6...81M . doi : 10.1007/BF00987529 . ISSN 1573-1561 . S2CID 43315636 . ^ Young, Mary Taylor (August 13, 2007). "Colorado Division of Wildlife: Do Beavers Eat Fish?" . Archived from the original on September 10, 2010 . Retrieved May 18, 2015 . wildlife.state.co.us ^ a b "Castor canadensis (American beaver)" . Animal Diversity Web . ^ Müller-Schwarze, D.; Schulte, B. A.; Sun, L.; Müller-Schwarze, A.; Müller-Schwarze, C. (1994). "Red maple (Acer rubrum) inhibits feeding by beaver (Castor canadensis)". Journal of Chemical Ecology . 20 (8): 2021– 2034. Bibcode : 1994JCEco..20.2021M . doi : 10.1007/BF02066240 . ISSN 0098-0331 . PMID 24242726 . S2CID 13529462 . ^ Thurber, J. M.; Peterson, R. O. (1993). "Effects of Population Density and Pack Size on the Foraging Ecology of Gray Wolves". Journal of Mammalogy . 74 (4): 879. doi : 10.2307/1382426 . JSTOR 1382426 . S2CID 52063038 . ^ "The American Bear Association Home Page (Web Pages2/index)" . The American Bear Association. Archived from the original on July 26, 2013. ^ "Adirondack Black Bears" . Environmental Information Series. Archived from the original on May 17, 2020 . Retrieved July 5, 2013 . ^ Smith, D. W.; Trauba, D. R.; Anderson, R. K.; Peterson, R. O. (1994). "Black bear predation on beavers on an island in Lake Superior". American Midland Naturalist . 132 (2): 248– 255. Bibcode : 1994AMNat.132..248S . doi : 10.2307/2426580 . JSTOR 2426580 . ^ Engelhart, A; Müller-Schwarze, D (1995). "Responses of beaver ( Castor canadensis Kuhl) to predator chemicals". Journal of Chemical Ecology . 21 (9): 1349– 64. Bibcode : 1995JCEco..21.1349E . doi : 10.1007/BF02027567 . PMID 24234632 . S2CID 9743116 . ^ "Beaver" . Study of Northern Virginia Ecology, Fairfax County Public School. Archived from the original on January 5, 2013 . Retrieved January 3, 2013 . ^ Müller-Schwarze, Dietland & Sun, Lixing (2003). The Beaver: Natural History of a Wetlands Engineer . Cornell University Press. pp. 113– 114. ISBN 978-0-8014-4098-4 . Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved March 27, 2016 . ^ "American Beaver | National Wildlife Federation" . National Wildlife Federation . Archived from the original on June 20, 2025 . Retrieved November 17, 2025 . ^ a b Kitchener, Andrew (2001). Beavers . Whittet. pp. 8, 9, 10. ISBN 978-1-873580-55-4 . ^ Moloney, F. X. (1967). The Fur Trade in New England, 1620–1676 . Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books. p. 150. ^ Hays, W. J. (September 1871). "Notes on the range of some of the animals in America at the time of arrival of the whitemen" (PDF) . The American Naturalist . 5 (7): 25– 30. Bibcode : 1871ANat....5..387H . doi : 10.1086/270797 . JSTOR 2447602 . ^ Coles, J. M.; Orme, B. J. (1983). " Home sapiens or Castor fiber ?". Antiquity . 57 (220): 95– 102. doi : 10.1017/S0003598X00055265 . S2CID 163950643 . ^ Seton-Thompson, cited in Sun, Lixing; Müller-Schwarze, Dietland (2003). The Beaver: Natural History of a Wetlands Engineer . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 97– 98. ISBN 978-0-8014-4098-4 . Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved March 27, 2016 . ; but note that to arrive at this figure he assumed a population density throughout the range equivalent to that in Algonquin Park ^ Outwater, Alice (1997). Water:A Natural History . New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-465-03780-3 . Archived from the original on August 6, 2020 . Retrieved May 28, 2020 . ^ "Trees in parks & ravines – beavers" . 311 Toronto . City of Toronto. 2018. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020 . Retrieved July 29, 2019 . ^ Parks, Mike (March 1, 2012). "South Charlotte Weekly: Beavers damaging Park Road Park; must go" . South Charlotte Weekly . Thecharlotteweekly.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2012 . Retrieved March 18, 2012 . ^ "Beavers: Wetlands & Wildlife: Solutions to Beaver/Human Conflicts" . Beaversww.org. Archived from the original on February 20, 2008 . Retrieved March 16, 2013 . ^ Agar, Charles (March 24, 2008). "Beaver Deceiver expert coming to Pitkin County" . The Aspen Times . Aspen, Colorado. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010 . Retrieved November 22, 2009 . ^ Wright, J.P.; Jones, C.G.; Flecker, A.S. (2002). "An ecosystem engineer, the beaver, increases species richness at the landscape scale". Oecologia . 132 (1): 96– 101. Bibcode : 2002Oecol.132...96W . doi : 10.1007/s00442-002-0929-1 . PMID 28547281 . S2CID 5940275 . ^ Rosell F; Bozser O; Collen P; Parker H (2005). "Ecological impact of beavers Castor fiber and Castor canadensis and their ability to modify ecosystems" (PDF) . Mammal Review . 35 ( 3– 4): 248– 276. Bibcode : 2005MamRv..35..248R . doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00067.x . hdl : 11250/2438080 . Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2012 . Retrieved March 1, 2010 . ^ Polly P. Gibson; Julian D. Olden (2014). "Ecology, management, and conservation implications of North American beaver ( Castor canadensis ) in dryland streams". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems . 24 (3): 391– 409. Bibcode : 2014ACMFE..24..391G . doi : 10.1002/aqc.2432 . S2CID 7062322 . ^ a b Anderson, Christopher B.; Pastur, Guillermo Martinez; Lencinas, Maria Vanessa; Wallem, Petra K.; Moorman, Michelle C. & Rosemond, Amy D. (2009). "Do introduced North American beavers Castor canadensis engineer differently in southern South America? An overview with implications for restoration" (PDF) . Mammalian Review . 39 (1): 33– 52. Bibcode : 2009MamRv..39...33A . doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2008.00136.x . hdl : 11336/133992 . Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2013 . Retrieved March 17, 2012 . ^ Vila, I.; Fuentes, L. S. & Saavedra, M. (1999). "Ictiofauna en los sistema límnicos de la Isla Grande, Tierra del Fuego, Chile" (PDF) . Revista Chilena de Historia Natural : 273– 284. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 4, 2011 . Retrieved March 16, 2013 . ^ a b Moorman, Michelle C.; Eggleston, David B.; Anderson, Christopher B.; Mansilla, Andres & Szejner, Paul (2009). "Implications of Beaver Castor canadensis and Trout Introductions on Native Fish in the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, Chile". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society . 138 (2): 306– 313. Bibcode : 2009TrAFS.138..306M . doi : 10.1577/T08-081.1 . S2CID 55446746 . ^ Wallem, P. K.; Jones, C. G.; Marquet, P. A. & Jaksic, F. M. (2007). "Identificación de los mecanismo subyacentes a la invasión de Castor canadensis (Kuhl 1820, Rodentia) en el archipiélago de Tierra del Fuego, Chile". Revista Chilena de Historia Natural : 309– 325. ^ "Argentina eager to rid island of beavers" . CNN. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008 . Retrieved May 20, 2010 . ^ a b Frosch, Christiane; Kraus, Robert H. S.; Angst, Christof; Allgöwer, Rainer; Michaux, Johan; Teubner, Jana; Nowak, Carsten (May 14, 2014). "The Genetic Legacy of Multiple Beaver Reintroductions in Central Europe" . PLOS ONE . 9 (5) e97619. Bibcode : 2014PLoSO...997619F . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0097619 . ISSN 1932-6203 . PMC 4020922 . PMID 24827835 . ^ a b Parker, Howard; Nummi, Petri; Hartman, Göran; Rosell, Frank (2012). "Invasive North American beaver Castor canadensis in Eurasia: a review of potential consequences and a strategy for eradication". Wildlife Biology . 18 (4): 354– 365. Bibcode : 2012WildB..18..354P . doi : 10.2981/12-007 . ISSN 0909-6396 . S2CID 54928567 . ^ Hartmann, Goran (1999). Beaver Protection, Management, and Utilization in Europe and North America . New York: Kluwer. pp. 1– 14. ^ a b Nummi, Petri. "NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet – Castor canadensis" (PDF) . Online Database of the European Network on Invasive Alien Species . NOBANIS. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2013 . Retrieved October 2, 2014 . ^ "How to: Eat a Beaver" . Elevated Wild . February 22, 2022 . Retrieved November 17, 2025 . ^ Adam (January 23, 2020). "Forgotten History: Beaver Stew" . Elwood Restaurant . Retrieved November 17, 2025 . ^ a b The Beaver Archived December 26, 2018, at the Wayback Machine Heritage Canada ^ International, Radio Canada (April 23, 2015). "History: Apr. 23, 1851, Canada issues first stamp" . RCI | English . Archived from the original on August 16, 2017 . Retrieved May 29, 2017 . ^ The HBC Coat of Arms Archived November 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine , Hbc Heritage Further reading Collier, Eric (2007). Three Against the Wilderness . Touchwood Editions. p. 288. ISBN 978-1-894898-54-6 . Dugmore, A. Radclyffe (1914). The Romance of the Beaver ; being the history of the beaver in the western hemisphere. Illustrated with photographs from life and drawings by the author. Publisher: Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott company; London, W. Heinemann (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries) Goldfarb, Ben (2019). Eager: The Surprising, Secret Life of Beavers and Why They Matter . White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60358-739-6 . Long, Kim (2000). Beavers: A Wildlife Handbook . Boulder: Johnson Books. p. 37 . ISBN 978-1-55566-251-6 . Mills, Enos (1913). In Beaver World . Kessinger Publishing. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-7661-9387-1 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) Müller-Schwarze, Dietland & Sun, Lixing (2003). The beaver: natural history of a wetlands engineer . Cornell University Press. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-8014-4098-4 . Philip, Leila (2022). Beaverland : How One Weird Rodent Made America . Twelve Books. ISBN 9781538755198 . External links Leave It To Beavers, PBS video documentary online Ecology of the Beaver Archived February 17, 2020, at the Wayback Machine "Worth a Dam" (beaver information and educational site) The Beaver A Keystone Species, a short video by Mike Foster Video Eager Beavers Take on Climate Change: Restoring Nature's Engineers in Utah by Grand Canyon Trust Taxon identifiers Castor canadensis Wikidata : Q81056 Wikispecies : Castor canadensis ADW : Castor_canadensis BOLD : 48256 CoL : RQPV EoL : 328025 EPPO : KASTCA EUNIS : 11245 Fauna Europaea : 305557 Fauna Europaea (new) : adf8915a-d9f1-46da-9432-02562d7a3d03 FEIS: caca GBIF : 2439838 GISD : 981 iNaturalist : 43794 IRMNG : 11373732 ISC : 90583 ITIS : 180212 IUCN : 4003 MDD : 1001957 MSW : 12600004 NAS: 1090 NatureServe : 2.100922 NCBI : 51338 Observation.org : 82124 ODNR : beaver Open Tree of Life : 886085 Paleobiology Database : 44957 TSA : 3574 Xeno-canto : Castor-canadensis Wikidata : Q81056 Wikispecies : Castor canadensis ADW : Castor_canadensis BOLD : 48256 CoL : RQPV EoL : 328025 EPPO : KASTCA EUNIS : 11245 Fauna Europaea : 305557 Fauna Europaea (new) : adf8915a-d9f1-46da-9432-02562d7a3d03 FEIS: caca GBIF : 2439838 GISD : 981 iNaturalist : 43794 IRMNG : 11373732 ISC : 90583 ITIS : 180212 IUCN : 4003 MDD : 1001957 MSW : 12600004 NAS: 1090 NatureServe : 2.100922 NCBI : 51338 Observation.org : 82124 ODNR : beaver Open Tree of Life : 886085 Paleobiology Database : 44957 TSA : 3574 Xeno-canto : Castor-canadensis Authority control databases National United States Israel United States Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX IUCN Red List least concern species NatureServe secure species Beavers Rodents of Canada Rodents of the United States National symbols of Canada Symbols of Oregon Symbols of New York (state) Fauna of the Rocky Mountains Fur trade Mammals described in 1820 Taxa named by Heinrich Kuhl Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: postscript CS1 maint: publisher location CS1 maint: others Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from March 2013 Articles with 'species' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2025 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date Commons category link from Wikidata Taxonbars with 25–29 taxon IDs This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 17:03 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_beaver
|
Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 Relation to theory of evolution 3 History Toggle History subsection 3.1 Gregor Mendel: father of genetics 3.2 Modern development of genetics and heredity 3.3 Common genetic disorders 3.1 Gregor Mendel: father of genetics 3.2 Modern development of genetics and heredity 3.3 Common genetic disorders 4 Types Toggle Types subsection 4.1 Dominant and recessive alleles 4.1 Dominant and recessive alleles 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Heredity العربية Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം मराठी 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Patois Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Part of a series on Genetics Key components Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Nucleotide Mutation Genetic variation Allele Amino acid Outline Index Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Nucleotide Mutation Genetic variation Allele Amino acid Outline Index History and topics Introduction History Evolution ( molecular ) Population genetics Mendelian inheritance Quantitative genetics Molecular genetics Introduction History Evolution ( molecular ) Population genetics Mendelian inheritance Quantitative genetics Molecular genetics Research Geneticist DNA sequencing Genetic engineering Genomics ( template ) Medical genetics Branches of genetics Geneticist DNA sequencing Genetic engineering Genomics ( template ) Medical genetics Branches of genetics Fields Classical Conservation Cytogenetics Ecological Immunogenetics Microbial Molecular Population Quantitative Classical Conservation Cytogenetics Ecological Immunogenetics Microbial Molecular Population Quantitative Personalized medicine Personalized medicine Personalized medicine Category Category .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Heredity , also called inheritance or biological inheritance , is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction , the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection . The study of heredity in biology is genetics . Overview In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents. [ 1 ] Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype . [ 2 ] The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype . These traits arise from the interaction of the organism's genotype with the environment . [ 3 ] As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin derives from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; [ 4 ] thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: [ 5 ] a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism , who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn . [ 6 ] Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA , a molecule that encodes genetic information. [ 2 ] DNA is a long polymer that incorporates four types of bases , which are interchangeable. The Nucleic acid sequence (the sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out a passage of text. [ 7 ] Before a cell divides through mitosis , the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene ; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells , the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes . Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes , containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus . If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles . DNA sequences can change through mutations , producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. [ 8 ] However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within and among organisms. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization . [ 11 ] Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, but this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general. [ 12 ] DNA methylation marking chromatin , self-sustaining metabolic loops , gene silencing by RNA interference , and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions ) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors. [ 15 ] Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits , group heritability , and symbiogenesis . [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] These examples of heritability that operate above the gene are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection , which has been a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science. [ 17 ] [ 19 ] Relation to theory of evolution When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. [ 20 ] Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits ( pangenesis ). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. [ 21 ] This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of On the Origin of Species and his later biological works. [ 22 ] Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be sex-linked , etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms. [ citation needed ] Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton , who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity. [ 23 ] Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits. [ 24 ] The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to develop tails. [ 25 ] History Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; [ 26 ] Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; [ 27 ] and Aristotle thought that male and female fluids mixed at conception. [ 28 ] Aeschylus , in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a "nurse for the young life sown within her". [ 29 ] Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned to two debated doctrines in the 18th century. The Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of Preformation were two distinct views of the understanding of heredity. The Doctrine of Epigenesis, originated by Aristotle , claimed that an embryo continually develops. The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an embryo during its lifetime. The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of inheritance of acquired traits . In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that "like generates like" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents. The Preformationist view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before. However, this was disputed by the creation of the cell theory in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism. Various hereditary mechanisms, including blending inheritance were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified, and were later disputed. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution. [ citation needed ] During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. [ 30 ] Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" ( homunculus ) inside each sperm . These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. [ 31 ] An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception. [ 32 ] An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when Alpheus Hyatt led an investigation to study the laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.) and expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the age of appearance. One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to better understand why certain traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular. [ 33 ] Gregor Mendel: father of genetics The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian [ 34 ] monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1900. It was initially assumed that Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher 's (1918) paper, " The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance " Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable. His pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single locus. [ 35 ] Modern development of genetics and heredity In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis . The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that: [ 36 ] [ 37 ] All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists. Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection . Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation). Selection is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued. The object of selection is the phenotype in its surrounding environment. The role of genetic drift is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by Dobzhansky , it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained. The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are all important. The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. [ 38 ] In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology (' evo-devo ') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer 's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception. [ 39 ] Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. [ 40 ] It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post- World War II era. Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits . This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR. [ 41 ] There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans [ 42 ] and other animals. [ 43 ] Common genetic disorders Fragile X syndrome Sickle cell disease Phenylketonuria (PKU) Haemophilia [ 35 ] Types The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories: Monogenetic (also called "simple") – one locus Oligogenic – few loci Polygenetic – many loci Autosomal – loci are not situated on a sex chromosome Gonosomal – loci are situated on a sex chromosome X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the X-chromosome (the more common case) Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the Y-chromosome X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the X-chromosome (the more common case) Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the Y-chromosome Mitochondrial – loci are situated on the mitochondrial DNA Dominant Intermediate (also called " codominant ") Recessive Overdominant Underdominant These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order. In addition, more specifications may be added as follows: Penetrance Complete Incomplete (percentual number) Complete Incomplete (percentual number) Expressivity Invariable Variable Invariable Variable Heritability (in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modes of inheritance) Maternal or paternal imprinting phenomena (also see epigenetics ) Sex-linked inheritance ( gonosomal loci) Sex-limited phenotype expression (e.g., cryptorchism ) Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of mitochondrial DNA loci) Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of Y-chromosomal loci) Epistasis with other loci (e.g., overdominance ) Gene coupling with other loci (also see crossing over ) Homozygotous lethal factors Semi-lethal factors Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular genetics can also be employed. Dominant and recessive alleles An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for green pods, G , is dominant to that for yellow pods, g . Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles either GG (homozygote) or Gg (heterozygote) will have green pods. The allele for yellow pods is recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes, gg (homozygote). This derives from Zygosity , the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism. Hereditary defects in enzymes are generally inherited in an autosomal fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a recessive fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in carriers. On the other hand, hereditary defects in structural proteins (such as osteogenesis imperfecta , Marfan's syndrome and many Ehlers–Danlos syndromes ) are generally autosomal dominant, because it is enough that some components are defective to make the whole structure dysfunctional. This is a dominant-negative process, wherein a mutated gene product adversely affects the non-mutated gene product within the same cell. See also Weismann barrier Hard inheritance Lamarckism Heritability Particulate inheritance Non-Mendelian inheritance Extranuclear inheritance Uniparental inheritance Extranuclear inheritance Uniparental inheritance Epigenetic inheritance Transgenerational epigenetics#Major controversies in the history of inheritance Inheritance of acquired characteristics Transgenerational epigenetics#Major controversies in the history of inheritance Inheritance of acquired characteristics Structural inheritance Blending inheritance References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Sturm RA; Frudakis TN (2004). "Eye colour: portals into genes and ancestry". Trends Genet . 20 (8): 327– 332. doi : 10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010 . PMID 15262401 . ^ a b Pearson H (2006). "Genetics: what is a gene?" . Nature . 441 (7092): 398– 401. Bibcode : 2006Natur.441..398P . doi : 10.1038/441398a . PMID 16724031 . S2CID 4420674 . ^ Visscher PM; Hill WG; Wray NR (2008). "Heritability in the genomics era – concepts and misconceptions". Nat. Rev. Genet . 9 (4): 255– 266. doi : 10.1038/nrg2322 . PMID 18319743 . S2CID 690431 . ^ Shoag J; et al. (Jan 2013). "PGC-1 coactivators regulate MITF and the tanning response" . Mol Cell . 49 (1): 145– 157. doi : 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.027 . PMC 3753666 . PMID 23201126 . ^ Pho LN; Leachman SA (Feb 2010). "Genetics of pigmentation and melanoma predisposition" . G Ital Dermatol Venereol . 145 (1): 37– 45. PMID 20197744 . Archived from the original on 2019-03-28 . Retrieved 2013-03-26 . ^ Oetting WS; Brilliant MH; King RA (1996). "The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans and by action". Molecular Medicine Today . 2 (8): 330– 335. doi : 10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9 . PMID 8796918 . ^ Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley J (2012). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4292-2943-2 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ Futuyma, Douglas J. (2005). Evolution . Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87893-187-3 . ^ Phillips PC (2008). "Epistasis – the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems" . Nat. Rev. Genet . 9 (11): 855– 867. doi : 10.1038/nrg2452 . PMC 2689140 . PMID 18852697 . ^ Wu R; Lin M (2006). "Functional mapping – how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits". Nat. Rev. Genet . 7 (3): 229– 237. doi : 10.1038/nrg1804 . PMID 16485021 . S2CID 24301815 . ^ Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M.J. (2002). "The changing concept of epigenetics" (PDF) . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 981 (1): 82– 96. Bibcode : 2002NYASA.981...82J . doi : 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x . PMID 12547675 . S2CID 12561900 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11. ^ Jablonka, E.; Raz, G. (2009). "Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution" (PDF) . The Quarterly Review of Biology . 84 (2): 131– 176. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.617.6333 . doi : 10.1086/598822 . PMID 19606595 . S2CID 7233550 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-15 . Retrieved 2011-02-18 . ^ Bossdorf, O.; Arcuri, D.; Richards, C.L.; Pigliucci, M. (2010). "Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in Arabidopsis thaliana " (PDF) . Evolutionary Ecology . 24 (3): 541– 553. doi : 10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7 . S2CID 15763479 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-01 . Retrieved 2019-08-15 . ^ Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M. (2005). Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and symbolic . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-10107-3 . Archived from the original on 2021-12-27 . Retrieved 2015-06-27 . ^ Laland, K.N.; Sterelny, K. (2006). "Perspective: Seven reasons (not) to neglect niche construction" . Evolution . 60 (8): 1751– 1762. doi : 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x . PMID 17089961 . ^ Chapman, M.J.; Margulis, L. (1998). "Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis" (PDF) . International Microbiology . 1 (4): 319– 326. PMID 10943381 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-23. ^ a b Wilson, D. S.; Wilson, E.O. (2007). "Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology" (PDF) . The Quarterly Review of Biology . 82 (4): 327– 348. doi : 10.1086/522809 . PMID 18217526 . S2CID 37774648 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11. ^ Bijma, P.; Wade, M.J. (2008). "The joint effects of kin, multilevel selection and indirect genetic effects on response to genetic selection" . Journal of Evolutionary Biology . 21 (5): 1175– 1188. doi : 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01550.x . PMID 18547354 . S2CID 7204089 . ^ Vrba, E.S.; Gould, S.J. (1986). "The hierarchical expansion of sorting and selection: Sorting and selection cannot be equated" (PDF) . Paleobiology . 12 (2): 217– 228. Bibcode : 1986Pbio...12..217V . doi : 10.1017/S0094837300013671 . S2CID 86593897 . Archived from the original on 2016-08-04 . Retrieved 2011-02-18 . ^ Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2012). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4292-2943-2 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) ^ Charlesworth, Brian & Charlesworth, Deborah (November 2009). "Darwin and Genetics" . Genetics . 183 (3): 757– 766. doi : 10.1534/genetics.109.109991 . PMC 2778973 . PMID 19933231 . Archived from the original on 2019-04-29 . Retrieved 2013-03-26 . ^ Bard, Jonathan BL (2011). "The next evolutionary synthesis: from Lamarck and Darwin to genomic variation and systems biology" . Cell Communication and Signaling . 9 (30): 30. doi : 10.1186/1478-811X-9-30 . PMC 3215633 . PMID 22053760 . ^ "Francis Galton (1822-1911)" . Science Museum . Archived from the original on January 30, 2016 . Retrieved March 26, 2013 . ^ Liu Y. (May 2008). "A new perspective on Darwin's Pangenesis". Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc . 83 (2): 141– 149. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00036.x . PMID 18429766 . S2CID 39953275 . ^ Lipton, Bruce H. (2008). The Biology of Belief: Unleashing the Power of Consciousness, Matter and Miracles . Hay House, Inc. p. 12 . ISBN 978-1-4019-2344-0 . ^ Negbi, Moshe (Summer 1995). "Male and female in Theophrastus's botanical works". Journal of the History of Biology . 28 (2): 317– 332. doi : 10.1007/BF01059192 . S2CID 84754865 . ^ Hipócrates (1981). Hippocratic Treatises: On Generation – Nature of the Child – Diseases Ic . Walter de Gruyter. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-11-007903-6 . ^ "Aristotle's Biology – 5.2. From Inquiry to Understanding; from hoti to dioti" . Stanford University. Feb 15, 2006. Archived from the original on May 7, 2019 . Retrieved March 26, 2013 . ^ Eumenides 658–661 ^ Snow, Kurt (October 1, 2007). "Antoni van Leeuwenhoek's Amazing Little 'Animalcules' " . Leben . Archived from the original on April 24, 2013 . Retrieved March 26, 2013 . ^ Lawrence, Cera R. (2008). Hartsoeker's Homunculus Sketch from Essai de Dioptrique . Embryo Project Encyclopedia. ISSN 1940-5030 . Archived from the original on 2013-04-09 . Retrieved March 26, 2013 . ^ Gottlieb, Gilbert (2001). Individual Development and Evolution: The Genesis of Novel Behavior . Psychology Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4106-0442-2 . ^ Scientific American, "Heredity" . Munn & Company. 1878-11-30. p. 343. Archived from the original on 2022-05-18 . Retrieved 2021-08-06 . ^ Henig, Robin Marantz (2001). The Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-97765-1 . The article, written by an obscure Moravian monk named Gregor Mendel ^ a b Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology: the Science of Behavior , p. 206. Toronto: Pearson Canada. ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4 . OCLC 1019975419 ^ Mayr & Provine 1998 ^ Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution & inheritance . Harvard, Cambs. pp. 567 et seq. ^ Palumbi, Stephen R. (1994). "Genetic Divergence, Reproductive Isolation, and Marine Speciation". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics . 25 : 547– 572. doi : 10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.002555 . ^ Gould S.J. Ontogeny and phylogeny . Harvard 1977. pp. 221–222 ^ Handschuh, Stephan; Mitteroecker, Philipp (June 2012). "Evolution – The Extended Synthesis. A research proposal persuasive enough for the majority of evolutionary biologists?". Human Ethology Bulletin . 27 ( 1– 2): 18– 21. ISSN 2224-4476 . ^ Harper, Peter S. (2017-08-03). "Human genetics in troubled times and places" . Hereditas . 155 : 7. doi : 10.1186/s41065-017-0042-4 . ISSN 1601-5223 . PMC 5541658 . PMID 28794693 . ^ Szyf, M (2015). "Nongenetic inheritance and transgenerational epigenetics". Trends in Molecular Medicine . 21 (2): 134– 144. doi : 10.1016/j.molmed.2014.12.004 . PMID 25601643 . ^ Kishimoto, S; et al. (2017). "Environmental stresses induce transgenerationally inheritable survival advantages via germline-to-soma communication in Caenorhabditis elegans" . Nature Communications . 8 14031. Bibcode : 2017NatCo...814031K . doi : 10.1038/ncomms14031 . hdl : 2433/217772 . PMC 5227915 . PMID 28067237 . External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability ""Experiments in Plant Hybridization" (1866), by Johann Gregor Mendel", by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia v t e Genetics v t e Introduction Outline History Timeline Index Glossary Introduction Outline History Timeline Index Glossary Key components Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Nucleotide Mutation Genetic variation Allele Amino acid Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Nucleotide Mutation Genetic variation Allele Amino acid Fields Classical Conservation Cytogenetics Ecological Immunogenetics Microbial Molecular Population Quantitative Classical Conservation Cytogenetics Ecological Immunogenetics Microbial Molecular Population Quantitative Archaeogenetics of Africa the Americas the British Isles Europe Italy the Middle East South Asia Africa the Americas the British Isles Europe Italy the Middle East South Asia Related topics Behavioural genetics Epigenetics Geneticist Genome editing Genomics Genetic code Genetic engineering Genetic diversity Genetic monitoring Genetic genealogy Heredity He Jiankui genome editing incident Medical genetics Missing heritability problem Molecular evolution Plant genetics Population genomics Reverse genetics Behavioural genetics Epigenetics Geneticist Genome editing Genomics Genetic code Genetic engineering Genetic diversity Genetic monitoring Genetic genealogy Heredity He Jiankui genome editing incident Medical genetics Missing heritability problem Molecular evolution Plant genetics Population genomics Reverse genetics Lists List of genetic codes List of genetics research organizations List of genetic codes List of genetics research organizations Category Category v t e Family v t e History Rights Household Nuclear family Extended family Conjugal family Immediate family Matrifocal family History Rights Household Nuclear family Extended family Conjugal family Immediate family Matrifocal family First-degree relatives Parent mother father Child son daughter Sibling brother sister Parent mother father mother father Child son daughter son daughter Sibling brother sister brother sister Second-degree relatives Grandparent Grandchild Uncle / Aunt Niece and nephew Grandparent Grandchild Uncle / Aunt Niece and nephew Third-degree relatives Great-grandparent Great-grandchild Great-uncle / Great-aunt Cousin Great-grandparent Great-grandchild Great-uncle / Great-aunt Cousin Family-in-law Spouse wife husband Parent-in-law Sibling-in-law Child-in-law daughter-in-law son-in-law Spouse wife husband wife husband Parent-in-law Sibling-in-law Child-in-law daughter-in-law son-in-law daughter-in-law son-in-law Stepfamily Stepparent stepfather stepmother Stepchild Stepsibling Stepparent stepfather stepmother stepfather stepmother Stepchild Stepsibling Kinship terminology Kinship Australian Aboriginal kinship Adoption Affinity Consanguinity Disownment Divorce Estrangement Family of choice Fictive kinship Marriage Nurture kinship Chinese kinship Hawaiian kinship Sudanese kinship Eskimo kinship Iroquois kinship Crow kinship Omaha kinship Kinship Australian Aboriginal kinship Adoption Affinity Consanguinity Disownment Divorce Estrangement Family of choice Fictive kinship Marriage Nurture kinship Chinese kinship Hawaiian kinship Sudanese kinship Eskimo kinship Iroquois kinship Crow kinship Omaha kinship Genealogy and lineage Bilateral descent Cadet branch Common ancestor Family name Heirloom Heredity Inheritance Lineal descendant collateral descent Matrilineality Patrilineality Progenitor Clan Royal descent Family trees Pedigree chart Genogram Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Bilateral descent Cadet branch Common ancestor Family name Heirloom Heredity Inheritance Lineal descendant collateral descent Matrilineality Patrilineality Progenitor Clan Royal descent Family trees Pedigree chart Genogram Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Pedigree chart Genogram Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Relationships Agape (parental love) Eros (marital love) Philia (brotherly love) Storge (familial love) Filial piety Polyfidelity Agape (parental love) Eros (marital love) Philia (brotherly love) Storge (familial love) Filial piety Polyfidelity Holidays Mother's Day U.S. Father's Day Father–Daughter Day Siblings Day National Grandparents Day Parents' Day Children's Day Japan Family Day Canada American Family Day International Day of Families National Family Week UK National Adoption Day Mother's Day U.S. U.S. Father's Day Father–Daughter Day Siblings Day National Grandparents Day Parents' Day Children's Day Japan Japan Family Day Canada Canada American Family Day International Day of Families National Family Week UK UK National Adoption Day Related Breadwinner model Single parent Wedding anniversary Godparent Birth order Only child Middle child syndrome Sociology of the family Museum of Motherhood Astronaut family Dysfunctional family Domestic violence Incest Sibling abuse Sibling estrangement Sibling rivalry Breadwinner model Single parent Wedding anniversary Godparent Birth order Only child Middle child syndrome Sociology of the family Museum of Motherhood Astronaut family Dysfunctional family Domestic violence Incest Sibling abuse Sibling estrangement Sibling rivalry v t e Lysenkoism v t e Lysenkoists Trofim Lysenko J. D. Bernal Nikita Khrushchev Joseph Stalin VASKhNIL Trofim Lysenko J. D. Bernal Nikita Khrushchev Joseph Stalin VASKhNIL Dissidents Wacław Gajewski Georgii Karpechenko Zhores Medvedev Georgii Nadson Hans Stubbe Tan Jiazhen Nikolai Vavilov Wacław Gajewski Georgii Karpechenko Zhores Medvedev Georgii Nadson Hans Stubbe Tan Jiazhen Nikolai Vavilov Concepts Heredity Heritability Hybridization Inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarckism Mendelian inheritance Vernalization Heredity Heritability Hybridization Inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarckism Mendelian inheritance Vernalization Soviet policies Bourgeois pseudoscience Collectivization in the Soviet Union Pavlovian session Suppressed research in the Soviet Union Politicization of science Bourgeois pseudoscience Collectivization in the Soviet Union Pavlovian session Suppressed research in the Soviet Union Politicization of science Authority control databases International GND GND National United States 2 France BnF data Czech Republic Israel United States 2 2 France BnF data Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Genetics CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1: unfit URL Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with excerpts All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023 This page was last edited on 8 November 2025, at 15:32 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.